BLS WORKING PAPERS

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR

Bureau of Labor Statistics

 

OFFICE OF EMPLOYMENT RESEARCH

AND PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT

The Contribution of Establishment Births and Deaths To Employment

Growth

James R. Spletzer

Working Paper 310

March 1998

 

The author would like to thank many persons in the Division of Occupational and Administrative Statistics and the Division of Business

Establishment Systems at BLS for answering numerous questions about the ES-202 data. The author would also like to thank seminar

participants at BLS and the Census Bureau’s Center for Economic Studies for helpful comments. All analytic results and any opinions

expressed in this paper are those of the author and not necessarily those of the BLS or any BLS staff members
The Contribution of Establishment Births and Deaths to Employment Growth

February 24, 1998

James R. Spletzer

Bureau of Labor Statistics

2 Massachusetts Ave NE, Suite 4945

Washington DC 20212

Phone: 202-606-7393

Spletzer_J@bls.gov

The author would like to thank many persons in the Division of Occupational and Administrative

Statistics and the Division of Business Establishment Systems at BLS for answering numerous

questions about the ES-202 data. The author would also like to thank seminar participants at BLS

and the Census Bureau’s Center for Economic Studies for helpful comments. All analytic results

and any opinions expressed in this paper are those of the author and not necessarily those of the

BLS or any BLS staff members.
Abstract

The purpose of this paper is to examine how establishment births and deaths contribute to job

creation, job destruction, and net employment growth at different frequencies of measurement. The

longitudinal data are constructed from quarterly unemployment insurance microdata from the state

of West Virginia, and are essentially a census of establishments in all industries in that state.

Defining establishment births and deaths turns out to be an exercise in how to use cross-sectional

administrative data for longitudinal research purposes. The analysis of job flows indicates that the

importance of establishment births and deaths on a quarterly time frame is relatively small but

certainly non-trivial, whereas births and deaths account for roughly half of all jobs created and

destroyed on a triennial time frame.
1

I. Introduction

 The relatively recent development of longitudinal establishment datasets has generated quite a

bit of excitement in both the academic and the statistical communities. From this literature, we

have learned that there is a large amount of volatility at the individual establishment level that

underlies the smooth time series of aggregate employment growth. The descriptive statistics

coming out of this literature have not only stimulated the review and updating of existing labor

market theories, but have also stimulated the U.S. statistical agencies to develop their

administrative datasets in such a way so as to produce longitudinal job flow statistics. The

purpose of this paper is to use a new longitudinal database from the Bureau of Labor Statistics

(BLS) in order to examine how establishment births and deaths contribute to job creation, job

destruction, and net employment growth at different frequencies of measurement.

 Despite all that we have learned about the labor market from the existing job flows literature,

the conclusions that can be drawn from these studies are somewhat limited. First, almost all of the

existing work using U.S. data has been restricted to the manufacturing sector. Recent work by

several authors has illustrated how job creation and job destruction in manufacturing may not be

representative of the entire U.S. economy.1 A second limitation is that most of the existing

empirical work on job flows, either by choice or by necessity, is based upon data that excludes the

smallest establishments.2 Since most establishment births and deaths are quite small, at least in the

short run, we are thus unsure how these births and deaths influence employment growth. While

data that focuses on large establishments will cover most employment, an analysis of job flows

depends on the magnitude of employment flows at continuing establishments relative to the

incidence and average size of establishment births and deaths.

 The longitudinal database introduced in this paper is not subject to either of these limitations.

The microdata upon which this paper is based are the unemployment insurance reports that

 

1

 The studies by Davis and Haltiwanger (1990, 1992), Davis, Haltiwanger, and Schuh (1993, 1996), and

Dunne, Roberts and Samuelson (1988, 1989a, 1989b) have all used manufacturing data housed at the

Center for Economic Studies at the U.S. Census Bureau. Recent work with unemployment insurance data

by Anderson and Meyer (1994), Foote (1997), Lane, Stevens, and Burgess (1996), and Leonard (1987)

has looked at other sectors of the economy.

2

 Small plants with less than five employees are not in the sample frame of the Annual Survey of

Manufactures (ASM) data used by Davis, Haltiwanger, and Schuh (1996); these plants represent about

one-third of all plants and about 4 to 7 percent of employment. Using the Census of Manufactures,

Dunne, Roberts and Samuelson (1989a) exclude manufacturing plants with less than 5 employees; these

excluded plants account for between 30 and 40 percent of all plants but represent only one percent of

employment. The firm sample used by Anderson and Meyer (1994) includes only firms with at least 50

employees; this sample accounts for 83 percent of employment.
2

employers in the U.S. are required to file with the states, and these data are essentially a quarterly

census of establishments in all industries. The quarterly observations on each establishment are

ideal when looking at topics such as short run employment growth immediately following birth and

immediately preceding death. A detailed description of these data and the construction of the

longitudinal dataset is provided in section II of this paper. Because of the focus on births and

deaths in this paper, special attention is given to the longitudinal linkage algorithm used to

minimize the incidence of spurious births and deaths.

 In section III, I define establishment births and deaths. This turns out to be an exercise that

illustrates the problems associated with using cross-sectional administrative data for longitudinal

research purposes. Since the topic of this paper is how establishment births and deaths contribute

to job flows, the appropriate definition of establishment births and deaths is the first and last date

of positive employment. I contrast this with the simpler approach of defining births and deaths as

the appearance and disappearance of the establishment from the dataset. The substantive

difference between these two definitions is that businesses in the unemployment insurance system

are allowed to report zero employment for several quarters after they have effectively closed. This

turns out to matter for our understanding of the establishment’s life cycle, in that defining births

and deaths as the first and last dates of positive employment leads to a hazard function for new

business death that is monotonically decreasing, whereas defining births and deaths as the

appearance and disappearance of the establishment from the dataset leads to a hazard function that

exhibits an inverted-U shape. This difference helps us distinguish between the informational

assumptions inherent in competing theories of business births, their growth, and their likelihood of

survival.

 The analysis of how births, deaths, and continuing establishments contribute to employment

growth is contained in section IV. If births and deaths are relatively small, as measured by

employment, is a study of how births and deaths contribute to job creation and job destruction

warranted? The answer to this question, as noted by Hamermesh (1993), depends on the frequency

over which employment growth is measured. For example, job creation attributable to births

measured at high frequencies (such as quarterly) will be understated if establishment growth is a

gradual process, whereas job creation measured at low frequencies (such as triennial) will miss any

establishments that were born and died within the period. I find that the importance of

establishment births and deaths on a quarterly time frame is relatively small but certainly non-
3

trivial, whereas births and deaths account for roughly half of all jobs created and destroyed on a

triennial time frame.

 The literature concerning labor demand and specifically gross job flows has flourished during

the past decade. Based largely upon the work of Davis and Haltiwanger (1990, 1992), Davis,

Haltiwanger and Schuh (1996), and Dunne, Roberts and Samuelson (1989a), we know that there is

tremendous heterogeneity in establishment level employment changes in the U.S. manufacturing

sector. This is evident in the job creation and job destruction statistics underlying net employment

growth. Beyond the extension to industries other than manufacturing, the results in this paper

contribute to this literature by documenting how much of this heterogeneity is attributable to

establishment births and deaths at different frequencies of measurement. This paper concludes

with a discussion of how these results improve our understanding of topics such as the life cycle of

establishments, employment stability, and the costs and inefficiencies associated with worker

reallocation.

II. The Data

 The Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) is currently constructing a longitudinal database that will

contain quarterly employment and wage data for virtually all business establishments in the United

States. This longitudinal database is designed to track changes in employment and wages not only

at the macro level, but also at the micro level of the establishment. This database will be used to

generate high quality, high frequency, timely and historically consistent information regarding job

creation, job destruction, and the life cycle of establishments.

IIa. Data Sources and Definitions

 The source of the establishment microdata used for constructing this new longitudinal database

is the quarterly unemployment insurance microdata from the Bureau of Labor Statistics. All

employers subject to state unemployment insurance (UI) laws are required to submit quarterly

contribution reports detailing their monthly employment and quarterly wages to the State

Employment Security Agencies (SESAs). After the microdata are edited and, if necessary,

corrected by the State Labor Market Information staff, the states submit these data to the Bureau

of Labor Statistics as part of the Covered Employment and Wages program (ES-202), which is a

cooperative endeavor of BLS and the states. The data gathered in the ES-202 program are a

comprehensive and accurate source of employment and wages, and provide a virtual census (98
4

percent) of employees on nonfarm payrolls. According to Employment and Wages, an annual

publication of the BLS, employers in private industry in 1996 provided State Employment Security

Agencies with quarterly UI tax reports for an average of 99.3 million wage and salary workers in

approximately 6.9 million business establishments.3 For more information on the ES-202 program,

see U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (1997) and Farmer and Searson (1995).

 Several definitions deserve mention. An establishment is an economic unit, such as a factory or

store, which produces goods or provides services. An establishment is usually a physical location

and engaged in one or predominantly one type of economic activity for which a Standard Industrial

Classification (SIC) code is applicable. The industry code of an establishment is assigned based on

its primary activity, which is determined by the primary product or groups of products produced or

distributed (or services rendered) by the establishment.

 Employers report employment and wages on an individual establishment basis. Multiple

Worksite Reports are used to collect separate employment and wage data for each establishment

owned by employers with multiple locations within a state. The Multiple Worksite Reports were

instituted as part of the Business Establishment List Improvement Project (BEL breakouts), which

was a major initiative conducted jointly by the states and the Bureau of Labor Statistics in 1990

and 1991. The purpose of the BEL breakouts was to have businesses report their employment and

wages at the establishment level rather than the reporting unit level that was used prior to the first

quarter of 1991. Since the first quarter of 1991 (with the exception of two states that implemented

the BEL breakouts in 1992), every multi-establishment employer with ten or more employees in

secondary physical locations covered under one UI account has been requested (and in 21 states are

legally required) to provide establishment level data.

 Employment for a given month is the number of covered workers who earned wages during the

pay period which includes the 12th of the month. The employment count includes all corporation

officials, executives, other supervisory personnel, clerical workers, wage earners, persons on paid

vacations or paid sick leave, pieceworkers, part-time workers, and workers earning wages which

are nontaxable under UI because the taxable wage limit in the state has been exceeded. The

employment count excludes workers who were on leave without pay or who earned no wages

during the applicable pay period because of strikes, work stoppages, or temporary layoffs.

 

3

 Excluded from private-sector coverage in 1996 were approximately 0.2 million wage and salary

agricultural employees, 1.5 million self-employed farmers, 9.0 million self-employed nonagricultural

workers, 0.6 million domestic workers, and 0.2 million unpaid family workers. In addition, with rules
5

 The quarterly UI microdata have information on monthly employment. In the empirical work to

follow, I will use employment in the third month of the quarter as the measure of the

establishment’s quarterly employment. This is because comparisons between specific points in

time are easier to interpret than are comparisons of quarterly averages. The averaging of monthly

employment within a quarter distorts the timing of when changes in employment actually occurred,

especially changes in employment that occur when an establishment shuts down. Furthermore, I

will not report monthly employment flows constructed from data reported quarterly since these

might be affected by unknown problems such as seam effects or other forms of recall bias. The

quality of monthly employment flows in the UI data, both within and across quarters, is left for

future research.

 Davis, Haltiwanger, and Schuh (1996, Chapter 8.2) raise questions about the quality of using

the ES-202 data for an analysis of job flows. They contend that UI reporting units do not

correspond precisely to either establishments or enterprises, and businesses can and do change the

level of aggregation at which they report information. This criticism is probably directed towards

the data collected before the multiple worksite reports, and should not be an issue for the recent

data reported at the establishment level.4 Since the introduction of the Multiple Worksite Reports

in 1991, virtually all data are transmitted to BLS at the establishment level of reporting and are

standardized with respect to content, structure, and BLS ES-202 definitions.

 The UI microdata are unlikely to be contaminated by measurement error since these are

administrative records used for tax purposes. However, the UI microdata are not without their

faults. There is variation across states regarding who is covered by the UI system, since some

states have expanded on the federal definition of coverage in order to include other workers.5 It is

also difficult to identify corporate structures with the establishment level UI data, especially

corporate structures that cross state boundaries. The researcher also needs to be aware of how

 

that vary by state, certain types of small nonprofit organizations are given a choice of coverage or

exclusion.

4

 Multiple establishments can be nested within a UI account. Furthermore, several UI accounts can be

nested within a legal entity, where a legal entity is defined by the Federal Employer Identification Number

(EIN) as assigned by the Internal Revenue Service. It is well known that the concept of legal entities

varies across multi-establishment employers as some employers may structure their corporate

organizations in order to minimize their tax liabilities or other legal obligations. How the legal entity

relates to economic entities is unclear. For this reason, all job flow statistics in this paper (and all job flow

statistics forthcoming from BLS) will be calculated at the establishment level rather than the firm level.

5

 The federal definition of coverage (with the exception of employers of agricultural labor and domestic

service) applies to employers who during any calendar quarter in the current or immediately preceding

calendar year paid wages of $1,500 or more, or to employers of one or more workers on at least 1 day in

each of 20 weeks during the current or immediately preceding calendar year.
6

states handle inactive accounts -- those UI accounts that have stopped reporting or continually

report zero employment. This latter problem concerns how to use cross-sectional administrative

data for longitudinal research purposes, and is the topic of section III of this paper.

IIb. Construction of Longitudinal Microdata

 There are two pieces of information in the ES-202 microdata that allow for matching

establishments across quarters. The first is the SESA ID, which is the UI account number in

combination with the establishment's reporting unit (RU) number. The SESA ID is the

establishment’s unique identifier that the State Employment Security Agencies transmit to BLS.

Although the RU number is not used for administration of the unemployment insurance system, the

RU number is assigned by the state (through information collected in the Multiple Worksite

Reports) for BLS purposes of identifying establishments within a multi-establishment employer in

that state. The SESA ID is specific to the business rather than specific to the location, which

implies that if an establishment moves across the street in search of a bigger or better location, its

SESA ID stays the same.

 The second piece of information in the UI microdata used for longitudinal linking is the

predecessor and successor numbers. The predecessor number is the SESA ID of the establishment

that previously owned the establishment in the event of either a change in ownership or a change in

reporting configuration (i.e. a breakout of units). The successor number is the SESA ID of the

establishment that will take over the establishment in the event of either a change in ownership or a

change in reporting configuration (i.e. a consolidation of units). The term “breakout” refers to a

transition from a single establishment employer to a multi-establishment employer, and the term

“consolidation” refers to a transition from a multi-establishment employer to a single establishment

employer. These breakouts and consolidations may be actual economic events representing

business expansions and contractions, or merely administrative reporting changes.

IIc. Research Dataset

 The microdata used for the research in this paper are from the state of West Virginia from the

first quarter of 1990 to the first quarter of 1995. As mentioned previously, the BEL breakouts

were introduced in the first quarter of 1991, with two states being developed in 1992. However,

eight states were reporting at the establishment level as of the first quarter of 1990, and using data

from any of these eight states adds four extra quarters to the research data used in this project, thus
7

maximizing the “T” in a panel of size NxT. Of these eight states, several were too small for

meaningful analysis, and several were too large for my computing capabilities. West Virginia was

the largest of the eight states that would fit within my computing capabilities.

 Before linking the data across quarters, I excluded private household (SIC 8811), government,

and agricultural establishments. I then matched the 21 consecutive quarters of West Virginia UI

microdata (1990:1 to 1995:1) by SESA ID.6 On average, 93.4 percent of establishments in two

consecutive quarters matched in this first step. Any establishment that did not match on SESA ID

was then matched by predecessor and successor numbers. This second step matched

approximately 8.3 percent of those eligible, thus resulting in an average quarterly match rate of

93.9 percent for establishments appearing in two consecutive quarters.

 Finally, I will define four consecutive quarters of zero or imputed employment as a death. The

motivation for this is to define births for those establishments that have a left censored stream of

reported zero employment levels, and to define deaths for those establishments that have a right

censored stream of reported zero employment levels. For example, in the West Virginia microdata,

we observe 1123 establishments with at least four quarters of zero employment before the panel is

right censored following the first quarter of 1995. It is reasonable to assume that these

establishments died in early 1994 if not earlier. In order to implement this four quarter rule, we

must delete the first and the last three quarters of the panel. The final longitudinal West Virginia

dataset used in the job flows analysis has an average of approximately 35,000 establishments in

each quarter from 1990:4 to 1994:2.

 The longitudinal dataset used in the research reported here will not duplicate the data for West

Virginia from the forthcoming BLS job flows dataset. The BLS is expanding on the matching

algorithm described above and is implementing a probability based statistical match that attempts

to identify two establishments with different SESA IDs as continuous. This probability based

match compares births in the current quarter to deaths in the previous quarter and looks for

occurrences such as the same name, the same address, and so forth. Robertson, Huff, Mikkelson,

 

6

 Because of the focus on births and deaths in this study, I have also matched the establishments by UI

account number (ignoring the RU number in specific cases) to identify a small number of breakouts and

consolidations not reported by predecessor or successor numbers. This is necessary because a RU number

of 0 implies a single establishment employer, whereas a RU number of 1 or higher implies an

establishment within a multi-unit employer. Thus, by definition, a single establishment that opens a new

establishment or a multi establishment employer that closes all but one establishment will not match on

SESA ID because the reporting unit numbers differ (from 0 to 1 or from 1 to 0). The number of observed

transitions from single to multi-establishments and vice-versa within a UI account is less than 10 percent
8

Pivetz, and Winkler (1997) provide a detailed description of the matching algorithm used for the

forthcoming BLS longitudinal dataset, and present statistics which imply that any discrepancies

between the forthcoming BLS data and the West Virginia research dataset used here will be small.

 It is worth mentioning how the state of West Virginia during the early 1990s compares to the

rest of the United States. Using data from Employment and Wages, the statistics presented in

Table 1a indicate that there are no glaring differences between the U.S. economy and the West

Virginia economy as measured by the 1994 point in time industry distributions of the number of

establishments or the number of employees. For example, during 1994, the three largest industries

as measured by the number of establishments in both the U.S. and in West Virginia are services,

retail trade, and construction. The three largest industries as measured by employment in both the

U.S. and in West Virginia are services, retail trade, and manufacturing.7

 Of course, saying that the stock of establishments and/or employment in any given year in West

Virginia is broadly representative of the U.S. economy is not equivalent to saying that the

establishment and/or employment flows are representative. The net establishment flows between

1992 and 1994 and the net employment flows between 1992 and 1994 for West Virginia and the

U.S. are given in Table 1b. We immediately see that the net employment growth rates during this

time period are approximately 5.5 percent for both the U.S. as a whole and for West Virginia.

However, the 4.5 percent net growth rate of the number of establishments in the U.S. is larger than

the 2 percent growth rate in West Virginia. These statistics suggest that although the net job flows

in West Virginia and in the U.S. are comparable, the establishment birth and death rates in West

Virginia during the early 1990s might not be representative of the U.S. economy.

III. An Empirical Definition of Births and Deaths

 In this section, we set forth the empirical definition of establishment births and deaths. Before

turning to the data, does theory have anything to say about the definition of births and deaths?8

 

of the number of births and deaths. I treat these establishments as breakouts and consolidations rather

than as births and deaths in all tabulations.

7

 The eight major industry groups used in this study are Mining (SIC 1000-1499), Construction (SIC

1500-1799), Manufacturing (SIC 2000-3999), Transportation and Public Utilities (SIC 4000-4999),

Wholesale Trade (SIC 5000-5199), Retail Trade (SIC 5200-5999), Finance, Insurance, and Real Estate

(SIC 6000-6799), and Services (SIC 7000-8999).

8

 As Hamermesh (1993) notes, “There is no standard textbook model of plant openings.” Simple models

of the representative firm, which were designed to estimate marginal employment effects using aggregate

data, assume an existing and infinitely lived business, and implicit in these models is the concept of

positive employment. Incorporating establishment births and deaths into these models would require
9

The issue here is that births and deaths are not identifiable events, but rather are processes of

discrete steps such as the gestation period when the idea for a new business is formed, the formal

application for UI eligibility, and the actual hiring of employees. Which of these discrete steps

should be used as the empirical definition of births and deaths? As noted by Baldwin and Gorecki

(1989) and Geroski (1991), an empirical definition of births and deaths depends on the particular

context. For example, if we want to analyze short run job flows attributable to births and deaths,

this requires that births and deaths are defined as the first and last quarter of positive employment.

On the other hand, an analysis of changes in the business environment with respect to competition

or efficiency suggests that establishment births and deaths might be defined as changes in location,

changes in primary economic activity, or changes in ownership.

 This exercise of empirically defining births and deaths turns out to be a lesson in how to

properly use cross-sectional administrative data for longitudinal research purposes. The UI

microdata used here are collected for tax purposes and for cross-sectional statistical tabulations.

Once the employer incurs the fixed cost of obtaining the UI account, there is no further cost to the

employer other than time and postage when filing a quarterly contributions report. Therefore, it is

not surprising that we observe many employers reporting zero employment for consecutive

quarters. In any average quarter in the West Virginia microdata, 11.8 percent of establishments

report zero employment. Initial occurrences of zero employment when the UI account first appears

might occur if business owners apply for a UI account number before actually hiring their first

employee. Terminal incidences of zero employment preceding the disappearance of the UI account

number undoubtedly occur when an establishment reduces its employment level to zero while

anticipating starting up the business again when economic conditions improve. When expectations

imply re-opening the business rather than permanently closing the plant or the store, the

establishment that has temporarily shut down may keep its UI account number active by reporting

zero employment.

 What is the incidence of delayed positive employment and zero employment preceding the

disappearance of a SESA ID? In table 2a, I report the incidence of zero employment at birth for

the universe of single establishments with a never before seen SESA ID (for the data used in this

table, we have not yet defined four quarters of consecutive zero employment as a death). We see

that 77.3 percent of these single establishment births have positive third month employment during

their first quarter of reporting. Interestingly, 10.5 percent of single establishment births never have

 

explicitly taking account of behavior that occurs at the corner solution of an establishment’s production
10

any positive third month employment before they either quit reporting or are right censored.

Conditional on ever having positive employment, 13.7 percent of single establishment births have

zero third month employment during their first quarter of reporting, and more than three-quarters

(77.9 percent) of these establishments with zero employment in their first quarter have positive

third month employment in their second quarter of reporting.

 In table 2b, we analyze the incidence of zero employment at death for the newly appearing

single establishment births that are also observed to disappear from the panel. Only 24.0 percent

of these establishments have positive third month employment in their last quarter of reporting.

Conditional on those establishments who had positive employment at some time, 66.8 percent have

at least one quarter of zero third month employment preceding their disappearance. Only 47.9

percent of these establishments with terminal quarters of zero employment have just one quarter of

zero employment preceding their disappearance, whereas 23.8 percent have two quarters of zero

employment and 28.3 percent have three or more quarters of zero employment preceding their

disappearance. In summary, initial occurrences of zero employment when an establishment

appears for the first time are not uncommon, but are relatively rare compared to the large number

of establishments with terminal quarters of zero employment before disappearing.9

 Clearly, we do not want to define births and deaths as the appearance and disappearance of the

SESA ID in this study. The consequence of doing so would be to bias downward the contribution

of establishment births and deaths to job creation and job destruction, since the data in table 2

suggest that 23 percent of the births would be observed as an appearance with zero employment in

the initial quarter, and 76 percent of the deaths would be observed as a disappearance with zero

employment in the final quarter. Since we are interested in the jobs created and destroyed by

 

function.

9

 I have also investigated the incidence of imputed employment at birth and death. There are three

situations in which states impute employment data. First, if the quarterly contribution report is more than

five months delinquent (which is when the states transmit the data to the BLS), employment is imputed.

Employment can not be imputed in consecutive quarters for delinquent filers. Second, if the quarterly

contribution report has been submitted with wage data but without employment data, and follow-up to

obtain the missing employment data is not successful, then the employment data are imputed. Finally, if

the quarterly contribution report has been completed and returned by a multi-establishment employer but

the multiple worksite report has not been returned, the employment data for the individual establishments

are imputed. In the entire West Virginia economy (and also for the sample of single establishment

births), approximately 3 percent of all establishments have imputed employment. This figure is state

specific, and other states may have higher or lower rates of employment imputation; the national average

in the third quarter of 1995 is 10.1 percent. Accounting for the relatively few quarterly observations with

initial and terminal imputed employment does not change the analysis in this section.
11

establishment births and deaths, both in the short run and in the long run, we need to define births

and deaths as the first and last quarter of positive employment.

 Other than the obvious effect on job flows, does this definitional difference between the

appearance and disappearance of the SESA ID versus the first and last quarter of positive

employment matter? We evaluate this question by examining the hazard function for the time until

death for the universe of single establishment births. The hazard functions for these data using

both definitions of births and deaths are given in figure 1a, and the corresponding survivor

functions are given in figure 1b.10 Although the shapes of survivor functions appear roughly

similar with different intercepts, the hazard functions are extremely different in the first three

quarters. When births and deaths are defined as the appearance and disappearance of the SESA

ID, the hazard increases between the first and third quarters (from 3.3 percent to 4.9 percent), and

then begins a gradual decline. Note the spike in this hazard at eight months, which probably

occurs when the state ‘cleans’ its files of establishments that have reported zero employment for

eight consecutive quarters. The hazard function when births and deaths are defined as the first and

last quarter of positive employment is monotonically declining. This hazard begins at 9.5 percent

in the first quarter, and falls to 5.6 percent in the third quarter.

 This difference between the monotonically declining hazard and the inverted-U shaped hazard in

figure 1a has been discussed by both economists and those concerned with organizational

demography.11 References for a monotonically declining hazard include Boeri and Bellmann

(1995), Mata and Portugal (1994), and Mata, Portugal, and Guimarães (1995). References for an

 

10 Define T as a discrete random variable of failure times which take on the values x1<x2<... The hazard

function is defined as λj=Prob(T=xj | T>xj), which is interpreted as the probability of dying in a given

quarter j conditional on surviving until that quarter. In the absence of covariates, the hazard function is

estimated as dj/nj, where dj is the number of establishments who die at time tj and nj is the number of

establishments alive and “at risk” for failure just prior to time tj. The survivor function can be written as

F(t)= ∏ j x <t − j

j

|

(1 l ) =Pr(T>xj ), which is interpreted as the probability of surviving until a given quarter t.

Note that the survivor function presents no new information beyond that conveyed by the hazard function.

See Kalbfliesch and Prentice (1980) for a more complete discussion of hazard and survivor functions.

11 Interestingly, the inverted-U shaped hazard function appears only in the quarterly hazards, but does not

appear in the annual hazards. Computing annual hazards using first quarter (March) data, the hazard

function when births and deaths are defined as the appearance and disappearance of the SESA ID is

{.1218, .0785} for the first two years (only two annual hazard points can be computed from the 1990:4 –

1994:2 data), and the hazard function using births and deaths defined as the first and last positive

employment is {.1451, .0752} for the first two years.
12

inverted-U shaped hazard include Brüderl and Schüssler (1990), Brüderl, Preisendörfer, and

Ziegler (1992), Troske (1992), and Wagner (1994).12

 Establishments undoubtedly experience their greatest difficulties as they learn about their

business environment immediately following birth, and the shape of the hazard immediately

following birth depends upon assumptions about how these establishments acquire information. If

information about profitability takes time to acquire as it does in a Jovanovic (1982) model, then

we should not observe any deaths until several realizations of information signal that shutting down

the business is optimal. This occurs because the expected value of keeping the business open for

several more quarters is positive, with the hope that the initial realization of information is a

negative outlier with regard to the establishment’s true unknown long run profitability. The rising

portion of the inverted-U shaped hazard generated by this informational assumption has been

referred to as the “honeymoon” period by Fichman and Levinthal (1991). On the other hand, if

information about profitability is known immediately (or is revealed relatively quickly) after birth

as assumed in an Ericson and Pakes (1995) model, then we should observe a declining hazard as

many businesses shut down immediately (or very soon) after opening.

 The two hazard functions in figure 1a help to interpret and reconcile the competing theories.

The data are consistent with a model where businesses respond to negative shocks by cutting

employment to zero but keeping the business open in expectation of starting up again. The

business then continues to acquire information about costs and output demand while not employing

any labor, and then completely shuts down only after confirming the initial realization of nonprofitability. This can be seen clearly in figure 2, where we see that re-defining death to be the last

quarter of positive employment rather than the last appearance of the UI account causes the

reversal of the slope of the hazard in the first several quarters after birth. Starting from the

population of single establishment first births who have positive employment sometime during the

panel (function #2 with the “diamonds” in figure 2), we see that re-defining births to be the first

quarter of positive employment essentially does nothing to the hazard (function #2a with the

“pluses” in figure 2), but re-defining deaths to be the last quarter of positive employment (function

#2b with the “squares” in figure 2) changes the slope of the hazard function during the first three

quarters.

 The informational theories described above are also consistent with theories of fixed costs. If

shutting down the business involves fixed costs, which might occur if capital can only be sold at a

 

12 The hazard functions in Audretsch and Mahmood (1994), Baldwin and Gorecki (1991), and Pakes and
13

discount from the original price, then this also increases the option value of keeping the business

open for several more quarters. This implies that the hazard should vary based upon the amount of

resources used in setting up the business. In figure 3, I present hazard functions based upon the

initial size of the business, where initial size is defined as the number of employees in the first

quarter of positive employment. The data are consistent with the fixed costs hypothesis, in that the

hazard functions during the first several quarters are basically declining with initial size. We

should also note that another explanation for the data in figure 3 is that a larger initial size might

be a signal of greater confidence about survival.

IV. The Contribution of Births and Deaths to Employment Growth

 We now turn to the question of how establishment births and deaths contribute to job creation,

job destruction, and net employment growth. Before turning to the empirical work, a brief review

of how net employment growth can be decomposed into its underlying gross jobs flows is

warranted. A comparison of cross-sectional employment at two points in time enables us to

compute net employment growth: how many more jobs exist at the latter time period compared to

the earlier time period. Thinking about how this net employment growth occurred, some

establishments have expanded, some have contracted, and some establishments have either entered

or exited the universe. Net employment growth is the number of jobs created by expanding and

opening establishments minus the number of jobs destroyed by contracting and closing

establishments. The jobs created by expanding and opening establishments are referred to as job

creation, and the jobs destroyed by contracting and closing establishments are referred to as job

destruction.13

 Formalizing this decomposition, we can write net employment growth as:14

 

Ericson (1998) can not be simply classified as either monotonically declining or inverted-U shaped.

13 It is important to note that although job creation and job destruction are powerful indicators of the

underlying volatility in the demand side of the labor market, they do have their limitations. Job creation

and job destruction are measures of the net jobs gained or lost at given establishments, and do not refer to

the worker turnover within these establishments. The potential to analyze the relationship between job

turnover and worker turnover is what makes a linked employer-employee database so appealing to

economists.

14 The jobs created and destroyed by breakouts and consolidations are omitted from this equation and

from the following empirical work. The contribution of breakouts and consolidations to job creation, job

destruction, and net employment growth is small relative to the contribution of births and deaths.
14

(1) 





















−





















−





















+





















=





















Contractions

Destroyed by

Jobs

Deaths

Destroyed by

Jobs

Expansions

Created by

Jobs

Births

Created by

Jobs

Growth

Employment

Net

.

Each of the terms on the right hand side can be expanded into a measure of establishment counts

and a measure of the average number of jobs gained or lost per establishment. For example, the

jobs created by births can be expressed as a function of the birth rate and the size of the average

birth. Using this expansion, equation (1) can be rewritten as:

(2) −

































+





















=





















Expansion

Average

Size of

Rate

Expansion

Birth

Average

Size of

Rate

Birth

Growth

Employment

Net

* *





















































−





















Establishments

Number of

Total

Contraction

Average

Size of

Rate

Contraction

Death

Average

Size of

Rate

Death

* * * .

 The importance of the components on the right hand side of equation (2) will vary with the

amount of time over which employment growth is measured. Most immediately, the birth and

death rates will increase as we look over longer time horizons. We would also expect the average

size of births and deaths to increase with the time horizon for several reasons. First, the universe

of establishments changes over longer time periods as we select on surviving births and deaths of

successful businesses. The average size of births and deaths will increase if transitory

establishments that die shortly after birth are smaller than the average birth or death. Supporting

evidence for this is given in figure 3, where larger establishment births have a higher probability of

survival. Second, if employment growth in births is a gradual process as these new establishments

learn about their business environment, then short run measures of employment growth will

understate the amount of job creation attributable to births as these new establishments move

towards their long run “equilibrium” employment levels. Similarly, if dying establishments lay-off
15

their employees gradually over time, and leave a skeleton crew to “turn the lights off,” then short

run measures of job destruction will understate the jobs truly lost by these dying establishments.

 Similar to the preceding argument, we would also expect the average size of expansions and

contractions to increase with the time horizon. In the short run, since interviewing takes time and

hiring for vacancies is not an immediate process, we would expect to see “structural” levels of job

creation and destruction as certain jobs go unfilled for short durations of time. Short run measures

of job creation and job destruction may also reflect seasonal employment patterns. Only in the

long run will sustained expansions and contractions distinguish themselves from transitory

employment fluctuations that are subsequently reversed in the short run.

 Using data from West Virginia during the early 1990s, estimates for many of the components

on the right hand side of equation (2) are presented in table 3. Estimates are provided on a

quarterly frequency, an annual frequency, a biennial (two year) frequency, and a triennial (three

year) frequency. For reasons described in the previous section of this paper, births are defined as

the first quarter of positive employment and deaths are defined as the last quarter of positive

employment.

 On a quarterly basis, the average job creation rate is 8.37 percent and the average job

destruction rate is 7.99 percent.15 These statistics imply that the amount of jobs created by births

and expanding establishments in the average quarter amount to 8.4 percent of the total number of

jobs, and the amount of jobs destroyed by deaths and contracting establishments in the average

quarter amount to 8.0 percent of the total number of jobs. Differencing the job creation and job

destruction rates, employment is growing on average at the rate of 0.38 percent per quarter (this is

seen in the net employment growth rate in the bottom panel of table 3).

 

15 Notationally, let Et

 denote aggregate employment in quarter t, let e index establishments, define S+ as

the sector of expanding and opening establishments, and define S- as the sector of contracting and closing

establishments. The average quarterly net employment growth rate is written as

1

14 2

1

911 1

 94 2











−

+













−

= −

∑

Et Et

t : {Et Et } /

:

,

the average quarterly job creation rate is defined as

∑

































+

+

∑ 















+

−













∑ =

















∑ 















+

−













= −

−

∈ −

−

= ∈ −

−

+ +

94:2

91:1 1

1

1

1

94:2

91:1 1

1

{ }/ 2

{ }/ 2

14 { }/ 2

1

14 { }/ 2

1

t t t

e

t

e

t

e

e

t

e

t

e

t

e

t

t e t t

e

t

e

t

E E

E E

S E E

E E

S E E

E E

,

and the average quarterly job destruction rate is defined as

∑

































+

+

∑ 















+

−













∑ =

















∑ 















+

−













= −

−

∈ −

−

= ∈ −

−

− −

94:2

91:1 1

1

1

1

94:2

91:1 1

1

{ }/ 2

{ }/ 2

14 { }/ 2

1

14 { }/ 2

1

t t t

e

t

e

t

e

e

t

e

t

e

t

e

t

t e t t

e

t

e

t

E E

E E

S E E

E E

S E E

E E

.
16

 As shown by equation (2), job creation can be decomposed into a birth rate, an expansion rate,

the average size of births, and the average size of an expansion. The quarterly birth rate is 3.53

percent, which is roughly seven times smaller than the quarterly expansion rate of 24.91 percent.

Measured quarterly, the average size of a new establishment is 6.08, whereas the average number

of jobs added by an expanding establishment is 3.74. Although the number of jobs created by an

average birth is larger than the number of jobs created by an average expansion when measured

quarterly, the fact that expansions are much more prevalent than births at this frequency leads to

the conclusion that births account for only 18.73 percent of jobs created on a quarterly basis.

Similarly, establishment deaths account for 17.84 percent of jobs destroyed on a quarterly basis

(these statistics are in the final columns of the top two panels of table 3).

 The finding that establishment births and deaths only account for roughly 18 percent of job

creation and job destruction might seem small, but it is important to recall that this is being

measured on a quarterly frequency. As mentioned earlier, we would expect births and deaths to

become more important as the timeframe of measurement increases. This is exactly what we see in

the data. On an annual basis, establishment births account for 36.67 percent of jobs created, and

establishment deaths account for 37.29 percent of jobs destroyed. These statistics increase to

49.59 percent and 53.39 percent, respectively, on a triennial basis.16 Therefore, when looking at

job flows over a long time horizon such as three years, establishment births account for half of all

jobs created, and establishment deaths account for slightly more than half of all jobs destroyed.

 This increasing importance of establishment births and deaths as we lengthen the time horizon

over which employment growth is measured has also been found by Baldwin and Gorecki (1991).

In their study, they find that the annual effects of firm entry and exit are relatively unimportant in

the Canadian manufacturing sector, but when accumulated over six to eleven years, the effects of

firm entry and exit are of considerable magnitude. I extend the analysis here and ask whether this

 

As is evident in the above equations, I follow Davis, Haltiwanger, and Schuh (1996) by using the mean of

employment in the current and the previous quarter when converting job change levels into rates.

16 The average annual net employment growth rate is written as

∑ 











+

−













= −

−

94:2

91:4 4

4

11 { }/ 2

1

t t t

t t

E E

E E

,

the average biennial net employment growth rate is written as

∑ 











+

−













= −

−

94:2

92:4 8

8

7 { }/ 2

1

t t t

t t

E E

E E

,

and the average triennial net employment growth rate is written as
17

increase is being driven by an increasing rate of births and deaths, or by an increasing average size

of births and deaths. We see in table 3 that the birth rate grows from 3.53 percent on a quarterly

basis to 27.34 percent on a triennial basis, and the death rate similarly grows from 3.17 percent to

23.97 percent. However, the size of the average birth grows only slightly from 6.08 measured

quarterly to 7.70 measured triennially, and the average size of a death grows only slightly from

6.18 measured quarterly to 8.23 measured triennially.17 It would thus seem that the increasing

importance of births and deaths as a source of job creation and job destruction is being driven by

the rates rather than by the average size.

 A formal decomposition analysis can inform us as to exactly how much of the increasing

importance of births and deaths to job creation and job destruction as the time period of

measurement increases is due to the rising birth and death rates. Define B Rt as the birth rate

measured over the interval t, and define B

t

S as the size of the average birth measured over the

interval t. Similarly, define E Rt as the expansion rate measured over the interval t, and define E

t

S

as the size of the average expansion measured over the interval t. The decomposition that we are

interested in can be written as:18

 















+

−

















+ − − − −

− −

E

t

E

t

B

t

B

t

B

t

B

t

E

t

E

t

B

t

B

t

B

t

B

t

R S R S

R S

R S R S

R S

1 1 1 1

1 1 =

( ) ( )

( ) ( )

+

















+ +

−

− − − −

− − − −

E

t

E

t

B

t

B

t

E

t

E

t

B

t

B

t

E

t

E

t

B

t

B

t

B

t

R S R S R S R S

R R S R S

1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1

*

*

 

( ) ( )

( ) ( )

+

















+ +

−

− − − −

− − −

E

t

E

t

B

t

B

t

E

t

E

t

B

t

B

t

E

t

E

t

B

t

B

t

B

t

R S R S R S R S

S S R R S

1 1 1 1

1 1 1

*

*

 

∑ 











+

−













= −

−

94:2

93:4 12

12

3 { }/ 2

1

t t t

t t

E E

E E

.

17 It is important to note that triennial births are defined as all establishments in existence today that were

not in existence three years ago, and triennial deaths are defined as all establishments in existence three

years ago that are not in existence today. Therefore, the average size of births measured triennially is not

the size of surviving establishments three years after their birth, but rather is a weighted average of the

sizes of all establishments that did not exist three years previously. Similarly, the average size of deaths

measured triennially is not the size of establishments three years before their death, but rather is a

weighted average of the sizes of all establishments that will not exist three years from now.

 I also note for completeness that the birth and expansion rates use the number of establishments in the

current period as the denominator, whereas the death and contraction rates use the number of

establishments in the previous period as the denominator.

18 There are multiple ways to write this decomposition. Intuitively, the difference B

t

B

t

B

t

B

t R S R S − −1 −1

 can

be written as both ( ) ( )

1 1 1

B

t

B

t

B

t

B

t

B

t

B Rt

S − S − + S − R − R − and ( ) ( )

1 1 1

B

t

B

t

B

t

B

t

B

t

B

t

S R R R S S − − + − − −. I present

estimates from one decomposition chosen randomly. Other decompositions that I have looked at yield

similar estimates.
18

 

( ) ( )

( ) ( )

+

















+ +

− −

− − − −

− − − −

E

t

E

t

B

t

B

t

E

t

E

t

B

t

B

t

E

t

B

t

B

t

E

t

E

t

R S R S R S R S

R R R S S

1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1

*

*

 

( ) ( )

( ) ( )















+ +

− −

− − − −

− − −

E

t

E

t

B

t

B

t

E

t

E

t

B

t

B

t

E

t

B

t

B

t

E

t

E

t

R S R S R S R S

S S R S R

1 1 1 1

1 1 1

*

*

.

The first term on the right hand side of the above equation is how much of the increase in the

amount of job creation attributable to births as we increase the time period of measurement is

attributable to the rising birth rates. The second term is how much is attributable to the increasing

size of births, the third term is the contribution of the expansion rate, and the fourth term is the

contribution of the increasing size of expansions. Note that the final two terms contain a negative

sign, which indicates that as expansions become more important, births become less important.

 The contributions of how rates and average sizes for both births and expansions affect the

increase in the amount of job creation attributable to births as we increase the time period of

measurement are presented in the top panel of table 4. The contributions are expressed as

percentages, so that the four components add to 100 percent. For the comparison between

quarterly and triennial frequencies (the third row of table 4), we see that the amount of job creation

attributable to births increases by 30.89 percentage points (from 18.73 percent to 49.59 percent).

The increase in birth rates from 3.53 percent on a quarterly basis to 27.34 percent on a triennial

basis accounts for 89.76 percent of this increase. The increasing size of the average birth accounts

for 27.46 percent, the increase in the expansion rate accounts for negative 2.08 percent, and the

increasing size of expansions accounts for negative 15.14 percent. These statistics and the others

in the table indicate that the increasing birth rate is indeed mainly responsible for why births

become an important source of job creation as the timeframe of measurement increases.

 The analysis of how deaths contribute to job destruction in the bottom panel of table 4 tells the

same story: the difference in death rates as we increase the time horizon is responsible for most of

the increasing importance of deaths in the job destruction process. The conclusion to be drawn

from tables 3 and 4 is that although the gradual growth or decline of establishments that are born

or die is responsible for some of the increasing amount of job creation and job destruction

attributable to births and deaths as we increase the timeframe of measurement, most of this

increase appears to be due to the larger number of births and deaths observed in the long run.

 We have seen that as the time horizon gets longer, the share of job creation attributable to births

increases, and the share of job destruction attributable to deaths also increases. The natural
19

question is to now ask about the share of net employment growth that is attributable to the

combined effect of births and deaths. The calculations necessary to answer this question are

presented in the bottom panel of table 3. The net employment growth rate, which is calculated as

the difference between the job creation rate and the job destruction rate, can be decomposed into

the sum of the net employment growth rate of births and deaths and the net employment growth

rate of expansions and contractions.

 We see in the bottom panel of table 3 that the net employment growth rate of establishment

births and deaths is rising with the frequency of measurement. The net employment growth rate

associated with births and deaths is 0.14 percent when measured on a quarterly basis, and is 1.61

percent when measured on a triennial basis.19 The net employment growth rate associated with

expansions and contractions is also rising with the time horizon, and is roughly two to three times

larger than the net employment growth rate of births and deaths at all frequencies of measurement.

This leads us to conclude that the effect of births and deaths on the net employment growth rate,

relative to the effect of expansions and contractions, is roughly constant over both short run and

long run frequencies of measurement at a level where births and deaths account for roughly thirty

percent of net employment growth.

 How does this estimate compare to other estimates in the job flows literature? The estimates

from table 2.1 and figure 2.3 of Davis, Haltiwanger and Schuh (1996) suggest that 67 percent of

quarterly net employment growth and 79 percent of annual net employment growth in

manufacturing is attributable to the net effect of startups and shutdowns.20 In contrast, using a

simple average over four quinquennial time periods, the statistics in table 1 of Dunne, Roberts and

Samuelson (1989a) indicate that births and deaths account for 4 percent of net employment growth

in manufacturing. The statistics from table 1 of Foote (1997) indicate that births and deaths

account for 125 percent of annual net employment growth in Michigan, and Boeri and Cramer

(1992) report that establishment births and deaths are responsible for 56 percent of annual net

employment growth in the private German economy. The studies cited by Hamermesh (1993) and

 

19 The net employment growth rate of births and deaths is calculated as the job creation rate of births

subtract the job destruction rate of deaths. For example, on a quarterly basis, the job creation rate of births

is 1.57% (=8.37*.1873 from table 3) and the job destruction rate of deaths is 1.43% (=7.99*.1784 from

table 3). The net employment growth rate of births and deaths on a quarterly basis is thus 0.14% (=1.57-

1.43), which is the statistic in the bottom panel of table 3.

20 The estimates from Davis and Haltiwanger (1990, 1992), which is based on a slightly different sample

than Davis, Haltiwanger and Schuh (1996), suggests that 47 percent of annual net employment growth in

manufacturing is attributable to the net effect of establishment births and deaths. This comparison

illustrates the sensitivity of this calculation.
20

by Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development (1994) also exhibit widely varying

estimates regarding how much of net employment growth can be attributed to establishment births

and deaths. This divergence is in contrast to the relatively consistent finding across studies that

establishment births and deaths are responsible for roughly one-third of annual gross job flows.

 Finally, the job creation and job destruction statistics for each of the major industries are

presented in table 5. The job creation rates in manufacturing at any frequency of measurement are

the lowest of any industry. The quarterly job creation rate in manufacturing is 4.9 percent and the

quarterly job destruction rate in manufacturing is 5.8 percent. These quarterly job creation and job

destruction rates in manufacturing are similar to those reported by Davis, Haltiwanger, and Schuh

(1996) -- 5.2 percent and 5.5 percent respectively, and are also similar to those reported by

Anderson and Meyer (1995) -- 5.8 percent and 6.2 percent respectively. While we should not

expect to replicate the job creation and job destruction rates found by these other studies, I find the

similarity amazing in light of the different samples and the different time periods used in these

various studies.21

 One conclusion to take away from table 5 is that the job creation attributable to births and the

job destruction attributable to deaths does not exhibit relatively large differences across industries.

For example, on a quarterly basis, the job creation attributable to births ranges from a low of 14

percent in services to a high of 23 percent in retail trade, and on a triennial basis, the job creation

attributable to births ranges from a low of 41 percent in services to a high of 58 percent in mining,

construction, and retail trade. Services also has one of the lowest percentages of job destruction

attributable to deaths (13 percent measured quarterly and 47 percent measured on a triennial

basis), whereas the highest percentage of job destruction attributable to deaths is in the

manufacturing industry (27 percent measured quarterly and 59 percent measured on a triennial

basis).

 Interestingly, services has the highest net employment growth rate of any industry other than

construction, and manufacturing has the lowest net employment growth rate of any industry other

 

21 We also see in table 5 that the job creation and job destruction rates in construction are larger than in

most of the other industries. This was also found by Anderson and Meyer (1995) and Foote (1997).

While the birth and death rates indicate that construction is a volatile industry, the quarterly job creation

and job destruction rates are also affected by the large seasonality of employment in the construction

industry. In the first and fourth quarters when construction employment declines, the quarterly job

creation rate is roughly 16.6 percent and the quarterly job destruction rate is roughly 27.3 percent. In the

second and third quarter when construction employment expands, the quarterly job creation rate is

roughly 30.1 percent and the quarterly job destruction rate is roughly 14.7 percent. Many of the other
21

than mining. This leads us to ask whether there might be a negative correlation between the net

employment growth rate and the percent of job destruction attributable to deaths. Using the eight

major industries as our observations, the simple correlation between net employment growth and

the percent of job destruction attributable to deaths is –.76 (p=.03) on a quarterly basis, and is

-.58 (p=.13) on a triennial basis. When we weight each industry by its share of employment, the

correlation is –.84 (p=.01) measured quarterly and is -.70 (p=.05) measured on a triennial basis.

These correlations are presented in table 6. Interestingly, the correlation between net employment

growth and the percent of job creation attributable to births is much weaker than the correlation

between net employment growth and the percent of job destruction attributable to deaths. This

suggests that the severity of job destruction that is incorporated in establishment deaths might be a

distinguishing factor of how growing industries differ from declining industries. While this

hypothesis is purely speculative, further work at a finer industry level and taking advantage of the

time-series variation within industries warrants further work.

V. Conclusions and Discussion

 The motivation for this paper has been twofold. First, I introduce a new longitudinal dataset

that is based upon establishment level unemployment insurance microdata. This dataset will be

used by the Bureau of Labor Statistics to generate high quality, high frequency, timely and

historically consistent information regarding job creation, job destruction, and the life cycle of

establishments. This dataset has several advantages compared to other data used in the literature.

Most importantly, it is a quarterly census of essentially all establishments, both large and small, in

all sectors of the economy. Having the universe of establishments is crucial to analyzing job flows;

Boeri (1996) illustrates how the conclusions from this literature depend upon the industries and the

sample selection of large versus small businesses used in the analysis.

 Second, I tackle the conceptual question of how to define establishment births and deaths. This

turns out to be an exercise in how to properly use cross-sectional administrative data for

longitudinal research purposes. I have found that definitions matter, as illustrated by the analysis

of hazard functions using two alternative definitions of births and deaths. The difference between

the monotonically declining hazard and the inverted-U shaped hazard helps us interpret the

informational assumptions inherent in competing theories of business birth, their growth, and their

survival. Specifically, the data are consistent with a model where businesses respond to negative

 

industries exhibit seasonal variation in their quarterly employment levels, but not nearly as large (in
22

shocks by cutting employment to zero while continuing to acquire information about costs and

output demand, and then completely shut down several quarters later after confirming their initial

realization of non-profitability.

 Much of the analysis in this paper has concentrated on examining how establishment births and

deaths influence job creation, job destruction, and net employment growth. The innovation of the

research reported here has been to examine the job flows measured over various time horizons. I

have found that at a quarterly frequency, births and deaths account for less than one-fifth of job

creation and job destruction, and over a one year period, more than one-third of all job creation and

job destruction is through establishment births and deaths. At a triennial frequency, births and

deaths account for half of all jobs created and destroyed. The driving force behind this increasing

importance of births and deaths in the long run is not so much the gradual growth or decline of

establishments that are born or die, but rather a rate of establishment births and deaths that rises

from 3 percent quarterly to 25 percent triennially. The magnitude of these establishment birth and

death rates, and the job flows resulting from these births and deaths, reinforces the conventional

wisdom that simple models of a representative infinitely lived business with positive employment

can not account for observed employment dynamics.

 Perhaps the main theme running through this paper has been that of labor market churning. We

know from previous work that aggregate changes in employment are characterized by large

amounts of underlying volatility. For example, at the level of the individual, the total number of

persons who currently have a different job or employment status than they had twelve months

earlier equals 36.8 percent of employment (Davis and Haltiwanger 1995). At the level of the

establishment, 20 percent of manufacturing jobs have either been destroyed or created over a one

year interval. The empirical work in this paper expands our understanding of the sources of

heterogeneity in employment stability by documenting that births and deaths do matter when

studying job flows.

 The role of establishment births and deaths as a source of labor market churning has

implications for our understanding of both labor and industrial economics. For example, the

finding that half of all jobs destroyed in a three year period are due to the death of establishments

highlights the permanence of this job loss. The literature on displaced workers, which implicitly

assumes that wages grow with tenure, suggests large costs to workers impacted by the death of an

establishment. Furthermore, the finding that 40 percent of new businesses die within three years of

 

percentage terms) as the seasonal variation in quarterly construction employment.
23

their birth illustrates the transitory nature of many of these establishments and the jobs they create.

In light of the prediction from the specific human capital model that both workers and firms lose

when a match dissolves, the highly transitory nature of many (but not all) of the employment

opportunities offered by establishment births is suggestive of substantial costs and inefficiencies in

the labor market. Such a conclusion is also reached by matching models which recognize that

search is costly to both the worker and the firm.

 To conclude this paper, we should distinguish between what we have and have not attempted to

do in this paper. The empirical work in this paper has been primarily descriptive as a means of

introducing and highlighting the new establishment level UI dataset. Although the work in this

paper is very similar to the large literature on analyzing the life cycle of firms, especially the

survival and growth of establishment births, I have not pretended to replicate the work in this

literature by authors such as Baldwin and Gorecki (1991), Boeri and Cramer (1992), Dunne,

Roberts, and Samuelson (1989b), Evans (1987a, 1987b), and Hall (1987). This study has also not

attempted any analysis of job flows at various stages of the business cycle. The West Virginia

economy had declining employment levels between 1990 and 1991, followed by employment levels

that rose by an annual average rate of 2.7 percent between 1992 and 1994. In light of the finding

that job destruction may or may not be an indicator of the business cycle, an exploration of job

flows over the business cycle, especially the job flows associated with births and deaths, would be

an interesting exercise with these data. In combination with the detailed geographical detail that is

contained in the microdata, we could also attempt to study the incidence of births and deaths in

relation to the business cycle holding constant characteristics of the local labor market such as

average wages and industrial concentration. This is merely a short list of research topics that can

be addressed with the new UI establishment based longitudinal microdata.
24

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Table 1a: Comparison of U.S. and West Virginia

 Number of Establishments and Number of Employees, 1994

 Source: Employment and Wages

 Average Establishments Annual Average Employment

 U.S.

 West

 Virginia U.S.

 West

 Virginia

Mining 0.47% 2.67% 0.65% 5.44%

Construction 10.29% 12.79% 5.32% 6.69%

Manufacturing 6.24% 4.68% 19.82% 15.97%

Transportation & Public Utilities 4.29% 5.99% 6.21% 7.08%

Wholesale Trade 9.66% 8.85% 6.66% 5.83%

Retail Trade 22.19% 24.83% 22.18% 24.18%

Finance, Insurance, & Real Estate 9.11% 7.78% 7.26% 4.87%

Services 37.75% 32.40% 31.91% 29.94%

Total N=6,371,103 N=41,315 N=92,410,522 N=512,616

Table 1b: Comparison of U.S. and West Virginia

 Growth Rates, Number of Establishments and Number of Employees, 1992-1994

 Source: Employment and Wages

 Average Establishments Annual Average Employment

 U.S.

 West

 Virginia U.S.

 West

 Virginia

Mining -5.62% -11.13% -5.24% -10.80%

Construction 3.60% 9.81% 10.45% 23.87%

Manufacturing 3.08% 2.66% 1.37% -0.35%

Transportation & Public Utilities 7.42% 6.08% 5.37% 4.86%

Wholesale Trade 2.75% -4.79% 1.58% -1.18%

Retail Trade 2.55% -0.72% 5.64% 6.99%

Finance, Insurance, & Real Estate 6.76% 2.42% 3.80% 3.30%

Services 5.81% 3.73% 8.28% 10.23%

Total 4.46% 2.04% 5.31% 5.65%
Table 2a: The Incidence of Zero Employment at Birth

 Single Establishment First Births, Unadjusted Data

 West Virginia Longitudinal ES-202 Microdata, 1990:4-1994:2

Number of Quarters After Birth

Until Positive Employment Frequency Percent

Conditional

 Percent 1

Conditional

 Percent 2

0 (Positive Employment at Birth) 11,625 77.3% 86.3%

1 1,433 9.5% 10.6% 77.9%

2 220 1.5% 1.6% 12.0%

3 84 0.6% 0.6% 4.6%

4 46 0.3% 0.3% 2.5%

5 19 0.1% 0.1% 1.0%

6 17 0.1% 0.1% 0.9%

7 11 0.1% 0.1% 0.6%

8 7 0.1% 0.1% 0.4%

9 2 0.0% 0.0% 0.1%

10 0 0.0% 0.0% 0.0%

11 0 0.0% 0.0% 0.0%

12 0 0.0% 0.0% 0.0%

13 0 0.0% 0.0% 0.0%

Never any Positive Employment 1,577 10.5%

 15,041

Table 2b: The Incidence of Zero Employment at Death

 Single Establishment First Births, Unadjusted Data

 West Virginia Longitudinal ES-202 Microdata, 1990:4-1994:2

Number of Quarters with Zero

Employment Preceding Death Frequency Percent

Conditional

 Percent 1

Conditional

 Percent 2

0 (Positive Employment at Death) 885 24.0% 33.2%

1 852 23.1% 32.0% 47.9%

2 423 11.5% 15.9% 23.8%

3 181 4.9% 6.8% 10.2%

4 108 2.9% 4.1% 6.1%

5 48 1.3% 1.8% 2.7%

6 37 1.0% 1.4% 2.1%

7 19 0.5% 0.7% 1.1%

8 64 1.7% 2.4% 3.6%

9 43 1.2% 1.6% 2.4%

10 3 0.1% 0.1% 0.2%

11 1 0.0% 0.0% 0.1%

12 0 0.0% 0.0% 0.0%

Never any Positive Employment 1,026 27.8%

 3,690

1

 “Conditional Percent” is calculated over the set of establishments who ever have positive employment.

2

 “Conditional Percent” is calculated over the set of establishments who ever have positive employment and
 who have zero employment at birth (table 2a) or death (table 2b).
Figure 1a: Quarters Until Death Empirical Hazard

 Single Establishment First Births

 West Virginia Longitudinal ES-202 Microdata, 1990:4-1994:2

0

0.01

0.02

0.03

0.04

0.05

0.06

0.07

0.08

0.09

0.1

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 1 2 1 3

Appearance and Disappearance of the Establishment

First and Last Positive Employment

Hazard (t) = Prob(death t quarters after birth | death at or later than t quarters after birth)s

Figure 1b: Quarters Until Death Empirical Survivor Function

 Single Establishment First Births

 West Virginia Longitudinal ES-202 Microdata, 1990:4-1994:2

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 1 2 1 3

Appearance and Disappearance of the Establishment

First and Last Positive Employment

Survivor Function (t) = Prob(death t quarters or later after birth)
Figure 2: Quarters Until Death Empirical Hazard

 Single Establishment First Births

 West Virginia Longitudinal ES-202 Microdata, 1990:4-1994:2

0

0.01

0.02

0.03

0.04

0.05

0.06

0.07

0.08

0.09

0.1

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 1 2 1 3

1) Appearance and Disappearance (15041 Births, 3690 Deaths)

2) Positive Employment Sometime (13724 Births, 2664 Deaths)

2a) Birth is First Positive Employment (13588 Births, 2676 Deaths)

2b) Death is Last Positive Employment (13967 Births, 3254 Deaths)

3) Birth is First and Death is Last Positive Employment (13854 Births, 3293 Deaths)

4) 4 Quarters of Consecutive Zero Employment = Death (14444 Births, 4457 Deaths)

Hazard (t) = Prob(death t quarters after birth | death at or later than t quarters after birth)
 Figure 3: Quarters Until Death Empirical Hazard, by Employment at Birth

 Single Establishment First Births (First and Last Positive Employment)

 West Virginia Longitudinal ES-202 Microdata, 1990:4-1994:2

Employment=1 (N=5316, 36.8%) 

0

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.1

0.12

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

Employment=2 (N=2748, 19.0%) 

0

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.1

0.12

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

Employment=3 (N=1620, 11.2%) 

0

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.1

0.12

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

Employment=4 (N=1061, 7.3%) 

0

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.1

0.12

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

Employment=5 (N=722, 5.0%) 

0

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.1

0.12

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

Employment=6-10 (N=1620, 11.2%) 

0

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.1

0.12

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

Employment=11-20 (N=785, 5.4%) 

0

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.1

0.12

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

Employment=21+ (N=572, 4.0%) 

0

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.1

0.12

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

Hazard (t) = Prob(death t quarters after birth | death at or later than t quarters after birth)
Table 3: Job Creation, Job Destruction, and Net Employment Growth

 West Virginia Longitudinal ES-202 Microdata, 1990:4-1994:2

Job

Creation

Rate

Birth

Rate

Size of

Average

Birth

Expansion

Rate

Size of

Average

Expansion

Job

Creation

Attributable

to Births

Quarterly 8.37% 3.53% 6.08 24.91% 3.74 18.73%

Annual 15.82% 12.07% 6.54 28.51% 4.78 36.67%

Biennial 24.22% 20.67% 7.02 29.35% 6.20 44.39%

Triennial 31.32% 27.34% 7.70 28.81% 7.42 49.59%

Job

Destruction

Rate

Death

Rate

Size of

Average

Death

Contraction

Rate

Size of

Average

Contraction

Job

Destruction

Attributable

to Deaths

Quarterly 7.99% 3.17% 6.18 24.14% 3.74 17.84%

Annual 14.42% 10.56% 7.04 26.36% 4.74 37.29%

Biennial 21.03% 17.78% 7.82 26.09% 5.94 47.29%

Triennial 26.08% 23.97% 8.23 25.26% 6.82 53.39%

Net Employment

Growth Rate

Net Employment

Growth Rate of

Births and Deaths

Net Employment

Growth Rate of

Expansions and

Contractions

Net Employment

Growth

Attributable to

Births & Deaths

Quarterly 0.38% 0.14% 0.24% 37.23%

Annual 1.40% 0.42% 0.98% 30.36%

Biennial 3.19% 0.81% 2.38% 25.40%

Triennial 5.24% 1.61% 3.63% 30.72%
Table 4: Decomposition of Job Creation Attributable to Births

 Job Destruction Attributable to Deaths

 West Virginia Longitudinal ES-202 Microdata, 1990:4-1994:2

Percent Attributable to Differences in:

Job Creation Attributable

to Births Difference

Birth

Rate

Size of

Average

Birth

Expansion

Rate

Size of

Average

Expansion

Quarterly=18.73%,

 Annual=36.67% 17.95% 109.21% 11.68% -6.52% -14.37%

Quarterly=18.73%,

 Biennial=44.39% 25.64% 101.00% 18.83% -3.71% -16.12%

Quarterly=18.73%,

 Triennial=49.59% 30.89% 89.76% 27.46% -2.08% -15.14%

Annual=36.67%,

 Biennial=44.39% 7.69% 141.68% 24.99% -5.86% -60.81%

Annual=36.67%,

 Triennial=49.59% 12.94% 115.19% 36.58% -0.96% -50.82%

Biennial=44.39%,

 Triennial=49.62% 5.25% 116.89% 46.41% 6.66% -69.97%

See text for explanation.

Percent Attributable to Differences in:

Job Destruction

Attributable to Deaths Difference

Death

Rate

Size of

Average

Death

Contraction

Rate

Size of

Average

Contraction

Quarterly=17.84%,

 Annual=37.29% 19.47% 96.70% 19.23% -3.81% -12.11%

Quarterly=17.84%,

 Biennial=47.29% 29.46% 85.65% 27.66% -1.50% -11.82%

Quarterly=17.84%,

 Triennial=53.39% 35.55% 80.39% 30.73% -0.57% -10.56%

Annual=37.29%,

 Biennial=47.29% 9.99% 108.54% 29.61% 1.63% -39.78%

Annual=37.29%,

 Triennial=53.39% 16.08% 99.61% 30.10% 3.27% -32.99%

Biennial=47.29%,

 Triennial=53.39% 6.09% 113.33% 23.01% 10.36% -46.69%

See text for explanation.
Table 5: Job Creation and Job Destruction, by Industry

 West Virginia Longitudinal ES-202 Microdata, 1990:4-1994:2

Mining

6.2% of

Employment

Job

Creation

Rate

Birth

Rate

Size of

Average

Birth

Expansion

Rate

Size of

Average

Expansion

Job

Creation

Attributable

to Births

Job

Destruction

Rate

Death

Rate

Size of

Average

Death

Contraction

Rate

Size of

Average

Contraction

Job

Destruction

Attributable

to Deaths

Quarterly 8.84% 3.87% 13.20 27.95% 7.15 20.35% 10.80% 5.06% 13.25 27.89% 8.59 21.88%

Annual 16.68% 13.70% 15.14 28.80% 10.09 41.66% 25.59% 17.32% 15.16 30.73% 15.24 35.91%

Biennial 23.54% 23.56% 16.49 26.34% 13.10 52.97% 41.33% 29.57% 18.67 29.29% 21.47 46.76%

Triennial 26.96% 30.93% 16.89 23.95% 16.00 57.69% 46.25% 39.40% 19.66 26.01% 22.64 56.80%

Construction

5.9% of

Employment

Job

Creation

Rate

Birth

Rate

Size of

Average

Birth

Expansion

Rate

Size of

Average

Expansion

Job

Creation

Attributable

to Births

Job

Destruction

Rate

Death

Rate

Size of

Average

Death

Contraction

Rate

Size of

Average

Contraction

Job

Destruction

Attributable

to Deaths

Quarterly 23.36% 6.61% 4.56 30.88% 4.73 17.11% 21.01% 5.09% 4.39 29.70% 4.63 13.98%

Annual 37.24% 20.95% 4.94 30.38% 5.57 37.97% 29.59% 15.56% 4.89 27.67% 5.51 33.29%

Biennial 50.01% 33.03% 5.34 28.67% 6.38 49.13% 35.10% 23.51% 5.27 25.41% 6.32 43.58%

Triennial 60.12% 41.64% 5.91 27.11% 6.61 57.86% 38.12% 29.35% 5.76 22.74% 6.91 51.84%

Manufacturing

16.9% of

Employment

Job

Creation

Rate

Birth

Rate

Size of

Average

Birth

Expansion

Rate

Size of

Average

Expansion

Job

Creation

Attributable

to Births

Job

Destruction

Rate

Death

Rate

Size of

Average

Death

Contraction

Rate

Size of

Average

Contraction

Job

Destruction

Attributable

to Deaths

Quarterly 4.93% 3.01% 16.00 31.77% 5.86 20.55% 5.79% 2.84% 26.67 30.26% 6.62 27.45%

Annual 11.03% 10.56% 15.38 35.09% 10.35 30.90% 14.40% 9.88% 32.89 32.85% 11.19 46.92%

Biennial 17.90% 18.41% 16.27 35.32% 15.44 35.45% 22.71% 16.98% 35.79 31.27% 15.47 55.67%

Triennial 23.95% 24.56% 19.87 33.39% 18.77 43.79% 29.42% 22.78% 36.20 31.07% 18.58 58.83%

TPU

7.1% of

Employment

Job

Creation

Rate

Birth

Rate

Size of

Average

Birth

Expansion

Rate

Size of

Average

Expansion

Job

Creation

Attributable

to Births

Job

Destruction

Rate

Death

Rate

Size of

Average

Death

Contraction

Rate

Size of

Average

Contraction

Job

Destruction

Attributable

to Deaths

Quarterly 6.35% 4.04% 5.81 24.72% 3.34 22.13% 6.04% 3.44% 5.32 23.81% 3.49 18.05%

Annual 13.54% 14.29% 6.41 29.01% 4.53 41.05% 11.99% 11.08% 5.81 27.19% 5.16 31.43%

Biennial 20.86% 24.89% 6.81 28.87% 5.87 50.03% 17.71% 18.53% 6.48 27.41% 7.00 38.49%

Triennial 27.93% 33.16% 7.64 27.23% 7.26 56.16% 22.73% 25.31% 7.26 26.81% 8.45 44.80%
Table 5 (continued)

Wholesale

6.1% of

Employment

Job

Creation

Rate

Birth

Rate

Size of

Average

Birth

Expansion

Rate

Size of

Average

Expansion

Job

Creation

Attributable

to Births

Job

Destruction

Rate

Death

Rate

Size of

Average

Death

Contraction

Rate

Size of

Average

Contraction

Job

Destruction

Attributable

to Deaths

Quarterly 6.36% 2.77% 3.59 19.52% 2.36 17.74% 6.29% 3.00% 3.52 19.18% 2.33 19.11%

Annual 12.97% 9.84% 3.62 25.10% 3.15 31.04% 12.96% 10.42% 3.98 24.52% 2.96 36.40%

Biennial 19.32% 17.22% 3.81 26.93% 4.00 37.83% 19.46% 18.28% 4.42 25.73% 3.56 46.84%

Triennial 24.60% 23.40% 4.14 27.26% 4.63 43.39% 24.17% 24.84% 4.59 25.41% 3.98 53.01%

Retail Trade

24.1% of

Employment

Job

Creation

Rate

Birth

Rate

Size of

Average

Birth

Expansion

Rate

Size of

Average

Expansion

Job

Creation

Attributable

to Births

Job

Destruction

Rate

Death

Rate

Size of

Average

Death

Contraction

Rate

Size of

Average

Contraction

Job

Destruction

Attributable

to Deaths

Quarterly 8.71% 3.06% 7.90 26.80% 3.08 22.70% 8.48% 3.04% 5.97 27.58% 3.10 17.51%

Annual 16.30% 11.02% 8.31 29.62% 3.62 46.08% 14.38% 10.59% 6.66 29.09% 3.62 40.08%

Biennial 24.95% 19.44% 8.53 29.96% 4.61 54.56% 21.11% 18.29% 7.23 28.43% 4.51 50.78%

Triennial 33.06% 25.74% 9.16 29.54% 5.84 57.76% 27.57% 25.18% 7.48 27.05% 5.72 54.87%

FIRE

5.0% of

Employment

Job

Creation

Rate

Birth

Rate

Size of

Average

Birth

Expansion

Rate

Size of

Average

Expansion

Job

Creation

Attributable

to Births

Job

Destruction

Rate

Death

Rate

Size of

Average

Death

Contraction

Rate

Size of

Average

Contraction

Job

Destruction

Attributable

to Deaths

Quarterly 6.59% 2.40% 4.21 17.23% 2.57 18.63% 6.39% 2.34% 5.22 16.87% 2.40 23.18%

Annual 14.09% 8.65% 4.24 21.99% 3.60 31.62% 13.59% 7.96% 5.08 20.62% 3.50 35.89%

Biennial 22.23% 15.09% 4.43 24.74% 4.64 36.83% 20.19% 13.76% 5.16 22.13% 4.36 42.34%

Triennial 29.70% 20.71% 5.12 26.21% 5.14 44.01% 25.71% 18.72% 5.76 22.59% 4.69 50.45%

Services

28.5% of

Employment

Job

Creation

Rate

Birth

Rate

Size of

Average

Birth

Expansion

Rate

Size of

Average

Expansion

Job

Creation

Attributable

to Births

Job

Destruction

Rate

Death

Rate

Size of

Average

Death

Contraction

Rate

Size of

Average

Contraction

Job

Destruction

Attributable

to Deaths

Quarterly 8.17% 3.13% 4.68 23.65% 3.80 14.01% 6.77% 2.59% 4.34 21.50% 3.53 12.91%

Annual 15.21% 10.93% 5.19 28.61% 4.72 29.58% 10.03% 8.69% 4.60 24.11% 3.72 30.86%

Biennial 24.42% 19.06% 5.83 30.46% 6.27 36.78% 13.92% 14.80% 4.99 24.17% 4.45 40.72%

Triennial 31.84% 25.42% 6.26 29.95% 7.77 40.60% 16.83% 20.08% 5.24 24.05% 4.85 47.40%
Table 6: Across Industry Correlations, Computed from Statistics in Table 5

 West Virginia Longitudinal ES-202 Microdata, 1990:4-1994:2

Quarterly

Job

Creation

(J.C.)

J.C.

Attributable

to Births

Job

Destruction

(J.D.)

J.D.

Attributable

to Deaths Annual

Job

Creation

(J.C.)

J.C.

Attributable

to Births

Job

Destruction

(J.D.)

J.D.

Attributable

to Deaths

Net Employment

 Growth

 .5598

 (.1491)

 -.6295 *

 (.0944)

 .3335

 (.4195)

 -.8384 **

 (.0093)

Net Employment

 Growth

 .4660

 (.2446)

 -.1328

 (.7539)

 -.2837

 (.4959)

 -.6282 *

 (.0954)

Job Creation

 (J.C.)

 -.1599

 (.7052)

 .9679 **

 (.0001)

 -.4581

 (.2537)

Job Creation

 (J.C.)

 .2472

 (.5550)

 .7162 **

 (.0457)

 -.3154

 (.4467)

J.C. Attributable

 to Births

 .0090

 (.9831)

 .5685

 (.1415)

J.C. Attributable

 to Births

 .3727

 (.3633)

 .1980

 (.6384)

Job Destruction

 (J.D.)

 -.2668

 (.5230)

Job Destruction

 (J.D.)

 .1536

 (.7165)

Biennial

Job

Creation

(J.C.)

J.C.

Attributable

to Births

Job

Destruction

(J.D.)

J.D.

Attributable

to Deaths Triennial

Job

Creation

(J.C.)

J.C.

Attributable

to Births

Job

Destruction

(J.D.)

J.D.

Attributable

to Deaths

Net Employment

 Growth

 .5254

 (.1812)

 -.1275

 (.7635)

 -.5804

 (.1315)

 -.5629

 (.1463)

Net Employment

 Growth

 .6458 *

 (.0837)

 -.2048

 (.6266)

 -.6293 *

 (.0945)

 -.7045 *

 (.0511)

Job Creation

 (J.C.)

 .3328

 (.4205)

 .3880

 (.3422)

 -.2850

 (.4939)

Job Creation

 (J.C.)

 .3676

 (.3703)

 .1870

 (.6575)

 -.2212

 (.5986)

J.C. Attributable

 to Births

 .4566

 (.2554)

 .1401

 (.7408)

J.C. Attributable

 to Births

 .6377 *

 (.0889)

 .2826

 (.4976)

Job Destruction

 (J.D.)

 .3370

 (.4144)

Job Destruction

 (J.D.)

 .6813 *

 (.0628)

Correlations are computed from statistics in Table 5.

Each major industry contributes one observation (observations are weighted by employment in the industry); Sample Size=8.

p-values in parentheses; ** implies statistically different from zero at the five percent level, * at the ten percent level..