SKI AREA BMPs

Best Management Practices
GUIDELINES FOR PLANNING, EROSION CONTROL,

AND RECLAMATION

Prepared by the USDA Forest Service

Wasatch-Cache National Forest

in cooperation with

Sun Valley Corporation and Snowbasin Ski Area

2001

SKI AREA BMPs

(BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES)
photo courtesey of David Crim

CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS

Chip Sibbernsen

2002 Planning Team

U.S. Forest Service

Heidi George - Hydrologist

U.S. Forest Service

Scott Layton

Snowbasin Venue Coordinator

U.S. Forest Service

Paul Flood - Soil Scientist

U.S. Forest Service

Charlie Condrat - Hydrologist

U.S. Forest Service
BMP s

INTRODUCTION...................................................................................................................................................iv

Preface............................................................................................................................................................iv

CHAPTER 1: WHY PROTECT WATER QUALITY................................................................................................1

Values at Risk....................................................................................................................................................1

CHAPTER 2: COMMON SKI AREA ACTIVITIES................................................................................................2

Building Construction at Ski Areas........................................................................................................................2

Pipelines and Powerlines.....................................................................................................................................3

Water Wells and Diversions.................................................................................................................................4

Storage Tanks and Reservoirs..............................................................................................................................5

Lift Construction...............................................................................................................................................6

Ski Trail Construction.........................................................................................................................................7

CHAPTER 3: PLANS AND DESIGNS OF CONSTRUCTION................................................................................8

Road Design and Construction.............................................................................................................................8

Encounters with Streams and Wetlands..................................................................................................................9

Avoiding Multiple Entries..................................................................................................................................10

CHAPTER 4: PROTECTING WATER QUALITY.................................................................................................11

Cross Slope Waterbars......................................................................................................................................11

Temporary Stream Crossings..............................................................................................................................12

Straw-bale Dikes and Checkdams.........................................................................................................................13

Sediment Fencing.............................................................................................................................................14

Vegetation Buffers............................................................................................................................................15

Detention Basins.............................................................................................................................................16

CHAPTER 5: RECLAIMING THE LAND...........................................................................................................18

Restoring the Land...........................................................................................................................................18

Revegetation...................................................................................................................................................20

Mulch Covers.................................................................................................................................................22

Straw Matting.................................................................................................................................................23

Erosion Control Blankets...................................................................................................................................24

Stream Reclamation..........................................................................................................................................26

CHAPTER 6: PERMITS..................................................................................................................................28

Operating Permits.............................................................................................................................................28

Water Quality Permits.......................................................................................................................................29

I

VI.

iii

This publication describes Best Management Practices (BMPs) that ski area managers can use in alpine and

subalpine landscapes to prevent or decrease environmental damage and degradation of water quality. They are

highly effective methods that can be planned in advance and adapted to site conditions as needed. Planning and

timing of construction activities will help to limit damage to streams and vegetation, reduce duplication and

multiple entries, and conserve the amount of time and money spent. Using BMPs, it is possible to have construction in steep mountainous terrain while protecting water quality and the environment, and stay within the

confines of laws and regulations.

CONTENTS
This publication is designed to provide basic instruction, guidelines, and technology to ski area operators,

contractors, and administrators. It will also have value to implementors of construction projects such as

operators, work crews, and technicians.

For those with interest in ski area management and operations, this publication will assist in the following

areas:

• Utilizing Best Management Practices to protect water quality

• Planning ski area improvements

• Designing the efficient reclamation of land and streams to restore disturbed areas to proper

 functioning conditions

• Permitting

All sections of the publication were created with consideration to adaptability, economics, environment,

laws, regulations, and reality.

All of the concepts and practices described herein have been successfully implemented at the Snowbasin

Ski Area in Huntsville, Utah on the Wasatch-Cache National Forest. Beginning with the award of the

Downhill Race venue to Snowbasin in 1995, a major expansion of facilities and amenities has been taking

place at the area in preparation for the 2002 Winter Olympics. From 1997 to 2000, when the bulk of

construction work was taking place, the practices have proven very effective in protecting water quality

within the Wheeler Creek watershed (a source of drinking water for Ogden, Utah and habitat for the

sensitive fish species, Bonneville cutthroat trout).

The inspiration for this project was provided by Montana Placer Mining BMPs issued by the Montana

College of Mineral Science and Technology, in cooperation with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

and the Montana Department of Health and Environmental Sciences - Water Quality Bureau. Funding for

preparation of this publication was provided by the Sun Valley Corporation. Printing costs were provided

by the U.S. Department of Agriculture - Forest Service.

Appreciation is also extended to specialists from the Utah Department of Transportaion, Snowbasin Ski

Area, Bio/West inc., Stantech Consulting, W.W. Clyde and Co., The Salt Lake Organizng Committee and

the U.S. Forest Service. Special credit for layout and format concept goes to Amy Defreese and David

Palazzolo.

Paul Flood

Soil Scientist

June 1, 2001

Salt Lake City

PREFACE

IV

INTRODUCTION
Ski areas have operated in Utah since the 1940s. Today, area operators must consider water quality and stream environments

since excessive runoff and sedimentation can lead to:

• Increased filtering costs for drinking water

• Increased flood potential

• Degraded fish habitat

• Downstream channel damage

Intermittent channels have alternating

dry and flowing reaches. Whether wet

or dry, intermittent channels have washed

gravel bottoms and defined banks.

Ephemeral gullies are most often dry,

but can be a source of significant sediment to live streams during infrequent flow

periods. Disturbed soils are often carried

down hill during heavy rainfall or snowmelt events.

1

CHAPTER 1: WHY PROTECT WATER QUALITY

Riparian and wetland areas occur

adjacent to streams, lakes, springs and seeps.

They contain moist or wet soils, high water

tables, and water loving vegetation such as

sedges, willows, dogwood, and aspen.

Perennial streams flow continuously. When

flowing, ephemeral areas and intermittent

reaches can deposit sediment into perennial

streams. Erosion must be controlled in all

operations in the upper watershed, to prevent

downstream impacts to perennial streams and

wetlands.
Base area parking lots should have a drainage

plan to address run-off and snow removal/snow

storage.

2

CHAPTER 2: COMMON SKI AREA ACTIVITIES

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION AT SKI AREAS

Because of the danger of flooding and foundation settling, most

ski area facilities are located well away from streams and wetland

areas. Consequently, buildings will rarely have direct impacts

to water quality. Indirectly, the construction process presents

many opportunities to use BMPs to reduce the impacts of roads,

utility corridors, and staging areas that service the construction

site.

Mountain buildings can be tucked into hillsides

and away from streams, allowing for vegetation

strips to filter sediment and runoff.

Staging areas for construction projects can be a

significant source for fuel/oil, cement, and sediment

pollution to adjacent streams.

Day lodges and lift terminals can be combined to reduce building

footprints and ground disturbances in sensitive areas.

Stockpiles from foundation excavations should be contained within

sediment trapping barriers.

CONSIDERATIONS

• Locate access roads in previously disturbed areas.

• Use helicopter lifting to transport structural materials and

 concrete to remote locations.

• Preconstruct utilities (electrical, sewer, and water lines) in

 the same corridor during the same construction season.

• Locate utility lines under existing roads or previously

 disturbed areas.

• Reuse foundation excavation as fill for access roads or for

 coarse ski trail grooming.

• Excavate areas for cement truck washing and fuel storage

 that are well away from streams and wetlands, and divert

 surface runoff away from these areas.

• Install straw bale or silt fence barriers between the building

 site, including the staging area, and nearby streams or

 wetlands.
PIPELINES AND POWERLINES

To service the remote facilities of a ski area, a carefully designed infrastructure is required to move electricity, communications, and water

both up and down the mountain. Top driven ski lifts require high load

power and communication lines. Mid-mountain restaurants and

snowmaking control buildings will need water and sewer lines as well.

It is usually desirable to bury all these types of utilities at some depth in

trenches, and to place power, clean water, and sewer in separate

trenches.

Power and communication lines are flexible and can easily be buried

within the existing road network on the mountain. Unlike powerlines,

water and sewer lines are more rigid and do not locate well along the

switchbacks of most mountain roads. These linear utility lines will

inevitably have to cross streams and wetlands on their journey from

base area to mountain top.

Snowmaking supply lines must follow ski runs, and consequently follow the same fall line path as surface streams, runoff, and groundwater

flowing off the mountain. In simple terms, a snowmaking trench is

really a very efficient stream channel.

Once surface or ground water gets into this channel, it can run for great

distances and create much damage to both the pipeline and the environment. Careful planning and implementation of BMPs can prevent

this from happening.

To reduce corridor width and disturbance,

long sections of pipe can be connected at

a central staging area and lined downhill.

3

Direct burial of electrical lines reduces the width of utility

corridor disturbance when compared to trackhoe excavated

trenching.

Pipeline trenches, can quickly turn into stream

channels if not protected from rainstorm runoff.

Topsoil is a scarce resource in many mountain environments. Trench excavation should salvage

topsoil where present to use in restoration work.
WATER WELLS AND DIVERSIONS

A ski area must be able to make snow for those times

when nature does not provide enough. The need

can be particularly acute for early season openings

before the Christmas/New Year holidays. Also, the

trend for ski areas to expand services to four seasons

has generated new water demands for residential

housing, fire protection, and irrigation of lawns and

golf courses. Because streams and lakes are generally

drawn down to their lowest flow levels in late summer

and early winter, finding a dependable source of water

for these uses can be problematic. Removing water

to irrigate golf courses and lawns, or to make snow,

from a stream already at base flows can imperil fish

populations and stream side vegetation. Beyond

these considerations, the drought conditions

associated with the need to make snow or irrigate

often have reduced stream flows to where there simply

is not sufficient water for these uses, even if the

streams were totally diverted and dewatered.

Backslope and drain well pads away from nearby streams and wetlands.

Protect nearby streams and riparian areas with proper

sediment and pollution control practices.

4

COMMON SKI AREA ACTIVITIES

Water from well production tests should be

filtered of sediments prior to discharge into

wetlands.

CONSIDERATIONS

• Waste drilling mud and fluid from drilling cannot be discharged into surface waters.

• Detain these fluids in settling basins until they can be recycled back into the operation or disposed of off site. Discharge well

 production test water into upland areas for filter treatment by vegetation and soil.

• Hose lay networks connected to temporary storage tanks through distribution manifolds are effective systems for land

 treatment of production water.

• Seal well shafts with casing or grouting where they pass through shallow, non-target aquifers.

• Divert stormwater run-on around the drilling site.

Innovative manifolds and hose lays are effective methods for dispersing high volumes

of water from well production tests.

Accidental spillage of drilling fluids should be

well contained and filtered before entering

streams.

Chapter 2

Deep aquifer production wells offer several advantages as sources of water for

ski areas. Flows are dependable even in times of drought. Groundwater is a

constant cool temperature and may work better than surface streams for producing

consistent quality artificial snow. The water quality is often high and can be used

with little treatment to provide culinary water.

Several aspects of water well development can impact stream and water quality.

Waste rock and fluids produced during drilling operations can affect water

quality if the site is located near active springs, seeps, and wetlands. Production

testing of well output can generate millions of gallons of clouded silty water that

must be treated in some fashion prior to discharge into surface waters. Finally,

deep aquifer wells may siphon off water from shallow aquifers they pass through,

inadvertently dewatering valuable springs and wetlands.
CONSIDERATIONS

• Surplus excavated material can be reused as fill in coarse ski trail grooming.

• Plumb all storage tanks to an emergency fire fighting delivery system.

• Bury tanks on hillsides to reduce visual impacts.

• Avoid placing tanks or locating reservoirs in riparian or wetland areas.

• Daylight tank drains and overfill pipes into flat, well vegetated areas. Provide

 an energy dissipating rock pad at the outlet of the drain pipe. Do not

 discharge tank drains or overflow pipes on steep hillsides or directly into

 streams.

Staging areas and access roads can be built from storage tank excavation material.

Once constructed the tank can be covered and revegetated to pre-project conditions.

5

STORAGE TANKS AND RESERVOIRS

To operate waterline fixtures such as faucets and snowmaking guns, water must be supplied under pressure. A convenient,

economical way to do this is with storage tanks in mid-mountain locations.

Storage tanks are much preferable to reservoirs, which can pose inherent dangers to life, property, and watershed

values associated with potential failure of the man-made impoundment dam. Often,

placement of a reservoir in mountainous

environment will flood

valuable wetlands and

streams.

Storage tanks can generate large amounts of excess

excavated material that must be wasted in some location

or hauled off of the mountain.

Storage tanks must be cleaned of contaminates before use. This can

generate waste water that should be treated prior to discharge.
Towers and cable gantries can be lifted and placed in remote locations with large

helicopter sky cranes.

CONSIDERATIONS

• Use helicopter lifting for delivery and assembly of remote tower and

 terminal components, particularly foundations forms, steel, and concrete.

• Use hand crews to excavate tower foundations not easily accessible by

 equipment.

• Eliminate the need for permanent top terminal service roads by installing

 bottom drive systems.

• Locate equipment and vehicle storage along with ski patrol facilities into

 top terminal chairlift buildings.

• Install strawbale or sediment barriers around disturbed areas, particularly

 between foundation excavations and stockpiles, and nearby streams and

 wetlands.

LIFT CONSTRUCTION

Ski lift terminals and towers require concrete for

foundations and lifting capability for assembly of large

heavy components. Water quality and streams are more

likely to be affected by roads needed for equipment access

than by the construction work itself. Bottom chairlift

terminals, however, are commonly located on flat terraces

adjacent to streams or wetlands where sediment from the

site could easily affect water quality.

Excavations for ski lift terminal building foundations can yield

large amounts of material that can be salvaged as fill for other

activities.

Tower foundations in steep or remote terrain may require

excavation by hand crews.

COMMON SKI AREA ACTIVITIES

6 Chapter 2

Ski lift terminal sites must be accessible by cranes and

other large equipment.
Waterbar installation by trackhoe excavator.

SKI TRAIL IMPROVEMENT AND

CONSTRUCTION

The best trails are those that allow skiers to

consistently be in the same fall line path that rainfall

and snowmelt follow down the mountain.

Consequently, when improvement or construction

activities disturb vegetation and soil, they create a

large source of sediment that can be readily delivered

into streams and wetlands. Upon completion of

work, ski runs usually present a steep, smooth, highly

erodible soil surface, devoid of ground protecting

vegetation.

Because ski runs are most vulnerable to erosion

during the periods of construction and revegetation,

water quality is best protected by BMPs which cover

bare soil and slow or divert runoff from the slope.

Implementation of these BMPs in a timely fashion

immediately after construction and prior to heavy

rain or spring snowmelt is essential to their

effectiveness in protecting soil and water quality.

CONSIDERATIONS

• When coarse grooming depression areas, fill with subsoil

 from nearby excavations.

• Do not waste valuable topsoil in deep fill areas, salvage

 and reapply to slopes to promote better revegetation.

• When working in rocky areas, use a screened trackhoe

 bucket to help salvage and separate topsoil from rocks.

• Avoid multiple disturbances/entries by scheduling ski run

 construction and improvement to precede the location of

 utility pipelines.

• Install sediment fence barriers and cross slope water bars

 to minimize soil erosion and water quality degradation during

 construction.

• Plan for the patrol and maintenance of control measures early

 and often during the first snowmelt period following

 construction.

Vegetation clearing by trackhoe excavator leaving root mass and

coarse debris ground cover.

Screened trackhoe buckets work well to seperate out and salvage valuable topsoils.

7

Swales and slope break compressions can be smoothed out by

filling with subsoil excavated from building and lift terminal

foundations.
CONSIDERATIONS

• Although slower than regular truck tractors, crawler

 tractors can pull heavier loads, including cement mixers,

 supply trailers and assembly cranes, up steeper graded

 temporary trails.

• Temporary road construction can be reduced by using

 helicopter lifting for movement and materials at remote

 sites.

• Salvage topsoil and stockpile conveniently for reuse in

 reclamation.

• Restore temporary road prisms to the original ground slope

 and geometry by pulling fill slopes back against cut slopes.

• Overly steep slopes are extremely difficult to revegetate,

 particularly in high elevation environments. To enhance

 revegetation, avoid constructing road cut / fill slopes at

 steeper gradients than 2:1.

• Reuse stumps and slash from road clearing as temporary

 sediment filter windrow barriers at the base of road fill

 slopes and wherever a road approaches streams or

 wetlands.

8

CHAPTER 3: PLAN AND DESIGN OF CONSTRUCTION

ROAD DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

Every ski area operation needs an infrastructure of

permanent access roads. The road system can be the

largest single contributor of sediment to area streams

and wetlands. Construction projects will also need

access roads; the challenge is to identify how much of

this roading truly needs to be permanently added to the

system, and how much can be used temporarily and

then reclaimed. For permanent additions to the ski area

road network, it is critical to plan for location, standards

of construction, and maintenance that will avoid short

and long term sedimentation problems. Temporary work

roads and trails should be located and designed with an

eye towards minimizing the scale of reclamation efforts

needed to restore to pre existing conditions. A narrower,

steeper trail can often satisfy temporary access needs

as well as a higher standard road, but will disturb far

less ground and be easier and less costly to reclaim.

Full bench cut and end haul construction of a narrow low standard access trail.

Oversized culverts on steep gradient channels allow passage

of large channel substrate rocks.

Snow cat access trails can be constructed to narrower widths and

then widened with snow.

Reduce road corridor widths by building vertical cut slopes

and stabilizing with rock retaining walls.
ENCOUNTERS WITH STREAMS

AND WETLANDS

Although avoidance of surface water features is

stressed throughout this report as an important BMP,

the reality is that most ski area facilities will eventually

meet up with a stream or wetland somewhere on the

mountain. Both streams and ski area improvements

are curvilinear landscape features that inevitably

must intersect at some point on their journey from

mountain top to base area. Good planning, location,

construction and maintenance can assure these

encounters are both benign and of little long term

consequence.

Construction work that may place fill or sediment, or

otherwise alter a stream or wetland, requires State of

Utah review and coverage under a Section 404

alteration permit. This can be a time consuming

process. Inclusion of BMPs that minimize damage

and control sediment will speed up permit issuance

and help avoid project delays.

Temporary bridging methods allow for heavy equipment to cross streams with

minimal disturbance to channels.

CONSIDERATIONS

• Roads represent the largest source of sediment to streams

 and wetlands. Runoff from any road surface should always

 drain through some kind of temporary or permanent sediment

 filter such as a vegetated buffer strip, slash windrow, silt

 fence, or detention basin.

• Road crossing culverts should be oversized to allow for

 passage of flood flows and large bed load rocks that are

 often associated with steep and incised mountain stream

 channels.

• Maintain all roads and trails so that runoff water drains readily,

 rapidly, and frequently off the surface.

• Temporary stream channel and bank disturbances must be

 restored to the original, preexisting condition, including bed

 gradient and rock size, channel profile and geometry, and

 bank vegetation cover.

• Use portable bridges or flatcar spans to minimize channel

 disturbance and reclamation costs associated with temporary

 stream crossings.

Use detention basins to capture sediment before it can reach wetlands

and riparian areas.

Runoff from roads should be slowed and

filtered through rock aprons prior to discharge

into wetlands.

Road cut slopes can intercept and expose

subsurface water.

Water source wells are often developed in close

proximity to wetlands and springs.

9
CONSIDERATIONS

• Complete all improvements on one part of the mountain,

 preferably in one construction season, before moving on to

 other parts of the ski area.

• Complete ski run construction and terrain modification projects

 prior to placing utility and snowmaking lines in them.

• Construct co-locatable utilities in the same trench at the same

 time.

• Place all utility lines in a single corridor wherever possible.

• Locate utility corridors in previously disturbed areas, and

 preferably along roadways.

• Delay entering previously disturbed areas with new

 construction until vegetation has completely recovered.

AVOIDING MULTIPLE ENTRIES

Restrict vehicle access to reclaimed areas so that multiple trails do not form.

Multiple entries can damage fragile vegetation regrowth.

PLAN AND DESIGN OF CONSTRUCTION

10 Chapter 3

Disturbances from multiple entrances into newly reclaimed areas should

be kept as small and narrow as possible.

The most effective way of

protecting water and soil quality

is to limit the time bare soils are

exposed to runoff from rainfall

or snowmelt. The best way to

accomplish

this is to start

and f i n i s h

projects

during one summer construction

season, and reclaiming the area

permanently before winter

snows cover the ground.

Erosion control and reclamation

work is time consuming and

expensive. Seed, fertilizer, and

mulching can cost hundreds of

dollars per acre in materials and

labor costs. Disturbing a freshly

reclaimed area with more

construction is not only

wasteful, but can severely damage soil productivity and limit

long term prospects for successful revegetation.

While careful project planning and scheduling is essential to

completing projects during the short construction seasons

common in the mountains, even the best plans can be derailed

by unpredictable summer rains and early snowfalls. Rocky soils

and steep terrain can cause breakdowns of specialized

construction equipment, meaning further delays. Ski areas must

have contingency plans for temporary erosion control for any

large project where completion could be delayed until the next

construction season.
CROSS SLOPE WATERBARS

Bare soil is extremely vulnerable to runoff and erosion. Erosion can be

prevented by either slowing the velocity of overland flow or by diverting it off of bare soil and into more stable vegetated areas.

Cross slope waterbars are the simplest, cheapest, and most reliable

method for managing runoff from bare soil areas. They should always

be the first choice for the control of hill slope runoff and erosion.

Spacing of waterbars is very sensitive to slope gradient and soil type.

They must be placed close enough to each other that runoff is captured and diverted before it builds up speed and energy. Spacing

usually ranges from 200 feet on flatter mountain roads to less than 50

feet on the steepest ski slopes.

11

CHAPTER 4: PROTECTING WATER QUALITY

Water bars used to divert water off road surfaces must be

shallow and wide to allow vehicle passage.

Road water bars must have free drainage off the

road surface. Special care should be taken to keep

water bar outlets free of berms and graded material.

Waterbars should have a slight curve to prevent

breaching in low spots. The berm should be firmly

CONSIDERATIONS

• Properly draining waterbars will be self cleaning of sediment.

• Begin waterbars at a 3 to 5 percent gradient and increase to a

 finished gradient of 5 to 7 percent.

• On steeper slopes, frequent small waterbars work better than a few

 large ones.

• Waterbars must be inspected and repaired during spring snowmelt,

 and then cleaned of sediment following large rainstorms.

• Carry the waterbar well off bare soil slopes into adjacent

 vegatation.

• To prevent low spots, waterbars should be built with a slight

 curve.

A trackhoe excavator can quickly construct a very effective

waterbar drainage network on steep ski runs.
TEMPORARY

STREAM CROSSINGS

Whenever construction work encounters a stream, a safe crossing

structure must be designed and

permitted on a State of Utah General Permit 400 for the alteration of

channels or wetlands.

The two most common situations are where a trail or road

must cross a stream to access a

work site, or where a stream

channel is cut by a pipeline or

utility trench. The objective in

both cases is to protect water

quality by either keeping the

stream out of the trench or by

limiting bank disturbance and

road runoff delivery to the

stream.

Steel “I” beams can provide effective and low cost access for heavy equipment across streams with

minimal channel damage.

Logs can be used instead of culverts and fill to provide a temporary

stream crossing for heavy equipment access across intermittent and

ephemeral channels.

PROTECTING WATER QUALITY

12 Chapter 4

Wherever a trench cuts through a channel, a temporary crossing

must be installed to keep the stream out of the trench.

Temporary stream crossing culverts may need to be in place for

several weeks until work can be completed and trenches backfilled.

Several culvert sections can be joined where

longer temporary stream crossings are required.

Be sure to use plastic sheet lining to keep water

leaks out of the trench.
STRAW BALE DIKES AND CHECK DAMS

Straw bales are used in dikes and check dams to create very small basins

where surface runoff can be slowed long enough to settle and trap

sediments. They are typically used in low gradient ditches or channels.

They are also effective when used with sediment fencing to filter and

trap sediment generated by high velocity flows from steeper side slopes.

Straw bales should be set into the ground and firmly staked to prevent check

dam failure.

Gravel or straw check dams should be used in road ditches

as a temporary sediment control until vegetation has been

established.

Double staking helps to keep straw bales in place. Backing up

a check dam with silt fencing provides excellent water quality

protection.

Use multiple check dam barriers for better sediment filtration.

Properly functioning straw bale dikes can quickly fill up with

sediment and must be cleaned out after rainstorms.

CONSIDERATIONS

• Straw bales will float and can be knocked loose by

 flowing waters.

• Each bale must be firmly staked in place by driving

 two stakes or rebar through the bale and 18 inches

 into the ground.

• The ends of each check dam should be higher so

 that water spills over the center of the dike and not

 around the ends.

• Prevent leaks in the dike by embedding the bales a

 minimum of four inches into the ground, and by

 tightly abutting the ends of adjacent bales.

13
An excavator is useful in silt fence installation. Fencing should be

placed in pre-dug trenches, and backfilled to prevent breaching

under the fence bottom.

SEDIMENT FENCING

Sediment fencing is used to filter sand and silt from low velocity

overland flows. Fine sediments should pass through the fabric.

Because fabric fences have very little structural strength, water

should not pond more than halfway up the fence to prevent

failures. Strength may be increased by backing the fabric with

straw bales or cyclone fencing.

As with all sediment filter structures, fabric fences need to be

checked during snowmelt and repaired if needed. Sediment

should be removed from behind the fence before it exceeds

one-third the above ground exposed height of the fabric. Sediment fencing can be used to define subtle drainage areas and

protect them from sediment as well as unauthorized vehicle traffic.

PROTECTING WATER QUALITY

14 Chapter 4

Fencing can be lengthened by wrapping section ends

together and then securing tightly with wire.

Deep snow will strip a silt fence from its support stakes.

Securing the fabric to the stake with cable ties or wire

prevents this.

Silt fencing is usually placed on the level and parallel to the contour. Where a fence is sloping, relief outlets must be supplied at

regular intervals.
Wetlands should be protected from sediment sources with buffer strips

of live upland vegetation.

Cleared vegetation can also be used as a filter by

placing and compacting into a windrow.

Where space is limited, less effective practices such as berms, silt fences, and slash

barriers can be used together to replace a vegetation buffer strip.

VEGETATION BUFFERS

In general, most BMPs do a great job of

trapping sand and silt sized particles, but are

mostly ineffective with finer sediments. The

most effective method of treating these fine

sediments is by dispersing runoff through a

thick screen of live natural vegetation.

In practice, this involves leaving a sufficient

buffer of vegetation between live water and

construction areas. Effluent from waterbars,

silt fences, and detention basins should always

be passed through a wide buffer strip of

vegetation for final treatment before discharge

into surface waters.

Vegetation buffer strips should vary in width based upon side-slope gradient. Where

only a narrow strip is present, it should be supplemented with other sediment control

practices such as silt fences or straw bale dikes.

A stream side riparian zone may also be used to

filter out finer sediments which can pass right

through sediment fencing.

CONSIDERATIONS

• Cleared vegetation can be placed in a

 windrow within the filter strip to enhance

 effectiveness.

• Buffer strips are ideal for the treatment of

 water contaminated with fine mud and

 clay, such as that discharged during well

 production testing.

• Water discharged into buffer strips should

 be kept dispersed to maximize filtering and

 infiltration.

• Water should not be allowed to

 channelize.

15
DETENTION BASINS

Although all BMPs will capture and filter larger sized sediments

from runoff, finer sediments can only be caught in a detention

pond of still water. In general, the larger the basin, the finer the

sediment is that can be filtered out, and better protection will be

provided from the larger rainstorm events. Regardless of size,

all basins are usually permanent impoundment features with

stabilized inlets, outlets, and emergency spillways.

PROTECTING WATER QUALITY

16 Chapter 4

Runoff from large cut or fill slopes should be routed through sediment

trap basins.

CONSIDERATIONS

• Detention basins are best located below

 permanent sediment sources such as

 parking lots and roads.

• Baffles can be placed on the pond bottom

 to slow inlet velocities and promote still

 water conditions.

• Basins should be cleaned of sediment

 following major rainstorms.

• Detention basins and sediment traps

 should be located off channel and not

 within a live stream.

Detention basin inlet channels should be protected from high flows and head cutting with rock riprap

and flow control gates.
Sediment pond outlet ditches should be armored with rock to prevent scouring. Step pools

in the outlet ditches allow even more sediment to settle out.

Natural basins in the landscape can be combined with straw bales

and silt fence to create temporary detention ponds.

Discharge water from detention basins can be routed through straw

bales and silt fence for more complete sediment removal.

Staging areas and parking lots can generate large amounts of runoff and sediment, and consequently need larger

detention ponds.

17
RESTORING THE LAND

Reclaiming land following

construction disturbances

will focus on restoring the

ability of soil to absorb water

from rainstorms and

snowmelt without

generating undue overland

flow or sediment. A good

Reapplied topsoil should be dark in color and a minimum of six to eight inches deep to meet requirements of

native plants.

18

CHAPTER 5: RECLAIMING THE LAND

The most important disturbed land reclamation task is to restore a thick layer of

fertile topsoil.

measure of reclamation

success is often how

quickly vegetation cover

can be reestablished to

disturbed areas.

Successful revegetation

begins with the restoration

of a seedbed of thick fertile

topsoil. Management of the

topsoil resource throughout

the construction process is

critical. If soil is not

salvaged and conserved at

the beginning of a project,

there will be none left to

reapply at the end, and

revegetation efforts will be

doomed to disappointment

or failure.

Ideally, when a construction project is begun, all topsoil

would be stripped from the area and reserved for later

reapplication. From a practical standpoint, salvage of

topsoil from a construction area can be very difficult,

particularly when steep slopes and rocky soils are

involved. Most native plants will be able to re-establish

in a topsoil layer that ranges from at least six to eight

inches in thickness.

Oftentimes topsoil is naturally very thin at the mountain

summits and on the steep upper elevation slopes of

ski areas. It may not be appropriate or desirable to

import topsoil from “off the mountain” in order to create

seedbed soil layers that are thicker than what is natural.

Restoring productivity to these types of land is

dependent upon limiting topsoil losses to either two

inches , or half the thickness of the original topsoil

layer, whichever is less.
In trench excavation, subsoil should be placed above

topsoil windrows to protect them from erosion and

compaction.

The final reclaimed surface can be roughened with bull dozer tracks to provide microsites for moisture conservation and seedling establishment.

19

CONSIDERATIONS

• On steep slopes, stockpile salvaged

 topsoils at the top of the cut/fill slopes for

 ease of reapplication.

• Reapplied topsoil layers are extremely

 vulnerable to wind and water erosion.

 Protect with BMPs such as caterpillar track

 surface roughening, cross slope waterbars,

 and surface mulch blankets.

• Trench excavations should stockpile

 topsoil and subsoil in separate wind rows.

 Avoid traversing topsoil with construction

 equipment.

For ease of reapplication, topsoil can be stockpiled

in windrows at the top of steep slopes.

If stored over the winter, topsoil stockpiles should be terraced and seeded to reduce

erosion losses and should then be surrounded with sediment control measures such

as berms, silt fencing, or straw bale dikes.
REVEGETATION

Construction work often damages vegetation to the point where

it cannot grow back without help. To prevent damaging erosion,

vegetation must be re-established as quickly as possible.

Once a proper seedbed of thick fertile topsoil has been prepared,

the site is ready to be reseeded. Native grass and forb species are

good choices because they are

usually adapted to the climate and

elevation of the site, and they do

not prevent the eventual

reestablishment of species that

inhabited the site before

construction.

Seed should be applied in late

autumn to take advantage of

snowmelt and rainfall the

following spring. If soil tests

indicate fertilizer is needed, it can

be applied at the same time as the

seed.

Seed should be completely

covered with soil for successful

germination and establishment.

Tracking and scarification can help

Seed and fertilizer can be mixed together and applied at the same time.

RECLAIMING THE LAND

20 Chapter 5

accomplish this, but in practice at least half of broadcast applied

seed will never germinate. To be confident of establishing

successful vegetation at 40 plants per square foot, seeds should

be applied at the rate of at least 100 per square foot. To reduce

the risk of having to reseed harsh sites at a later date, initial

seeding rates can be safely pushed to 200 per square foot.

Large and accessible areas can be quickly covered with hydraulic seeding

equipment.

For gentle or moderate slopes, seeding equipment can be mounted

on all terrain equipment to cover large and inaccessible areas.
Steep and inaccessible areas can usually be covered only with hand seeders.

CONSIDERATIONS

• Incorporate species native to the area into seed mixes. Harvest seed from the area to reduce costs.

• Seed germination is enhanced dramatically by following seeding with some sort of rolling or tracking in treatment.

• Monitor seedling establishment to fine tune seed mixes and determine if supplemental seeding is needed.

• Enhance seedling establishment and growth with supplemental fertilizer application during the spring following initial seeding.

• Phosphorous fertilizer can be especially helpful in promoting deep root systems that help plants survive hot summer conditions.

• Cover freshly seeded areas with a mulch product to create a cool, moist environment for fragile seedling survival.

21

For improved seed germination, a snow cat can be used to track in and cover the seed with a

thin layer of soil.
STRAW MULCH COVERS

Mulch covers serve a dual purpose in the reclamation process.

Primarily, they provide protection of bare soil from raindrops

and then slow down surface runoff to prevent erosion. While

the mulch is preventing erosion, it is also conserving moisture

Straw mulch application by hand crews on larger

ski slopes is a time consuming task.

Road cut and fill slopes can be quickly covered with mechanical mulching equipment.

RECLAIMING THE LAND

22 Chapter 5

the first snowmelt and growing season. They are not durable

and are easily damaged by relatively light winds. More durable

erosion blankets, if installed correctly, will survive even high

winds and can be expected to function for two or more seasons.

for germinating

seedlings and protecting

them with shade from

summer heat and

drought.

In general, flat or gentle

slopes with very thick

topsoil should

revegetate quickly with

little concern for erosion.

This is particularly true if

soil disturbance was light

and the root systems are

undamaged, and the area

is removed from live

water sources. Steeper

slopes, or those with

poor topsoil and heavier

damage to vegetation,

will require some sort of

protective mulch cover.

The type of mulch used

depends largely on how

long it will be expected to

perform its job. Loose

straw mulch covers

function only through

To prevent wind damage, straw mulch can be crimped or

tracked into the ground with bull dozer tracks or snow cat

cleats.
Straw mulch should be applied at a loose thickness of four to six inches.

When properly tracked in, straw will be punched into the soil and appear to stand upright.

Considerations

• Although straw is the cheapest mulch to buy,

 spreading and fixing against wind damage can be

 costly and time consuming.

• Blanket mulches save time and money by installing

 quicker and lasting longer.

• Any mulch type, if installed properly and in good

 contact with the soil, will enhance revegetation.

23

Straw mulches cannot be tracked into rocky or dry soils, and must be secured with either netting

or chemical tackifiers.
Successful revegetation on harsh sites, such as over-steep and erosive slopes, requires a durable mulch blanket

cover.

EROSION CONTROL BLANKETS

Blankets can be combined with silt fencing to provide

added protection next to streams and wetlands.

RECLAIMING THE LAND

24 Chapter 5

To work properly and resist wind damage, blankets must be stapled firmly and in

close contact with the underlying soil surface.
Although more expensive to purchase than straw, mulch

blankets install much faster and are more durable.

Mulch blankets are commonly made from wood or straw fibers and stitched

to an open weave net. Either type of blanket is very light and easy to

handle and transport across rough terrain.

Blankets must be properly stapled in place to resist lifting and tearing by strong winds.

25
STREAM RECLAMATION

It can be difficult to completely avoid stream

channels and riparian corridors when constructing fall line projects such as ski runs,

lifts, and snowmaking lines. Too often,

streams are moved to the edge of ski runs

and away from sensitive improvements like

buried power, communication, and water

lines. The streams are straightened,

channelized, and armored to prevent them

from flooding or meandering. Channelizing

destroys many important stream functions,

including the ability to support riparian bank

stabilizing riparian vegetation. Stream flow

character can change from perennial to intermittent as the new channel dries out during summer months. The resulting channel

often resembles more of a ditch than a living, functioning stream.

The channelized stream on the left can be relocated to extend channel length, increase

meandering, and create wetlands and floodplains.

RECLAIMING THE LAND

26 Chapter 5

Stream reclamation is an expensive, complicated, and timeconsuming operation. None the less, streams and their

riparian zones are valuable areas for wildlife habitat. They

need to be restored to their original location and condition

wherever possible. Such reclamation is usually a requirement of the alteration permits secured for construction

projects near streams.

Level sections of streams that dry out in the summer attract temporary

staging and construction activities. These areas should be reclaimed by

restoring the stream to its original location and condition.

Some facilities, like this snowmaking line drain vault, must be

located in a low area. In this case, it makes sense to reclaim the

stream by relocating and protecting it from long-term impacts.

Stream reclamation will require careful survey and design prior to any

restoration or relocation work.
CONSIDERATIONS

• Move or permanently relocate a stream only when needed

 to prevent further disturbance to it, or to protect it from

 persistent sediment sources.

• Survey stream properties and characteristics prior to

 construction to facilitate proper restoration to original

 conditions.

• Reconstruct channels to a width, depth, and course that

 roughly resembles the original condition. Let the stream

 itself finish the job of restoring the meanders, pools, and

 riffles that existed before disturbance.

• Enhance stream recovery by using small rocks and soil in

 reconstructed banks that can easily be moved and

 rearranged by stream flood flows.

• Only use large rock armoring

 when absolutely necessary to

 prevent abnormal bank and

 channel bottom scouring or

 erosion.

• Use revegetation and sediment

 control Best Management

 Practices to protect water

 quality immediately after

 reconstruction work.

Stream channels can be reclaimed when unneeded culverts are removed. Stream banks should be laid back to original form and raw soil

protected from erosion.

This stream has been moved away from new impacts and into the

original channel that existed before the chairlift and ski run were

constructed.

27

Small trackhoes and bulldozers provide a lighter touch and are better

suited to the fine detail work needed in stream reclamation.

Armored channels can be revegetated with burlap bag “soil pillows” and with willow soil-root plugs.
404 permits are administered

by the United States Army

Corps of Engineers (USACE)

with local offices in Woods

Cross, Utah, (801) 295-8380.

Joint Section 404 and 10 permits

are administered by the State of

Utah Division of Water Rights in

Salt Lake City, (801) 538-7240.

NOI submissions and SWPPP

reviews are administered by

the Division of Water Quality –

Department of Water Quality in

Salt Lake City, Utah, (801) 538-

6146.

Applications for water rights

are made with the Sate of Utah

Engineers Office – Division of

Water Rights in Salt Lake City,

Utah, (801) 538-7240.

Source Water Protection Plans

are reviewed by the State of Utah

Division of Drinking Water in Salt

Lake City, (801) 538-4200.

STATE OF UTAH PERMITS

404 Permit

This permit applies to projects that would place fill in. or remove material from, waters of the

United States (including wetlands).

Examples of qualifying activities include:

1. Placement of subsurface utility lines (water, sewer, communication, or electrical)

through jurisdictional wetlands.

2. Smoothing out ski run terrain by placement of fill into wet areas.

3. Excavation of a wet area to install a buried storage tank.

4. Siting of a lift terminal or tower in a wetland.

As part of the permitting process, the applicant should provide drawings that show the

location and character of the proposed activity, as well as an accurate wetlands delineation

map in accordance with current approved methods. Applications must consider, in order,

(1) avoidance, (2) minimization, and (3) mitigation before permit approval will be considered.

Sections 404 and 10 Joint Permit

This permit applies to projects that disturb streams, either by filling or removing materials

from the channel or otherwise altering channel shape or condition.

Examples of qualifying activities include:

1. Mountain roads or pipelines crossing a stream channel.

2. Protecting improvements from flooding by installing riprap or levee material on stream banks.

3. Parking lot construction or paving within the upper bank of a stream.

4. Removal of stream side vegetation in ski run clearing.

As part of the permitting process, the applicant should provide, along with a location map, diagrams that show plan and cross-sectional

views of the proposed activity.

NPDES Storm Water Permit for Discharge from Construction Activity

Currently, this permit applies to projects that disturb vegetation and uncover bare ground over an area 5 acres in size or larger. In 2003,

revised NPDES regulations include all construction that disturbs at least one acre.

Examples of qualifying activities include:

1. Ski run construction that involves coarse grooming (cutting and filling) of terrain features and/or vegetation.

2. Snow making system pipe trenching and installation.

3. Construction of base area parking facilities.

As part of the permitting process, the construction operator should submit a Notice of Intent (NOI) to obtain coverage under the Utah

Pollution Discharge Elimination System (UPDES) general permit. To qualify for coverage, the operator must have prepared a Storm Water

Pollution Prevention Plan (SWPPP). This plan will disclose temporary and permanent erosion and runoff control practices, and will

address maintenance and inspection of the practices to insure effectiveness and compliance with the general permit.

Water Rights and Source Water Protection Plans

If water is used in operations, the Utah Water Rights law must be complied with by obtaining a valid water right.

Examples of qualifying activities include:

1. Diversion of water from a stream for use in snow-making.

2. Storage of stream flows in ponds or reservoirs.

3. Development of groundwater wells for potable, snowmaking, and irrigation sources.

If water is developed for use as a public water supply, a Source Water Protection Plan must be developed that describes potential

contaminant sources and prevention measures.

28

CHAPTER 6: Permits
29

FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION:

This report has presented some general techniques and

concepts for controlling erosion, runoff, and sediment from

construction activities that commonly occur at alpine ski

areas and resorts. The report is not intended as a

comprehensive manual of all possible ways to stabilize soil

and protect water quality. Rather, the material presented is

illustrative of techniques found effective in the development

of the winter Olympics venue at Snowbasin Ski Area in

northern Utah. Readers interested in more exhaustive

treatments of this subject matter can consult the primary

references used in the preparation of this report:

1. State of Utah. 1995. Non-point Source

 Management Plan for Hydrologic Modifications,

 and addendum to the Utah Non-point Source

 Management Plan. Utah Division of Water Quality,

 Salt Lake City, Utah.

2. State of Utah. 1998. Non—point Source

 Management Plan for Silvicultural Activities.

 Silvicultural Addendum Subcommittee of the NPS

 Taskforce. Utah Division of Water Quality, Salt

 Lake City, Utah.

3. Salt Lake County. 1981. Salt Lake County Water Quality

 and Pollution Control, Erosion Control Handbook. Salt

 Lake County Department of Environmental Health, Salt

 Lake City, Utah.

4. USDA-Forest Service. 1988. R1/R4 Soil and Water

 Conservation Practices Handbook. FSM 2509.22.

 Intermountain Region Office, Ogden, Utah.

5. USDA-Forest Service. 1992. Winter Sports Guidebook.

 Prepared by Rocky Mountain Region with assistance

 from Regions Four, Five, and Six. Wasatch-Cache

 National Forest, Salt Lake City, Utah.

6. Utah Department of Transportation. 1999. Temporary

 Erosion and Sediment Control Manual. UDOT-Region 2,

 West Salt Lake City, Utah.

These documents are available from the agencies listed in the

individual citations. Electronic copies of documents (1) and

(2) and other water quality protection related documents are

available on the World Wide Web at:

http://www.eq.state.ut.us/eqwq/doc_rule.html

Electronic copies of document (4) are available on the World

Wide Web at:

http://www.fs.fed.us/im/directives/html/fsh2000.html

Electronic copies of document (6) are available on the World

Wide Web at:

http://www.dot.state.ut.us/esd.html

In addition to these references, the following websites

contain relevant information on the subject, as well as

additional links to conduct more extensive searches.

1. The Salt Lake County Engineering Division has a website

 that provides a tabular guide for selection of specific Best

 Management Practices based upon site conditions.

 Practice listings in the guide are actually links to narrative

 descriptions and illustrations of the practice. The

 guidance manual can be viewed at:

 www.co.slc.ut.us/pw/engin/bmp/pdf/swppp.pdf

2. The Stormwater Manager Resource Center is a subdivision

 of the Center for Watershed Protection. Its website allows

 for viewing and downloading of reports from the Centers

 technical journal, Watershed Protection Practices. These

 can be found at:

 www.stormwatercenter.net/Library/Practice_Articles.htm

3. The Environmental Protection Agency has researched

 many recent publications related to Best Management

 Practices and the control of pollution from non-point

 sources. A compilation of abstracts for the best of these

 publications can be found at:

 www.epa.gov/owow/nps/bestnpsdocs.html