Weather 

Operations 

Air Force Doctrine Document 2-9.1 

3 May 2006 

This document complements related discussion found in Joint Publication 

3-59, Joint Doctrine, Tactics, Techniques and Procedures for Meteorological and Oceanographic Operations.
BY ORDER OF THE AIR FORCE DOCTRINE DOCUMENT 2-9.1 

SECRETARY OF THE AIR FORCE 3 MAY 2006 

 

OPR: HQ AFDC/DR (Lt Col Michael S. Fields) 

Certified by: AFDC/DR (Col Eric J. Schnitzer) 

Pages: 42 

Distribution: F 

Approved by: JAMES F. JACKSON, Brigadier General, USAF 

 Commander 
FOREWORD 

 The Department of Defense operates in a challenging natural environment 

stretching from the surface of the earth into the far reaches of space. While the 

environment has beleaguered military operations for centuries, it has also provided 

strategic, operational, and tactical advantage to the forewarned. Sun Tzu once 

proclaimed, “Know the ground, know the weather; your victory will be total.” Indeed, 

history has shown that commanders who have exploited knowledge of the environment 

and its effects have been rewarded with victory, while those who have ignored the 

environment have often met with failure. 

 Air Force weather operations are now more sophisticated, accurate, and precise 

than ever, presenting air, space, and surface forces with an even greater opportunity to 

exploit knowledge of the natural environment as a force multiplier. This can only be 

accomplished, however, when commanders integrate environmental information and its 

effects on operations into all aspects of planning, execution, assessment and 

sustainment. It is an essential element on the road to victory. 

 

 

JAMES F. JACKSON 

Brigadier General, USAF 

Commander 
iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS 

INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................................iv

FOUNDATIONAL DOCTRINE STATEMENTS................................................................vi

CHAPTER ONE—Overview Of Weather Operations ...................................................... 1

General........................................................................................................................ 1

Principles of Weather Operations ................................................................................ 4

Accuracy .................................................................................................................. 4

Relevancy ................................................................................................................ 4

Timeliness................................................................................................................ 5

Consistency.............................................................................................................. 6

CHAPTER TWO—The Weather Operations Process ..................................................... 8

General........................................................................................................................ 8

Collect.......................................................................................................................... 9

Analyze...................................................................................................................... 11

Predict ....................................................................................................................... 11

Tailor.......................................................................................................................... 12

Integrate .................................................................................................................... 12

CHAPTER THREE—Organizing, Commanding, And Employing Weather Forces........ 14

General...................................................................................................................... 14

Organizing And Commanding Weather Forces ......................................................... 15

Employing Weather Forces ....................................................................................... 16

Air Force Component Level ................................................................................... 18

Air and Space Expeditionary Task Force ............................................................... 19 

Air and Space Operations Center Weather Operations ......................................... 20

Joint and Multinational Operations ......................................................................... 21

Special Operations Forces..................................................................................... 22 

Conventional US Army Operations ........................................................................ 23

Fixed US Air Force Weather Operations ................................................................... 24

CHAPTER FOUR— Training And Education ................................................................ 27 

Non-weather Personnel ......................................................................................... 27

Weather Personnel ................................................................................................ 28

Suggested Readings ..................................................................................................... 30

Glossary........................................................................................................................ 32
iv

INTRODUCTION 

PURPOSE 

 This Air Force doctrine document (AFDD) establishes doctrinal guidance for 

organizing weather forces and employing weather operations capabilities in support of 

air, space, and surface forces at the operational level of conflict. It is a critical element 

of Air Force operational-level doctrine and as such should form the basis from which Air 

Force and Army commanders integrate weather capabilities into their operations. Air 

Force tactics, techniques, and procedures should complement this doctrine at the 

tactical level. 

APPLICATION

This AFDD applies to the Total Force: all Air Force military and civilian personnel, 

including regular, Air Force Reserve Command, and Air National Guard units and 

members. 

 Unless specifically stated otherwise, Air Force doctrine applies to the full range of 

military operations, as appropriate, from stability, security, transition, and reconstruction 

operations to major combat operations. 

 The doctrine in this document is authoritative, but not directive. Therefore, 

commanders need to consider the contents of this AFDD and the particular situation 

when accomplishing their missions. Airmen should read it, discuss it, and practice it. 

SCOPE 

 This doctrine for Air Force weather operations provides a firm foundation for 

integrating weather capabilities into the planning, execution, assessment, and 

sustainment of Air Force and Army air, space, and surface operations. A common 

doctrine helps ensure weather organizations at all echelons provide commanders and 

forces with timely, accurate, and relevant environmental information and that 

commanders and their forces exploit this information smartly. Since weather operations 

complement intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) operations in the 

development of battlespace awareness, this document has been made a subordinate 

publication of AFDD 2-9, Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance Operations. 
v

COMAFFOR / JFACC / CFACC 

A note on terminology 

One of the cornerstones of Air Force doctrine is that “the US Air Force 

prefers - and in fact, plans and trains - to employ through a commander, Air 

Force forces (COMAFFOR), who is also dual-hatted as a joint force air and 

space component commander (JFACC).” (AFDD 1) 

To simplify the use of nomenclature, Air Force doctrine documents will 

assume the COMAFFOR is dual-hatted as the JFACC unless specifically stated 

otherwise. The term “COMAFFOR” refers to the Air Force Service component 

commander while the term ”JFACC” refers to the joint component-level 

operational commander. 

While both joint and Air Force doctrine state that one individual will 

normally be dual-hatted as COMAFFOR and JFACC, the two responsibilities are 

different, and should be executed through different staffs. 

Normally, the COMAFFOR function executes operational control/ 

administrative control of assigned and attached Air Force forces through a 

Service A-staff while the JFACC function executes tactical control of joint air and 

space component forces through an air and space operations center (AOC).

When multinational operations are involved, the JFACC becomes a 

combined force air and space component commander (CFACC). Likewise, the 

air and space operations center, though commonly referred to as an AOC, in 

joint or combined operations is correctly known as a JAOC or CAOC. 
vi

FOUNDATIONAL DOCTRINE STATEMENTS 

 Foundational doctrine statements are the basic principles and beliefs upon which 

Air Force doctrine documents (AFDDs) are built. Other information in the AFDD 

expands on or supports these statements. 

 

 Air Force weather operations are critical to a commander’s battlespace awareness 

across the range of military operations. (Page 1) 

 Air Force weather operations predict when the natural environment will affect friendly 

and enemy air, space, and surface operations—a key ingredient of predictive 

battlespace awareness—possibly offering friendly force commanders an exploitable 

asymmetrical advantage. (Page 1) 

 Air Force and joint weather operations should provide combat forces at all echelons 

with consistent information, resulting in “one operation, one forecast.” (Page 6) 

 Air Force weather forces execute five core processes—collection, analysis, 

prediction, tailoring, and integration—to characterize the environment and exploit 

environmental information. (Page 8) 

 Prior to military operations, Air Force and joint/coalition weather forces should 

develop a strategy to maximize the effectiveness of environmental data collection 

efforts in theater to satisfy strategic, operational, and tactical requirements. (Page 

10) 

 Air Force weather operations with global, regional, and local scopes provide direct 

support to strategic, operational, and tactical decision-makers through a combination 

of reachback and distributed operations (e.g., on-site). (Page 16) 

 Reachback and distributed operations provide the ability to reliably access 

environmental information and resources while minimizing the theater footprint. 

(Page 19) 

 Air Force weather capabilities should be integrated with those of other Services and 

nations to provide coherent and structured weather operations to joint and 

multinational forces. (Page 21) 

 Air Force weather operations employ Airmen educated in the sciences of 

meteorology and space physics, trained to couple this science with the art of military 

operations, and capable of operating in permissive, uncertain, and hostile 

environments. (Page 27) 
1

CHAPTER ONE 

 OVERVIEW OF WEATHER OPERATIONS 

GENERAL 

 Air Force weather operations are an operational function of air and space power 

(Air Force Doctrine Document [AFDD] 1, Air Force Basic Doctrine). They provide direct 

support to conventional and special operations forces (SOF) of the Air Force and, by an 

inter-Service support agreement based on the National Security Act of 1947, the US 

Army. When designated, Air Force weather forces also provide direct support to joint, 

coalition, and other agency operations. 

 Air Force weather operations are critical to a commander’s battlespace 

awareness across the range of military operations. Few military endeavors, 

including those of our adversaries, are immune to the effects of the environment. 

Neglected or ignored, the weather and its effects can doom even the most carefully 

planned and executed campaigns and operations. Properly applied, Air Force weather 

operations can provide our air, space, and surface forces with a significant, even 

decisive, advantage over our enemies. 

 Air Force weather operations predict when the natural environment will 

affect friendly and enemy air, space, and surface operations—a key ingredient of 

predictive battlespace awareness (PBA)—possibly offering friendly force 

commanders an exploitable asymmetrical advantage. Air Force weather operators 

are globally vigilant, persistently monitoring, assessing, and reporting the state of the 

natural environment. To be relevant to decision-makers, Air Force weather forces 

should know the past, current and future state of the atmosphere and space 

environment and then translate that into impacts on operations. In essence, weather 

operations provide two distinct yet related basic functions: 1) describing past, current, 

and future environmental conditions, and 2) enabling the exploitation of environmental 

information at key decision points. 

Battlefield commanders need past, current and future weather information, a 

truth inherent in war since ancient times. As such, the second basic function of weather 

operations most directly impacts military operations. In this aspect, weather forces 

In military operations, weather is the first step in planning 

and the final determining factor in the execution of any 

mission. 

 —General Carl “Tooey” Spaatz 

First Chief of Staff of the Air Force (CSAF) 
2

enable the exploitation of actionable environmental information at key decision points 

during all phases of military operations. Furthermore, weather information is ideal if 

linked with intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) information to enable 

battlespace awareness from the strategic to tactical levels of warfare. Commanders at 

all levels should use environmental information to optimize Air Force and Army 

capabilities as force providers to the joint force and functional component commanders. 

 

 Weather effects should be integral to the planning, execution, and sustainment of 

any operation. Commanders should consider and account for weather and space 

environmental effects on operations during development and design of deliberate and 

contingency plans, consistent with the joint force commander’s (JFC’s) strategy and 

objectives. Operationally relevant climatology based on clearly defined environmental 

effects criteria greatly assists in: 

 Preparing strategies and courses of action (COAs). 

 Identifying opportunities to exploit environmental conditions for military advantage. 

 Assessing feasibility of certain types of air, space, and surface missions. 

 Anticipating effectiveness of platforms/weapons systems and munitions. 

 Determining optimal seasons, times, and locations for conducting operations. 

 Evaluating logistical, survivability (health/safety), and quality-of-life requirements. 

The Range of Air Force Weather Operations

Traditionally, the term ‘weather’ has referred to the state of the atmosphere 

(with respect to temperature, precipitation, sky condition, visibility, etc.). From the 

earliest days of aviation, a great deal of effort has been focused on developing “all 

weather” aircraft and weapons. However, as technological advances have allowed 

us to overcome the constraints of basic sensible weather effects, this same 

technology has fallen prey to the effects of other, often invisible environmental 

impacts. For example, precision navigation using GPS technology can still be 

adversely affected by solar flares and electromagnetic disturbances undetectable by 

human senses. Weather, or the broader term “environmental information,” 

increasingly encompasses a full spectrum of visible, sensible, and electromagnetic 

natural phenomena and conditions affecting operations in and through the terrestrial 

and space environments. 

—Various Sources 
3

Commanders and planners should consider 

the implications of executing air, space, and 

surface operations during particular seasons to 

maximize effectiveness and ensure success. In 

Operation ENDURING FREEDOM, commanders 

preferred to conduct operations in mountainous 

Afghanistan before the onset of the typically harsh 

winter, an environment more advantageous to 

the home-based adversary. 

 Conversely, during Operation IRAQI FREEDOM, they opted to initiate 

combat in Iraq prior to the 100-plus degree summer that would have drastically 

reduced the capabilities of US forces wearing mission-oriented protective posture 

gear. Commanders should integrate environmental factors early in the planning 

process to ensure all effects on operations are considered. 

—Various Sources 

 Air Force weather operations are also a key element of non-combat military 

activities such as stability operations and relief efforts. Virtually all forces that conduct 

or support these types of operations are influenced by the weather. Weather and space 

environmental effects on operations should therefore be considered in every facet of 

planning, deployment, employment, and redeployment. 

 To optimize employment of friendly force capabilities, Air Force weather forces 

support research, development, acquisition, and testing of Air Force and Army weapons 

and weapons systems, identifying and documenting environmental sensitivities. 

System designers can then attempt to mitigate these sensitivities through appropriate 

system modifications; Air Force weather forces can forecast impacts based on these 

sensitivities, allowing commanders to mitigate the effects through modifications to the 

mission profile. To highlight opportunities to exploit asymmetric environmental effects 

on enemy capabilities, weather forces work with the intelligence community to identify 

and document the weather sensitivities of threat forces and systems. Weather and 

space environmental information should also be integrated into simulations, exercises, 

and war games in order to capture the environmental effects on operations, training, 

and acquisition. Properly portraying weather in modeling and simulation (M&S) 

activities addresses the Secretary of Defense's mandate to “train as we fight." The 

requirement for the Air Force’s emerging distributed mission operations program to 

provide immersive mission rehearsal environments is better satisfied with realistically 

modeled weather. Furthermore, including weather in M&S ensures weather effects on 

operations are accounted for in planning scenarios, results of virtual weapons tests are 

more representative, and strategy and tactics learned in war games are more realistic. 

 
4

PRINCIPLES OF WEATHER OPERATIONS 

 

 Air Force weather operations are fruitless if environmental information is not 

properly exploited by friendly force commanders. Exploitation can only occur when 

planners and decision-makers understand weather and space effects on operations and 

use this knowledge in a timely manner. For instance, aircrews can exploit cloud cover 

and precipitation to conceal friendly movement from enemy aircraft or ground 

observation. Properly integrated into the decision-making process, air and space 

weather forecasts can be used to enhance friendly offensive and defensive operations 

and, at the same time, identify those occasions when the enemy cannot exploit the 

natural environment for sanctuary. 

Air Force weather forces are driven by four timeless principles: accuracy, 

relevancy, timeliness, and consistency. 

Accuracy 

 

Air Force weather operations must provide accurate environmental information to 

decision-makers, a continual challenge for scientists and weather operators. Limited 

measurement coverage and shortfalls in forecast technology reduce accuracy, but 

weather forces strive to overcome these impediments. 

 

 The warfighter actively contributes to accuracy by relaying the latest missionarea environmental conditions to weather forces. Observations from manual and 

automated pilot reports (PIREPS) and observations from the first wave of aircraft 

launched prior to the main force package, for example, allow weather personnel to 

improve the accuracy of weather effects on follow-on missions. Post-strike in-flight 

reports should include target area and other relevant weather information. 

Relevancy 

 

 Environmental information must be relevant to air, space, and surface 

operations. Air Force weather forces should ensure commanders receive information 

on weather parameters that have the potential to degrade or enhance any mission. 

Commanders, in turn, should assess the expected performance of their assets in light of 

weather and space impacts to determine the proper combination of delivery systems, 

munitions, platforms, and other resources to attain desired effects. 

 Air Force weather operations are most relevant when integrated into the 

operational planning process. Environmental information should directly apply to 

planning, conducting, assessing, and sustaining operations. Air Force weather 

operations focus on the joint force and component commanders’ operational 

requirements, known or planned courses of action, specific planned and executable 

missions, and commander’s objectives. Joint operations can be more successful when 

commanders are given an opportunity to plan for operationally relevant weather 

conditions. 
5

North Vietnamese forces conducted an 

unexpected offensive into South Vietnam in early 

1972 despite Seventh Air Force bombing 

operations in the invasion zone. Meticulously 

exploiting low cloud ceilings and visibility during 

the transition between monsoons, the North 

Vietnamese were able to move an entire division 

of 160 tanks across the DMZ without much 

detection or resistance from the air. 

Only one out of the first twelve days of the invasion provided sufficient 

weather for American aircraft to effectively attack division targets. Seventh Air 

Force leadership soon learned the value of integrating operationally relevant 

weather information into their decision cycles. Forecast weather conditions 

across the theater became a vital consideration in planning Linebacker I 

missions. Target selections for the next 24 hours were made based on weather 

forecasts. Weapons systems were configured and munitions chosen based on 

performance in specific types of weather. Frag orders for the next 3-4 days 

were built using long-range weather forecasts. 

—John F. Fuller,

Thor’s Legions: Weather Support to the 

U.S. Air Force and Army, 1937-1987

Linebacker I, 1972 

 Air Force weather forces should cultivate a two-way flow of information in which 

operators provide relevant mission data that can be used to enhance the relevancy of 

environmental information to operations. Weather personnel should understand the 

strengths, limitations, and time factors associated with specific air and space systems 

and land missions and fine-tune environmental data accordingly based on the specific 

situation. For instance, weather that could negatively affect air refueling operations, 

such as excessive turbulence and cloud cover in the 18,000 to 24,000-foot flight level 

range, will not be relevant to Army helicopters operating below 500 feet. Without a 

detailed understanding of operations and mission profiles, environmental information 

runs the risk of being irrelevant. 

 

Timeliness 

 Environmental information should be provided in time to influence the decisionmaking process and to plan and execute operations. Environmental information should 

be the latest available, and it should be quickly disseminated and integrated at the 

appropriate time into operations. Weather personnel should also be vigilant and 

responsive, informing commanders of potential environmental effects on proposed air, 
6

space, and surface operations in a timely manner. Air Force weather operations, 

therefore, rely heavily on assured communications to realize the principle of timeliness. 

 

 A significant aspect of timeliness is how environmental information is 

disseminated to the warfighter. Machine-to-machine dissemination improves the 

chances that critical weather information and its impact on operations will reach 

decision-makers in time to capitalize on time-sensitive opportunities and other 

operations. For instance, real-time information to the cockpit (such as images of targets 

as affected by the weather and accounting for sensor wavelengths) enhances 

situational awareness for newly received time-sensitive targets. Similarly, space 

situational awareness (SSA) requires timely integration of accurate and relevant 

environmental data into military space operations. Being able to distinguish between 

enemy jammers and natural sources of interference on our space systems enables the 

commander of joint space operations (JSO) to identify threat trends to better protect our 

space center of gravity. 

Consistency 

Air Force and joint weather operations should provide combat forces at all 

echelons with consistent information regarding the state of the natural 

environment, resulting in “one operation, one forecast.” Weather forces produce, 

THE 3RD SCOUTING FORCE, USAAF, 8TH AIR FORCE 

Originally constituted as the 3rd Air Division Scouting Force in August 1944, 

this force consisted of eight volunteer pilots with command or lead pilot experience 

and at least one tour of operations on B-17 or B-24 bombers. All pilots received 

weather observation training and a 20-hour conversion course on the P-51 

Mustang before posting to Station 159 at Wormingford, England.

Their primary task in September 1944 was to fly P-51 fighters to scout target 

visibility ahead of the 3rd Air Division bombers. With their designated task of 

reporting meteorological conditions, it was a logical step to expand this capability 

by using the services of a professional meteorologist. In January 1945, 1st Lt. 

Ivan D. Carlton (meteorologist) was tasked with reorganizing and expanding the 

operational role of the unit. In addition to the P-51 target scouts, eight B-17s arrived 

on the scene, stripped of most of their defensive armament for increased cruising 

speed. The B-17s were crewed by a pilot, co-pilot, navigator, engineer, radio 

operator, tail gunner and a meteorologist. The B-17s scouted the weather 

throughout the European Theatre of Operations.

The unit inherited the table of organization from the 862nd Bomb Squadron 

on 1 February 1945 and became the 3rd Scouting and Weather Force. By the 

war’s end they had flown 132 missions, completing 1,300 individual sorties. 

 —Various Sources 
7

access, and incorporate the same basic set of data in developing assessments of 

weather effects to operations, ensuring similar results. Natural environmental 

information provided to commanders across the levels of conflict should therefore be 

spatially and temporally consistent across the theater, operation, and/or battlespace, as 

appropriate. 

 
8

CHAPTER TWO 

 THE WEATHER OPERATIONS PROCESS 

GENERAL 

Air Force weather operations execute five core processes—collection, 

analysis, prediction, tailoring, and integration—to characterize the environment 

and exploit environmental information. These processes should be routinely 

evaluated to ensure environmental information is timely, accurate, relevant, and 

Figure 2.1 Conceptual Model of Air Force Weather Operations

Environmental 

Information 

Exploitation

Environmental 

Information 

Exploitation

Global

Regional

Local

Environmental 

Characterization

Environmental 

Characterization

Tailor

Scope Decisions

Accurate

Relevant

Collect Predict

Integrate

Tailor

Tailor

Tailor

Tailor

Timely

Consistent

Mitigate & Exploit

Strategic

Operational

Tactical

Analyze

Non-DoD

Sources

DoD

Sources

Net-Centric 

Data 

Repository

Environmental 

Information 

Exploitation

Environmental 

Information 

Exploitation

Global

Regional

Local

Environmental 

Characterization

Environmental 

Characterization

Tailor

Scope Decisions

Accurate

Relevant

Collect Predict

Integrate

Tailor

Tailor

Tailor

Tailor

Timely

Consistent

Mitigate & Exploit

Strategic

Operational

Tactical

Analyze

Non-DoD

Sources

DoD

Sources

Net-Centric 

Data 

Repository

Weather, of course, remains the final factor in the decision where each day or 

night’s activities shall be employed, and that puts a very great responsibility in the 

hands of the officers who actually handle these great, enormous masses of aircraft.

 

 —Winston S. Churchill 
9

The Weather 

Operations 

Process: 

Collect 

Analyze 

Predict 

Tailor 

Integrate

consistent. Effective evaluation quantifies the quality of the weather data and 

environmental impact information provided, which is critical to decision-makers’ 

confidence. It also detects deficiencies and helps focus corrective actions where 

needed most. 

 

COLLECT 

The weather operations process depends on the collection 

of high-quality data that sets the foundation for enhancing 

operational missions. Collection is the essential component of 

worldwide and regional databases from which weather products 

are derived. 

Air Force weather forces collect terrestrial and space 

environmental information from across the globe. These data 

include weather and space observations, meteorological satellite 

(METSAT) data, and weather radar imagery from worldwide 

military, civilian, and commercial sources. Since each collection capability has 

limitations, Air Force weather operations seek an optimal blend of measurements from 

ground-, sea-, air-, and space-based sensors. Although the Department of Defense 

(DOD) owns some of these sensors, such as those flown on the Defense 

Meteorological Satellite Program constellation, most international data are gathered via 

data-sharing agreements between the US and other countries. While foreign data 

greatly improve the coverage of measurements across the globe, the DOD retains an 

assured global weather collection capability. A continual collection of weather and 

space data contributes to accuracy of products.

 Insufficient sources or availability of environmental data may exist in regions 

where air, space, and surface operations occur. Air Force weather forces therefore 

maintain a capability to deploy in-theater, in close coordination with joint and coalition 

weather forces, to establish an environmental data collection network in support of the 

 The Critical View from Space 

Commercial and military METSAT imagery, 

from both geostationary and polar orbiting platforms, 

is the centerpiece of environmental data collection. 

Defense Meteorological Satellite Program platforms, 

for instance, provide secure high-resolution imagery 

that is used to identify mission-limiting weather. 

Effective downlink and data-sharing solutions 

improve weather operations by ensuring imagery 

and data are delivered with minimal delay to widely 

dispersed users. 

 —Various Sources 
10

full range of air, space, and surface operations. In addition, non-traditional weather data 

sources—such as ISR platforms and sensors and unmanned aerial vehicles—

significantly enhance the quality and quantity of theater environmental data collection, 

especially in data-sparse areas. Commanders should emphasize these non-traditional 

weather collection efforts throughout an operation and ensure Air Force weather forces 

receive these data in a timely manner. Such data may provide the only, or possibly the 

critical, piece of environmental information pivotal to mission success. Complete and 

accurate weather observations are a vital aid in the development of a meteorological 

history and trends for new operational areas. 

Prior to military operations, Air Force and joint/coalition weather forces 

should develop a strategy to maximize the effectiveness of environmental data 

collection efforts in theater to satisfy strategic, operational, and tactical 

requirements. This is critically important to achieving weather information dominance 

in the battlespace. The collection strategy should identify all sources of weather and 

space observations for integration into theater and global databases. It should also 

leverage weather sensor packages deployed on manned and unmanned platforms, 

weather sensors deployed across the battlespace, and robust communication 

architectures (to reduce delay of environmental information transmission). The 

environmental collection plan to exploit non-traditional sensors/platforms should be 

integrated into the overall ISR theater sensing strategy to enhance battlespace 

awareness. 

PIREPS hit the mark in Cambodia, 1974-75 

US Air Force C-130 aircrews conducting aerial 

resupply missions over Cambodia in late 1973 found 

that just 70-85 percent of vital ammunition and food 

bundles landed in their intended drop zones. Those 

that went awry often ended up in communist Khmer 

Rouge hands. Since the aircraft were dropping from 

over 13,000 feet to minimize enemy air defense threats, 

upper-level winds in and near the drop zones 

were often the culprit. Weather operations personnel had difficulty producing accurate 

forecasts of winds between drop altitude and the surface due to a shortage of upper air 

weather observations from within Cambodia. A renewed call for PIREPS from C-130 

aircrews reaped lasting dividends. Forecasters collected valuable information on wind 

speed and direction over the region from the crews and rapidly incorporated this (otherwise 

unobtainable) data into weather briefings for upcoming missions. By late 1974 the 

improved wind forecasts enabled nearly 99 per cent of all bundles dropped in country to 

land in their targeted areas, where needy Cambodians defending their homeland were able 

to recover them. In particular, 196 additional bundles worth over $1.1million arrived at 

Kompong Selia between August 1974 and January 1975. 

 —John F. Fuller, Weather and War
11

Analysis determines strength, 

movement, and timing of 

environmental features and their 

mission-impacting elements

ANALYZE 

 

Analysis entails building a coherent, 

integrated depiction of the past and current state 

of the natural environment over a specified 

region. An effective analysis of collected weather 

data helps ensure the accuracy of forecast 

information provided to commanders. It enables 

identification of environmental features and 

conditions—important to air, space, and surface 

operations—requiring subsequent study and 

monitoring. Further analysis determines strength, 

movement, and timing of these features and their 

mission-impacting elements (such as 

temperature, cloud cover, and ionospheric 

scintillation) based on critical weather threshold 

sensitivities. These analyzed data are processed 

and assimilated into environmental databases to 

provide battlespace awareness and inputs for 

decision-making and predictions. 

PREDICT 

 Air Force weather operations use collected and analyzed data to predict future 

environmental conditions and their impacts on operations. Forecasts are only as sound 

as their initial inputs. Accurate forecasts therefore depend upon robust collection and 

meticulous analysis of environmental data. 

 Forecasting is a synergistic process between man and machine. Highly trained, 

experienced weather personnel refine computer model output to produce detailed 

Meteorologists regarded the airplane as 

yet another capability for observing the weather. 

Special aircraft were initially sent out to record 

visibility information from above. By the late 

1920s instruments for measuring pressure, 

aircraft temperature, and humidity were attached 

to the external surfaces of aircraft such as the 

DeHavilland DH-4. 

The development of specialized meteorological equipment in the mid1930s brought an end to the days of the aircraft as an intentional means for 

obtaining upper-air weather observations during peacetime.

—John F. Fuller

Thor’s Legions: Weather Support to the 

U.S. Air Force and Army, 1937-1987
12

Environmental information should be 

tailored to unique air, space, and surface 

operational requirements. 

forecasts, which include temporal and spatial assessments of terrestrial and space 

weather features and associated environmental elements. For this process to 

continually improve, it is important that feedback from actual conditions be received to 

improve the forecasting models. 

TAILOR 

 Environmental information must be tailored to the unique air, space, and surface 

operational requirements of the joint force. Weather and space products should be 

custom-built based on known, specific environmental sensitivities and effects to 

operations and systems. For example, decision aids, weather effects matrices (i.e., 

stoplight charts), and target-area depictions match forecasts against mission, system, 

and platform thresholds, enabling commanders to determine optimal force employment 

packages in those environmental conditions. Increasingly, decision-makers will interact 

with the net-centric weather data repository through machine-to-machine interfaces to 

extract mission-specific information tailored to their needs. Effective tailoring therefore 

requires that weather forces thoroughly understand how the weather and space 

environment impacts operations. 

 

INTEGRATE 

Effective integration enables 

decision-makers to maintain 

battlespace awareness. So armed, 

they can anticipate the 

environment’s effects on planned 

operations, then mitigate or exploit 

those conditions which facilitate 

achievement of joint force and 

functional component commanders’ 

objectives. Commanders should 

ensure environmental effects on 

operations are fully integrated into 

decision-making processes and 

command and control systems. 

 Timeliness is critical to 

effective integration; therefore, 

weather operations rely on robust, 

assured common user communications. Moreover, environmental information is most 

effective when it is incorporated into command and control systems and processes. A 

net-centric repository of environmental information and operational impacts facilitates 

such integration. The net-centric repository also allows individual decision-makers to 

fuse relevant weather impacts with other operational information into an operational 

picture tailored to their mission. For example, a pilot would only access weather 
13

Weather and space 

effects should be 

integrated into all facets 

of operations. 

impacts related to their sortie, whereas a joint force commander would develop 

depictions of weather impacts to theater-wide operations. 

 

 

 The integration process requires continuous management. Without effective 

management, communication paths can become saturated. Collection/communication 

systems should be designed to deliver environmental information in near-real time. 

 A familiar example of weather integration for daily operations is the use of 

weather forecasting and observations in maintaining flightline safety. Working closely 

with operations and base safety offices, weather support is vital in preventing lightning 

strikes to personnel, a serious hazard on the large open areas of the flightline. 

Prevention of weather-related injury to personnel 

or damage to equipment is a vital role of 

integrated weather operations. For the 

warfighter, weather integration would use 

weather forecasts and observations in targeting. 

Accurate prediction of winds, clouds and 

temperature contrasts at or near a target site 

could influence the selection of approach vectors, 

time-over-target, and other factors. Integrating 

weather impacts with intelligence information 

such as air defense threats allows selection of 

the safest approaches that maximize lock-on 

ranges while ensuring the best probability of 

target kill. 

Operation IRAQI FREEDOM 

25-27 March 2003 

During the American-led march to Baghdad, Air 

Force weather forces correctly predicted the onset of 

widespread sandstorms in south-central Iraq 4-5 days in 

advance. Commanders seized the moment and quickly 

integrated this environmental information into their 

 operational planning. Scheduled missions were modified or cancelled, and new 

ones were added. Air Force platforms and weapons systems vulnerable to the 

expected conditions were switched out in favor of those that could overcome the 

degrading effects of persistent strong winds that produced blowing sand and nearzero visibilities up to several thousand feet over the area of responsibility. B-52H 

bombers equipped with satellite-guided joint direct-attack munitions were able to 

continue attack operations against unsuspecting Republican Guard forces. Once 

the storms subsided, temporarily disabled US ground troops were able to continue 

their offensive amidst a weakened Iraqi resistance. 

 — Various Sources 
14

CHAPTER THREE 

ORGANIZING, COMMANDING, AND EMPLOYING WEATHER FORCES 

 

GENERAL 

The organization of Air Force weather forces is driven by its two distinctly 

different yet related basic functions: describing past, current and future weather 

conditions (environmental characterization) and enabling the employment of weather 

and weather effects information at key decision points (environmental information 

exploitation). See Figure 3.1 for a comparison of the functions. Due to the extensive 

processing systems, data storage capacity, and communications capabilities required, 

environmental characterization is generally accomplished centrally from fixed locations 

employing a high degree of automation. The primary focus is on collection, analysis, 

and prediction at the global, regional, and local scales. Through reachback and/or 

distributed operations, Air Force weather forces performing this function provide 

accurate and consistent actionable weather information to those weather forces 

exploiting environmental information. 

In Europe bad weather was the worst enemy of the air [operations]. Some 

soldier once said, "The weather is always neutral." Nothing could be more 

untrue. Bad weather is obviously the enemy of the side that seeks to launch 

projects requiring good weather, or of the side possessing great assets, such 

as strong air forces, which depend upon good weather for effective 

operations. 

 —General Dwight D. Eisenhower 

• Centralized 

• Produce actionable weather information 

for weather forces

• Primarily collect, analyze, and predict

• Focused on accuracy and consistency

• Fixed, large infrastructure

• Reachback provider

• Highly automated 

• Geographic focus

• Decentralized

• Produce actionable weather information 

for decision-makers

• Primarily tailor and integrate

• Focused on relevance and timeliness

• Mobile, deployable

• Reachback user

• Personal and interactive

• Decision-maker focus

Environmental Characterization Environmental Characterization Environmental Information Exploitation Environmental Information Exploitation

COMPARISON OF FEATURES COMPARISON OF FEATURES

• Centralized 

• Produce actionable weather information 

for weather forces

• Primarily collect, analyze, and predict

• Focused on accuracy and consistency

• Fixed, large infrastructure

• Reachback provider

• Highly automated 

• Geographic focus

• Decentralized

• Produce actionable weather information 

for decision-makers

• Primarily tailor and integrate

• Focused on relevance and timeliness

• Mobile, deployable

• Reachback user

• Personal and interactive

• Decision-maker focus

Environmental Characterization Environmental Characterization Environmental Information Exploitation Environmental Information Exploitation

COMPARISON OF FEATURES COMPARISON OF FEATURES

Figure 3.1. Comparison of the two functions of Air Force weather operations. 
15

In contrast, decentralized weather forces normally support forces conducting 

operations at the strategic, operational, and tactical levels. Unlike the fixed support 

associated with environmental characterization, weather forces that exploit 

environmental information are generally mobile and poised to deploy with supported 

units. Using the central databases and derived products, these deployable weather 

forces focus on tailoring and integrating actionable weather information into decision 

processes at the highest levels of warfare they currently support, whether strategic, 

operational, or tactical. They also ensure weather information is both timely and 

relevant, enabling battlespace awareness for supported decision-makers. 

ORGANIZING AND COMMANDING WEATHER FORCES 

 

Air Force weather forces organized in units (i.e., squadrons or higher) are 

normally most effective in producing accurate and consistent past, current, and future 

representations of the natural environment. Those Air Force weather forces embedded 

in supported operational units (e.g., a weather flight in an operations support squadron) 

are most effective at integrating tailored environmental information into operational 

decision-making processes. 

Air Force weather forces are normally task-organized to forward deploy with joint 

force, functional component, and Service component headquarters; air and space 

operations centers (AOC); Air Force and Army conventional combat units; and Air 

Force, Army, and joint special operations forces. Air Force weather forces may also 

*or equivalent 

CENTRALIZED 

Squadron*and 

Above 

DECENTRALIZED 

Below Squadron* 

Weather Detachments, 

Flights, Operating 

Locations, and 

Specialty Teams 

Environmental 

Characterization 

Environmental 

Information Exploitation 

Organized 

for effective 

integration 

Organized for 

optimal 

efficiency and 

consistency 

Weather Field Operating Agencies, Groups, 

Squadrons, Centers, and Divisions 

Figure 3.2. Organizing Weather Forces. 
16

contribute to coalition weather operations and may be called upon to assist civil 

authorities with environmental information. See Figure 3.2 for how weather forces are 

organized. 

Air Force weather operations continuously seek improved efficiency. These 

efficiencies are typically gained through: 

 Consolidation of common functions (e.g., airfield forecasting, flight weather services, 

space launch support, climate/environmental modeling, training). 

 Consolidation of resources (e.g., force/equipment pools, infrastructure). 

 Technology (e.g., improved machine-to-machine [M2M] capabilities, common 

equipment/systems, data fusion). 

EMPLOYING WEATHER FORCES 

 

Air Force weather operations with global, regional, and local scopes 

provide direct support to strategic, operational, and tactical decision-makers

through a combination of reachback and distributed operations (e.g., on-site). Air 

Force weather personnel characterize the environment on global, regional, and local 

scales, developing information primarily for exploitation by weather forces embedded in 

operational units. Weather forces directly support decision-makers’ requests for 

assistance at the strategic, operational, and tactical levels to include the national 

intelligence community; joint force, functional component, and Air Force and Army 

commanders and staffs; AOCs; expeditionary Air Force units; Army combat arms, 

combat support, and combat service support; and Air Force and Army special 

operations units. 

 

 Global weather centers collect, compile, process, and format weather and space 

observations from commercial, civil, and military sources into a four-dimensional 

representation of the natural environment. They generate computerized real-time 

analyses, forecasts, long-range outlooks, and climatological assessments of this global 

natural environment for use at the regional and local levels. Regional weather centers 

then prepare higher resolution computerized analyses and forecasts, where weather 

personnel with appropriate regional expertise adjust these outputs to mitigate 

weaknesses in computer models and algorithms. At the local level, weather personnel 

collect detailed measurements of the natural environment, which are input into the 

global database and are the crucial foundation required to develop environmental 

products suitable for all levels of warfare. Air Force weather operations also process 

and analyze historical weather data at each level to determine normal seasonal weather 

patterns, averages, probabilities and effects of specific weather elements on operations. 

Due to the enormity and complexity of environmental characterization as a whole, Air 

Force weather operations leverage other DOD and federal capabilities and avoid 

redundancy whenever practical. 
17

At the base/post level, Air Force weather operations support Air Force air and space 

units; joint organizations; Army combat, combat support, and combat service support 

units; and Air Force and Army special operations forces. To do so, weather forces are 

normally organized as a weather flight in an operations support squadron for Air Force 

operations or a weather squadron (including subordinate detachments, flights, and 

operating locations) for Army operations. These weather forces generate specific 

mission-execution analyses and forecasts for air, space, and surface missions by 

integrating and tailoring global, regional, and local-scale environmental information with: 

 Current observations (e.g., surface, solar, and ionospheric conditions, radar, 

lightning strike data). 

 Knowledge of friendly and enemy missions, weapons systems, tactics, and 

environmental sensitivities. 

 Familiarity with local terrain effects on environmental conditions. 

 Base/post weather forces contribute to environmental characterization by 

collecting and disseminating near-real-time weather observations and other local-scale 

weather data to higher-echelon weather centers. They also provide post-mission 

feedback on environmental information, such as altitudes and extents of cloud decks, to 

global and regional weather centers. Air Force weather personnel should be integrated 

into the warfighting headquarters, AOCs, flying wing/group/squadron mission planning 

cells and the Army warfighting headquarters military decision-making process (MDMP) 

to enable warfighters to fully exploit weather and space environmental information. 

Commanders should also include weather forces in operational exercises (such as RED 

FLAG, AIR WARRIOR, COPE THUNDER, and Army Battle Command Training 

Program exercises) to provide combat-related training and experience with aircrews and 

land operators in simulated, yet realistic, wartime environments. 

Since a single weather Airman can support several decision-makers from one 

location, centralized weather units integrate weather impacts into decision processes 

where feasible and adequate. This ensures limited human resources are available to 

embed with operational decision-makers where most critical. For conventional forces, 

direct support is normally provided down to the Air Force squadron level or the Army 

brigade combat team/support brigade level. The difference in Air Force and Army 

operations is mainly driven by the smaller spatial scale of Army brigade-level operations 

compared to a typical Air Force flying squadron, which may encounter radically different 

environmental conditions while transiting from the surface through the upper 

atmosphere over a large area. In contrast, direct support to Army and Air Force special 

operations forces is normally provided as needed, even to a small, forward-deployed 

team. Air Force weather operations accomplish direct support through reachback

(obtaining required information from organizations that are not forward deployed) and 

through distributed operations (conducting weather operations from independent or 

interdependent nodes through teaming). 
18

Air Force Component Level 

The commander, Air Force forces (COMAFFOR)—the air and space 

expeditionary task force (AETF) commander—exercises operational control (OPCON) 

of all conventional Air Force weather forces deployed to a theater. Air Force 

conventional weather personnel generally forward deploy with the combined/joint force 

air and space component commander (C/JFACC) (if established), AETF subordinate 

units, and the AOC. See Figure 3.3 for a description of how Air Force weather forces 

support Air Force and Army forces. 

Figure 3.3. Typical command relations for Air Force weather forces 

supporting conventional Air Force and Army operations. 

 The combatant commander’s supporting Air Force component, usually a major 

command (MAJCOM) or numbered Air Force (NAF) (the NAF may be superseded by 

the creation of the warfighting headquarters [WFHQ]), identifies the weather capability 

needed to support the AETF. In addition, the WFHQ should have weather personnel on 

the WFHQ A-3 staff and in the AOC. If unable to source the necessary forces, the 

component forwards requirements for sourcing via the Air and Space Expeditionary 

JFC 

COMAFFOR/JFACC 

Air and Space 

Operations 

Center 

Commander 

(Embedded 

 weather forces) 

Expeditionary 

Air Force 

Squadron 

Commanders 

Intermediate 

Commanders 

(if required) 

Expeditionary 

Operations 

Group 

Commander

Expeditionary 

Operations Support 

Squadron 

Commander 

Weather 

Flight 

Intermediate 

Commanders 

(if required) 

Expeditionary Air 

Support 

Operations 

Group 

Commander

Expeditionary 

Weather 

Squadron 

Commander Army 

Unit 

Commanders 

if delegated 

OPCON TACON ADCON SUPPORT 

Weather Flights, 

Detachments, 

and/or 

Operating Locations 
19

Force Center (AEFC). Whenever possible, Air Force weather forces embedded in 

operational units should deploy with those units. 

The senior Air Force weather representative to the COMAFFOR is designated 

the COMAFFOR staff weather officer (SWO) and is normally assigned to the A-3 staff. 

The COMAFFOR SWO monitors Air Force weather operations in theater, including 

those supporting land forces and SOF, and advises the COMAFFOR A-staff on all 

matters related to organizing, equipping, training, sustaining, and employing Air Force 

weather forces. The COMAFFOR SWO should coordinate support responsibilities with 

the joint meteorological and oceanographic (METOC) officer (JMO), if appointed, or the 

combatant commander's senior METOC officer (SMO) in accordance with Joint 

Publication (JP) 3-59, Joint Doctrine, Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures for 

Meteorological and Oceanographic Operations. The COMAFFOR SWO should also 

coordinate closely with counterparts on other joint force and component staffs, including 

the chief of the weather specialty team supporting the JFACC’s staff. Similar to the 

COMAFFOR SWO, staff weather officers of other components have functional support 

responsibilities and should coordinate their respective component requirements directly 

with the JMO or SMO. 

Air and Space Expeditionary Task Force (AETF) 

 AETFs are task organized to provide required capabilities to meet combatant 

commander requirements. Based on expected air, space, and surface operational 

requirements identified by the COMAFFOR in support of JFC objectives, the Air Force 

component coordinates the task organization of the AETF and arranges for the transfer 

of forces through the AEFC. Weather personnel should deploy with their supported air 

expeditionary wing (AEW), group (AEG), squadron (AES), or Army combat unit as part 

of an AETF. In addition, weather forces from other units, as well as Guard or Reserve 

personnel, may be tasked to augment AETF weather organizations as part of AEF 

rotations. Required weather functionality ranges from as few as one Airman or item of 

tactical meteorological equipment (TACMET) for observations at an unimproved airfield 

to as much as a contingent of 6-10 Airmen and an accompanying suite of TACMET to 

conduct 24-hour observing and mission-execution forecasting operations. 

 Air Force weather forces supporting AEW operations are normally organized, 

commanded, and employed as a weather flight in an expeditionary operations support 

squadron (EOSS). As a cross-cutting organization, an EOSS provides flexibility for the 

deployed weather flight to furnish environmental information to each squadron in the 

AEW, as well as to AEW support units and the wing operations center. In some 

instances, it may be best for weather personnel to be directly attached to an AES in 

order to provide more tailored, specific environmental information in support of AES 

operations. 

Air Force weather forces deployed in an AETF are not self-sufficient. They 

normally obtain environmental information through reachback and distributed operations 

from higher-echelon weather organizations, primarily through a supporting operational 
20

weather squadron (OWS). Reachback and distributed operations provide the 

ability to reliably access environmental information and resources while 

minimizing the theater footprint. Deployed weather forces therefore require assured 

and/or common-user communications to perform their missions. 

Air and Space Operations Center (AOC) Weather Operations 

 The Falconer AOC provides the COMAFFOR with the tools and services 

required for planning and executing operations with air and space forces. Air Force 

weather forces are normally organized as a weather specialty team (WST), a 

horizontally cross-cutting capability integrated into the five AOC divisions (Figure 3.4). 

The WST also supports other specialty teams such as the battlefield coordination 

detachment and the joint personnel recovery center. The WST size and internal 

structure should be inherently flexible and responsive to the changing requirements of 

the operation. The senior weather officer assigned to the AOC leads the WST and 

ensures team members are used effectively throughout the AOC. WST personnel 

should be fully qualified at the AOC field training unit before being assigned to an AOC. 

Figure 3.4. The WST is a horizontally cross-cutting capability supporting 

all AOC divisions. 

The WST normally reaches back to centralized weather centers (generally a 

supporting OWS) for a significant portion of environmental information needed to 

support AOC operations. The WST therefore requires immediate and sustained 

connectivity (both secure and nonsecure) to base networks for steady receipt of 

environmental data. Air Force Operational Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures 

(AFOTTP) 2-3.2, Air and Space Operations Center, contains detailed guidance on 

employing Air Force weather forces in the AOC. 

AOC 

Commander 

JFACC/COMAFFOR 

Weather 

Specialty 

Team 

Strategy 

Division 

Combat 

Plans 

Division 

Combat 

Operations 

Division 

Air 

Mobility 

Division

ISR 

Division 
21

The Space Weather Branch supports Air Force 

space force employment. 

 Functional AOCs also 

employ weather operations as a 

force multiplier. In the space 

AOC, weather forces are normally 

embedded within the combat 

operations division’s space 

situational awareness (SSA) team. 

SSA weather forces should 

leverage Air Force Weather 

Agency (AFWA) space weather 

branch capabilities to identify 

space weather impacts to 

terrestrial and space systems, 

anomalies, assessments and 

forecasts for all space AOC 

operations. AFOTTP 2-3.4, Space 

Air and Space Operations Center, 

contains a detailed description of Air Force weather operations in the space AOC.

Weather operations in the tanker airlift control center (TACC), another functional 

AOC, directly support the global air mobility mission of Air Mobility Command. TACC 

weather forces provide direct mission planning/ execution products and services for the 

TACC and strategic airlift and tanker crews operating worldwide. Through reachback, 

TACC weather forces also support deployed elements of contingency response groups 

as needed. AFOTTP 2-3.5, Global Mobility Air and Space Operations Center, contains 

a detailed description of Air Force weather operations in the TACC. 

Joint and Multinational Operations 

Air Force weather capabilities should be integrated with those of other 

Services and nations to provide coherent and structured weather operations to 

joint and multinational forces. To this end, Air Force weather personnel should be 

tasked to fill some joint weather positions on a JFC, JFACC, or joint force land 

component commander (JFLCC) staff or within a joint/combined air and space 

operations center (J/CAOC). For instance, an Air Force weather officer generally 

serves as either the SMO or the JMO. In particular, for air and space- or land-centric 

operations in which the Air Force or Army provides the preponderance of forces, an Air 

Force field grade weather officer should be appointed as the JMO. When a joint task 

force is formed, Air Force weather forces may also be tasked to form or augment a joint 

METOC forecast unit (JMFU). Alternatively, an existing Air Force METOC organization, 

such as an OWS, may be established as a JMFU. Roles, responsibilities, 

organizations, and principles of joint weather operations are further discussed in JP 3-

59, Joint Doctrine, Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures for Meteorological and 

Oceanographic Operations. 

 
22

Special Operations Forces (SOF) 

Air Force weather forces also provide direct environmental support to the unique 

worldwide missions of special operations forces. To do so, Air Force weather 

operations must field technically and tactically skilled, fully mission-qualified weather 

forces ready to deploy worldwide on short notice. In addition, SOF weather forces must 

be capable of infiltrating the joint operations area via sea, air, and land and of operating 

independently in permissive and uncertain environments and with other SOF teams in 

hostile areas. 

 Operation EAGLE CLAW: A Hard Lesson to Learn

Top-secret planning for what would be one of the most 

complicated and ambitious raids in American history, the Iranian 

hostage rescue attempt of 1980, lasted well over five months 

but it fell short of fully considering an incorrigible foe: the 

weather. 

Historical records pointed to winter as the optimal time for a mission of this type, 

as limited moonlight and suitable temperatures and densities represented favorable 

conditions for night RH-53D operations. Nevertheless, the mission was set for late April, 

introducing additional weather challenges such as suspended dust, which proved to be 

a factor in the subsequent mishap. This mission-impacting information was never 

briefed to JTF planners and decision-makers.... 

Recommendations to use a WC-130 weather reconnaissance aircraft as a scout 

in advance of the RH-53Ds were discounted based on assumed favorable weather 

conditions and for security reasons. Additionally, it was determined that pilot reports 

from accompanying C-130s, flying the same route, could provide advance notice of 

unfavorable weather as needed. However, the C-130s ended up arriving at the 

destination, Desert One, well ahead of the helicopters and were unable to relay up-tothe-minute weather data to the RH-53D crews. 

Weather operations personnel were excluded from planning and rehearsal 

exercises at the JTF training areas, eliminating their ability to work with the aircrews..... 

Furthermore, mission execution weather briefings, developed by weather operations 

personnel, were presented by J-2 intelligence officers who had little, if any, formal 

weather training or experience. Aircrew feedback was provided in the same indirect way. 

Pilots were thus unaware of the possibility of encountering suspended dust and were 

unprepared to handle it. Integration of weather information, a vital contributor to mission 

success, never occurred. 

—Paul B. Ryan 

The Iranian Rescue Mission: Why It Failed 

The lack of weather preparations in Operation EAGLE CLAW cost the United States 

military equipment, effectiveness, and, most importantly, lives. 
23

If a joint special operations task force (JSOTF) is established, the joint force 

special operations component commander (JFSOCC), in coordination with a designated 

JFSOCC SWO, determines the correct mix of SOF weather forces required to support 

JFC objectives. Normally, SOF perform best when weather forces are embedded in the 

deploying SOF team. The SOF team’s weather component is tailored appropriately for 

a given scenario. 

 SOF operate in the forward and deep battlespace, areas in which METOC data 

are often sparse or denied. Embedded SOF weather forces, therefore, offer a capability 

to obtain forward-area METOC observations in support of conventional and SOF 

missions. Furthermore, this vital information should be quickly disseminated to 

centralized weather organizations where it can be exploited to enhance the accuracy of 

global and regional analyses and forecasts. SOF weather forces leverage centrally 

produced environmental characterization information through a combination of 

reachback and distributed operations to generate tailored environmental impact 

information for specific SOF missions. SOF weather forces also train and liaise with 

indigenous persons. 

Conventional US Army Operations 

By inter-Service agreement initiated as a result of the National Security Act of 

1947, Air Force weather operations support Army air and ground combat arms, combat 

support, and combat service support units. Weather and weather impact information 

are integral to the MDMP, including intelligence preparation of the battlespace, and 

contribute to dominant battlespace awareness, enabling the Army to achieve 

information and decision superiority. Since the natural environment affects friendly as 

well as hostile forces, Air Force weather operations should fully understand the 

environmental sensitivities of friendly and enemy land force capabilities. 

To become more relevant to combatant commanders, the Army is transforming 

into a force of modular, self-contained, lethal force packages organized with capabilities 

to accomplish the full range of missions, i.e., from major combat to stability operations. 

To support such a force, Air Force weather operations must be flexible, responsive, and 

tailorable. 

 

Weather squadrons supporting Army operations should be habitually aligned with 

designated Army combat and combat support units. When appropriate, the squadron 

commander tailors a weather force to forward deploy in support of any combination of 

these designated units. To do so, Air Force weather operations must field technically 

and tactically skilled weather forces ready to deploy worldwide and be capable of 

operating with Army forces in permissive, uncertain, and hostile operating 

environments. To be consistent with JP 3-59, weather forces supporting operations 

should be integrated through the G-3 (operations) and support the G-2 (intelligence) 

and other decision-makers as required. The supporting weather squadron should 

provide appropriate weather representation on the commander, Army forces’ G-3 staff 

to assist the COMAFFOR SWO in organizing, training, equipping, sustaining, and 

employing Air Force weather forces supporting Army operations. 
24

 Forward-deployed Air Force weather forces supporting Army operations leverage 

environmental characterization information from centralized weather organizations via a 

combination of reachback and distributed operations to provide tailored environmental 

effects information essential to planning and executing land operations. To do so, 

weather forces supporting Army operations require robust, assured common-user 

communications. Air Force weather operations should be seamlessly integrated with 

Army command and control systems and processes at all echelons. Machine-tomachine interfaces enhance such integration. 

FIXED US AIR FORCE WEATHER OPERATIONS 

 Fixed, centralized weather units generally perform the environmental 

characterization function of Air Force weather operations, particularly at the global and 

regional scales. Deployed Air Force weather forces and personnel are best supported 

by these in-place capabilities primarily via reachback and distributed operations. Other 

non-deployable organizations directly support decision-makers conducting air, space, 

and surface missions at the tactical, operational, or strategic levels. In some cases, 

both functions of Air Force weather operations are conducted within a single agency. 

Key fixed Air Force weather organizations are described below. 

Air Force Weather Agency. The Air Force Weather Agency (AFWA), a field 

operating agency reporting to the Director of Weather, Headquarters USAF, includes 

the primary production center for Air Force weather operations. AFWA collects and 

processes worldwide atmospheric and space data, develops global-scale analyses and 

forecasts, runs prediction models, and produces and disseminates a variety of 

environmental information. In addition, AFWA possesses a just-in-time capability to 

Operation DESERT STORM featured an expanded use of 

weather, navigation, early warning, and surveillance satellites, 

compelling warfighters to consider the space environment’s 

impacts on their operations. DESERT STORM not only occurred 

during the height of the third largest solar maximum on record, 

but it was also conducted in an overall significantly hostile natural 

environment. During the 41-day war, 81 major solar flares 

occurred. 

 

These flares degraded performance of communication systems for minutes to 

hours and impacted other satellite systems as well. In addition to sporadic disturbances 

like solar flares, the daily variation in the ionosphere over equatorial regions created 

scintillation problems on Southwest Asian satellite and UHF communications during the 

evening hours. Commanders should be aware of space environmental effects on potential 

operations during planning and COA development. 

—Various Sources

DESERT STORM: Space Enters the Fray
25

Climatological data from AFCCC can 

greatly assist air and space power 

decision makers and planners. 

focus technical expertise and computer-intensive forecast models on particular theaters 

of interest to meet operational requirements. AFWA also submits requirements for onboard sensor tasking of Defense Meteorological Satellite Program satellites in support 

of specific DOD and national-level operations. 

AFWA monitors solar activity (such as sunspots, solar flares, or coronal mass 

ejections) and solar wind characteristics (such as energetic particles, shock waves, or 

magnetic fields) at numerous surveillance sites around the globe and from space. 

AFWA’s space weather branch, the sole DOD organization providing mission-tailored 

analyses and forecasts of system-impacting space weather, uses these data to 

generate worldwide warnings of operationally significant space environmental activity. 

AFWA’s intelligence community (IC) weather branch provides planning and 

execution space and terrestrial weather analyses, forecasts, climate assessments, and 

mission-tailored decision aids at the highest levels of security for multibillion dollar IC 

operations, including those of the National Reconnaissance Office (NRO), National 

Security Agency (NSA), Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), National GeospatialIntelligence Agency (NGA), and other IC agencies. 

 AFWA’s special operations support branch supports worldwide SOF operations, 

even down to the individual team level, through secure reachback. The branch also 

provides tailored meteorological information for end-to-end planning at US Special 

Operations Command (USSOCOM), Service component special operations commands, 

and theater special operations commands. 

 AFWA’s meteorological satellite (METSAT) applications branch produces rapid 

response, tailored METSAT imagery and evaluation for DOD contingency operations 

and generates automated METSAT imagery products for web-based distribution to 

DOD users. The branch is also the DOD focal point for global volcanic ash event 

monitoring, advisories, and trajectory forecasts. 

Air Force Combat Climatology 

Center (AFCCC). Climatological data, 

the typical weather conditions for a given 

location or region, provide valuable firstlook environmental information for 

decision making such as course of action 

selection (should the offensive begin 

before winter?) and logistics planning (are 

heaters or air conditioners needed? Snow 

removal equipment or bulldozers?). To 

meet this need, AFCCC processes and 

analyzes historical weather data to 

determine normal seasonal patterns, 

averages and probabilities for the entire 

world. AFCCC can also provide tailored 
26

operational climatologies for various mission profiles based on specific weather threshold 

sensitivities. 

 AFCCC plays a key role as the modeling and simulation (M&S) executive agent 

for the air and space natural environment, injecting weather into DOD, joint, and Service 

war games and simulations. AFCCC can also create modeled climatological 

information for data-sparse regions, offering an initial estimate of expected conditions in 

an area where actual historical information is unavailable. 

Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC). The JTWC, comprised of Air Force 

weather and Navy METOC personnel, provides tropical cyclone forecasts and warnings 

for DOD, Department of State, and other US government assets in the Pacific and 

Indian Oceans. 

 Operational Weather Squadrons (OWS). The OWS is the Air Force’s primary 

regionally focused weather unit. Whether in peace or at war, OWS provide multiplescale environmental information and serve as centers of regional weather expertise in 

support of a combatant commander’s air, space, and surface operations. OWS develop 

analyses, forecasts, and weather effects information for command and control activities 

as well as deployed weather forces. Products include but are not limited to theater-wide 

weather; drop zone/range/air refueling forecasts/flight managed mission support; finescale target forecasts; airfield forecasts; and watches, warnings, and advisories for fixed 

or deployed Air Force and Army locations within their assigned areas. An OWS is also 

a source of dedicated environmental information for command and control processes at 

AOCs. When warfighting units do not have assigned weather forces, the supporting 

OWS should fulfill this role as capabilities permit. 

 

 During joint operations, a combatant commander, through the SMO or JMO, may 

designate an OWS as the JMFU in accordance with JP 3-59. When established as the 

JMFU, an OWS is responsible for the joint operational area forecast (JOAF), the official 

planning forecast for all components of the joint force. In addition, as a JMFU the OWS 

monitors the effectiveness of the theater collection plan in meeting the needs of the 

overall operation. For extended operations, an OWS designated as the JMFU normally 

requires augmentation. 

 

 Staff Meteorologists (StaffMets). Advanced-degree research, acquisition, and 

test meteorologists support Air Force Materiel Command at various locations. These 

StaffMets perform or support basic research as well as the development, acquisition, 

and testing of Air Force weapons, weapons systems, and other capabilities by 

identifying, documenting, and resolving environmental sensitivity issues and weather 

information requirements. StaffMets interface with program managers to identify critical 

weapons system weather sensitivities/thresholds. A key source of such data for 

automated decision aids as well as weather forces exploiting environmental information, 

StaffMets are also employed within the intelligence and space communities to perform 

similar technical consultation services for weather-sensitive systems under development 

or conducting operations. 
27

CHAPTER FOUR 

TRAINING AND EDUCATION 

GENERAL 

 Successful air, space, and surface operations rely in part on the effective training 

and education of all Airmen and Soldiers on the potential impacts of the natural 

environment to friendly and enemy capabilities across the range of military operations. 

Decision-makers should further understand the capabilities and limitations of weather 

operations and be trained to exploit weather information at every decision point 

throughout the planning, execution, assessment, and sustainment of military operations. 

To meet this objective, Air Force weather personnel should fully understand the natural 

environment, apply that knowledge to ascertain potential environmental effects on 

military operations, and integrate that assessment into decision processes anywhere, 

anytime. Consequently, Air Force weather operations employ Airmen educated in 

the sciences of meteorology and space physics, trained to couple this science 

with the art of warfare, and capable of operating in permissive, uncertain, and 

hostile environments. 

Non-weather Personnel 

 All Airmen should understand that weather can adversely impact friendly and 

enemy operations, and that it may do so asymmetrically, possibly offering friendly forces 

an exploitable advantage. Accordingly, knowledge of weather conditions and the 

potential impacts on weapons systems, tactics, timelines, and other parameters is 

necessary for effective decision-making. Weather information, exploited at every 

decision point during the planning, execution, assessment, and sustainment of military 

operations at every level of war, is a key enabler of air and space power functions. 

 

 Non-weather personnel, particularly commanders, staffs, mission planners, 

logisticians, and other decision-makers should be aware of and, where appropriate, 

trained on how to not only identify the impacts of weather on air, space, and surface 

operations, but also how to use weather information to their strategic, operational, or 

tactical advantage. This training should be provided in a variety of Service and joint 

venues, to include commander’s preparatory courses, weapons school classes, AOC 

courses, exercises, wargames, seminars, and simulations. 

We can’t change the weather, but we 

can change our operations to conform to 

the weather.

—General Henry H. 

“Hap” Arnold 
28

 Every Airman should participate in challenging training fora, including exercises 

and war games, in which realistic environmental conditions impact the mission capability 

of friendly and enemy forces. Moreover, these fora should reward decision- makers for 

smartly exploiting weather information while penalizing those who neglect to consider 

weather impacts. To achieve these objectives, Air Force weather forces should 

maintain a robust environmental modeling and simulation capability that can be easily 

integrated into exercises, war games, and other appropriate venues. 

Weather Personnel 

 Formal education and training encompassing weather and space physics, 

operational art, and field skills are continuing processes throughout an individual’s 

career, progressing through the basic, intermediate, and advanced levels. Although all 

Air Force weather personnel possess a blend of these capabilities, the education and 

training emphasis on a given skill set is highly mission dependent. Nominal examples 

are depicted in Figure 4.1. 

Figure 4.1. Nominal required skill sets for personnel assigned to an AOC weather 

specialty team (AOC WST) or a special operations weather team (SOWT). The 

size of the circle is proportional to the emphasis on the identified skill. 

 Weather personnel should receive technical education and training through a 

blend of classroom, laboratory, and on-the-job training, built on the foundation of a 

formalized initial skills course and solidified via upgrade/duty qualification training. 

Additionally, commanders and functional managers should ensure weather personnel 

receive tailored continuation and advanced technical training necessary to perform 

specific individual duties at the unit level. 

 In addition to maintaining great depth in understanding scientific parameters and 

technical processes, Air Force weather personnel should also know how the 

environment and environmental information contribute to the success of military 

operations. Continuous education and training on the art of war, air and space power, 

joint force employment, and the exploitation of weather information for operational 

Science of 

Meteorology and 

Space Physics 

Art of War 

Field Skills

Science of 

Meteorology and 

Space Physics Art of War 

Field Skills

AOC WST SOWT 
29

purposes ensure Air Force weather forces understand how properly integrated weather 

information can act as a force multiplier for decision-makers. Developmental education, 

coupled with developmental and joint assignments, contribute to this broader knowledge 

of air, space, and surface operations. 

 All Air Force personnel should meet and maintain minimum Air Force personal 

readiness standards, such as weapons proficiency, in order to operate in bare-base 

locations anywhere in the world. In addition, Air Force weather personnel are often 

employed with SOF and conventional Army forces in uncertain and hostile 

environments well outside the airbase perimeter. These Battlefield Airmen should 

therefore be further trained individually and collectively to shoot, move, and 

communicate in the modern battlespace. Weather forces that deploy with special 

operations forces should also maintain a capability to infiltrate the area of operations via 

air, land, or sea. 

 In addition to classroom, laboratory, computer/web-based, and on-the-job 

training, Air Force weather forces should regularly participate in realistic Service and 

joint exercises, war games, and other venues to achieve and maintain proficiency and 

readiness. Realistic exercises identify possible shortfalls and help determine corrective 

actions necessary to achieve success in future operations. Exercises should focus on 

the skills and tools needed by individuals and units conducting weather operations and 

can help ensure staffs are able to plan, control, and support these operations. 

Furthermore, several resources exist to educate the Airman in weather operations. 

Tactics, techniques, and procedures are increasingly emphasizing weather in tactical 

operations and are an excellent resource for the warfighter. 

 At the very heart of warfare lies doctrine... 
30

Suggested Readings 

Air Force Publications (Note: All Air Force doctrine documents are available on the 

Air Force Doctrine Center web page at https://www.doctrine.af.mil) 

AFDD 1, Air Force Basic Doctrine

AFDD 2, Organization and Employment 

AFDD 2-1, Air Warfare 

AFDD 2-2, Space Operations

AFDD 2-4, Combat Support 

AFDD 2-6, Air Mobility Operations

AFDD 2-7, Special Operations

AFDD 2-8, Command and Control 

AFDD 2-9, Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance Operations 

Air Force Policy Directive 15-1, Atmospheric and Space Environmental Support

Air Force Instruction 15-128, Air and Space Weather Operations – Roles and 

Responsibilities 

Air Force Manual (AFMAN) 15-129, Air and Space Weather Operations – Processes 

and Procedures 

Air Force Space Command Pamphlet 15-2, Space Environmental Impacts on DOD 

Operations 

Air Force Weather Strategic Plan and Vision FY2008-2032, January 2004 

Air Force Operational Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures (AFOTTP) 2-3.2, Air and 

Space Operations Center 

Air Force Operational Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures (AFOTTP) 2-3.4, Space Air 

and Space Operations Center 

Air Force Operational Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures (AFOTTP) 2-3.5, Global 

Mobility Air and Space Operations Center 

Air Force Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures (AFTTP) 3-1 series 

Joint Publications (JPs) 

JP 0-2, Unified Action Armed Forces
31

JP 1-02, Department of Defense Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms

JP 3-30, Command and Control for Joint Air Operations

JP 3-59, Joint Doctrine, Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures for Meteorological and 

Oceanographic Operations

Joint METOC Handbook 

Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Instruction 3810.01B, Meteorological and 

Oceanographic Operations

Other Service Publications 

Joint Army Regulation 115-10/Air Force Joint Instruction 15-157, Weather Support for 

the US Army

Field Manual 34-81/AFMAN 105-4, Weather Support for Army Tactical Operations

Allied Joint Pub 3.11, Allied Doctrine for METOC Support to Joint Forces

Other Publications

Arnold, H.H., Global Mission. Harper & Brothers, 1949. 

Bates, Charles C. and Fuller, John F., America’s Weather Warriors: 1814-1985, Texas 

A&M University Press, 1986. 

Brown, Harvey E., The Medical Department of the United States Army from 1775 to 

1875. Washington Surgeon General’s Office, 1973. 

Eisenhower, Dwight D., Crusade in Europe. Doubleday & Co., 1948. 

Fuller, John F., Weather and War. Office of MAC History, 1974. 

Fuller, John F., Thor’s Legions: Weather Support to the US Air Force and Army, 1937-

1987. American Meteorological Society Historical Monograph, 1990. 

Lanicci, John M., “Integrating Weather Exploitation into Airpower and Space Power 

Doctrine”, Airpower Journal 12, No. 2 (Summer 1998), 52-63. 

Lanicci, John M., “Weather Operations in the Transformation Era”, Air War College 

Maxwell Paper No. 29, Air University Press, March 2003. 

Winters, Harold A., Battling the Elements: Weather and Terrain in the Conduct of War, 

Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998. 
32

GLOSSARY 

Abbreviations and Acronyms 

ACC Air Combat Command 

AEFC Air and Space Expeditionary Force Center 

AES air expeditionary squadron 

AETF air and space expeditionary task force 

AEW air expeditionary wing 

AFCCC Air Force Combat Climatology Center 

AFDC Air Force Doctrine Center 

AFDD Air Force doctrine document 

AMC Air Mobility Command 

AFWA Air Force Weather Agency 

AOC air and space operations center 

AOR area of responsibility 

CJTF 

COA 

commander, joint task force 

course of action 

COD combat operations division 

COMAFFOR commander, Air Force forces 

CSAR combat search and rescue 

DIRMOBFOR-AIR director of air mobility forces 

EOSS expeditionary operations support squadron 

GPS global positioning system 

ISR intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance 

JFACC joint force air and space component commander 

JFC joint force commander 

JFLCC joint force land component commander 

JFSOCC joint force special operations component commander 

JMFU joint meteorological and oceanographic forecast unit

JOAF joint operational area forecast 

JTF joint task force 

JMO Joint METOC Officer 

METOC meteorological and oceanographic

METSAT meteorological satellite 

NAF numbered Air Force 

OWS operational weather squadron 
33

PBA predictive battlespace awareness 

PIREPS pilot reports 

SA situational awareness 

SATCOM satellite communications 

SMO senior meteorological and oceanographic officer 

SOF special operations forces 

SOWT special operation weather team 

SWO staff weather officer 

TACC tanker airlift control center 

TACS theater air control system 

TACMET tactical meteorological equipment 

TET targeting and effects translation 

TST time-sensitive target 

UHF ultra high frequency 

US United States 

WST weather specialty team 

Definitions 

air and space expeditionary task force. A deployed numbered Air Force (NAF) or 

command echelon immediately subordinate to a NAF provided as the US Air Force 

component command committed to a joint operation. Also called AETF. (JP 1-02) [The 

organizational manifestation of Air Force forces afield. The AETF provides a joint force 

commander with a task-organized, integrated package with the appropriate balance of 

force, sustainment, control, and force protection.] (AFDD 1) {Italicized words in brackets 

apply only to the Air Force and are offered for clarity.} 

air and space power. The synergistic application of air, space, and information 

systems to project global strategic military power. (AFDD 1) 

Battlefield Airmen (BA). BA directly assist, control, enable, and/or execute operational 

air and space power functions in the forward battlespace independent of an established 

airbase or its perimeter defenses. Comprising several Air Force Specialties, BA 

primarily operate as surface combatants removed from traditional airbase support, 

logistics, and sortie generation efforts. (AFPD 10-35) 

battlespace awareness. The environment, factors, and conditions that must be 

understood to successfully apply combat power, protect the force, or complete the 

mission. This includes air, land, sea, space, and the included enemy and friendly 

forces; facilities; weather; terrain; the electronic spectrum; and the information 

environment within the operational areas and areas of interest. (JP 1-02). 
34

direct support. A mission requiring a force to support another specific force and 

authorizing it to answer directly to the supported force’s request for assistance. (JP 1-

02). 

distributed operations. The process of conducting operations from independent 

or interdependent nodes in a teaming manner. Some operational planning or 

decision-making may occur from outside the joint area of operations. The goal of 

a distributed operation is to support the operational commander in the field; it is 

not a method of command from the rear. (AFDD 2-8). 

global positioning system. A satellite constellation that provides highly accurate 

position, velocity, and time navigation information to users. Also called GPS. (JP 1-02) 

intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance. Integrated capabilities to collect, 

process, exploit and disseminate accurate and timely information that provides the 

battlespace awareness necessary to successfully plan and conduct operations. (AFDD 

2-5.2)

joint. Connotes activities, operations, organizations, etc., in which elements of two or 

more military departments participate. (JP 1–02)

joint force air component commander. The commander within a unified command, 

subordinate unified command, or joint task force responsible to the establishing 

commander for making recommendations on the proper employment of assigned, 

attached, and/or made available for tasking air forces; planning and coordinating air 

operations; or accomplishing such operational missions as may be assigned. The joint 

force air component commander is given the authority necessary to accomplish 

missions and tasks assigned by the establishing commander. Also called JFACC. (JP 

1-02) [The joint force air and space component commander uses the joint air and space 

operations center to command and control the integrated air and space effort to meet 

joint force commander’s objectives. The Air Force position is that air power and space 

power together create effects that cannot be achieved through air or space power 

alone.] (AFDD 2) {Italicized words in brackets apply only to the Air Force and are 

offered for clarity.}

joint force commander. A general term applied to a combatant commander, subunified 

commander, or joint task force commander authorized to exercise combatant command 

(command authority) or operational control over a joint force. Also called JFC. (JP 1–02)

joint force special operations component commander. The commander within a 

unified command, subordinate unified command, or joint task force responsible to the 

establishing commander for making recommendations on the proper employment of 

assigned, attached, and/or made available for tasking special operations forces and 

assets; planning and coordinating special operations; or accomplishing such operational 

missions as may be assigned. The joint force special operations component 
35

commander is given the authority necessary to accomplish missions and tasks assigned 

by the establishing commander. Also called JFSOCC. (JP 1-02)

operational level of war. The level of war at which campaigns and major operations 

are planned, conducted, and sustained to accomplish strategic objectives within 

theaters or other operational areas. Activities at this level link tactics and strategy by 

establishing operational objectives needed to accomplish the strategic objectives, 

sequencing events to achieve the operational objectives, initiating actions, and applying 

resources to bring about and sustain these events. These activities imply a broader 

dimension of time or space than do tactics; they ensure the logistic and administrative 

support of tactical forces, and provide the means by which tactical successes are 

exploited to achieve strategic objectives. See also strategic level of war; tactical level 

of war. (JP 1-02)

reachback. The process of obtaining products, services, and applications, or forces, or 

equipment, or material from organizations that are not forward deployed. (JP 1-02)

strategic level of war. The level of war at which a nation, often as a member of a 

group of nations, determines national or multinational (alliance or coalition) security 

objectives and guidance, and develops and uses national resources to accomplish 

these objectives. Activities at this level establish national and multinational military 

objectives; sequence initiatives; define limits and assess risks for the use of military and 

other instruments of national power; develop global plans or theater war plans to 

achieve these objectives; and provide military forces and other capabilities in 

accordance with strategic plans. See also operational level of war; tactical level of 

war. (JP 1-02) 

special operations forces. Those active and Reserve component forces of the military 

Services designated by the Secretary of Defense and specifically organized, trained, 

and equipped to conduct and support special operations. Also called SOF. (JP 1-02)

special operations weather team. A task-organized team of Air Force personnel 

organized, trained, and equipped to collect critical weather observations from datasparse areas. These teams are trained to operate independently in permissive or 

uncertain environments, or as augmentation to other special operations elements in 

hostile environments, in direct support of special operations. Also called SOWT. (AFDD 

2-9.1) 

tactical level of war. The level of war at which battles and engagements are planned 

and executed to accomplish military objectives assigned to tactical units or task forces. 

Activities at this level focus on the ordered arrangement and maneuver of combat 

elements in relation to each other and to the enemy to achieve combat objectives. See 

also operational level of war; strategic level of war. (JP 1-02)