USDA Forest Service RMRS-RN-29. 2006 

United States

Department

of Agriculture

Forest Service

Rocky Mountain

Research Station

Research Note

RMRS-RN-29

March 2006

Introduction____________________

Fire‐dependent lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta Loud.) 

forests comprise nearly 14.8 million acres of commercial 

stands in the United States and over 49 million acres in 

the Canadian provinces of British Columbia, Alberta, and 

the Yukon Territory (Koch 1996). Lodgepole pine occurs in 

10 States in the Western United States, and is the fourth 

most extensive timber type west of the Mississippi River. 

It is the third most extensive type in the Rocky Mountains 

and covers more than 4.8 million acres in Montana alone 

(Arno 1980; Koch 1996). These forests provide wood prod‐

ucts, wildlife habitat, livestock forage, water, recreational 

opportunities, and expansive viewsheds. Many lodgepole 

pine communities are in late-successional stages and fuel 

loading is high following more than 60 years of fire sup‐

pression. Consequently these communities are at risk to 

insect infestation and catastrophic-scale fires.

Most mature lodgepole pine stands in the Western 

United States range in age from 100 to 250 years old, have 

slow or stagnated growth and high mortality rates result‐

ing in high fuel loading. Silvicultural treatments are the 

most useful tool managers have to reduce fuel loading, 

regenerate new stands, achieve nontimber objectives, pro‐

vide forest products, and sustain lodgepole pine ecosystems 

(Barger and Fiedler 1982).

Lodgepole pine is a high-value species and, as a prime 

commercial tree in the Western United States and Canada, 

is one of the two or three major lumber species in the world. 

Koch (1996) value-ranked several lodgepole pine products 

in the following order from highest value to lowest: poles 

and pilings; house logs; laminated-veneer lumber; machine 

stress rated lumber; posts, rails, and tree stakes; dimen‐

sional lumber; plywood and flakeboard structural panels; 

pulp chips; and industrial/home fuel (firewood).

In the mid 1980s, a timber market trend showed a pref‐

erence for lodgepole pine for industrial roundwood products 

(Van Hooser and Keegan 1985). Utilization of lodgepole 

pine increased due to a dwindling old-growth timber sup‐

ply of other species, improved milling technology, and a 

concern about the future of this resource due to mortal‐

ity from mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae 

Hopkins) (Fiedler 1987). These trends continued into the 

mid 1990s; however, decline in sawmill capacity in that de‐

cade was primarily due to the reduction of timber supplies 

from Federal lands. Outbreaks of mountain pine beetles 

have caused increased harvest of lodgepole pine in Canada, 

and recent outbreaks throughout the Western States may 

increase harvesting in the United States.

Because lodgepole pine stands are typically viewed 

as even-aged and compositionally nearly pure, silvicul‐

tural treatments have focused on clearcutting to recreate 

pure, even-aged, and structurally homogeneous stands. 

There has been less use of multiple-entry, uneven-aged 

silvicultural treatments—lodgepole pine tends to eas‐

ily wind-throw and seedlings are highly shade-intolerant. 

Two-aged Silvicultural Treatments in Lodgepole 

Pine Stands Can Be Economically Viable

Ward W. McCaughey, Steven J. Martin, and Dean A. Blomquist

Abstract—Economically viable silvicultural options are critical for management ac‐

tivities that provide wood products, reduce forest fuels, improve forest health, and 

enhance wildlife habitat. The Tenderfoot Research Project was developed in the late 

1990s to evaluate and quantify ecological and biological effects of two-aged silvicultur‐

al treatments including prescribed fire in lodgepole pine forests. Research treatments 

were designed and installed on the Tenderfoot Creek Experimental Forest to create 

reserve stand structures that emulate stands created by natural fires, and to evaluate 

hydrologic and vegetative response. Timber products extracted through this research 

project included sawlogs, stud logs, posts, rails, firewood, and pulpwood. There was a 

net profit from the sale of products removed from the 649 acres treated.

Ward W. McCaughey is a Research Forester with the Rocky Mountain 

Research Station located at the Forestry Sciences Laboratory in Missoula, 

MT. He has B.S. and M.S. degrees in forestry from the University of 

Montana, and a Ph.D. degree in biology from Montana State University.

Steven J. Martin is the Timber Management Officer and Silviculturist 

with the Lewis and Clark National Forest, Musselshell Ranger District, 

Harlowton, MT. He has a B.S. degree in forest management from 

Washington State University.

Dean A. Blomquist is a Timber Sale Administrator with the Lewis and 

Clark National Forest, Musselshell Ranger District, Harlowton, MT. He has 

an Associates Degree in forestry from Flathead Valley Community College.
USDA Forest Service RMRS-RN-29. 2006

However, such treatments may be highly relevant to man‐

agers planning hazardous fuel or stewardship projects 

(USDA 2004). The Tenderfoot Research Project was con‐

ceived in the mid 1990s to test shelterwood with reserve 

treatments (thinning and prescribed fire), and to evaluate 

two-aged methods for regenerating and restoring mature 

lodgepole pine stands. Alternative harvest systems such as 

shelterwood with reserves can be used in lodgepole pine 

stands but little is known about the economics of these 

treatments (Alexander and others 1983).

Objective_______________________

The objective of the Tenderfoot Research Project was to 

test the potential of implementing two-aged shelterwood 

with reserve systems to regenerate and restore healthy 

lodgepole pine forests by emulation of natural wildfire 

disturbance patterns. Economic viability was not part of 

the original objective; however, cost estimates from Forest 

Service and sale purchaser proceeds were obtained after 

treatment completion to evaluate the economic feasibility 

of two-aged silviculture in lodgepole pine stands. The ob‐

jective of this paper is to describe the economic outcome of 

research treatments in this case study.

Study Area_____________________

The Tenderfoot Research Project was developed on 

the 9,125 acre (3,693 ha) Tenderfoot Creek Experimental 

Forest (TCEF) in the Little Belt Mountains of central 

Montana. Treatment unit elevations range from 7,150 to 

7,500 ft (2,179 to 2,286 m). Stand composition is dominated 

by lodgepole pine with some stands containing admixtures 

of subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa) and Engelmann spruce 

(Picea engelmannii). Baseline data collection began in the 

early 1990s and included streamflow, sediment production, 

stream chemistry, stream channel profiles, and stream 

channel characterization. Other data collected prior to 

installation of research treatments included fish habitat 

surveys, wildlife population estimates including mammals, 

birds, and fish, stand structure, understory vegetation, ge‐

ology, soils, and climate.

It is commonly assumed that lodgepole pine, more than 

any other western conifer, forms pure or nearly pure evenaged stands (Pfister and McDonald 1980; Schmidt and 

Alexander 1985; Koch 1996). These stands are usually 

large patches of pure even-aged trees resulting from standreplacing disturbances such as fire. A fire history study on 

Tenderfoot Creek Experimental Forest indicates that 54 

percent of the lodgepole pine stands are two-aged (Barrett 

1993) (table 1). Plot inventories indicate two distinct stand 

structures, perhaps resulting from varying disturbance 

patterns. One pattern suggests that fires spread through‐

out stands in a mosaic configuration, leaving individual 

and small groups of live trees somewhat evenly distribut‐

ed. The second more prevalent pattern suggests that fires 

burned varying sized and shaped groups or swaths of trees. 

These burns resulted in almost 100 percent mortality and 

left unburned tree groups that created an indistinct mosaic 

of small stands.

Study Design___________________

The Tenderfoot Research Project was designed to evalu‐

ate changes in water quantity and quality, understory and 

overstory vegetation response, fuel reduction techniques, 

and a variety of other biological parameters such as nox‐

ious weed invasion, snag longevity, and blowdown. A total 

of 16 experimental treatment units were installed in 2000 

across two treatment subwatersheds (fig. 1). Eight treat‐

ments were installed in each of the two subwatersheds: 

Spring Park Creek (1,032 acres (418 ha)), and Sun Creek 

(856 acres (346 ha)). Two control subwatersheds were lo‐

cated adjacent to and immediately downstream from the 

treatment subwatersheds.

Two shelterwood-with-reserve treatment types were 

tested within each treatment subwatershed, four units 

with trees evenly distributed and four with trees left in 

uncut groups ranging in size from one-half to 2 acres in 

size. Two of four units of even- and group-distribution 

were broadcast burned, and the remaining two were left 

unburned. Treatment units ranged in size from 9 to 78 

acres (4 to 32 ha) and had a mean size of 41 acres (16 ha) 

(table 2). All treatments were randomly located within a 

subwatershed with only minor location adjustments for 

prescribed burn units.

Silvicultural treatments were accomplished through a 

timber sale contract between the Lewis and Clark National 

Forest and Pyramid Lumber Company from Seeley Lake, 

Montana. Conifer Logging from Lincoln, Montana was sub‐

contracted for logging the treatment areas.

Trees were cut and piled using a TIMBCO 445 FellerBuncher with a Hotsaw head and a Timber-Jack Feller 

Buncher. Trees were full-length yarded to landings along 

existing and newly constructed roads us‐

ing D5H Cat skid dozers with grapples and 

John Deer 648 rubber-tired skidders with 

grapples. Track-mounted slide-boom delim‐

bers processed trees at landings by removing 

limbs, cutting trees to specified lengths, and 

stacking logs according to product specifica‐

tions (table 3). Nonmerchantable wood and 

tree limbs that were placed in slash piles 

on landings along road corridors and within 

treatment units were burned in 2001.

Table 1—Vegetation types, acres, percent of total area, and percent of forested area 

for lodgepole pine stands on the Tenderfoot Creek Experimental Forest in central 

Montana.

Percent of

Vegetation type Acres (ha) total area forested area

Nonforested 808 (326 ha) 8.9

One-aged LPP stands 3,837 (1,590 ha) 42.0 46

Two-aged LPP stands 4,480 (1,816 ha) 49.1 54

Total 9,125 (3,693 ha) 100 100
USDA Forest Service RMRS-RN-29. 2006

Figure 1—Schematic layout of 16 silvicultural treatments established for the Tenderfoot Research Project on the Tenderfoot 

Creek Experimental Forest in central Montana.
USDA Forest Service RMRS-RN-29. 2006

Research specifications called for marking “leave trees” 

in even distribution units and marking the leave group pe‐

rimeters in group treatments. Location of skidding corridors 

in even distribution units were identified by feller-buncher 

operators and approved by a Forest Service sale admin‐

istrator. Skidding corridors within group treatments were 

approved in advance by a Forest Service sale administrator 

to minimize the area impacted by skidders. Riparian zones 

were not entered, maintaining an adequate sediment filter 

between treatment units and streams. Feller bunchers and 

skidders worked around previously established research 

plot markers.

Three units were harvested in late 1999 and the 13 

remaining units were harvested in 2000. The three units 

harvested in 1999 were prone to wet soils in average or 

above average precipitation years; therefore, because of a 

dry summer and fall, it was decided to reduce soil compac‐

tion potential by treating them early.

Discussion_____________________

Products extracted from treatment units included 3 mil‐

lion board ft (MMBF) (7,196 m3) of sawlogs, 1.3 MMBF 

(3,118 m3) of stud logs, and 1,800 tons of roundwood that 

sold as pulpwood, firewood, posts, and rails (table 4). Stand 

quadratic mean diameters ranged from 8.6 to 12.6 inches 

for the 16 treatment units.

Making timber sales profitable is an important eco‐

nomic aspect in managing National Forest Lands. On the 

Tenderfoot Research Project, the contractor requested and 

was granted an adjustment to the logging contract during 

the summer of 2000, allowing them to respond to increased 

pulpwood market demands. The contractor was able to ex‐

tract pulpwood from slash piles consisting of crooked and 

forked green trees, nonmerchantable subalpine fir, and 

large dead trees unsuitable for other products. Receipts 

Table 3—Product specifications for trees extracted from treatment units on the Tenderfoot Creek Experimental Forest in central 

Montana.

Product	 Specification

Sawlogs1, lodgepole pine—live >7 inches (18 cm) diameter breast height (dbh) and >5.6 inches (14 cm) top diameter 

inside bark (dib), 8 ft (2.4 m) length.

Sawlogs1, other species—live and dead >8 inches (20 cm) dbh and >5.6 inches (14 cm) top dib, 8 ft (2.4 m) length.

Sawlogs1, lodgepole pine—dead >8 inches (20 cm) dbh and >7 inches (18 cm) top dib, 16 ft (4.9 m) length.

Small sawlogs1, all species From tops of sawlog trees between 5.6 inches (14 cm) dib and 4.6 inches (12 cm) 

dib, plus LPP >6 inches (15 cm) dbh that have an 8 ft (2.4 m) piece to a 4.6 inch (12 

cm) top dib but not a 5.6 inch (14 cm) top; other species >7 inches (18 cm) dbh that 

have an 8 ft (2.4 m) piece to a 4.6 inch (12 cm) top dib but not a 5.6 inch (14 cm) top.

Roundwood Material from trees below the diameter required for sawlogs and material from the tops of 

trees used for pulp or sawlogs >16 ft (4.9 m) in length and top dib >3 inches (8 cm). 

Free from sweep or crook.

Pulp Any material not included above but generally crooked or forked green trees not making 

other products, or large, dead trees not making another product.

1

Includes both sawlogs and stud logs.

Table 2—Acres treated by silvicultural treatment in Sun Creek and Spring Park Creek subwatersheds 

on the Tenderfoot Creek Experimental Forest in central Montana. Silvicultural treatments included a 

shelterwood with reserve system with and without prescribed burning.

Sun Creek Spring Park Creek

Silvicultural treatment Acres (ha) Acres (ha)

Shelterwood w/reserves, even distribution 78 (31) 9 (4)

Shelterwood w/reserves, group distribution 61 (25) 73 (30)

Shelterwood w/reserves, even distribution 30 (12) 21 (8)

Shelterwood w/reserves, group distribution 77 (31) 54 (22)

Shelterwood w/reserves, even distribution, prescribed burn 36 (15) 42 (17)

Shelterwood w/reserves, even distribution, prescribed burn 16 (6) 22 (9)

Shelterwood w/reserves, group distribution, prescribed burn 36 (15) 30 (12)

Shelterwood w/reserves, group distribution, prescribed burn 22 (9) 42 (17)

Total treated acres 356 (144) 293 (119)
USDA Forest Service RMRS-RN-29. 2006

showed that the contractor made a 5 percent profit on saw‐

logs, 10 percent on stud logs, broke even on the sale of posts 

and rails, and subsidized the sale of 445 tons of pulpwood 

(table 4).

Minimal logging cost was another reason this sale was 

profitable for the contractor and logging subcontractor. All 

wood extracted from treatment units came from two subwa‐

tersheds located approximately 1 mile apart. Harvest units 

located close together eliminated the need to transport log‐

ging equipment between harvest units, which could result 

in lost production when logging trucks are idle and no in‐

ventory is being added to the mill. A logging company may 

lose $5,000 to $6,000 per day from lost production during a 

move between job sites. Expenses incurred during a move 

include wages paid for loading, moving, and unloading 

equipment and rental for moving and logging equipment. 

Gross revenue lost by the contractor and logging subcon‐

tractor could total $15,000 to $20,000 per move.

National Forest stumpage receipts on the Tenderfoot 

Research Project totaled $847,100 with an additional 

$101,512 collected for slash and road maintenance work. 

Stumpage receipts included the sale of 60 cords of firewood 

that had been extracted from slash piles that would have 

otherwise been burned for fuel reduction. Program costs, 

including planning and sale administration, were $505,457 

for a net return to the National Forest of $443,155.

This research project was an above-cost sale for the 

Forest Service and the timber company. Private companies 

typically monitor demand for a wide range of products dur‐

ing a sale to maximize profits in a volatile wood market. 

Flexibility by the Lewis and Clark National Forest allowed 

the contractor to utilize smaller trees for posts and rails 

and capitalize on forked and dead trees for a short-term 

pulp market. Efficiency in accessing a large number of 

treatment areas within a small area also helped make this 

sale cost effective.

Below cost timber sales in the past resulted from de‐

pressed markets due to low-cost wood imported from 

Canada and reduced sale bid prices in the United States. 

Regional and national markets can change dramatically 

depending on future United States and Canadian trade 

agreements.

Performance-based stewardship contracts are another 

way to make timber sales affordable and give the National 

Forest System and the Bureau of Land Management an‐

other option to efficiently and economically manage their 

lands. These contracts enable the government agency to 

bundle related services and sale products based on a num‐

ber of resource issues such as improving wildlife habitat, 

Table 4—Volume extracted, costs, and revenue versus cost (profit) realized by sale contractor1 for 

products removed from the Tenderfoot Creek Experimental Forest.

Product Volume extracted Costs ($) Revenue versus costs

Sawlogs 2,972 MBF2 (7,129 m3) 1,262,656 5% profit

Stud logs 1,328 MBF2 (3,186 m3) 562,024 10% profit

Pulpwood and firewood 445 T (404 MT) 2 15,894 Subsidized

Posts and rails 1,350 T (1,225 MT) 2 3,096 Equal

1

 Information obtained from Pyramid Lumber Company.

2 MBF = 1,000 board feet; T = tons; MT = metric tons.

reducing forest fuels, accomplishing road maintenance or 

reclamation, rehabilitating watersheds or streams, initiat‐

ing precommercial thinning, or offsetting the cost of other 

Forest related activities.

The Tenderfoot Research Project demonstrates that even 

with research restrictions, managing lodgepole pine with a 

two-aged silvicultural system can be economically viable. 

Making profitable or break-even timber sales in lodgepole 

pine stands will depend on contract flexibility, utilizing a 

landscape approach to treatment area layout (relying on 

larger units in close proximity), and the use of stewardship 

contracts.

References_____________________

Alexander, Robert R.; Lotan, James E.; Larson, Milo J.; Volland, 

Leonard A. 1983. Lodgepole pine. In: Burns, Russell M., tech. 

comp. Silvicultural systems for the major forest types of the 

United States. Agric. Handb. 445. Washington, DC: U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 191 p.

Arno, Steven F. 1980. Forest fire history in the Northern Rockies. 

Journal of Forestry. 78(8): 460–465.

Barger, Ronald L.; Fiedler, Carl E. 1982. The small timber resource 

in the Inland West. In: Harvesting small timber: waste not, 

want not. Proceedings; 1981 April 28–30; Syracuse, NY. 

Madison, WI: Forest Products Research Society: 3–17.

Barrett, Steven W. 1993. Fire History of Tenderfoot Creek 

Experimental Forest, Lewis and Clark National Forest. RJVA 

internal report on file at: Rocky Mountain Research Station, 

Research Work Unit 4151, Missoula, MT. 23 p.

Fiedler, Carl E. 1987. Extent and character of small-stem lodgepole 

pine stands in the Mountain West. In: Barger, Ronald L., comp. 

Management of small-stem stands of lodgepole pine—workshop 

proceedings; 1986 June 30–July 2; Fairmont Hot Springs, MT. 

Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-237. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station: 

2–6.

Koch, Peter. 1996. Lodgepole pine in North America—Part I: 

Background. Madison WI: Forest Products Society. 343 p.

Pfister, Robert D.; McDonald, Philip M. 1980. Lodgepole pine. 

In: Eyre, F. H., editor, Forest cover types of the United States 

and Canada. Washington, DC: Society of American Foresters: 

97–98.

Schmidt, Wyman C.; Alexander, Robert R. 1985. Strategies for 

managing lodgepole pine. In: Baumgartner, David M.; Krebill, 

Richard G.; Arnott, J. T.; Weetman, G. F., eds. Lodgepole: the 

species and its management: symposium proceedings; 1984 

May 8–10; Spokane WA; 1984 May 14–16: Vancouver, BC. 

Pullman, WA: Office of Conferences and Institutes Cooperative 

Extension: 201–210.
USDA Forest Service RMRS-RN-29. 2006

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service; U.S. Department 

of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management. 2004. The Healthy 

Forests Initiative and Healthy Forest Restoration Act: Interim 

Field Guide. FS-799. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Forest Service. 58 p.

Van Hooser, Duane D.; Keegan, Charles E. III. 1985. Lodgepole pine 

as a commercial resource in the United States. In: Baumgartner, 

David M.; Krebill, Richard G.; Arnott, J. T.; Weetman, G. F., 

eds. Lodgepole: the species and its management: symposium 

proceedings; 1984 May 8–10; Spokane WA; 1984 May 14–16: 

Vancouver, BC. Pullman, WA: Office of Conferences and 

Institutes Cooperative Extension: 15–19.
USDA Forest Service RMRS-RN-29. 2006

You may order additional copies of this publication by sending your mailing 

information in label form through one of the following media. Please specify the 

publication title and series number.

Fort Collins Service Center

Telephone (970) 498-1392

FAX (970) 498-1122

E-mail rschneider@fs.fed.us

Web site http://www.fs.fed.us/rm

Mailing address Publications Distribution

Rocky Mountain Research Station

240 West Prospect Road

Fort Collins, CO 80526

Rocky Mountain Research Station

Natural Resources Research Center

2150 Centre Avenue, Building A

Fort Collins, CO 80526
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits discrimination 

in all its programs and activities on the basis of race, color, national 

origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political beliefs, sexual orientation, 

or marital or family status. (Not all prohibited bases apply to all 

programs.) Persons with disabilities who require alternative means for 

communication of program information (Braille, large print, audiotape, 

etc.) should contact USDA’s TARGET Center at (202) 720-2600 (voice 

and TDD).

To file a complaint of discrimination, write USDA, Director, Office 

of Civil Rights, Room 326 W, Whitten Building, 1400 Independence 

Avenue, SW, Washington, D.C. 20250-9410 or call (202) 720-5964 

(voice and TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity provider and employer.

The Rocky Mountain Research Station develops scientific information 

and technology to improve management, protection, and use of the 

forests and rangelands. Research is designed to meet the needs of 

the National Forest managers, Federal and State agencies, public and 

private organizations, academic institutions, industry, and individuals.

Studies accelerate solutions to problems involving ecosystems, 

range, forests, water, recreation, fire, resource inventory, land 

reclamation, community sustainability, forest engineering technology, 

multiple use economics, wildlife and fish habitat, and forest insects and 

diseases. Studies are conducted cooperatively, and applications may 

be found worldwide.

Research Locations

Flagstaff, Arizona Reno, Nevada

Fort Collins, Colorado* Albuquerque, New Mexico

Boise, Idaho Rapid City, South Dakota

Moscow, Idaho Logan, Utah

Bozeman, Montana Ogden, Utah

Missoula, Montana Provo, Utah

*Station Headquarters, Natural Resources Research Center, 2150 

Centre Avenue, Building A, Fort Collins, CO 80526.

RMRS

ROCKY MOUNTAIN RESEARCH STATION

Federal Recycling Program Printed on Recycled Paper