This document is available to the public from the National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Virginia 22161

Child 

Restraint Use 

Survey

LATCH Use and Misuse
The United States Government does not endorse products or 

manufacturers. Trade or manufacturers’ names appear only 

because they are considered essential to the object of this report. 
Technical Report Documentation Page 

1. Report No. 

DOT HS 810 679

2. Government Accession No. 3. Recipient's Catalog No.

5. Report Date 

December 2006 

4. Title and Subtitle 

Child Restraint Use Survey: LATCH Use and Misuse 6. Performing Organization Code

7. Author(s)

Lawrence E. Decina, Kathy H. Lococo, and Charlene T. Doyle

8. Performing Organization Report No.

9. Performing Organization Name and Address 10. Work Unit No. (TRAIS)

TransAnalytics, LLC 

1722 Sumneytown Pike, Box 328 

Kulpsville, PA 19443 

Evaluation Division; National Center for Statistics and Analysis 

National Highway Traffic Safety Administration 

Washington, DC 20590

11. Contract or Grant No. 

DTNH22-03-C-06010 

13. Type of Report and Period Covered

NHTSA Final Report 

12. Sponsoring Agency Name and Address

National Highway Traffic Safety Administration 

U.S. Department of Transportation 

NPO-131, 400 Seventh Street SW. 

Washington, DC 20590

14. Sponsoring Agency Code 

15. Supplementary Notes 

NHTSA conducted a survey from April to October 2005 to collect information about the types of restraint 

systems that were being used to keep children safe while riding in passenger vehicles. In particular, 

NHTSA was interested in whether drivers with Lower Anchors and Tethers for CHildren (LATCH)-

equipped vehicles were using LATCH to secure their child safety seats to the vehicle, and if so, were these 

seats properly installed. The make/model and the type of restraint installed in each seating position were 

recorded for each of the vehicles; demographic characteristics and the type of restraint system were 

collected for each occupant. In addition, information was gathered about the drivers’ knowledge of booster 

seats and LATCH, along with their opinions on how easy it was to use LATCH. 

A key finding of the survey was that 55 percent of child safety seats, located in a seating position equipped 

with an upper anchor, were attached to the vehicle using an upper tether. Other findings include: (1) In 13 

percent of the observations, the child safety seat was placed in a seat position in the vehicle not equipped 

with lower anchors - the seat belt was used to secure the child safety seat to the vehicle. (2) Among the 87 

percent who do place the child safety seat at a position equipped with lower anchors, 60 percent use the 

lower attachments to secure the child safety seat to the vehicle. (3) 81 percent of upper tether users and 74 

percent of lower attachments users said upper tether and/or lower attachments were easy to use. (4) 75 

percent preferred lower attachments over seat belts of those with experience using both lower attachments 

and seat belts. (5) 61 percent of upper tether nonusers and 55 percent of lower attachments nonusers cited 

their lack of knowledge – not knowing what they were, that they were available in the vehicle, the 

importance of using them, or how to properly use them - as the reason for not using them.

17. Key Words

Lower Anchors and Tethers for Children, LATCH, 

Child Restraint Systems, Use and Misuse, Data Collection 

Procedures, Research Methodology 

18. Distribution Statement

No restrictions. This document is available to 

the public through the National Technical 

Information Service, Springfield, VA 22161. 

19. Security Classif. (of this report)

 Unclassified 

20. Security Classif. (of this page)

 Unclassified 

21. No. of Pages

113 

22. Price

Form DOT F 1700.7 (8-72) Reproduction of completed page authorized 

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS 

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...........................................................................................................1 

INTRODUCTION..........................................................................................................................5 

 Background..........................................................................................................................5 

 Project Objectives ................................................................................................................6 

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY .................................................................................................7

Survey Plan ..........................................................................................................................8 

 Sample Estimates.....................................................................................................8 

 Office of Management and Budget (OMB) Review................................................9 

Site Selection Criteria ..............................................................................................9 

Observer and Interviewer’s Responsibilities .........................................................10 

Data Collection Procedures....................................................................................11 

Pilot Testing...........................................................................................................12 

Training .................................................................................................................12 

Data Collection .....................................................................................................13

Database Design.................................................................................................................14 

Coding ...................................................................................................................14 

Data Entry ..............................................................................................................15 

Coding Manual.......................................................................................................15 

SAS File.................................................................................................................16

ANALYSIS OF SELECTED DATA..........................................................................................17

Target Sample Characteristics ...........................................................................................17 

 Upper Tether and Lower Attachments Use ...........................................................19 

 Correct Use and Misuse of Upper Tethers.............................................................22 

 Nonuse of Upper Tethers.......................................................................................23 

 Upper Tether Ease-of-Use Ratings ........................................................................25 

 Correct Use and Misuse of Lower Attachments....................................................26 

 Overall Misuse for Secure Attachment to the Vehicle ..........................................27 

 Nonuse of Lower Attachments ..............................................................................29 

 Lower Attachment Ease-of-Use Ratings ...............................................................31 

 Preferred Method for Attaching CRS ....................................................................34 

DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS....................................................................................................35 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................36 

REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY ..................................................................................37

ATTACHMENT A: GLOSSARY OF CHILD RESTRAINT TERMS.............................. A-1

ATTACHMENT B: SCOPE OF WORK ................................................................................B-1 
iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS 

(Continued) 

ATTACHMENT C: OMB REVIEW.......................................................................................C-1 

ATTACHMENT D: SURVEY DATA COLLECTION SITES............................................ D-1 

ATTACHMENT E: TRAINING MANUAL............................................................................E-i 

ATTACHMENT F: DATA ENTRY AND CHECKS.............................................................F-1 

ATTACHMENT G: ADDITIONAL DATA ANALYSES .................................................... G-1 

 Child Occupants Younger Than 5 in Booster Seats........................................................ G-1 

 Child Occupants 5 and Older.......................................................................................... G-2

 Appropriate Restraint Selection for Child Occupants Younger Than 13 ....................... G-3 
v

LIST OF TABLES 

Table 1. Restraint Type for Child Occupants Less Than 5 Years Old.................................18 

Table 2. Observed CRS Attachment to the Vehicle, for Children Under 5, Riding in a CRS 

Equipped With Both an Upper Tether Strap and Lower Attachments for Which 

the Use of an Upper Tether Strap Is Appropriate, as a Function of LATCH 

Availability (in the vehicle somewhere versus. in the child’s particular seating 

position) .................................................................................................................20 

Table 3. Observed CRS Attachment to the Vehicle, for Children Under 5, Riding in a 

CRS Equipped With Both an Upper Tether Strap and Lower Attachments for 

Which the Use of an Upper Tether Strap Is Not Appropriate, as a Function of 

LATCH Availability (in the vehicle somewhere versus in the child’s 

particular seating position)....................................................................................21 

Table 4. Observed CRS Attachment to the Vehicle, for Children Under 5, Riding in a 

CRS Equipped With Both an Upper Tether Strap and Lower Attachments, 

as a Function of LATCH Availability (in the vehicle somewhere versus in 

the child’s particular seating position)..................................................................21 

Table 5. Observations of Proper Upper Tether Use for 304 Forward-Facing CRSs. ..........23 

Table 6. Observed Upper Tether Installation Misuse Characteristics for the 304 

Forward-Facing CRSs Equipped With an Upper Tether Strap..............................23 

Table 7. Reasons Provided for Nonuse of Upper Tether Anchors, for Upper TetherEquipped CRSs Installed in Vehicles With Upper Tether Anchors 

(somewhere in the vehicle). ...................................................................................24 

Table 8. Seating Positions and Percentage of Vehicles With an Upper Tether Anchor in 

the Seating Position, for 292 Forward-Facing, Upper Tether-Equipped CRSs 

Where the Upper Tether Was Not in Use. .............................................................25 

Table 9. Ease-of-Use Ratings for Drivers Using Upper Tethers to Install Forward-Facing 

CRSs in a Back Seating Position (for children under 5)........................................25 

Table 10. Observations of Proper Lower Attachment Use for 353 CRSs. ............................26 

Table 11. Observations of Lower Anchor Misuse, for 353 CRSs Installed Using the 

Lower Attachments................................................................................................27 

Table 12. Observed Misuse of Attaching CRSs to Vehicles. ................................................29 
vi

LIST OF TABLES 

(Continued) 

Table 13. Seating Positions and Percentage of Vehicles With Lower Anchors in the 

Seating Position, for 249 Lower-Attachment-Equipped CRSs Where the 

Lower Attachments Were Not in Use....................................................................29 

Table 14. Reasons Provided for Nonuse of Lower Anchors, for Lower-AttachmentEquipped CRSs Installed in Vehicles With Lower Anchors 

(somewhere in the vehicle). ...................................................................................30 

Table 15. Seating Positions of the 54 Children for Whom “Other” Reasons for Nonuse 

of the Lower Anchors Were Offered, and Percentage of Vehicles Equipped 

With Lower Anchors in Those Seating Positions..................................................31 

Table 16. Ease-of-Use Ratings for Drivers Using Lower Attachments to Install ForwardFacing and Rear-Facing CRSs in a Back Seating Position 

(for children under 5).............................................................................................32 

Table 17. Responses Obtained by 246 Lower-Attachment Users (who personally installed 

their CRSs) Describing What They Like About LATCH......................................33 

Table 18. Responses Obtained by 246 Lower-Attachment Users (who personally 

installed their CRSs) Describing What They Don’t Like About LATCH.............34 

Table G-1. Child Restraint Type by Characteristics of Children Important for 

Determining Appropriate Restraint Selection. ................................................... G-3
1

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 

Lower Anchors and Tethers for Children (LATCH), an installation system created to help 

standardize the way child restraints are attached to vehicles without using a seat belt, has been in 

the marketplace since the NHTSA-promulgated regulation (Federal Motor Vehicle Safety 

Standard 225) became fully effective on September 1, 2002. All child restraints and most new 

vehicles manufactured as of that date were required to include hardware components designed to 

simplify child safety seat installation and to reduce the continuing high incidence of misuse and 

incorrect installation of child safety seats. 

As is common with most new technologies, issues have arisen from both manufacturing 

and real life experiences. This study provides a detailed look into the use of LATCH, 

information on consumers’ knowledge and attitudes about it, and steps aimed toward broadening 

the correct use of this new system. 

Upper tethers for child safety seats reduce the tilting or rotation of the seat during a 

frontal crash, because they provide a second attachment of the seat to the vehicle, when used 

with a seat belt or lower anchors. Sled testing using forward-facing child safety seats clearly 

demonstrates that tethered seats, when correctly used, tend to reduce occupant injury levels when 

compared to the same seat without the upper tether attached. Whereas some safety seats were 

equipped with upper tethers as early as 1970, use of upper tethers remained negligible, in part 

because many vehicles did not have upper tether anchors. In response, NHTSA established 

Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard (FMVSS) No. 225 – Child Restraint Anchorage Systems 

– to require upper tether anchorages in the back seats of passenger vehicles effective September 

1, 2000. The agency amended FMVSS No. 213 – Child Restraint Systems – to require an upper 

tether on child safety seats effective September 1, 1999. 

The traditional method of attaching child safety seats with seat belts was prone to misuse 

such as a loose fit or incorrect routing. The new LATCH system, which has a user-friendly 

system of two lower attachments on the safety seats that connect with lower anchors built into 

the back seats of passenger vehicles, was developed as an alternative method of attaching child 

safety seats to the vehicle. FMVSS No. 213 required the lower attachments on child safety seats, 

effective September 1, 2002, and FMVSS No. 225 phased lower anchors into new vehicles by 

the same date. 

Between April and October 2005, NHTSA conducted an observational survey of the use, 

misuse and consumer reaction to LATCH. Data was collected at 66 sites – shopping centers, 

child care facilities, health care centers, and recreation facilities – in 31 counties in Arizona, 

Florida, Michigan, Missouri, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, and Washington. For 1,121 children 

from birth to age 4 in child safety seats riding in the back seat of the vehicle, we observed the 

vehicle and occupant restraint equipment available for each seating position in the vehicle and 

how the safety seats were installed in the vehicle. In addition, we interviewed the drivers on 

their satisfaction with LATCH and their reasons for using or not using it. This survey focused on 

restrained child passengers of the relatively new, LATCH-equipped vehicles; it was not designed 

to monitor the overall use rate of child safety seats in the United States. 

A key finding of the survey was that 55 percent of child safety seats, located in a seat 

position equipped with an upper anchor, were attached to the vehicle using an upper tether when 
2

appropriate. This is a substantial improvement over the 15 percent use of upper tethers on the 

child safety seats equipped with upper tethers during the 1980s. But many parents are not yet 

protecting their children with this technology, even though the use of an upper tether reduces the 

forward motion of the safety seat in a crash; thereby, reducing the potential for injury-causing 

contacts with vehicle interior surfaces, as well as stress and injury to the vulnerable 

head/neck/spinal cord area of the body. 

Other principal findings and conclusions from the survey include: 

USE RATE FOR LOWER ATTACHMENTS AND ANCHORS 

• In 13 percent of the observations, the child safety seat was placed in a seat 

position in the vehicle not equipped with lower anchors; the seat belt was used to 

provide the lower attachment for the child safety seat. 

o Almost all these children were in a center-rear seat, the position long 

recommended to parents because of its distance from potential points of 

impact. Although FMVSS 225 requires lower anchors at two rear-seat 

positions, the center-rear seat is equipped with lower anchors in only a 

relatively few vehicles because, in most vehicles, the anchors are located 

in the outboard (window) seats. 

• Among the 87 percent who do place the child safety seat at a position equipped 

with lower anchors: 

o Sixty percent use the lower attachments and anchors to provide the lower 

attachment for the seat, including: 

 Forty-seven percent using only the lower attachments and lower 

anchors; and 

 Thirteen percent using the lower attachments and lower anchors 

plus the seat belt. 

o Forty percent of parents continue to rely on the vehicle’s seat belts for 

installing the safety seat. 

SECURE INSTALLATION OF CHILD SAFETY SEATS 

• Sixty-one percent of child safety seats installed with lower attachments and 

anchors were securely installed. 

• In a 2002 survey of child safety seats installed with seat belts, only 40 to 46 

percent of the child safety seats were securely installed. 

• Only 11 to 28 percent of child safety seats were securely installed with seat belts 

in a 1995 survey. 
3

• Conclusion: lower attachments and anchors furnished by LATCH appear to be 

helping to reduce the insecure installation of child safety seats. 

CONSUMER REACTION TO LATCH 

• Eighty-one percent of parents using the upper tether and anchor said they were 

easy to use. 

• Seventy-four percent using the lower attachments and anchors said they were easy 

to use. 

• Seventy-five percent of parents with experience using both lower attachments and 

anchors, as well as seat belts to secure child safety seats, said they preferred lower 

attachments and anchors over seat belts. 

• Conclusion: people who have experience with LATCH appear to prefer its use 

over the conventional attachment method using the vehicle seat belt. 

REASONS FOR NOT USING LATCH 

• Sixty-one percent of parents who did not use the upper tether cited their lack of 

knowledge as the reason for nonuse; they did not know what a tether was, they 

did not know that a tether system was available in their vehicle, they did not know 

the importance of using a tether, or they did not know how to properly use a 

tether. 

• Fifty-five percent of parents who did not use the lower attachments cited their 

lack of knowledge as the reason for nonuse. 

• Conclusion: The primary reason people do not use LATCH is that they don’t 

know about it, although the absence of lower attachments and anchors in some 

center-rear seats is another reason cited for not using the LATCH system. 

LONG-TERM GOALS 

Based on a review of the state-of-the-art in child passenger safety as well as the 

survey results, NHTSA believes the following goals would be beneficial to safety: 

• Increase proper child safety seat installation, whether by using the LATCH 

system or, in some cases, by using seat belts in the center-rear or other seating 

positions. 

• Increase the use of the upper tether strap and anchor, because tether use has safety 

benefits. This means that the upper tether strap and anchor should be used 

whether using the lower anchors or the seat belt system to secure the child 

restraint in a center-rear seat. 
4

• Increase the percentage of children riding in the center-rear seat, which is the 

safest place in a vehicle, in those cases in which the child safety seat can be 

securely installed in the center-rear seat. This includes whether the child safety 

seat is attached to the vehicle with lower anchors or a seat belt. 

• Increase the use of lower attachments and anchors, when they are available, 

because lower attachment use helps enhance the correct installation of safety 

seats. 

• Increase the proportion of new vehicles that have lower anchors in center-rear 

seats, since the lower anchors are used correctly more often than installations 

using seat belts. 

• Explore ways to increase the number of children who are safely restrained, for the 

population of children who weigh over 40 pounds but are not yet old enough (at 

least 4 years old) to ride in booster seats. This includes ways to increase the use 

of upper tether straps and upper tether anchors, in combination with child safety 

seats that are weight/age appropriate. 

NEXT STEPS 

• Convene a meeting with stakeholders, including automakers, safety seat 

manufacturers, leading researchers and prominent national non-profit 

organizations to discuss issues related to educating and supporting consumers in 

their efforts to use LATCH to safely restrain their children and any other efforts 

the Agency could take to improve proper installation and use of child safety seats. 
5

INTRODUCTION 

This section provides the background for the study, including the definition of LATCH 

(Lower Anchors and Tethers for Children), as well as the project objectives. A glossary of child 

restraint terms is provided in Attachment A of this report. 

BACKGROUND 

 Child safety seats, also called child restraint systems (CRSs) are the most effective way 

to protect young children involved in motor vehicle crashes from serious injury or death. The 

National Highway Traffic Safety Administration estimates that CRSs, when properly used, 

reduce the chance of death in a motor vehicle crash by 71 percent.1

CRSs vary according to the size of the child they are designed to restrain, the direction 

the child should face, the type of internal restraining system, and the method of installation. 

CRSs are designed to provide two links between the vehicle and the child. The CRS is securely 

attached to the vehicle seat using the vehicle seat belt or the lower attachments, at the same time 

that the child is properly secured in the CRS with a separate harness and/or other restraining 

surface. These two links between the vehicle and the child are critical in reducing injuries or 

death in the event of a vehicle crash.2

While a 2002 NHTSA CRS misuse observation study showed improvement in the overall 

restraint use for young children, there were still specific types of CRS misuse that were common, 

especially loose harness straps restraining the child in the CRS and a loose connection between 

the CRS and vehicle seat.3

 Child passenger safety experts believe that a loose CRS in a vehicle 

is a serious misuse and that the LATCH system can simplify CRS installation and reduce 

misuses of this type.4

NHTSA has recognized the difficulties that parents and caregivers experience in securely 

attaching a CRS to a vehicle and has addressed this issue in 1999 by establishing a uniform child 

restraint attachment system known as LATCH by amending FMVSS 213, “Child Restraint 

Systems” and issuing FMVSS 225, “Child Restraint Anchorage Systems,” effective September 

1, 2002.5

 

This field observation study provided a look into LATCH system use and misuse among 

the motoring public. As part of the LATCH system, the upper tether provides an additional point 

of attachment to the vehicle, making it a very important improvement in occupant protection. 

While the use of lower anchors can be a convenience and possibly improve tightness of fit, the 

use of an upper tether has been shown to actually reduce the forward movement of the 

 

1

 Starnes, M., and Eigen, A., Fatalities and injuries to 0-8 year old passenger vehicle occupants based on impact 

attributes, NHTSA Technical Report No. DOT HS 809 410, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 

Washington, March 2002. 

2

 Weber, K., “Crash Protection for Child Passengers – A Review of Best Practice,” UMTRI Research Review, Vol. 

31, No. 3, July-September 2000, pp. 1-27. 

3

 Decina, L.E., and Lococo, K., Misuse of Child Restraints. NHTSA Publication No. DOT HS 809 671, National 

Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Washington, 2004. 

4

 Stewart D., Lang, N.J., and Emery, S., LATCH –Lower Anchors and Tethers for Child Restraints, Safe Ride News 

Publication, Seattle, 4th Edition, 2005. 5 Code of Federal Regulations, Title 49, Government Printing Office, Washington, 2005, Parts 571.213 and 

571.225. 
6

occupant’s head, minimizing the risks of impact of the child’s head with the vehicle interior or 

other passengers. Thus, LATCH holds the promise of not only simplifying the installation of 

child restraint systems and minimizing misuse, but has the potential to improve child occupant 

protection. 

LATCH-equipped vehicles have at least two sets of small bars, called anchors, located in 

the back seat where the seat cushions meet. LATCH-equipped CRSs have a lower set of 

attachments that fasten to these vehicle lower anchors. Most forward-facing CRSs also have a 

top strap (upper tether) that attaches to a top or upper anchor in the vehicle. Together, they make 

up the LATCH system.6

 It is believed that measurable improvement in the proper and secure use 

of CRSs can be achieved, based upon the premise that this new LATCH system may be more 

convenient and easier to use than vehicle seat belts.7

While LATCH holds the promise of simplifying the installation of CRSs, drivers 

transporting young children still must manually connect the CRS’s tether strap to the vehicle 

anchor behind the seat and connect the CRS lower attachments to the vehicle’s lower anchor 

bars. Once connected, the upper tether and lower attachment straps need to be tightened. In 

addition, there are exceptions to LATCH connections based on the make/model of the type of the 

CRS and the vehicle make/model’s seat belts and lower anchors. With all of these 

circumstances, it is not surprising that some parents and caregivers transporting young children 

have had difficulties initially installing their CRSs using LATCH, as evidenced by field 

observations. The 2002 CRS misuse observation study found LATCH misuse associated with 

upper tether and lower anchor connections.8

 More recently, a workshop with the same field 

observation staff provided anecdotal reports of LATCH misuse. They reported misuse 

associated with tethers wrapped around head restraints; tethers swinging loose in the vehicles; 

improper connections with embedded lower anchor bars; and lower attachments connected to 

cargo hooks, seat material, and other structures in the vehicle.9

PROJECT OBJECTIVES 

 The main objectives of this project were to collect quantitative data and other information 

concerning the restraint use of children in passenger vehicles and to identify the use and misuse 

of LATCH. The research sought to obtain additional information about drivers’ sociodemographic characteristics and their knowledge of restraint systems (booster seat, LATCH 

issues and laws), as well as characteristics about their vehicles (e.g., seating configurations, 

restraint and LATCH systems). The task activities required in the scope of work, in order to 

carry out these objectives are contained in Attachment B. 

 

6

 Starnes, M., and Eigen, A., Fatalities and injuries to 0-8 year old passenger vehicle occupants based on impact 

attributes, NHTSA Technical Report No. DOT HS 809 410, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 

Washington, March 2002. 

7 Final Economic Assessment, FMVSS No. 213, FMVSS No. 225, Child Restraint Systems, Child Restraint 

Anchorage Systems, Washington, 1999. 8

Decina, L.E., and Lococo, K., Misuse of Child Restraints. NHTSA Publication No. DOT HS 809 671, Washington, 

2004.; Decina, L.E., and Lococo, K., “Child Restraint System Use and Misuse in Six States,” Accident Analysis and 

Prevention, Vol. 37, 2005, pp. 583-590. 9

 Decina, L.E., Lococo, K., and Block, A., Misuse of Child Restraints: Results of a Workshop to Review Field Data 

Results, NHTSA Traffic Safety Facts – Research Note No. DOT HS 809 851, National Highway Traffic Safety 

Administration, March 2005. 
7

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 

This section of the report identifies the research methodology used in meeting the project 

objectives. Key research task activities centered around developing a survey plan, collecting 

data, and developing a database, as well as the preparation of a coding manual and production of 

a SAS-readable data file. 

To note, restraint use for children was identified in this study as either a child restraint 

system (CRS), a booster seat, a vehicle seat belt (either a lap and shoulder belt, a lap belt only, or 

a shoulder belt only), or unrestrained. The basic types of occupant restraints for children are: 

infant-only seats, convertible seats (converts from rear facing to forward facing), forward-facing 

only seats, combination seats (converts from forward facing to booster seat when the harness is 

removed), booster seats, and integrated (built-in) seats. (There are also less common CRSs in 

use including car beds for low-birth-weight infants and infants with medical conditions; harness 

vests for toddlers and older children; and restraint systems for children with special needs.) 

Some child passenger safety (CPS) experts do not consider booster seats as child restraint 

systems. This is because booster seats are considered to be devices that raise the child’s seating 

height so that the vehicle lap and shoulder belts fit better. The vehicle belts actually restrain the 

child, not the booster seat. In this study, the term CRS is reserved for child restraints with an 

internal harness; it does not include booster seats. A forward-facing combination seat that is 

being used with the internal harness was considered a CRS; if the internal harness was removed 

and the seat was being used as a belt-positioning booster, it was considered a booster. 

 In this study, CRS installations using either the upper tether anchor and/or the lower 

anchors were observed, and misuses with the LATCH system were recorded. Additionally, each 

child’s weight was obtained, so that upper tether and lower anchor use by weight could be 

analyzed. 

For upper tether anchor use and misuse the following elements were studied: 

• Presence of tether anchor in vehicle; 

• Presence of upper tether straps on CRS; 

• CRS upper tether adjustor type (tilt-lock, double-back); 

• Whether the upper tether was being used; 

• Whether a combination seat used as a belt-positioning booster was using the 

upper tether; 

• Tether routing; 

• Whether an upper tether was attached to a designated upper tether anchor or to 

some other place; and 

• Tether twists; and snugness of tether attachment. 

For lower anchor use and misuse, the following elements were studied: 

• Presence of lower anchor in vehicle seat position; 

• Presence of lower attachments on CRS; 
8

• Lower attachment connector type (flexible strap, hook-on or push-on or rigid), 

flexible strap release type (squeeze or tilt-lock), and strap type (single, side straps, 

two straps); 

• Whether the lower anchors were in use; 

• Whether the vehicle’s seat belt was used to fasten the CRS in addition to or instead of 

the lower attachments; 

• Whether a combination seat being used as a belt-positioning booster was using the 

lower attachments; 

• Whether the lower attachments were connected to the designated anchors; 

• Whether one connector was attached per anchor bar; 

• Whether the connector was installed right-side up; 

• Whether the lower attachment twists; 

• The lower attachment snugness; and 

• Whether the correct angle was achieved for infant seats. 

SURVEY PLAN 

 The survey plan incorporated data collection techniques necessary to efficiently and 

effectively capture the target sample (primarily, children less than 5 years in a CRS in the back 

seat of a vehicle equipped with upper tether anchors). 

Sample Estimates 

Based on the 1999 NHTSA rulemaking (FMVSS 213, Child Restraint Systems and 

FMVSS 225 Child Restraint Anchorage Systems), NHTSA provided an estimate of the number 

of vehicles on the road with upper tether anchors and lower anchors. Projections for new 

vehicles and CRSs equipped with LATCH technology were based on the following phasing-in 

schedules: 

For upper tether anchors on vehicles: 

• 80 percent of new cars manufactured between September 1, 1999, and August 31, 

2000; and 

• Nearly 100 percent of new cars and light trucks manufactured on or after 

September 1, 2000. 

For lower anchor points: 

• 20 percent of all vehicles manufactured between September 1, 2000, and August 

31, 2001; 

• 50 percent of all vehicles manufactured between September 1, 2001, and August 

31, 2002; and 

• Nearly 100 percent of all vehicles manufactured on or after September 1, 2002. 
9

 NHTSA provided preliminary recommendations for survey size for each group of child 

passengers identified for the study. However, it was determined that data collection could end 

once the target of 1,000 child passengers in Group 3 had been reached. The Groups were: 

Group 1: Child passengers age 0 to 12 (approximately 6,750); 

Group 2: Child passengers age 0 to 4 years old in a CRS in the back seat 

(approximately 2,250); 

Group 3: Child passengers age 0 to 4 years old in a CRS in the back seat of a 

vehicle equipped with upper tether anchors (approximately 1,000); 

Group 4: Child passengers age 0 to 4 years old in a CRS in the back seat of a 

vehicle equipped with lower anchors and upper tether anchors 

(approximately 585). 

The groups are not mutually exclusive; rather, they are subsets. A Group 4 child is also 

part of Groups 3, 2, and 1. A Group 3 child is also part of Groups 2 and 1. A Group 2 child is 

also part of Group 1. Also, it is important to note that the definition of a Group 3 or Group 4 

child did not require that the child was riding in a seating position equipped with lower anchors 

and/or an upper tether anchor; it only required that the child was riding in a vehicle equipped 

with lower anchors and/or upper tether anchors. 

Office of Management and Budget (OMB) Review 

Data collection forms were developed for the Child Restraint Use Survey. The forms 

were based upon meeting the project goals; past NHTSA child observation survey forms and 

experience; and input by the State site coordinators (SSCs) and other national CPS experts. 

Supporting documentation was prepared for use in requesting the Office of Management and 

Budget’s (OMB) review and approval of these data collection forms. See Attachment C for 

details on the material prepared and submitted to OMB. 

Site Selection Criteria 

A purposive or convenience sample technique was used for the study. Data collection 

sites met the following criteria: 

• Socio-demographic and economic area that would have a high probability of 

newer vehicles with LATCH systems. 

• Locations that attract a high frequency of vehicles/drivers with young children 

(e.g., shopping centers, pediatric centers, amusement parks, fast-food restaurants). 

• Locations suitable for safe and efficient data collection (e.g., limited entrance 

ramps, adequate parking lanes, designated pull-off areas). 

• Locations with merchant, community, and law enforcement cooperation. 

Initial guidelines provided by NHTSA specified that at least six States should be selected, 

each representing a different area of the country. The guidelines also recommended that 
10

observations be made in at least five counties in each State and four to six sites within each 

county (depending on the size and population of the county). In addition, they suggested that 

two of the counties in each State be in standard metropolitan statistical areas (SMSA) and the 

other three counties in non-SMSA areas. The following seven States were chosen, based on 

these contract requirements, and on past experience with the project team collecting CRS use and 

misuse data: Arizona, Florida, Michigan, Missouri, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, and 

Washington. Scheduling and resources determined the ability of the project teams in each State 

to meet the geographical distribution criteria set forth in the project’s goals. A listing of the 

counties and cities in each State in which data was collected is contained in Attachment D. 

Observer and Interviewer’s Responsibilities 

The project’s first priority was to recruit a qualified team of data collectors. State site 

coordinators (SSCs) who had been selected because of their many years of expertise in child 

passenger safety, often including membership in organizations dedicated to child passenger 

safety, were given this responsibility for the state in which they were working. Observers and 

interviewers were selected based on their expertise and experience in Child Passenger Safety 

with many of the field crew having previous experience as data collectors on NHTSA’s “Misuse 

of Child Restraint” Study.10 

The following characteristics were sought for data collectors: 

• Certification as a technician or instructor in CPS (via the National Standardized 

Child Passenger Safety Training Program); 

• Experience with types of child restraints and LATCH systems; 

• Experience in observing and collecting CPS survey data; 

• Flexible with work schedule; 

• Physically able to meet demands of field work; and 

• Capabilities in reliability, self-motivation, and resourcefulness. 

Observer and interviewer responsibilities were as follows: 

Observer Responsibilities: 

• After receiving driver permission, open the vehicle doors; 

• Observe and record LATCH use and misuse data; 

• Observe and record other CRS use; 

• Observe and record vehicle seating configuration; 

• Observe and record restraint types in the vehicle for each seating position; and 

• Observe and record the presence of upper tether and lower anchors for each 

seating position. 

 

10 Decina, L.E., and Lococo, K., Misuse of Child Restraints. NHTSA Publication No. DOT HS 809 671, National 

Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Washington, 2004. 
11

Interviewer Responsibilities: 

• Identify the target vehicle entering the designated area; 

• Stop the target driver/vehicle with young children; 

• Request permission to conduct the survey; 

• Introduce themselves and the observer; 

• Ask the driver demographic and interview questions; 

• Collect other occupant information (age, restraint use); 

• Record data; and 

• Thank the driver. 

The data collectors were given permission to inform drivers of their concern about the 

misuse or lack of restraint use in the vehicle. These drivers were given literature describing 

proper restraint use for young children. In many cases, the drivers were given the opportunity to 

make an appointment to get their CRSs checked at a fitting station or attend a check-up event 

with the SSCs’ organizations. 

Data Collection Procedures 

Data was collected by teams of two, which consisted of an interviewer and an observer. 

Interviewer and observer responsibilities were previously described. The field procedures used 

to collect the data were as follows: 

• Select a target vehicle entering the site and approach the driver. Priority was given to 

late-model vehicles with young child occupants in CRSs in the back seat. 

• Identify oneself, briefly explain the purpose of the study (including informing the driver 

that the children would not be touched or removed from their child restraint systems or 

from their seating position), and request permission to conduct the observation. 

• Upon receipt of driver’s permission, direct driver to move vehicle to designated safety 

zone or parking spot. 

• Interviewer asks questions; and observer conducts observations; both record data, 

respectively. 

• Upon completion of interaction, thank the driver. 

• Review data collected for all interview and observation forms. 

• Move back into position to wait for the next vehicle. 

Each site had a field manager responsible for overseeing the field operation. Duties 

included: observing techniques used by interviewers and observers; supplying data collection 

forms; collecting the forms; managing staff scheduling; collecting and checking timesheets; and 
12

reporting to the SSCs and principal investigator (PI). In many cases, the field managers were also 

data collectors. Questions about data were brought to the attention of the data collectors. Data 

was sent by mail (courier service with tracking labels) to the PI on a regular basis. Data was 

collected from April to October 2005 in seven States (Arizona, Florida, Michigan, Missouri, 

North Carolina, Pennsylvania, and Washington). 

Pilot Testing 

A pilot test was conducted to evaluate the efficiency and effectiveness of the data 

collection procedures and data collection forms (interview, observation). The pilot study was 

conducted during the spring of 2005 in the Pennsylvania cities of Hershey (Dauphin County) and 

Bethlehem (Northampton County). The studies were conducted at three types of sites (shopping 

centers, street checkpoints with law enforcement assistance, and pediatric centers). 

The results of the pilot study yielded minor revisions to the data collection forms related 

to the arrangement of the coding variables. There were no changes to the data collection 

procedures. However, the use of law enforcement officers to assist in identifying the appropriate 

target groups at specific vantage points at sites (such as shopping center parking lanes) was 

considered strongly advantageous to efficient data collecting. 

Another objective of the pilot study was to estimate the level of effort necessary (in terms 

of time and staff resources) to collect data from the targeted drivers with young child occupants 

in vehicles with LATCH systems. Despite the fact that it would take less than 10 minutes to 

complete an observation (and survey) with a target vehicle, the number of target vehicles 

entering a site was not that common. Results showed that Group 3 data (upper tether anchor in 

vehicle with child less than 5 years old in the back seat in a CRS) could be collected by a team of 

two at the rate of one observation per 1.25 hours. This finding confirmed the originally proposed 

estimate, so that it was determined that no staffing changes needed to be made. 

Training 

Training consisted of three segments: (1) workshop with SSCs; (2) teleconference with 

SSCs; and (3) in-State training sessions with SSC as instructor (April - June 2005). The SSCs 

occasionally had questions, interesting findings, or techniques about what they were uncovering 

during field observations. This information was shared with all of the SSCs through e-mail 

distribution from the PI. 

The workshop conducted at the beginning of the project (March 2004) provided NHTSA 

and the PI with the opportunity to provide necessary information to the SSCs regarding the type 

of data that was needed to meet the project’s goals. The session provided discussion about 

definitions of variables, variables to include on each data collection form, and training 

expectations. 

For the teleconference training session (April 2005), each SSC was given a copy of the 

Training Manual (See Attachment E of this report) in advance to review. The PI spent several 

hours with the SSCs during the teleconference, in order to review the contents of the manual and 

the instructions on how to code the survey and the observation forms. During the teleconference, 
13

discussions were held concerning how long the field workers training sessions should be, as well 

as what material should be covered. A decision was made to have 1.5 days of classroom training 

to be followed first by 1 day in the field, and then by 1 day of close supervision. 

For in-State training (April - June 2005), all data collectors were given a training manual, 

as well as classroom and in-the-field training. Since the data collectors were already CPS 

trained, training need only to focus on the specifics of this survey and not the broader area of 

child passenger safety in general. Classroom sessions covered the following topics: introduction 

and project objectives; definitions of LATCH use and misuse; definitions of other words/terms 

on the forms; review of interview questions; review of how to record information on the forms, 

review of interaction with the public; general data collection procedures, sign out procedures; 

intervention activities (e.g., setting up a check-up appointment or distributing education 

material); checking data (including use of the “green” book - LATCH manual); and general 

miscellaneous field work issues (e.g., supplies, incentives, safety gear). 

Classroom sessions were followed with practice trials in parking lots using drivers and 

young children in mock situations. Vehicles with various upper tether anchor and lower anchor 

configurations were included in the practice. After a day of field practice, data collectors were 

taken to field sites (mostly shopping centers) to conduct surveys. They were closely supervised 

by the training staff for at least another day or until staff were comfortable with their data 

collection activities. Each SSC conducted its own training session with their staff in a classroom 

setting, then out in the field. 

Data Collection 

Approximately 50 CPS-certified observers and interviewers participated in the data 

collection effort covering 66 sites (i.e., shopping centers, child care facilities, health care centers, 

recreation facilities) in 31 counties across seven States (Arizona, Florida, Michigan, Missouri, 

North Carolina, Pennsylvania, and Washington) between April and October 2005. Observations 

and interviews were conducted with approximately 1,200 drivers transporting young child 

occupants in the vehicles. Most of these vehicles had either upper tether anchor systems or both 

upper tether and lower anchor systems. Most of these vehicles had children less than 5 years old 

in the back seat either in a child restraint system or booster seat. Due to the focus of the survey 

(i.e., to collect data on LATCH use and misuse), a full range of CRSs and safety seat users was 

not surveyed. Instead, newer model vehicles in more urban/affluent areas were selected in order 

to obtain information on the population of interest—vehicles equipped with the LATCH system. 

Observation data was collected on child occupants, including type of restraint used and a 

gross measure of proper use versus misuse, as well as vehicle LATCH installation use and 

misuse (specifically for children less than 5 years old in a CRS). Children remained in their 

restraints during the observations. Restraint types available for all vehicle seating positions were 

also recorded. The two forms that were used to collect observation data were: 

• NHTSA 1002 – “CRS and LATCH Use Observation Form.” 

• NHTSA 1002C – “Arrangement of Vehicle-Seating Positions and Occupant Restraint 

Equipment Available for Each Seating Position.” 
14

In addition, interview data were collected. Drivers were asked a few demographic 

questions about themselves and their children, and their knowledge of booster seats and LATCH 

systems. If the LATCH systems were being used, drivers were asked questions about the 

reasons for use, ease of use, and choice over seat belts. Demographic information and restraint 

type used were also obtained for all other vehicle occupants. The two forms that were used to 

collect interview data were: 

• NHTSA 1002A (a two-sided form) – “CRS and LATCH Use Interview Form.” 

• NHTSA 1002B – “CRS and LATCH Use Interview Form, Question 6: Occupant 

Characteristics Chart.” 

Copies of the data collection forms are presented in Appendix B of the Training Manual, at the 

end of this report (In Attachment E). 

DATABASE DESIGN 

This section describes the assignment of children into the survey groups, data entry 

procedures and checks, and the development of the database and coding manual. 

Coding 

 Survey Group Assignment. There are four survey groups covered in the study: 

• Group 1 = Child age 0 to 12. 

• Group 2 = Child age 0 to 4, in the back seat in a CRS. 

• Group 3 = Child age 0 to 4, in the back seat in a CRS, in a vehicle equipped with 

an upper tether anchor. 

• Group 4 = Child age 0 to 4, in the back seat in a CRS, in a vehicle equipped with 

lower anchors and upper tether anchors. 

The groups are not mutually exclusive; rather, they are subsets. A Group 4 child is also 

part of Groups 3, 2, and 1. A Group 3 child is also part of Groups 2 and 1. A Group 2 child is 

also part of Group 1. 

Child occupants age 12 and under were coded using the highest-numbered category in 

which they fit. For example, a Group 4 child, who would also be considered a Group 1, Group 2, 

and Group 3 child, was coded as Group 4. A child coded as Group 1, would be older than age 4, 

and/or would be sitting in the front seat or sitting in the back seat, but not in a child restraint 

system (CRS) in the back seat. A child age 0-4 in the front seat, in or out of a CRS, would also 

be coded as Group 1. 

In this study, CRSs do not include booster seats. A booster seat raises the child so the 

vehicle lap and shoulder belts fit better. The vehicle seat belt restrains the child, not the booster 
15

seat. CRSs are defined as child restraints with internal harnesses (infant, rear-facing convertible, 

and forward-facing with a harness). Children in belt-positioning booster seats (BPBs) were 

identified as in booster type 5 and were placed in Group 1, because belt-positioning booster seats 

(and combination seats with the harness removed and used in the booster mode) should not be 

attached to the vehicle using LATCH technology. Most vehicle manufacturers list a maximum 

weight of 40 pounds for children in upper tethered restraints. Vehicle manufacturers currently 

limit the use of their lower anchors to restraints for children weighing up to 48 pounds. Also seat 

manufacturers state that BPBs should move freely with the occupant during a collision to prevent 

submarining, which could happen if a BPB were attached using the lower anchors, and the child 

was restrained with the seat belt. Children in integrated CRSs (i.e., CRSs supplied by the 

manufacturer and built into the vehicle’s seat) were placed in Group 1. 

An exception to this coding rule was made for the subset of eight children who were 

riding in a vehicle with lower anchors, who were restrained in combination seats used 

(improperly) as both a forward-facing CRS (CRS type = 4) and a belt-positioning booster 

(Booster type = 6).11 These children were restrained with the vehicle seat belt and the internal 

harness, even though the seat was also anchored to the vehicle using LATCH attachments. 

These children were coded as riding in boosters (restraint type =2), in belt positioning boosters 

with LATCH attachments (booster type =6), and as Group 4 children (age 0 to 4 in the back seat 

in CRSs, in a vehicle equipped with lower anchors and upper tethers), to preserve the fact that 

they were using the vehicle seat belts as a restraint, without excluding them from analyses of 

target children in CRSs (as they were also using the internal harness). 

Data Entry 

Accuracy of data entry was maximized by training of project staff and use of templates in 

data entry. Following data entry, further data-checking (e.g., range checks, skip pattern checks, 

data consistency checks, review of text items) was conducted. For additional details on data 

entry procedures and checks, see Attachment F. 

Coding Manual 

A Coding Manual was developed as a companion document to this Final Report. It 

provides a description of the variable fields for the 126 variables in the Vehicle data set and the 

91 variables in the Occupant data set to be used for statistical analysis purposes. It also presents 

information in tabular format for each variable - the SAS Variable Name, Format Type, Field 

Length, Range of Values, Data Set (Vehicle or Occupant), Unique Identifier, and NHTSA Form 

Number (1002, 1002A, 1002B, 1002C). 

Included in the Coding Manual are four appendices. Appendix A provides the specific 

codes assigned in this project to vehicle makes and models. Appendix B contains copies of the 

interview and observation survey forms that have been modified to include “unique identifiers”, 

which were assigned to each interview question or observational element that is coded in the data 

tables, for ease of referencing between the survey forms and the data tables. Appendix C 

presents information concerning the data check and data entry procedures that were utilized, 

while Appendix D provides a glossary of child restraint terms. 

 

11 Copies of the data collection forms are presented in Appendix B of the Training Manual, at the end of the report. 
16

SAS File 

The Microsoft Access database used for data entry was converted to an SAS file with a 

Vehicle data set and an Occupant data set. The Vehicle data set contains information describing 

the vehicle make, model, year, and restraint technology for each seating position; characteristics 

of the site where data was collected; and responses to questions asked of drivers about their 

knowledge of LATCH technology and their knowledge of the different stages of child occupant 

protection. The Occupant data set contains occupant demographics and information about 

restraint use. 
17

ANALYSIS OF SELECTED DATA 

This chapter presents the results of selected data analyses in both narrative and tabular 

format. A general summary of the target drivers, vehicles, and young child occupants is 

provided first, for Survey Groups 1 through 4. An overall summary of data on LATCH system 

use for occupants less than 5 years old in a CRS in the back seat of a vehicle with upper tether 

anchor only (Survey Group 3), or upper tether anchor and lower anchors (Survey Group 4) is 

then presented. 

Next, for the sample of upper tether users, detailed summaries are presented describing 

observed upper tether use—proper use, misuse, and nonuse. This is followed by summaries of 

interview data from nonusers of the upper tether strap, describing drivers’ reasons for not 

attaching the upper tether strap. This section closes with ease-of-use ratings obtained from 

drivers of vehicles in which upper tethers were being used. 

Analyses describing lower attachment use are presented following the discussion of 

upper tether use. For the sample of lower attachment users, detailed summaries are presented 

describing observed lower attachment use—proper use, misuse, and nonuse. This is followed by 

summaries of interview data from nonusers of the lower attachments, describing drivers’ reasons 

for not attaching the lower attachments. The section on lower attachment use closes with easeof-use ratings obtained from driver interviews with the lower attachment users, and drivers’ 

preferences for attaching their CRSs to the vehicle (lower attachment versus the seat belt). 

Attachment G presents general summary data on child occupants younger than 5 years 

old in booster seats; restraint use of all children age 5 to 13; and appropriateness of restraint 

selection for all child occupants younger than age 13. 

TARGET SAMPLE CHARACTERISTICS 

Observations were made between April and October 2005 for 1,182 drivers/vehicles and 

1,728 child occupants younger than 13. The number of target vehicles observed in each State 

was as follows: Arizona, 163; Florida, 73; Michigan, 271; Missouri, 120; North Carolina, 171; 

Pennsylvania, 113; and Washington, 271. More than half of the data collection sites (55%) were 

shopping centers; 17 percent were child care centers; 12 percent were recreation facilities (e.g., 

swimming pool clubs); and the remainder were fast-food restaurants, health-care facilities, or 

other locations frequently visited by drivers with young children. Most of the sites were in either 

suburban (48%) or urban (46%) areas. In addition, 80 percent of the sites were in areas defined 

by the State site coordinators as middle- to upper-middle socio-economic class. 

Seventy-two percent of the drivers were female. While a large percentage of the drivers 

were white (77%), 9 percent were African American, 7 percent were Latino/Hispanic, 5 percent 

were Asian, and the remainder were Pacific-Islander, Native American, or Other. Of the 1,182 

drivers who participated in the interviews, 52 percent of them had heard of a new way to install a 

CRS without a vehicle seat belt. Of this subgroup of 609 drivers who had heard of a new way, 

69 percent reported that it was called “LATCH.” 
18

Over 70 percent of the vehicles were model year 2000 and later; and over 50 percent of 

the vehicles were model year 2002 and later. Over half of the vehicles were either minivans or 

SUVs (52%); and 38 percent were 4-door passenger cars. 

The main focus of this analysis is children less than 5 years old, as they are the intended 

users of child restraint systems in general, and LATCH technology in particular. This is because 

children 5 and older, depending upon weight and height, may be riding restrained on booster 

seats (using the vehicle seat belt as the restraint) or in CRSs designed for higher-weight children. 

Booster seats without an internal harness and higher-weight CRSs are not intended to be attached 

to vehicles using LATCH, as most LATCH anchors are rated for children who weigh less than 

40 (and sometimes 48) pounds. Brief summaries of results pertaining to children younger than 5 

who were riding in booster seats, and child occupants age 5 to 12 are presented in Attachment G 

at the end of this report. 

There were 1,351 child occupants younger than 5 in total, in Groups 1 to 4. Table 1 

presents the number of children by observed restraint type. 

Table 1. Restraint Type for Child Occupants Younger Than 5 Years Old. 

Restraint Type Number (Percent) of Children 

CRS 1,134 (84%) 

Booster 195 (14%) 

Lap And Shoulder Belt 15 (1%) 

Lap Only Belt 3 (<1%) 

Unrestrained 4 (<1%) 

Total 1,351 

All but 14 of the children under age 5 were riding in the back seat. The 14 children 

riding in the front seat were restrained as follows: 2 children were in rear-facing CRSs, 9 were 

in forward-facing CRSs, 2 were in belt-positioning boosters, and 1 was in a lap and shoulder 

belt. With regard to the 2 rear-facing children, one child was in a vehicle without an airbag 

switch and the other child was in a vehicle with an airbag switch in the “on” position. This child 

was riding in an infant-only CRS without a base, and the CRS was not attached to the vehicle. 

The extremely low proportion of children who were: (1) unrestrained, and (2) riding in 

the front seat probably was associated with the following survey features: (1) the survey data 

collectors concentrated on vehicles with children restrained in the back seat of the vehicle, and 

(2) parents who agreed to participate in the survey were probably whose who restrained their 

children and placed them in the back seat. 

 The main focus of the study was to determine LATCH system use and misuse with child 

occupants younger than 5 years old in a CRS. As stated earlier, it is important to note that it was 

not required that the child be riding in a seating position equipped with lower anchors and/or a 

upper tether anchor; it only required that the child be riding in a vehicle equipped with lower 

anchors and/or upper tether anchors somewhere in the vehicle. 
19

There were 602 Group 4 children younger than 5 being transported in a CRS with an 

upper tether strap and a lower attachment, which was located in the front or back seat of a 

vehicle that was equipped with both an upper tether anchor and lower anchors somewhere in the 

vehicle. 

Upper Tether and Lower Attachments Use 

Table 2 presents a comparison of all the methods used to attach the current CRSs to 

current vehicles. It is limited to: 

• Vehicles equipped with the full LATCH system (upper tether and lower anchors); 

• CRSs equipped with upper tethers and lower attachments; 

• CRSs used in a mode (usually forward-facing) where upper tethers and lower 

attachments are recommended. 

Not all seating positions in LATCH-equipped vehicles are themselves LATCH-equipped. 

It was important to determine whether drivers who were transporting children in LATCH-ready 

CRSs (i.e., those with lower attachments and upper tether straps) were taking advantage of lower 

and upper tether anchors in their vehicles, to attach the CRSs. The data examined for this 

analysis was limited to the subset of children riding in CRSs equipped with upper tethers and 

lower attachments and for which the use of an upper tether strap is appropriate. The first column 

presents the number and percent of CRSs attached using each method, when both lower anchors 

and upper tether anchors were available somewhere in the vehicle. The second column presents 

the number and percent of CRSs attached using each method, when both lower anchors and an 

upper tether anchor were available in the child’s seating position in the vehicle. Overall, 208 of 

these 375 children, 55 percent, were using the upper tether. This is a huge improvement over the 

15 percent use of upper tethers in safety seats of the 1980s, when vehicles were not required to 

have upper tether anchorages.12 Forty-five percent of parents and caregivers, however, are still 

not using the upper tethers. 

 

12 Kahane, Charles J., 1986. An Evaluation of Child Passenger Safety: The Effectiveness and Benefits of Safety 

Seats. DOT HS 806 890. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Washington, DC. 
20

Table 2. Observed CRS Attachment to the Vehicle, for Children Under 5, Riding in a CRS 

Equipped With Both an Upper Tether Strap and Lower Attachments for Which the Use of 

an Upper Tether Strap Is Appropriate, as a Function of LATCH Availability (in the vehicle 

somewhere versus in the child’s particular seating position). 

Method Used to Attach CRS to 

Vehicle When Use of Upper 

Tether Strap Is Appropriate 

Number (Percent) for 

Children in Vehicles Equipped 

With Lower Anchors and

Upper Tether Anchors 

Somewhere in the Vehicle 

(n=426) 

Number (Percent) for Children 

in Vehicles Equipped With 

Lower Anchors and a Upper 

Tether Anchor in the Child’s 

Particular Seating Position 

(n=375) 

Upper Tether and Lower 

Anchors 149 (35%) 138 (37%) 

Upper Tether and Lower 

Anchors and Seat Belt 29 (7%) 26 (7%) 

Upper Tether and Seat Belt 59 (14%) 44 (12%) 

Upper Tether Only 0 0 

Lower Anchors and Seat Belt 20 (5%) 20 (5%) 

Lower Anchors Only 37 (9%) 37 (10%) 

Seat Belt Only 132 (31%) 110 (29%) 

Not Attached 0 0 

Table 3 present a comparison of methods used to attach the CRSs to vehicles. It is 

limited to: 

• Vehicles equipped with the full LATCH system (upper tether and lower anchors); 

• CRSs equipped with upper tethers and lower attachments; 

• CRSs used in a mode (usually rear-facing) where only the lower attachments are 

recommended. 

Since upper tether use is not considered appropriate for these CRSs by the manufacturers, 

the 6 percent of CRSs attached to the vehicle using an upper tether (i.e., “Tether and Lower 

Anchors and Seat Belt” or “Tether and Seat Belt”) are not attached in a recommended way. As 

in Table 2, some CRSs were attached with seat belts instead of lower attachments and others 

with seat belts in addition to lower attachments. 
21

Table 3. Observed CRS Attachment to the Vehicle, for Children Under 5, Riding in a CRS 

Equipped With Both an Upper Tether Strap and Lower Attachments for Which the Use of 

an Upper tether Strap Is Not Appropriate,13 as a Function of LATCH Availability (in the 

vehicle somewhere versus in the child’s particular seating position). 

Method Used to Attach CRS to 

Vehicle When Use of Upper 

Tether Strap Is Not 

Appropriate 

Number (Percent) for 

Children in Vehicles Equipped 

With Lower Anchors and

Upper Tether Anchors 

Somewhere in the Vehicle 

(n=85) 

Number (Percent) for Children 

in Vehicles Equipped With 

Lower Anchors and an Upper 

Tether Anchor in the Child’s 

Particular Seating Position 

(n=69) 

Upper Tether and Lower 

Anchors and Seat Belt 2 (2%) 2 (3%) 

Upper Tether and Seat Belt 2 (2%) 2 (3%) 

Lower Anchors and Seat Belt 7 (8%) 6 (9%) 

Lower Anchors Only 44 (52%) 38 (55%) 

Seat Belt Only 30 (35%) 21 (30%) 

Not Attached 0 0 

Table 4 combines the observations in Table 2 and Table 3, but focuses only on the use of 

lower attachments and/or seat belts. 

Table 4. Observed CRS Attachment to the Vehicle, for Children Under 5, 

Riding in a CRS Equipped With Both an Upper Tether Strap and Lower 

Attachments, as a Function of LATCH Availability 

(in the vehicle somewhere versus in the child’s particular seating position). 

Method Used to Attach CRS to 

Vehicle, Grouped by Type of 

Method 

Number (Percent) for 

Children in Vehicles Equipped 

With Lower Anchors and

Upper Tether Anchors 

Somewhere in the Vehicle 

(n=511) 

Number (Percent) for Children 

in Vehicles Equipped With 

Lower Anchors and an Upper 

Tether Anchor in the Child’s 

Particular Seating Position 

(n=444) 

Lower Attachments 230 (45%) 213 (48%) 

Lower Attachments & Seat Belts 58 (11%) 54 (12%) 

Seat Belts 223 (44%) 177 (40%) 

Neither 0 0 

Of all 511 children (426 from Table 2 and 85 from Table 3) in LATCH-equipped 

vehicles, 67 (13 percent) are not riding at LATCH-equipped positions. Many of these children 

are riding in vehicles equipped with LATCH at the rear-outboard seats but not the rear-center 

seat. The parents and caregivers are placing the safety seat in the center-rear seat of the vehicle, 

 

13 The manufacturers of the CRSs do not recommend the use of the tether for these CRSs. They are mostly rearfacing CRSs. 
22

which is generally considered the safest position14, instead of placing it in one of the LATCHequipped rear-outboard seats. 

Of the 444 children in LATCH-equipped seating positions, 48 percent of parents and 

caregivers are attaching the CRS to the vehicle using lower attachments (LATCH in child’s 

seating position); an additional 12 percent are using both lower attachments and seat belts. Forty 

percent of parents and caregivers are using seat belts, or seat belts and upper tether, without 

using lower attachments. 

Thus, with the latest-model vehicles and CRSs equipped with the full LATCH systems: 

• 55 percent of upper tethers are actively in use, for configurations where use of an 

upper tether is recommended. 

• 60 percent of parents and caregivers are using lower anchors to install the safety seat. 

Correct Use and Misuse of Upper Tethers 

Data describing upper tether use for children younger than 5 are presented next. For the 

317 young child occupants in the back seat in CRSs with an upper tether in use, 13 were in rearfacing CRSs, 301 were in forward-facing CRSs with a harness, and 3 were in combination seats 

with both the internal harness and the vehicle seat belt restraining the child. The CRS upper 

tether strap adjustor type on these 317 seats was as follows: 75 percent were tilt-lock, 15 percent 

were double-back; and 15 percent were some other type. (See Attachment A for definitions of 

the different types of adjustors used in upper tether straps and lower attachments.) 

Many criteria determine proper upper tether use. Table 5 presents proper-use data for 

each proper-use criterion observed, for the 304 forward-facing CRSs (301 forward-facing with 

harness and 3 combination seats). 

 

14 Kahane, Charles J., Lives Saved by the Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards and Other Vehicle Safety 

Technologies, 1960-2002 – Passenger Cars and Light Trucks – With a Review of 19 FMVSS and Their 

Effectiveness in Reducing Fatalities, Injuries and Crashes. NHTSA Technical Report Number HS 809 833. 

National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Washington, D.C., October 2004. p. 134. 
23

Table 5. Observations of Proper Upper Tether Use for 304 Forward-Facing CRSs. 

Proper Upper Tether Use Criterion Number (%) of CRSs 

(n=304) 

One Upper Tether per Upper Tether Anchor 294/295 (99.7%) 

Upper Tether Tightness Allows CRS Base to Rest Flat on Vehicle Seat 291/295 (99%) 

Upper Tether Is Attached to Upper Tether Anchor Designated for Child’s 

Seating Position 271/281 (96%) 

Upper Tether Is Routed Properly 

(e.g., over an integrated vehicle head restraint or under an adjustable 

vehicle seat head restraint). 

266/299 (89%) 

Upper Tether Is Flat (Flat or twisted no more than 1⁄2 twist) 261/297 (88%) 

Upper Tether Is Snug (Passes “pinch test”) 244/298 (82%) 

Note: Denominator may be less than 304, due to missing data. 

Upper tether misuse characteristics for the 304 forward-facing CRSs with upper tether 

straps in use are shown in Table 6. 

Table 6. Observed Upper Tether Installation Misuse Characteristics for the 304 

Forward-Facing CRSs Equipped With an Upper Tether Strap. 

Upper Tether Misuse15 Number (%) of ForwardFacing Seats (n=304) 

Upper Tether Is Loose 54/298 (18%) 

Upper Tether Is Twisted 36/297 (12%) 

Improper Routing: Over a Down-Adjustable Head Restraint 21/299 (7%) 

Improper Routing: Over a Raised Adjustable Head Restraint 6/299 (2%) 

Improper Routing: Wrapped Around Read Restraint 2/297 (<1%) 

Attached to Something Other Than to a Designated Upper Tether 

Anchor 10/281 (4%) 

Upper Tether Used on Combination Seat in Booster Mode 3/295 (1%) 

Upper Tether Is Too Tight (Pulls CRS Base off Vehicle Seat) 4/295 (1%) 

More Than 1 Upper Tether Attached Per Upper Tether Anchor 1/295 (<1%) 

Note: Denominators may be less than 304, due to missing data. 

Nonuse of Upper Tethers 

For the 398 CRSs with upper tether straps in vehicles with upper tether anchors, where 

the upper tether strap was not in use (292 forward-facing CRSs and 106 rear-facing CRSs), 82 

percent were stowed and 18 percent were hanging loose.16 

When drivers were asked why the upper tether was not being used, the reasons shown in 

Table 7 were provided by the drivers for 207 of the forward-facing CRSs. Multiple answers 

 

15 Other tether use that was observed included: 12/297 (4%) CRSs were used for children who weighed 40 or more 

pounds. 

16 Upper tether straps that are hanging loose can become tangled around or hit a child or another passenger in the 

vehicle. Therefore, it is preferred that upper tether straps are stowed when not in use. 
24

were allowed. (Interviewers circled as many unprompted responses as were given, with nonstandard responses recorded in the additional space provided on the form for “Other”) Sixtyone percent of the upper tether nonusers provided at least one of the responses related to a lack of 

knowledge about upper tethers (e.g., about their existence, their importance, how to use them) as 

their reason for not using them. 

Table 7. Reasons Provided for Nonuse of Upper Tether Anchors, for Upper TetherEquipped CRSs Installed in Vehicles With Upper Tether Anchors 

(somewhere in the vehicle). 

Reason For Nonuse Of Upper Tether Anchors Number (%) of CRSs 

“I didn’t know how to use it” 75/207 (36%) 

“I didn’t think it was important to use” 52/207 (25%) 

“Vehicle does not have equipment/anchor/place to hook” 21/207 (10%) 

“I didn’t know about it” 10/207 (5%) 

“Too hard to use” 11/207 (5%) 

“Switch CRS back and forth between cars – forget to hook” 10/207 (5%) 

“Don’t know where it goes” 4/207 (2%) 

“Switch CRS back and forth between cars – too much trouble” 4/207 (2%) 

“Seating position does not have equipment/anchor/place to hook” 3/207 (1%) 

“Too much trouble/inconvenient” 3/207 (1%) 

“Brand new car” 2/207 (1%) 

“Can’t get tight enough” 2/207 (1%) 

“Use seat belt instead” 2/207 (1%) 

“Switched CRS from rear-facing to forward-facing and forgot to 

attach” 1/207 (<1%) 

“Complicates things/Just as tight without it” 1/207 (<1%) 

“Don’t see the point” 1/207 (<1%) 

“Husband installed seat” 1/207 (<1%) 

“Position of seat in car and number of occupants” 1/207 (<1%) 

“No reason” 1/207 (<1%) 

“Inconvenient with 3rd row seat” 1/207 (<1%) 

“Not our car” 1/207 (<1%) 

“Can get seat belt tighter” 1/207 (<1%) 

“It runs through the back of the chair” 1/207 (<1%) 

“Used to (use it)” 1/207 (<1%) 

“Car doesn’t need it” 1/207 (<1%) 

Note: Of the 398 CRSs with upper tether straps, 106 were rear-facing CRSs; the drivers of the vehicles 

with these CRSs were not asked why they did not use the upper tether anchors. Of the 292 forward-facing CRSs, 85 

drivers did not provide reasons for nonuse of upper tether anchors. 

With regard to the 21 responses that the vehicle doesn’t have the equipment, it should be 

noted that all vehicles in the analysis for Table 7 had upper tether anchors somewhere in the 

vehicle. Regarding the 3 responses that the seating position did not have the equipment, 2 of the 

CRSs were a center-rear seat that was equipped with an upper tether anchor, and 1 CRS was in a 

third-row seat that did not have an upper tether anchor. 
25

The seating positions of the 292 forward-facing, tether-equipped CRSs (for which the 

upper tether was not in use) in vehicles where an upper tether anchor was present somewhere in 

the vehicle, and the percentage of vehicles where an upper tether anchor was available for that 

seating position are shown in Table 8. It shows that 97 percent of the CRSs with tethers not in 

use had been placed in seating positions that were equipped with upper tether anchors. 

Table 8. Seating Positions and Percentage of Vehicles With an Upper Tether Anchor in the 

Seating Position, for 292 Forward-Facing, Upper Tether-Equipped CRSs Where the Upper 

Tether Was Not in Use. 

Seating Position Number (%) of CRSs in 

This Position 

Number (%) of Vehicles 

With a Upper Tether 

Anchor in This Position 

Second Row Left 84 (29%) 84 (100%) 

Second Row Center 47 (16%) 44 (94%) 

Second Row Right 151 (52%) 150 (99%) 

Third Row Left 4 (1%) 2 (50%) 

Third Row Center 2 (<1%) 2 (100%) 

Third Row Right 4 (1%) 1 (25%) 

Total 292 283 (97%) 

 

Upper Tether Ease-of-Use Ratings 

Table 9 provides ease-of-use ratings that were obtained from the drivers for 281 of the 

305 CRSs being used with an upper tether. For the forward-facing CRSs, upper tether use was 

rated as “very easy” or “relatively easy” for 81 percent, “very difficult” or “somewhat difficult” 

for 13 percent, and neither easy nor difficult for 6 percent of the CRSs. In addition, drivers rated 

the ease of use of the tilt-lock adjuster and the double-back adjuster. Both were rated by a large 

majority of drivers as being either very easy or relatively easy to use; however, a higher 

percentage of drivers found the tilt-lock adjuster easy to use than did the drivers using CRSs with 

the double-back adjuster on their upper tether strap. 

Table 9. Ease-of-Use Ratings for Drivers Using Upper Tethers to 

Install Forward-Facing CRSs in a Back Seating Position 

(for children under 5). 

Category 

Very 

Easy 

Relatively 

Easy 

Somewhat 

Difficult 

Very 

Difficult 

Neither 

Easy nor 

Difficult 

Overall (n=305)

 Upper Tether 

 (Forward-Facing 

 CRSs) (n-305) 34% (96/281) 47% (131/281) 9% (24/281) 4% (12/281) 6% (18/281) 

Upper Tether Strap Adjuster Type

 Tilt-Lock (n=229) 33% (71/216) 51% (110/216) 6% (13/216) 3% (6/216) 7% (16/216) 

 Double-Back (n=46) 37% (15/41) 32% (13/41) 20% (8/41) 10% (4/41) 2% (1/41) 

Note: Denominator may be less, due to missing data. 
26

Correct Use and Misuse of Lower Attachments 

Data describing lower anchor use are presented next, for child occupants younger than 5. 

There were 353 young child occupants in back seats in CRSs that were using the lower 

attachments. One of these children was in a CRS using lower attachments in a vehicle that had 

no lower anchors; this child is coded as Group 3 (because the vehicle has upper tether anchors 

but no lower anchors), whereas the other 352 children are coded as Group 4. Regarding CRS 

lower attachment connector types for the 353 CRSs, 82 percent were flexible strap, hook-on; 15 

percent were flexible strap, push-on; and 1 percent were rigid attachments. Regarding webbing 

tension release characteristics, 44 percent were squeeze-release, 49 percent were tilt-lock, and 5 

percent were unknown. For strap type on the CRS, 65 percent were single straps; 8 percent were 

side straps; 4 percent had 2 straps, and 23 percent were “unsure”. (See Attachment A for 

definitions.) 

Many criteria determine proper lower anchor use. Table 10 presents proper-use data for 

each proper-use criterion observed, for the 353 CRSs attached to the vehicle using lower 

attachments. Data for rear-facing and forward-facing CRSs are combined, as both types were 

designed to be attached using lower anchors. 

Table 10. Observations of Proper Lower Attachment Use for 353 CRSs. 

Proper Lower Attachment Use Criterion Number (%) of 

CRSs 

One Connector per Bar 344/349 (99%) 

Correct Path Used for Flexible Single Strap 282/303 (93%) 

Connectors Installed Right Side Up 316/346 (91%) 

Lower Attachment Strap Is Flat (flat or twisted no more than 1⁄2 twist) 310/339 (91%) 

CRS Attached to Lower Anchors Designated for Child’s Seating Position 308/348 (89%) 

Correct Angle Is Achieved for Rear-Facing CRSs 93/117 (79%) 

Installation Is Tight (passes 1-inch test) 246/349 (70%) 

Note: Denominator may be less than 353, due to missing data, or due to type of attachment or type of CRS. 

Sixty-one percent of seats installed with lower attachments were securely installed—the 

connectors were installed right side up, the lower attachment straps were flat and routed to the 

correct anchors, and the installation was tight. In the last survey before LATCH, less than 50 

percent of seats installed with seat belts were securely installed (i.e., attachment by the vehicle 

seat belt was not loose).17

 

17 Decina, L.E., and Lococo, K.H., 2004. Misuse of child restraints. DOT HS 809 671. U.S. Department of 

Transportation/National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Washington, DC. 
27

Lower anchor misuse characteristics for the 353 CRSs being used with lower attachments 

by children under age 5 are shown in Table 11. 

Table 11. Observations of Lower Anchor Misuse, for 353 CRSs Installed Using the 

Lower Attachments. 

Lower Anchor Misuse18 Number (%) of CRSs 

Loose Installation (e.g., can move CRS more than 1 inch 

from side-to-side) 103/349 (30%) 

Lower Attachment Strap Twisted 29/339 (9%) 

Lower Connector Installed Up-Side Down 30/346 (9%) 

CRS Attached to Something Other Than Designated Lower 

Anchors 40/348 (11%) 

Using Lower Anchors Not Designated for 

Seating Position 27/348 (8%) 

In Lower-Anchor Designated Seating Position, 

But Only One Side Attached to Anchor 6/348 (2%) 

In Lower-Anchor Designated Seating Position, 

But Attached to Something Other Than Anchor 

(e.g., Spring or Seating Material) 

2/348 (1%) 

Lower Attachments Hooked Through Bight of 

Seat to Each Other 1/348 (<1%) 

Incorrect Angle Achieved for Rear-Facing Seats 24/117 Rear-facing seats (21%) 

Combination CRS Used in BPB Mode 8/123 Combo Seats (7%) 

Note: Denominator may be less than 353, due to missing data, or due to type of attachment or type of CRS. 

Of the 27 CRSs identified as using lower anchors not designated for the child’s seating 

position, 26 (96 percent) were in a center-rear seat. 

Drivers who attached their CRSs to the vehicle using both the lower attachments and the 

vehicle seat belt (observed for 69 of the 353 lower attachment users) were asked why they used 

both methods. The following responses were obtained: for extra secureness or safety (77%), 

they thought it was necessary (11%), and other reasons (13%). Other reasons included: they 

didn’t personally install the CRS, to keep the CRS from moving or to get it tight, and “in case 

one breaks.” 

Overall Misuse for Secure Attachment to Vehicle 

In the past 10 years, there have been a number of surveys that have measured the rate of 

misuse of attaching CRSs to vehicles, including the 1995 Ketron study19 and the 2002 

 

18Other types of lower anchor use that were observed included: 69/353 (20%) CRSs were installed using both the 

lower attachments and seat belts; and 9/353 (3%) CRSs were used for children who weighed 40 or more pounds 

(Note: none of the children weighed 48+ pounds). 

19 Decina, L.E., and Knoebel, K.Y., Patterns of Misuse of Child Safety Seats, NHTSA. Publication No. DOT HS 808 

440, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Washington, DC, 1996; Decina, L.E., and Knoebel, K.Y., 

“Child Safety Seat Misuse Patterns in Four States,” Accident Analysis and Prevention, Vol. 29, January 1997, pp. 

125-132. 
28

TransAnalytics study.20 Comparing the misuse rates in these studies is difficult because of the 

type of child safety seats observed and the categories of misuse measured vary from study to 

study. Also the misuse rates tend to be counts of the different types of misuse, rather than the 

number of CRSs having at least one type of misuse. Therefore, the misuse rates often sum to be 

greater than 100%, due to some of the CRSs having more than one type of misuse. Within each 

study, however, types of misuse, as identified by certain grouping rules, can be combined 

together to produce an overall measure of the misuse related to the insecure attachment of the 

CRS to the vehicle. If misuse for boosters is excluded, as well as misuse which is related to 

placing the child into the CRS’s harness system, the main remaining types of misuse are related 

to insecurely attaching the CRS to the vehicle with the seat belt (i.e., loose seat belt; 

misuse/nonuse of the locking clip) or with the lower attachments (i.e., loose, misrouted, twisted, 

or up-side down lower attachments). 

As it can be seen in Table 12 below, the rate of misuse (for not tightly attaching the CRS 

to the vehicle) has been decreasing. There are two main reasons that misuse has decreased. 

1. LATCH does not use locking clips. Instead it uses automatic or manual adjustors that 

are not prone to the type of misuse seen with locking clips. While the percent of 

CRSs with observed misuse for nonuse/misuse of the locking clip is 72 percent in the 

1995 Ketron study and 4 percent in the 2002 TransAnalytics study, there is not any 

misuse associated with nonuse/misuse of the locking clip in the 2005 LATCH survey. 

2. LATCH has a simpler installation, in comparison with the use of a seat belt. 

Improper or loose fitting seat belts were observed in 14 percent of the CRSs in the 

Ketron Study and 54 percent in the 2005 TransAnalytics study. The overall misuse 

observed in the 2005 LATCH survey was 39 percent when the survey data was 

analyzed to include only the number of CRSs with at least one of these types of 

misuse, rather than to count how many different types of misuse were found.21

In the “Overall Misuse” category below, a range is provided for the 1995 Ketron Study 

and for the TransAnalytics Study from the minimum to the maximum amount of misuse possible 

given the numbers in the “CRSs with Misuse (%)” column and given that the categories of 

misuse observed could overlap entirely or not at all. For the 2005 LATCH Survey, a percent 

(39%), not a range, is given because the overall misuse percent can be calculated from the survey 

data. 

 

20 Decina, L.E., and Lococo, K., Misuse of Child Restraints, NHTSA Publication No. DOT HS 809 671, National 

Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Washington, DC, 2004; Decina, L.E., and Lococo, K., “Child Restraint 

System Use and Misuse in Six States,” Accident Analysis and Prevention, Vol. 37, 2005, pp. 583-590. 21 While the percent of CRSs with loose (30%), misrouted (13%), twisted (9%) or up-side down (9%) attachments 

sums up to 61% in the 2005 LATCH survey (See Table 11), only 39% of the CRSs were observed to have one or 

more of these misuses. 
29

Table 12. Observed Misuse Of Attaching CRSs To Vehicles. 

Study Type of Misuse Observed 

CRSs with 

Misuse (%) 

Overall 

Misuse (%) 

1995 Ketron 

Nonuse/Misuse of Locking Clip 

Misrouted SB or Improper Seat Belt Fit 

72 

17 72-89 

2002 TransAnalytics 

Loose Seat Belt 

Misrouted SB or Misuse of Locking Clip 

54 

 6 54-60 

2005 LATCH Survey 

Loose Attachment 

Misrouted Attachment 

Twisted Attachment 

Up-Side Down Attachment 

30 

13 

 9 

 9 39 

Nonuse of Lower Attachments 

For children in CRSs with lower attachments, in vehicles equipped with lower anchors, 

but the lower attachments were not in use (n=249), 80 percent were stowed, and 20 percent were 

hanging loose. The seating position and percentage of vehicle seats with lower anchors in the 

position occupied by the child is shown in Table 13. It shows that 26 percent of CRSs with lower 

attachments not in use had been placed on seats not equipped with lower anchors: the secondrow center seat or a third-row seat. 

Table 13. Seating Positions and Percentage of Vehicles With Lower Anchors in the Seating 

Position, for 249 Lower-Attachment-Equipped CRSs Where the Lower Attachments Were 

Not in Use. 

Seating Position Number (%) of CRSs in 

This Position 

Number (%) of Vehicles 

With Lower Anchors in This 

Position 

Second Row Left 71 (29%) 71 (100%) 

Second Row Center 59 (24%) 15 (25%) 

Second Row Right 104 (42%) 104 (100%) 

Third Row Left 5 (2%) 3 (60%) 

Third Row Center 5 (2%) 2 (40%) 

Third Row Right 5 (2%) 1 (20%) 

Total 249 196 (79%) 

Drivers in vehicles with lower anchors who were transporting children in CRSs equipped 

with lower attachments but were not using them were asked why they were not using the lower 

attachments. The reasons provided by drivers for 145 of the CRSs are shown in Table 14. 

Multiple answers were allowed. (Interviewers circled as many unprompted responses as were 

given, with non-standard responses recorded in the additional space provided on the form for 

“Other”.) Fifty-five percent of the lower attachment nonusers provided at least one of the 
30

responses related to a lack of knowledge about lower attachments (e.g., about their existence, 

their importance, how to use them) as their reason for not using the lower attachments.22 

Table 14. Reasons Provided for Nonuse of Lower Anchors, for Lower-AttachmentEquipped CRSs Installed in Vehicles With Lower Anchors (somewhere in the vehicle). 

Reason For Nonuse Of Lower Anchors Number (%) of CRSs 

“I didn’t know how to use it” 54/145 (37%) 

“I didn’t think it was important to use” 24/145 (17%) 

“No anchors” or “Vehicle isn’t equipped” 17/145 (12%) 

“No anchors in this seat position” 12/145 (8%) 

“Too hard to use” 11/144 (8%) 

“I didn’t know about it” 7/145 (5%) 

“Can’t get seat installed tightly” 5/140 (4%) 

“Using seat belt” 3/145 (2%) 

“More secure with seat belt” 3/145 (2%) 

“Husband installed CRS” 2/145 (1%) 

“It’s a new car” 2/145 (1%) 

“Middle is the safest position” 1/145 (<1%) 

“Seat belt is easier” 1/145 (<1%) 

“Don’t need” 1/145 (<1%) 

“Don’t like” 1/145 (<1%) 

“Just not using” 1/145 (<1%) 

“Hard switching to another vehicle” 1/145 (<1%) 

“Switch car” 1/145 (<1%) 

“Didn’t read instructions” 1/145 (<1%) 

“Seat belt has locking mechanism” 1/145 (<1%) 

“Know how to use seat belt” 1/145 (<1%) 

“Mom took out to wash and forgot to reinstall” 1/145 (<1%) 

“Rear-facing seat” 1/145 (<1%) 

Fifty-four drivers provided reasons other than the 5 listed on the data collection form for 

this question. Two categories of interest emerged when these reasons were grouped together. 

• Back-Center Seating Position. Drivers stated that lower anchors were not 

available in this seating position or that they believed that the middle position was 

safer. 

• Seat Belts. Drivers stated that they thought seat belts were safer or better than 

lower attachments or that they used seat belts because they knew how to use 

them. 

 

22 In response to the question, “If NO, why aren’t you using it?” the driver provided one or more of the following 

answers: (1) Didn’t know about it. (2) Did not think it was important to use. (3) Don’t know how to use it. 
31

The seating positions of the 54 CRSs for which “other” reasons were provided for nonuse 

of the lower attachments and the percentage of vehicles with lower anchors in those positions are 

shown in Table 15. 

Table 15. Seating Positions of the 54 Children For Whom “Other” Reasons for Nonuse of 

the Lower Anchors Were Offered, and Percentage of Vehicles Equipped With Lower 

Anchors in Those Seating Positions. 

Seating Position Number (%) of CRSs in 

This Position 

Number (%) of Vehicles 

With Lower Anchors in This 

Position 

Second Row Left 11 (20%) 11 (100%) 

Second Row Center 23 (43%) 7 (30%) 

Second Row Right 14 (26%) 14 (100%) 

Third Row Left 2 (4%) 0 

Third Row Center 2 (4%) 0 

Third Row Right 2 (4%) 0 

Total 54 32 (59%) 

Of particular interest are the 29 responses that indicated that either “the vehicle was not 

equipped with lower anchors” or the “seating position was not equipped with lower anchors”, 

even though all of the vehicles included in the analyses reported in Tables 9 and 10 were 

equipped with lower anchors somewhere in the vehicle. This response was provided for 10 

CRSs in the second row outboard position; all 10 of these vehicles were in fact equipped with 

lower anchors in the positions occupied by the children. This response was offered for 14 CRSs 

in the second row center; only 2 of the 14 vehicles were equipped with lower anchors in the 

second row center seat. This response was offered for 5 CRSs in the third row of vehicle seats. 

None of the 5 vehicles were equipped with lower anchors in the seating positions occupied by 

the children. 

Lower Attachment Ease-of-Use Ratings 

Table 16 provides ease-of-use ratings obtained from drivers who had connected their 

CRSs to the vehicle using the lower attachments. Details are provided on overall ease of use and 

on ease of use by the type of hardware used with the lower attachment (for all CRSs). Of the 

328 CRSs for which ratings were obtained, 74 percent indicated that using the hardware was 

either “very easy” or “relatively easy.” Eighteen percent of the CRS connections were rated as 

either “somewhat difficult” or “very difficult”. There is insufficient data to make meaningful 

comparisons among the three different types of connectors for lower attachments (i.e., rigid, 

flexible strap with push-ons or with hook-ons), but drivers using CRSs with the webbing tension 

release hardware rated both types (tilt-lock and squeeze-release) about the same. 
32

Table 16. Ease-of-Use Ratings for Drivers Using Lower Attachments to 

Install Forward-Facing and Rear-Facing CRSs in a Back Seating Position 

(for children under 5). 

Category 

Very 

Easy 

Relatively 

Easy 

Somewhat 

Difficult 

Very 

Difficult 

Neither 

Easy nor 

Difficult 

Overall

 Lower Attachments 

 (All CRSs) (n=354) 39% (127/328) 35% (115/328) 13% (44/328) 4% (14/328) 9% (28/328) 

Lower Attachments--Connector Type

 Rigid (n=5) 80% (4/5) 20% (1/5) 0% (0/5) 0% (0/5) 0% (0/5) 

 Flexible Strap 

 w/Push-Ons (n=53) 42% (21/50) 34% (17/50) 10% (5/50) 2% (1/50) 12% (6/50) 

 Flexible Strap 

 w/Hook-Ons 

 (n=288) 38% (100/266) 36% (96/266) 14% (37/266) 5% (12/266) 8% (21/266) 

Lower Attachments--Webbing Tension Release Type

 Tilt-lock Users 

 (n=173) 43% (69/160) 32% (51/160) 10% (16/160) 5% (8/160) 10% (16/160)

 Squeeze-release 

 Users (n=155) 32% (47/145) 39% (56/145) 19% (27/145) 3% (5/145) 7% (10/145) 

Note: Denominator may be less, due to missing data. 

Drivers who were using the lower attachments to connect their CRSs to the vehicle, and 

indicated that they personally installed the CRS (246 drivers) were asked what they like about 

LATCH. Multiple responses were permitted. Ten of the 246 respondents (4%) indicated that the 

question was not applicable (i.e., because they didn’t like LATCH). The responses obtained are 

shown in Table 17. 
33

Table 17. Responses Obtained by 246 Lower Attachment Users (who personally installed 

their CRSs) Describing What They Like About LATCH. 

What Drivers Like About LATCH Number (%) of Responses 

“It’s easy to use” 158/246 (64%) 

“Results in a tight fit for the child safety seat” 74/246 (30%) 

“Safer/More Secure” 22/246(9%) 

“Can see the connectors” 11/246 (5%) 

“Don’t know” 3/246 (1%) 

“Added Safety” 

(they were using seat belt & lower anchors) 2/246 (<1%) 

“Both car and CRS have it” 2/246 (<1%) 

“Doesn’t cause folding seat belts” 2/246 (<1%) 

“Everything” 2/246 (<1%) 

“Easy to remove” 1/246 (<1%) 

“Easy to figure out” 1/246 (<1%) 

“Easier for other kids to get in and out of the van” 1/246 (<1%) 

“Only one I know” 1/246 (<1%) 

“It works” 1/246 (<1%) 

“It worked well in an accident” 1/246 (<1%) 

“Tighten reinforcement” 1/246 (<1%) 

“Quicker” 1/246 (<1%) 

“Attach to vehicle” 1/246 (<1%) 

No Response 1/246 (<1%) 

These 246 drivers were also asked what they don’t like about LATCH. Multiple 

responses were permitted. There were 102 respondents (42%) who indicated that the question 

was not applicable (i.e., they don’t dislike anything about LATCH). The responses obtained are 

shown in Table 18. 
34

Table 18. Responses Obtained by 246 Lower Attachment Users (who personally installed 

their CRSs) Describing What They Don’t Like About LATCH. 

What Drivers Don’t Like About LATCH Number (%) of Responses 

“It’s hard to release the CRS from the bars” 67/246 (27%) 

“It’s hard to hook the CRS to the bars” 29/246 (12%) 

“It’s hard to use” 22/246 (9%) 

“I can’t get the CRS tight” 20/246 (8%) 

“It’s hard to see the bars” 14/246 (6%) 

“It’s hard to find the bars” 6/246 (2%) 

“It’s not on all cars” 3/246 (1%) 

“It’s hard to use the first time” 3/246 (1%) 

“The tether is hard to tighten” 2/246 (<1%) 

“The instructions are unclear” 2/246 (<1%) 

“It’s hard to find when traveling” 2/246 (<1%) 

“Tether angle” 1/246 (<1%) 

“So much work, especially if you have to move the seat” 1/246 (<1%) 

“Need to release the seat and bring it forward” 1/246 (<1%) 

“Need to put muscle into it” 1/246 (<1%) 

“In sedans, the bars are off-center” 1/246 (<1%) 

“It’s hard to tighten up” 1/246 (<1%) 

“It’s hard to get fingers in” 1/246 (<1%) 

“It’s hard to position self to put weight on seat” 1/246 (<1%) 

“Climbing in to ensure tightness” 1/246 (<1%) 

“Angle at seat difficult to connect LATCH” 1/246 (<1%) 

Preferred Method for Attaching CRS 

 

Drivers who had installed their CRSs using the lower anchors, but reported that they also 

had experience attaching a CRS to a vehicle using the vehicle seat belt (n=216) were asked 

which method they preferred. Seventy-five percent with experience using both methods reported 

a preference for LATCH, 9 percent preferred seat belts, and 16 percent were undecided. Reasons 

for preferring LATCH included: easier, safer, more secure, and tighter. Drivers who preferred 

the seat belt to LATCH indicated that they knew what to do with the seat belt, it was easier and 

quicker, and they couldn’t get the CRS tight enough without the seat belt. When asked whether 

it was easier to install a CRS using the lower anchors or the seat belt, 69 percent reported lower 

anchors, 17 percent reported seat belts, and 15 percent were undecided. 
35

DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS 

This field observation study provided a look into LATCH system use and misuse among 

the motoring public, identified the public’s knowledge of LATCH systems, and surveyed 

drivers’ opinions of the ease of use of upper tethers and lower attachments. The first and 

foremost finding was the need for additional consumer education in several areas, such as: 

 

• The survey showed that many parents were unaware of upper tethers’ existence or their 

importance. Three-fifths of the upper tether nonusers provided at least one of the 

responses related to a lack of knowledge about upper tethers as their reason for not using 

them. 

• When parents and caregivers had experience attaching CRSs using the seat belt and using 

lower anchors, three-fourths reported a preference for LATCH, because they found 

LATCH was easier to use and provided a tighter fit. Some parents and caregivers who 

currently are using seat belts to secure the CRS may feel more confident using the seat 

belt because they are familiar with how to secure a CRS this way, and they may not feel 

comfortable in learning to secure the CRS in a new way. 

• Data collectors found a wide variety in accessibility of LATCH hardware in vehicles. 

For example, accessibility of the upper tether anchor varied by type of vehicle and 

manufacturer. In SUVs and minivans, accessing the upper tether anchor could be as 

simple as standing at the vehicle door and inserting a hand between the seat back and the 

side of the door frame, yet as challenging as having to be in the vehicle at that seating 

position and reaching over the back of the seat or climbing into the third row and 

crouching over to find the anchor on the floor. Pickup trucks offer challenges as well. In 

many cases, the seat had to be folded forward to fasten the upper tether and then the 

upper tether straps had to be adjusted. Lower anchor accessibility could also be quite 

challenging. In many cases, the lower anchor bar was embedded quite deeply into the 

seat bight, making it difficult to reach and connect the lower attachment. 

• The center-rear seat is the safest position in a vehicle. But this seating position is not 

equipped with lower attachments in many passenger cars. Many parents are aware that 

the center seat is the safest position, so much of the nonuse of lower attachments in this 

study related to the fact that the vehicle seat belt was the only method available in that 

position for installing a CRS. In addition, many of the LATCH misuse issues observed in 

this study were related to this seating position. Some of the parents who chose to install 

their CRS using the lower anchors, positioned their child in the center-rear seat, which 

was not lower-anchor equipped, and then attached the CRS to the anchors designated for 

the outboard seating positions. 
36

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

The authors wish to thank many people and organizations for their time and effort. First, 

they would first like to express their appreciation to the State site coordinators (SSCs) who were 

responsible for providing expert opinion on many facets of the project, as well as supervising and 

managing field operations in their respective States. They are: Arizona - Nancy Avery (Tucson 

Safe Kids), Florida - Karen Hanawalt (Tallahassee Community College), Michigan - Janelle 

Rose (Program Professionals, Inc.), Missouri - Cathy Metzger Hogan (Safe Kids St. Louis), 

North Carolina - William Hall (Highway Safety Research Center, University of North Carolina), 

Leigha Shepler (Safe Kids Guilford County), Amy Krise (Safe Kids Charlotte Mecklenburg), 

Pennsylvania - Juli McGreevy, Sherri Penchishen (Bethlehem Health Department), Cynthia 

Cianciulli (Montgomery County Highway Safety Program), and Washington - Kathy Kruger 

(Washington Safety Restraint Coalition). 

Thanks are also in order to Deborah K. Stewart (Safe Ride News), Lorrie Walker (Safe 

Kids Worldwide), and Capt. Fred Mills (Bethlehem Police Department) for their contributions 

and valuable insights throughout the project. 

Final thanks to the dozens of certified child passenger safety technicians and instructors 

who were responsible for collecting quality child occupant protection data in the seven States. 

Also thanks to Carol Martell of the University of North Carolina Highway Safety Research 

Center for converting our database to SAS-readable data files, and performing initial SAS runs. 
37

REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Code of Federal Regulations, Title 49. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, 2005. 

Decina, L.E. and Knoebel, K.Y. Patterns of Misuse of Child Safety Seats. NHTSA. Publication 

No. DOT HS 808 440, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Washington, DC, 1996. 

Decina, L.E., and Knoebel, K.Y. “Child Safety Seat Misuse Patterns in Four States,” Accident 

Analysis and Prevention, Vol. 29, January 1997, pp. 125-132. 

Decina, L.E., and Lococo, K. Misuse of Child Restraints. NHTSA Publication No. DOT HS 

809 671, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Washington, DC, 2004. 

Decina, L.E., and Lococo, K. “Child Restraint System Use and Misuse in Six States,” Accident 

Analysis and Prevention, Vol. 37, 2005, pp. 583-590. 

Decina, L.E., Lococo, K., and Block, A. Misuse of Child Restraints: Results of a Workshop to 

Review Field Data Results. NHTSA Traffic Safety Facts – Research Note No. DOT HS 809 

851, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Washington, DC, March 2005. 

Kahane, Charles J. An Evaluation of Child Passenger Safety: The Effectiveness and Benefits of 

Safety Seats. NHTSA Technical Report No. DOT HS 806 890, National Highway Traffic Safety 

Administration, Washington, DC, 1986. 

Kahane, Charles J. Lives Saved by the Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards and Other 

Vehicle Safety Technologies, 1960-2002 – Passenger Cars and Light Trucks – With a Review of 

19 FMVSS and their Effectiveness in Reducing Fatalities, Injuries and Crashes. NHTSA 

Technical Report No. DOT HS 809 833, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 

Washington, DC, October 2004. 

Final Economic Assessment, Child Restraint Systems (FMVSS 213), Child Restraint Anchorage 

Systems (FMVSS 225). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Washington, DC, 

1999. 

Starnes, M. and Eigen, A. Fatalities and injuries to 0-8 year old passenger vehicle occupants 

based on impact attributes. NHTSA Technical Report No. DOT HS 809 410, National Highway 

Traffic Safety Administration, Washington, DC, March 2002. 

Stewart D., Lang, N.J., and Emery, S. LATCH – Lower Anchors and Tethers for Child 

Restraints, Safe Ride News Publication, Seattle, 4th Edition 2005. 

Weber, K. “Crash Protection for Child Passengers – A Review of Best Practice,” UMTRI 

Research Review, Vol. 31, No. 3, July-September 2000, pp. 1-27. 
A-1

ATTACHMENT A: GLOSSARY OF CHILD RESTRAINT TERMS 

Adjuster: Hardware that can be manually changed to tighten the “fit” (attachment) of the CRS to 

the vehicle. Some of the types of adjusters that are commonly used are: tilt-lock, double-back, 

and squeeze release or push button. 

Tilt-Back – The strap is released when the mechanism is tilted. (See Page E-21 of 

Attachment E, Training Manual for Data Collectors, for a picture of this type of adjuster.) 

Double-Back or Slide – Strap is locked into place by threading it in a specific manner. 

The strap must be disconnected and rethreaded to lengthen or tighten it. (See Page E-21 

of Attachment E, Training Manual for Data Collectors, for a picture of this type of 

adjuster.) 

Squeeze Release or Push Button – The strap is released when the mechanism is squeezed 

or a button is pushed. (See Page E-28 of Attachment E, Training Manual for Data 

Collectors, for a picture of this type of adjuster.) 

Attachment – The assembly (connector, adjuster, and often webbing) on a CRS that connects it 

to either the upper tether anchor or the lower attachment anchor. An attachment can be flexible 

or rigid. (See also upper tether and lower attachment.) 

Flexible Attachments – Attachments using webbing and a manual adjuster. (See Page E21 of Attachment E, Training Manual for Data Collectors, for pictures of flexible 

attachments for upper tethers and Page E-27 for those for lower attachments.) 

Rigid Attachments – Attachments built into the CRS base, fixed at 280 mm (11 in) apart, 

and equipped with a telescoping adjustment that attaches with the anchor. (See Page E-27 

of Attachment E, Training Manual for Data Collectors, for a picture of a rigid attachment 

for lower attachments.) 

Booster Seats

Belt-Positioning Booster (BPB) – A device that raises the child’s seating height, to 

provide a better fit for the vehicle lap and shoulder belts. A BPB may be a low-back or a 

backless booster, or may have a high back that provides head restraint. Some BPBs come 

with LATCH systems (when they are combination seats that can be used as forwardfacing seats or as BPBs). Some less commonly seen types of BPBs are those with 

tethered harnesses (Ride Ryte with E-Z ON Kid Y Harness) and those with an upper 

tether (Yound Sport by Recaro). 
A-2

Child Restraint Systems (CRS) – An infant or child seat, vest, or similar device made for the 

purpose of reducing motor-vehicle-related injury and deaths in the event of a crash. 

Child Safety Seat (CSS) – This term is generally reserved to describe infant, convertible, and 

forward-facing child restraint systems used with a harness. It is often used synonymously with 

child restraint system; however, in the pure sense, it does not encompass booster seats. 

Infant-Only – A rear-facing CRS for an infant. Most are for babies from 5 to 20 or 22 

pounds. Some are designed with a base that stays attached to the vehicle seat, so the seat 

can be used as an infant carrier. 

Convertible – This CRS is intended for use in the rear-facing mode for a baby up to at 

least 20 or 22 pounds, with many of the newer ones going to 30-35 pounds. Later in the 

forward-facing mode, the CRS is used for toddlers over age 1 and over 22 pounds going 

up to 40 pounds. 

Forward Facing with Harness - A CRS with a full harness for toddlers over age 1, used 

facing forward only. Most have an upper weight limit of 40 pounds, but a few 

accommodate children up to 60 to 80 pounds or more. 

Combination Seat – A type of forward-facing child restraint that is used with an internal 

harness system to secure a child and then, with removal of the internal harness, is used as 

a high-back belt-positioning booster (BPB) seat. 

 

Connector - Hardware at the end of an upper tether or lower attachments that enables the CRS to 

be securely fastened to an upper tether anchor or the lower attachment anchors. 

Hook-On Connector – A tether-type hook that is used to fasten the upper tether or lower 

attachments to the upper tether anchor or the lower anchors. (See p. E-27 of Attachment 

E, Training Manual for Data Collectors, for a picture of this type of connector.) 

Push-On Connector – A spring-loaded latch that automatically locks around the LATCH 

anchor bar when the connector is pushed directly onto the bar. This type of connector 

may be on a rigid or flexible attachment. (See p. E-27 of Attachment E, Training Manual 

for Data Collectors, for a picture of a push-on connector attached to a rigid attachment 

and a picture of a this type of connector attached to a flexible strap.) 

Integrated Seat – A type of CRS which is built-into the vehicle seat, typically “camouflaged” 

within or under an adult seating position in the back seat. Designed for forward facing use only; 

a majority of them have a 5-pt harness system. 

LATCH (Lower Anchors and Tethers for Children) is the acronym used to refer to a new system 

that makes child safety seat installation easier—without using seat belts. LATCH is required on 

most child safety seats (required by FMVSS 213) and vehicles (required by FMVSS 225) 
A-3

manufactured after September 1, 2002. LATCH is not required for booster seats, car beds, and 

vests. 

Locking Clip – A flat H-shaped metal item, used to clip seat belt webbing together, in order to 

secure or “lock” the vehicle seat belt around the CRS. 

Lower Anchor (Vehicle) - One of a pair of horizontal bars in the area of the vehicle seat bight 

(space where back support and lower seat cushions meet), used in place of a vehicle seat belt to 

secure the base of the CRS to a vehicle with lower attachments. 

Lower Attachment (Child Seat) – An assembly (connector, adjuster, and often webbing) on a 

child restraint that connects it to a lower anchor in the vehicle. There are three types of 

connector types (flexible strap with hook-on connector, flexible strap with push-on connector, 

and rigid attachment). 

Upper or Top Tether Anchor (Vehicle) – The hardware component, such as a ring or bar, and its 

underlying structure in the vehicle. The upper or top tether of the child safety seat is attached to 

the upper or top tether anchor to secure the seat to the vehicle. 

Upper or Top Tether (Child Seat) - The strap and associated hardware (connector and adjustor) 

that anchors the top of a CRS to the vehicle body. The upper tether strap goes from the back of 

the CRS to the vehicle’s upper tether anchor. 

“Unsure” category field in some variables. While this code does not provide useful data on 

upper tether or lower anchor use characteristics, it does provide information on observer’s 

attempts to collect this data. In other words, the data was not missed, just unable to be observed 

and recorded. 
B-1

ATTACHMENT B: SCOPE OF WORK 

To reach the objectives of this project, the following task activities were performed: 

1. Held an initial meeting with the Contracting Officer’s Technical Representative (COTR) 

and other NHTSA staff to discuss project objectives and activities. 

2. Finalized a work plan based on discussions from the initial meeting. 

3. Developed a survey plan which identified the following: target vehicles; target 

population; survey type (e.g., convenience, representative); survey size; survey sites, 

observation form content; interview form content, and data collection procedures. 

4. Conducted a meeting with the SSCs and national LATCH and CRS misuse experts to 

identify appropriate LATCH misuse measures for the data collection forms and identify 

appropriate survey procedures. 

5. Developed a data collection system and coding manual that covers the vehicle form and 

occupant form data. 

6. Conducted a pilot study to evaluate the (draft) data collection forms and data collection 

procedures. 

7. Prepared documents (data collection forms and data collection procedures) for Office of 

Management and Budget (OMB) review and clearance. 

8. Conducted pre-data collection activities (staff recruitment, site access and permission, 

training of CPS-certified staff, administrative and contractual arrangements with each 

SSC and their organization). 

9. Conducted data collection of LATCH use and misuse, general restraint use of driver and 

all other occupants. Collected survey data on driver’s knowledge of booster seat and 

LATCH issues. Collected survey data on LATCH knowledge and ease of use with 

drivers using LATCH systems. 

10. Prepared data summary and analysis. 

11. Prepared data coding manual. 

12. Prepared SAS data sets. 

13. Submitted draft and final reports to NHTSA. 
C-1

ATTACHMENT C: OMB REVIEW 

The survey plan provided supporting documentation for the Federal Government’s Office 

of Management and Budget Review. The document contained justification information on the 

following: (1) reasons for collection of information; (2) purpose of data; (3) data collection 

techniques; (4) support for uniqueness of data (that is, has a similar data collection effort ever 

been done); (5) small-business impact; (6) consequences to Federal Government if study is not 

conducted; (7) frequency of data collection effort; (8) Federal Register notice (U.S. DOT Docket 

Number NHTSA –04-18816); (9) compensation to public involved in study; (10) confidentiality 

issues with the public; (11) sensitivity of issues in survey; (12) staff hour burden of the collection 

of information; (13) annual cost burden to respondents; (14) estimates of annualized cost to the 

Federal Government; (15) reasons for program changes; (16) publication issues from results of 

study; (17) display of OMB approval expiration date on forms; and (18) exceptions to the 

certification of paperwork reduction act. 

 Attachments were also included with this packet, including: the survey questionnaires 

and NHTSA Executive Order 12866, “Regulatory Planning and Review,” which is an order 

requiring NHTSA to conduct periodic evaluations of the effectiveness of its Federal motor 

vehicle safety standards (note – the data collection supported DOT’s strategic goals, i.e., safety, 

to promote the public health and safety by working toward the elimination of transportationrelated deaths and injuries). 
D-1

ATTACHMENT D: SURVEY DATA COLLECTION SITES 

Data was collected in the following counties and cities in each State: 

Arizona

Counties: Coconino, Maricopa, Pima, Pinal, and Yuma. 

Cities: Flagstaff, Mesa, Phoenix, Sierra Vista, Tucson, and Yuma. 

Florida

Counties: Duval, Hillsborough, Orange, Pinellas, and St. Johns. 

Cities: Jacksonville, Orlando, St. Augustine, St. Petersburg, and Tampa. 

Michigan

Counties: Clinton, Macomb, Oakland, Washtenaw, and Wayne. 

Cities: Ann Arbor, Detroit, and Lansing. 

Missouri

Counties: Jefferson, St. Charles, and St. Louis. 

Cities: Springfield and St. Louis 

North Carolina

Counties: Cabarrus, Forsyth, Guilford, and Mecklenburg. 

Cities: Charlotte, Concord, Greensboro, High Point, and Winston-Salem. 

Pennsylvania

Counties: Lehigh, Northampton, and Montgomery. 

Cities: Allentown, Bethlehem, and West Norriton Township (Philadelphia 

Suburbs). 

Washington

Counties: Douglas, King, Kitsap, Pierce, Snohomish, Thurston. 

Cities: Everett, Federal Way, Gig Harbor, Nespalem, Olympia, Seattle, and 

Tacoma. 

E-i

ATTACHMENT E: TRAINING MANUAL 
E-ii

TRAINING MANUAL 

FOR 

 DATA COLLECTORS 

Child Restraint Use Survey 

(LATCH Use and Misuse) 

Spring 2005

TransAnalytics, LLC.

1722 Sumneytown Pike, Box 328 

Kulpsville, PA 19443 
E-iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS 

BACKGROUND ........................................................................................................................E-1 

PROJECT OBJECTIVES.........................................................................................................E-3 

SURVEY DESIGN.....................................................................................................................E-5 

 

Survey Size ......................................................................................................................E-5 

 Sampling Approach .........................................................................................................E-6 

 Site Selection ..................................................................................................................E-7 

DEFINITIONS OF CRS AND LATCH USE AND MISUSE................................................E-9

DATA AND RECORDING FORMS .....................................................................................E-13

DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURES................................................................................E-15 

Staff Recruitment and Training .....................................................................................E-15 

Pre-Data Collection Activities .......................................................................................E-16 

Field Procedures for Data Collection.............................................................................E-17 

APPENDIX A: INSTRUCTIONS FOR INTERVIEW AND OBSERVATION 

FORMS.....................................................................................................................................E-19

 NHTSA 1002 – “CRS and LATCH Use Observation Form”........................................E-21 

 NHTSA 1002C – “Arrangement of Vehicle-Seating Positions and Occupant 

Restraint Equipment Available for Each Seating Position” ..........................................E-39 

NHTSA 1002A – “CRS and LATCH Use Interview Form”.........................................E-41 

NHTSA 1002B – “CRS and LATCH Use Interview Form, Question 6: Occupant 

Characteristics Chart” ....................................................................................................E-41 

APPENDIX B: OBSERVATION AND INTERVIEW FORMS .........................................E-47 

E-1

BACKGROUND 

Proper use of child restraint systems (CRSs) is the most effective way to protect young 

children involved in motor vehicle crashes. The National Highway Traffic Safety 

Administration (NHTSA) estimates that CRSs, when properly used, reduce the chance of death 

for infants by 71 percent, and for toddlers by 54 percent (NHTSA, 1999). 

A recent NHTSA CRS misuse observation study of children weighing less than 80 

pounds found that 72.6 percent of the CRSs had critical misuses which could lead to serious 

injury. The study found a high level of critical CRS misuse relating to vehicle seat belts. In fact, 

loose vehicle seat belts were observed in over 50 percent of the CRSs used by children weighing 

less than 40 pounds (Decina and Lococo, 2004). 

NHTSA CRS misuse studies clearly show that the loose CRS attachment to the vehicle is 

a very serious and common misuse among the public (Decina and Knoebel, 1996; Decina and 

Lococo, 2004). Child passenger safety experts believe that the LATCH system can simplify 

CRS installation and reduce misuses of this type (Stewart and Kern, 2003). 

 About five years ago, NHTSA published a final rule (March 1999) establishing a uniform 

child restraint attachment system (CRAS) known as LATCH (Lower Anchors and Tethers for 

Children), (FMVSS 213, Child Restraint Systems and FMVSS 225 Child Restraint Anchorage 

Systems). The rule stated that all vehicles must be equipped with independent CRASs consisting 

of three anchorage points (two lower anchorages and one upper anchorage). Each lower 

anchorage consists of a bar located at the intersection of the vehicle seat cushion and seat back, 

in a location where passengers will not feel it. The upper anchorage is a tether anchorage. These 

anchorage systems are required at two rear seating positions. In addition, if a vehicle has three 

designated seating positions in the rear seat or a second or third row of seats, another seating 

position, other than the outboard position, must be equipped with a user-ready tether anchorage. 

This rule applies to vehicles under 8,500 pounds and buses less than or equal to 10,000 pounds. 

The current technological advances in vehicle occupant protection technology, new CRS 

installation rulemaking and design features, and NHTSA’s recognition that any manually 

engaged restraint system increases the possibility of incorrect CRS use, provide sufficient 

rationale for monitoring child restraint system use to improve passenger safety in the Nation. 

Decina, L.E. and Knoebel, K.Y., 1996. Patterns of misuse of child safety seats. (Report no. DOT HS 808 440), USDOT/NHSTA, Washington, 

DC. 

Decina, L.E. and Lococo, K.H., 2004. Misuse of child restraints. (Report no. DOT HS 809 671), USDOT/NHTSA, Washington, DC. 

NHTSA, 1999. Final economic assessment, child restraint systems (FMVSS 213), child restraint anchorage systems (FMVSS 225). 

USDOT/NHTSA, Washington, D.C. 

Stewart, D.D. and Kern, K.C., 2003. LATCH - Lower Anchors and Tethers for Child Restraints, Third Edition. Safe Ride News Publications, 

The Willapa Bay Company, Inc., Seattle WA. 
E-2
E-3

PROJECT OBJECTIVES 

 The purpose of the project is to collect quantitative data and other information concerning 

the restraint use of children in passenger vehicles. In particular, the project will answer the 

following questions: 

 Is LATCH being used in vehicles equipped with LATCH? 

 Are CRS tethers being used in vehicles equipped with tether anchors? 

 Are CRS lower anchor straps/connectors being used in vehicles equipped 

with lower anchors? 

 Are children being restrained with the appropriate restraint for their age, weight, 

and height? 

 Are children riding in the back seats of vehicles? 

 

 The study will also seek information about drivers’ knowledge of booster seats and their 

purposes, as well as drivers’ knowledge about the new LATCH technology for CRSs. In 

addition, if LATCH equipment is available in the vehicles, the following information will be 

obtained: 

 Do drivers use this technology? 

 What are their likes and dislikes about LATCH technology? 

 Are there preferences for using seat belts to secure the CRS to the vehicle over 

use of lower anchors? If so, what are the reasons? 

 The study will also seek to identify relationships between selected driver demographic 

characteristics (age, gender, race/ethnicity) and restraint use of children; as well as the 

relationship that variables such as the demographics of other occupants in the vehicle, vehicle 

type, occupant seating position, and restraint type available for the seating position have on 

restraint use. 
E-4
E-5

SURVEY DESIGN 

A brief description of each survey design topic is covered. They are survey size, 

sampling approach, and site selection. 

SURVEY SIZE 

The overall target population identified for the study is “...child passengers restrained in 

Child Safety Seats (CSSs) in the back seats of vehicles that are equipped with LATCH; and child 

passengers from birth to 12 years of age.” 

The project’s survey size goal is at least 1,000 child passengers from birth to age 4, 

restrained in CSSs in rear seating positions in passenger vehicles equipped with tethers. While 

collecting the data for the 1,000 quota passengers, an attempt will be made to collect child 

passenger restraint use data for all children from birth to age 12, as follows: 

Group 1: Child passengers from birth to age 12 (approximately 6,750); among these 

Group 2: Child passengers from birth to age 4 in CSSs in back seats (approximately 2,250); 

among these 

Group 3: One thousand child passengers from birth to age 4 in CSSs in back seats of 

vehicles equipped with tethers; and, 

Group 4: Child passengers from birth to age 4 in CSSs in back seats of vehicles equipped 

with lower anchors and tether anchors (LATCH) (approximately 585). 

Once the data for the 1,000 child passengers are collected for Group 3, the survey can be 

stopped, regardless of the number of observations in the other Groups (1, 2, and 4). Group 3 

target vehicles (those with tether anchors) are the highest priority during field observations. 

There are seven States (Arizona, Florida, Michigan, Missouri, North Carolina, 

Pennsylvania, and Washington) collecting the data. Each State will collect the following data: 

Group 1: Approximately 1,000 child passengers 

Group 2: Approximately 325 child passengers 

Group 3: Approximately 150 child passengers 

Group 4: Approximately 85 child passengers 

NHTSA has estimated that it will take 1.25 team hours of observation at sites with a 

substantial portion of late-model-year vehicles to find a Group 3 child (birth to age 4 in a CRS in 

the back seat of a vehicle equipped with tethers). A team will consist of two people. 

NHTSA has estimated that 9 percent of all vehicles are likely to have at least one child 

passenger from birth to age 12; and 3 percent of vehicles will have a child passenger restrained 

in a CSS in the back seat. Their projections for the percentage of newer model-year (MY) 

vehicles that will have tether anchors and lower anchors by the data collection period of spring 

2005 are as follows: 

 45 percent of vehicles will be equipped with tether anchors. 

 26 percent of vehicles will be equipped with lower anchors. 
E-6

These projections for new vehicles and child safety seats (CSSs) equipped with LATCH 

technology are based on the following facts: 

Tether anchors are installed in 80 percent of new cars manufactured on or after 

September 1, 1999; and 100 percent of new cars and light trucks manufactured on or after 

September 1, 2000. Lower anchors are installed in 20 percent of all vehicles manufactured after 

September 1, 2000; 50 percent of all vehicles manufactured after September 1, 2001; and 100 

percent of all vehicles manufactured after September 1, 2002. 

All CSSs manufactured on or after September 1, 1999, must meet new, more stringent 

head protection requirements. Most models of CSSs will use tethers to comply. All CSSs will 

have lower anchors if they have been manufactured on or after September 1, 2002. 

SAMPLING APPROACH 

A convenience sampling approach will be used in collecting CSS and LATCH misuse 

data from the targeted group of the general public. The data collection activity will receive no 

prior public announcement or advertisement. The approach will involve using sites such as 

local/community-based shopping centers, large pediatric centers, retail stores for infant and 

toddler products (e.g., Babies R Us), fast-food restaurants, and large child care centers. “Middle 

class” and “upper-middle class” communities will be used to increase the likelihood of observing 

newer model vehicles which would most likely be LATCH-equipped. 

Target drivers and young child occupants in newer vehicles will be stopped and 

approached at designated safe areas at these sites and asked to participate. Upon their agreement 

to participate, they will be directed to a designated parking area and told to park their vehicles 

and turn their cars off. Past observation studies of this nature have shown less than a 10-percent 

refusal rate from drivers. (See Data Collection Procedures.) 

In some States, the opportunity will exist to involve local law enforcement agencies to 

participate in the survey and help “recruit” target vehicles. Past efforts of this nature have used a 

“safety checkpoint” approach. This method involves the police slowing down every vehicle 

traveling through a checkpoint along a road or street. Drivers in target vehicles with young child 

occupants meeting the project criteria are stopped and asked to participate in the survey. Upon 

permission, the drivers are directed towards a designated parking area where the observations 

and data collection take place. This approach has been used in similar field observation studies 

in local communities (e.g., Upper Darby Township, Delaware County) and cities (Bethlehem, 

Carlisle) in Pennsylvania. 
E-7

SITE SELECTION 

Candidate sites will be selected across five counties and two cities in each State. The 

sites will include the following: in Arizona, counties in and near Phoenix and Tucson; in Florida, 

counties in and near Ft. Lauderdale and Miami; in Michigan, counties in and near Detroit; in 

Missouri, counties in and near Jefferson City and St. Louis; in North Carolina, counties in and 

near Charlotte and Durham; in Pennsylvania, counties in and near Bethlehem, Harrisburg, and 

York; and in Washington, counties in and near Seattle, Spokane, and Tacoma. 

Sites used for the study will be based on several factors relating to permission and 

cooperation from site owners; socioeconomic characteristics of target group; high volume of 

target group (i.e., parents who are driving late-model vehicles with young child occupants); and 

physical characteristics and safety aspects of site. 

Permission 

Site and community cooperation are critical. Permission will need to be obtained from 

candidate site property managers or owners. For sites under community jurisdiction, government 

and police agencies will need to be notified. Your experience in conducting safety programs in 

many of these communities and in their shopping centers and health centers will provide some 

great leads to find sites. Use your network of CPS folks. 

Socioeconomic Characteristics of Target Group 

You should try to locate your sites in areas where the socioeconomic characteristics of 

the community will present a generous proportion of drivers in late-model vehicles transporting 

young children. After all, the main purpose of the study is to look at LATCH systems in vehicles 

with young child occupants. Finding these sites may require some scouting. 

High Volume of Target Group 

In addition, sites must have a high volume of the target group (i.e., drivers/parents in latemodel vehicles with young child occupants). Shopping centers with anchor stores that are either 

supermarkets, large pharmacies, or household-product oriented are usually very productive. In 

addition, anchor stores that carry merchandise for infants and young children (e.g., Toys R Us, 

Babies R Us) can also be very worthwhile. 

Physical Characteristics and Safety Aspects 

While a large volume of the target group traveling through your site is very important in 

terms of efficient use of project resources, a mall-size or very large shopping center is quite 

unwieldy for data collection. Vehicles are traveling in all directions at various speeds. This can 

be very stressful and unsafe when trying to spot, slow down, and stop drivers. A site with a 

limited number of exits and entrances can provide a more focused ability to spot, slow down, and 

stop candidate drivers. Being able to easily spot all moving cars at a site will also provide a 

safer environment for data collection. 
E-8
E-9

DEFINITIONS OF CRS AND LATCH USE AND MISUSE 

Definitions of restraint system type, child harnessed/restrained, observable proper tether 

use, and observable proper lower anchor use were developed with the State Site Coordinators 

and a LATCH expert at a meeting in Philadelphia in March 2004. 

Restraint System Types

Child Restraint Systems (CRS) 

Infant-only with base 

Infant-only without base 

Convertible (used rear-facing) 

Forward-facing with harness (FF only, Convertible FF, Combination seat with harness) 

Integrated 

Lap Top 

Special Needs 

Vest and Harness 

Booster 

Belt-positioning booster (BPB) 

BPB with LATCH attachment (combination seat with harness removed) 

Booster with tethered harness (e.g., Ride Ryte with E-Z-ON Kid-Y Harness) 

Shield Booster 

Integrated 

Seat Belt 

Lap and Shoulder 

Lap only 

Shoulder only 

Child Harnessed/Restrained

Harness or seat belt must be buckled; and 

Harness or seat belt must be over the shoulder(s); and 

Harness or seat belt must be snug, with no slack, and meet the pinch test (i.e., cannot pinch the 

strap to make a fold in the webbing). 

Shield booster must be secured with seat belt. 

CRS or Booster attached to vehicle

CRS attached to vehicle seat with seat belt, tether, lower anchors, or any combination of the 

three. 
E-10

A child in a BPB should be restrained by the vehicle lap and shoulder belt. A combination seat 

used as a BPB should not be attached to the vehicle using the LATCH lower connectors. A 

tether may be present and in use for some combination seats used as a BPB. A booster with a 

tethered Y-harness requires use of the vehicle lap belt and tether anchor to be correct. 

Observable Proper Tether Use

Vehicle seating position is equipped with tether anchor. 

CRS is equipped with tether. (In certain cases, CRS Manufacturer allows tether use for rearfacing installation. For a combination seat used as a BPB, a tether may be present and may be 

used for some models. 

Tether strap is routed correctly (e.g., does not go over or around an adjustable head restraint). 

CRS is attached to tether anchor designated for this position (e.g., not a cargo tie-down or lower 

anchor). 

One tether strap is attached to a tether anchor (exception: pickup trucks with loops) 

No more than one half-twist in webbing. 

Tether strap is snug (meets the pinch test: cannot pinch the strap to make a fold in the webbing). 

Strap is not overly tight (doesn’t pull base off of vehicle seat cushion). 

Tether anchor is certified for child’s weight (can be deduced from reported weight). 

Observable Proper Lower Anchor Use

Vehicle seating position is equipped with lower anchors. 

CRS has lower attachments (flexible or rigid). For a combination seat used as a BPB, lower 

attachments may be present but should not be used. 

Proper routing of lower attachment strap through CRS (infant base; FF/RF convertible mode) 

CRS is attached to lower anchors designated for this seating position. 

One connector per bar. 

Both connectors attached to bars. 

Connector installed right-side-up. 

Flexible straps have no more than one half-twist. 
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Snug attachment (meets the one-inch rule: cannot move more than one inch forward or one inch 

side to side). 

Angle achieved is appropriate for infant. 

Lower anchor is certified for child’s weight (can be deduced from reported weight). 

 
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DATA AND RECORDING FORMS 

Observation data will be collected on child occupants, including type of restraint used and 

gross misuse, as well as vehicle LATCH installation use and misuse (specifically for children 

younger than 5 years of age in a CRS). In addition, interview data will be collected. Drivers will 

be asked a few demographic questions about themselves and their children, and their knowledge 

of booster seats and LATCH systems. If the LATCH systems are being used, drivers will be 

asked questions on reasons for use, ease of use, and choice over seat belts. 

Demographic information and restraint type used we be obtained for all other vehicle 

occupants. Restraint types available for all vehicle seating positions will also be recorded. 

Detailed instructions are presented in Appendix A of this manual for completing the two 

observation forms and two interview forms to be used in this study. The forms are shown in 

Appendix B. 

Observation Forms

 NHTSA 1002 – “CRS and LATCH Use Observation Form.” 

 NHTSA 1002C – “Arrangement of Vehicle-Seating Positions and Occupant Restraint 

Equipment Available for Each Seating Position.” 

Interview Forms 

 NHTSA 1002A – “CRS and LATCH Use Interview Form.” 

 NHTSA 1002B – “CRS and LATCH Use Interview Form, Question 6: Occupant 

Characteristics Chart.” 
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DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURES 

Topics covered include: staff recruitment and training, pre-data collection activities, and 

field procedures for data collection. All aspects of the data collection effort will be lead by the 

State Site Coordinators (SSCs) and their Field Site Managers (FSMs). 

STAFF RECRUITMENT AND TRAINING 

 Data collectors responsible for making restraint system use and misuse observations are 

called observers. They must be CPS-certified and can be recruited through each SSC’s personal 

network of CPS individuals or by using NHTSA’s CPS-certified instructor/technician list to 

identify local candidates. Other electronic “CPS network” systems (e.g., CPS Listserve) can also 

be used to find and recruit candidate observers. Data collectors used in the last CRS misuse 

study would be ideal candidates as well. 

 Data collectors responsible for the initial contact with the driver and for conducting the 

interview are called greeters/interviewers. While they are not required to be CPS-certified, a 

comprehensive knowledge of child passenger safety issues is important for these individuals. 

They can be recruited through local newspaper advertisement or the SSC’s personal network of 

resources. 

 Upon initiation of these staff recruitment activities, SSCs will review resumes and 

conduct interviews, and hire staff as needed to complete the target levels of data collection. 

Candidates for both positions will be screened by telephone or in person. The observers will be 

selected based on the following criteria: 

• Have CPS certification for technician or instructor 

• Have experience with CPS survey/data collection work 

• Have familiarity with child development and CRSs 

• Are easily able to understand project objectives and importance of their role 

• Can meet a flexible schedule and be available for full duration of field observation work 

• Project a sense of reliability, self-motivation, and resourcefulness 

• Can provide references 

The interviewers will be selected for their experience with the public. They will need to 

exhibit professionalism, enthusiasm, and attention to detail in accurately recording their survey 

information. The project will also require people who can endure the arduous nature of the data 

collection work, which may involve long hours, weekends, and standing for extensive periods of 

time under variable weather conditions. 

Comprehensive training will be delivered to the data collectors. Training facilities will 

have a full selection of CRSs available for demonstration with a selection of vehicles that have 

LATCH systems. The SSCs on the project are all CPS-certified instructors and have extensive 

experience in conducting CRS misuse workshops. 
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 Field observations will require careful attention to many aspects of CRSs, vehicle seat 

belt arrangements and types, LATCH systems, and other vehicle occupant protection 

components. Training will cover procedures necessary to properly identify LATCH and the 

vehicle restraint-belt type associated with an attached CRS. 

The SSCs will use training material from the Standardized Child Passenger Safety 

Training Program (NHTSA, 2004) to cover all CRS misuse and vehicle restraint system issues. 

The LATCH Manual (Stewart and Kerrns, 2003) will also be used extensively. Additional 

training material will be used upon discretion of SSC and the preexisting experience and 

knowledge demonstrated by trainees. 

 

 Training in the classroom and in a parking lot will take two days. The following training 

topics and activities will be covered: 

• Introduction of training objectives 

• Distribution of training material (CRS and LATCH reference manuals) 

• Overview of LATCH installations (tether anchors, lower anchor bars) in vehicles 

• Overview of LATCH parts of CRSs (tether straps, lower connectors) 

• Demonstration of LATCH misuses 

• Instruction on LATCH and vehicle restraint system proper use 

• Overview of field work responsibilities 

• Instruction on recording data onto interview and observation forms 

• Introduction on field interview and observation protocols 

• Instruction on interacting with drivers, passengers, and target children 

• Practice session involving LATCH misuse cases and recording data 

• Practice session in parking lot (with vehicle and LATCH/CRS setups) 

• Review of data collection procedures 

• Onsite training at site location with “live” participants 

• Debriefing and review of initial data collection effort 

PRE-DATA COLLECTION ACTIVITIES 

The following activities will be conducted prior to data collection: 

• Selection of field sites and identification of observation spots 

• Selection of field sites supervisors 

• Introduction of staff to property managers or community representatives 

• Development of field document packets (permission letters from property managers/owners 

and NHTSA Regional Office if necessary, SSC contact information, project summary sheet, 

etc.) 

• Assembly of data collection forms, clipboard with “safety logo” on back 
E-17

• Acquisition of safety vests, laminated photo ID cards, “safety logo” signs, traffic 

cones/caution tape, etc. 

• Establishment of observation vantage points and safe pullover zones at each site 

• Development of scheduling plan for field site coordinators and observation staff at each site 

over the course of the observation period 

• Establishment of quality control, collection of data forms, and shipment methods 

 

FIELD PROCEDURES FOR DATA COLLECTION 

Data collection will be conducted throughout the week at each site depending on highvolume target vehicle time periods of the day. Past experience has found that the highest number 

of drivers with young child occupants can be obtained between 10 a.m. and 4 p.m. during the 

week, and during all daylight hours on the weekend. Field site supervisors will monitor the flow 

of target vehicles to determine if there are more efficient times to collect the data. 

The protocol for conducting a survey and restraint use/misuse observation follows: 

● Select a target vehicle entering the site and approach the driver. 

● Identify oneself (interviewer) and partner (observer), briefly explain the purpose of the 

study (see script), and request permission to conduct the survey. 

● Upon affirmation of permission, direct the driver to a parking spot within the designated 

survey area. 

● While the interviewer is asking the driver survey questions, the observer is making 

observations and recording restraint system use/misuse, seating positions, and LATCH 

installation system data. 

● Upon completion of the survey and observations, thank the driver. Provide CPS 

information. (Content of this information will be determined at the discretion of the 

SSC.) 

● The interviewer and observer should “double check” the data recorded on the forms 

together for accuracy, before moving on to next target vehicle. 

● Move back into position and wait for next vehicle. 

 

 Our data collection forms for CRS use/misuse studies will contain a script for 

interviewers and observers to follow. This is provided to standardize the data collection 

protocol. 

“Hello, we are a community child-safety survey team. We are conducting a child passenger 

safety field observational study which will take about seven minutes. This study is sponsored by 

the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. The study involves asking you a few 

questions and opening your vehicle doors to look at the restraint systems used by your child 

passengers. There is no need for your children to leave the vehicle. We will not touch your 
E-18

children. You are more than welcome to watch as we observe your children in their restraints. 

Our observers will not change anything, and if errors are found, you will be directed to a contact 

to learn how to properly position your children in their restraints. This survey is voluntary and 

your answers will be kept confidential. Do we have your permission to conduct these 

activities?” 

The observer will start observations from behind the driver; and work across the back 

seats if there is more than one target child. If the vehicle is a van, the observer will then move to 

the third row of seats. The front passenger side seat will be checked last. (See the Appendix for 

instructions on how to use observation forms.) 

The interviewer will ask the driver specific questions. The purpose of the stop will be 

explained. This team member will request permission to conduct the observation; and if the 

response is positive, ask the driver to pull over to a designated area. At a minimum, each 

participating driver will to be asked the age, estimated weight, and height of the target children in 

the vehicle. (See the Appendix for instructions on how to use interview forms.) 

Field supervisors will be responsible for supplying the data collectors with the coding 

forms; overseeing the methods used by the data collectors to make sure data were collected in the 

appropriate manner; collecting the forms; and verifying the completeness and accuracy of the 

data. 
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APPENDIX A 

INSTRUCTIONS FOR INTERVIEW AND OBSERVATION FORMS 
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INSTRUCTIONS FOR COMPLETION OF 

OBSERVATION FORMS NHTSA 1002 AND NHTSA 1002C 

Observers have the responsibility for completing the following forms (in order listed): 

(1) NHTSA 1002, “CRS and LATCH Use Observation Form” – Complete 1 form for 

each target child in the vehicle (e.g., less than age 13). 

(2) NHTSA 1002C, “Arrangement of Vehicle Seating Positions and Occupant 

Restraint Equipment Available for each Seating Position” - Complete 1 form per 

target vehicle 

INSTRUCTIONS FOR FORM 1002: CRS AND LATCH USE OBSERVATION FORM 

One 1002 form will be completed for each child in the vehicle who is age 12 or younger. 

(For example, if there are three children in the vehicle age 12 or younger, then you will complete 

three 1002 Forms.) 

Complete the information at the top of the form (form number, observer initials, date, 

State, and site identifier), and then move to the left column of the form to begin recording your 

observations. 

LEFT COLUMN ITEMS 

Child Position: 

It is very important that you circle the seating position on the diagram to show where the 

child you are observing is seated. (The diagram may not be the same as the one that you use in 

your day-to-day seat-check events, so pay special attention to how you record the seating 

position for this study!) The diagram is a matrix of three rows and three columns designed to 

resemble the seating positions in a car that is parked with the front of the vehicle facing to 

your left. 

The diagram shows the driver seating position at the bottom of the left column. Seating 

position 2 is the center seat in the first row of seats next to the driver (if there is a seat there), and 

seating position 3 is the front-seat passenger next to the window on the right side of the car (top 

of the left column in the diagram). The numbering continues in the middle column of the 

diagram for the second row of vehicle seats (the back seats in passenger cars), with seating 

position 4 behind the driver, seating position 5 in the center of the second row, and seating 

position 6 next to the window on the right side of the car. Some vans and SUVs have a third row 

of seats (shown in the third column of the diagram). These are numbered 7, 8, and 9 from the left 

side of the vehicle to the right side of the vehicle. 
E-22

Available SB Type for this Position (whether or not used): 

 We want to know what kind of seat belt is available in this seating position, whether or 

not the child is using it. Circle either (1) Lap and Shoulder Belt; (2) Lap Belt Only; (3) Shoulder 

Belt Only; or (4) None. You would only circle “(4) None” if there is no seat belt installed in the 

seating position. 

DO NOT circle “(4) None” for a child who is unrestrained but is sitting in a seating 

position where a lap and/or shoulder belt system is available. In this case, you would circle (1) 

Lap and Shoulder Belt. 

If Child is in Position 2 or 3: 

 Circle “(1) Yes” if a passenger air bag switch is available. Air bag on-off switches are 

generally found on the dashboard. Circle “(2) No” if a passenger air bag on-off switch is not 

available. 

If a passenger air bag on-off switch is available, circle either “(1) On” or “(2) Off” to 

indicate the status of the air bag. 

Restraint Type Used: 

This is where you will record the general kind of restraint that the child is using. 

Circle “(1) CRS” if the child is riding in any of the following seat types: Infant-only with 

base; Infant-only without base; Convertible (used rear-facing); Forward-facing with harness (FF 

only, Convertible FF, Combination seat with harness); Integrated; Lap Top; Special Needs; or 

Vest and Harness. 

Circle “(2) Booster” if the child is riding in any of the following seat types: Beltpositioning booster (BPB); BPB with LATCH attachments (Combination seat with harness 

removed); Booster with tethered harness (e.g., Ride Ryte with 86Y); Shield booster; or 

Integrated. 

Circle “(3) Lap and Shoulder Belt” if a child is using a lap and shoulder belt system (even 

if the shoulder belt is behind the child’s back or under the arm). 

Circle “(4) Lap Belt Only” if the child is using only a lap belt. This would occur if the 

child is restrained in a vehicle position that is equipped with a lap only belt. 

Circle “(5) Shoulder Belt Only” if the child is using only a shoulder belt. This would 

occur if the shoulder belt is an automatic one that goes across the child’s body when the door is 

shut, and there is a separate lap belt that must be manually buckled, but is not buckled.

Circle “(6) Unrestrained” if the child is not using a CRS, a booster seat, or a seat belt. If 

a child is unrestrained, you will not complete any other observations on this form. 
E-23

For Restraint Types 1-5, Is Child Harnessed/Restrained? 

This is where harness-related or shoulder belt “gross” misuse will be recorded. The 

definition for “harnessed/restrained,” is as follows: 

 Harness or seat belt must be buckled; and 

 Harness or seat belt must be over the shoulder(s); and 

 Harness or seat belt must be snug, with no slack, and meet the pinch test (i.e., 

cannot pinch the strap to make a fold in the webbing); and 

 Shield booster must be secured with seat belt. 

(If a child is sitting in a CRS but the harness is not buckled, or the harness is not over the 

shoulders, or the harness is loose, you would circle “NO.” Or, if the child is sitting in a booster, 

but the lap and shoulder belt system is not buckled, you would circle “NO.” Or, if the child is 

using a lap and shoulder belt (it is buckled), but the shoulder belt is behind the back or under the 

arm, you would circle “NO.” In other words, you would circle “NO” for situations where the 

child is at risk of ejection or serious injury if a crash were to occur.) 

Note that for restraint types 3, 4, 5, or 6 (seat belt or unrestrained) you will not 

complete any other items on the form, following completion of the harnessed/restrained 

item. 

If a child is in a CRS or a booster, continue completing the data elements in the first 

column, as follows. 

If CRS or Booster, Type Used: 

CRS Type: 

 There are four CRS types listed, from which to choose, if the child is using a CRS. These 

are the first four CRS types listed on the Definitions sheet developed for this project1

: 

(1) Infant-only with base 

(2) Infant-only without base 

(3) Convertible (used rear facing) 

(4) Forward facing with harness (this includes FF only, Convertible FF, and Combination 

seat with harness). 

If the child is restrained in a CRS, circle one of the 4 types listed (number 1, 2, 3, or 4). If the 

child is restrained in some other type of CRS (for example: Integrated, Lap Top, Special Needs, 

or Vest and Harness), circle “(9) Other” and fill in what type of CRS is being used. 

 

1

 “Definitions of Restraint System Types and Observable LATCH Proper Use for NHTSA ‘Child Restraint Use 

Survey” (DTNH22-03-C-06010). 
E-24

Booster Type: 

 There are four types of boosters from which to choose, if a child is using a booster. 

These are the first four booster types listed on the Definitions sheet. 

(5) Belt-positioning booster (BPB) 

(6) BPB with LATCH attachments (this is a Combination seat with harness removed) 

(7) Booster with tethered harness (e.g., Ride Ryte with 86Y) 

(8) Shield booster 

If the child is restrained in a booster, circle one of the four types listed (number 5, 6, 7, or 8). If 

the child is restrained in some other type of booster (for example, an integrated booster), circle 

“(9) Other” and fill in what type of booster is being used. 

CRS/Booster Attachment to Vehicle: 

 

If the CRS or booster is attached to the vehicle, there are nine combinations and types of 

seat belts (SBs) and LATCH attachments listed, from which to choose. Circle only one of the 

nine attachment combinations listed: 

(1) Lap belt only 

(2) Shoulder belt only 

(3) Lap and shoulder belt 

(4) Lower anchors only 

(5) Tether only 

(6) Lower anchors + tether 

(7) Lower anchors + SB 

(8) Lower anchors + tether + SB 

(9) Tether + SB 

If the CRS or booster is not attached to the vehicle (e.g., it is just sitting on the vehicle seat), 

circle “(10) Not attached.” 

MIDDLE COLUMN ITEMS: TETHER – TOP PORTION OF COLUMN 

Is a tether anchor present for this position? 

For all CRSs and boosters, we want to know if a tether anchor is available for the seating 

position (whether or not it is being used). 

Circle “(1) Yes” if a tether anchor is available for the seating position. 

Circle “(2) No” if a tether anchor is not available for the seating position. 
E-25

Circle “(3) Unsure” if you don’t know if a tether anchor is available (e.g., an obstructed 

view or an inability to access a view). 

 

Does CRS have a tether? 

For all CRSs, we want to know if the CRS is tether equipped. 

Circle “(1) Yes” if the CRS is tether equipped. 

Circle “(2) No” if the CRS is not tether equipped. 

Circle “(3) Unsure” if you don’t know if the CRS is tether equipped (e.g., an obstructed 

view or an inability to access a view). 

If the CRS does not have a tether, mark “NO” and move to the right column to complete 

observations about Lower Anchor Use. 

If rear-facing CRS, can tether be used? 

You will circle “(1) Yes” if the seat is facing the rear of the car (infant-only seat or a 

convertible in the rear-facing mode), and the manufacturer specifically indicates that a tether can 

be used in the rear-facing mode. At this time, there are only a few seats available in the United 

States that can be tethered in rear-facing operation2

. These include the Britax Handle with 

CareTM (Infant), Safeline Sit 'n' StrollTM (Convertible with stroller wheels), Britax RoundaboutTM 

(Convertible), Britax AdvantageTM (Convertible), and the new Britax convertible models with 

LATCH. Some of these models allow for a rear-facing tether that can be anchored toward the 

front of the vehicle (TFV or "Swedish Method"), or toward the rear of the vehicle (TRV or 

"Australian Method"). If specified in the instructions, either method is acceptable provided a 

suitable anchor is available. (Note - You won’t have time to read the CRS manual, but hopefully 

you are familiar with the Britax and Safeline models, or can quickly check over any instructions 

for tether use on the seat label, if visible. The Safeline “Sit ‘n Stroll” and the Britax 

“Roundabout” and “Advantage” are shown below). 

 

2

 http://www.car-safety.org/latch.html 
E-26

Safeline Sit 'n Stroll 

Britax Roundabout 

Britax Advantage 

Circle (2) NO” if the seat is rear-facing, and the manufacturer does not specifically allow 

use of the tether in the rear-facing mode (e.g., the seat is not one of the Britax or Safeline models 

listed above). 

Circle “(3) N/A” (stands for “not applicable”) if the seat is forward-facing. 

Adjustor Type: 

This is the mechanism used to adjust the length of the 

tether strap. 

(1) Tilt Lock: A strap adjustment mechanism that 

releases its hold on the webbing for the purpose of 

lengthening the strap when the hardware is held at 

an angle relative to the webbing; does not inhibit 

the strap from being shortened when the free end 

of the webbing is pulled. It works like a manually 

adjustable lap belt. 

(2) Double Back: Few manufacturers use this 

adjustment system. It uses metal slides with slots 

through which the strap is threaded. 

(3) Other: This is any other adjustment type besides 

double back or tilt lock. 

© Safe Ride News, reproduced with 

permission 

Tether strap with double-back 

adjuster 

© Safe Ride News, reproduced 

with permission 
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(4) Unsure: Circle this option if you are unsure of the adjustment type (e.g., hidden behind 

the seat or floor of a minivan, and you can’t see it). 

Is tether in use? 

For CRSs that have a tether, this question relates to whether a tether is being used or not. 

Circle “(1) Yes” if the tether is attached to a tether anchor or anything else in the vehicle (this 

question does not refer to tether misuse, which will be recorded later). 

Circle “(2) No (stowed)” if the tether is not is NOT in use and it is stowed. By stowed, we are 

referring to the tether strap being “stored” so that it does not hang loose with the potential to 

cause injury during emergency maneuvering or a crash. Some CRSs have a place in the back of 

the seat shell to store an unused tether strap. Other seat instructions state that an unused tether 

strap and hook should be placed under the child restraint. If the tether strap is not in use and is 

stored/stowed in any manner, circle #2. 

Circle “(3) No (hangs loose)” if the tether is not in use and it is hanging loose (e.g., it is a 

potential hazard...a child could wrap it around his neck or it could be a projectile in a crash). 

NOTE: If the tether is NOT in use, move to the next column to complete the lower anchor 

observations. If the tether is being used, continue down the column. 

MIDDLE COLUMN ITEMS: TETHER – BOTTOM PORTION OF COLUMN 

Note: You will only make recordings of these items if the tether strap is in use. 

Can you see what the tether is attached to? 

Circle “Yes” if you can see what the tether is attached to. If you can’t see what the tether is 

attached to with a reasonable amount of searching or minimal intrusiveness, circle “No.” 

Tether attachment item (1): CRS MFG permits use of RF tether. 

Circle “(1) Y” if the CRS is rear facing, and it is one of the Britax or Safeline models that allows 

tethering of rear-facing seats. 

Circle “(2) N” if the CRS is rear facing and the manufacturer is not one of the models that allows 

tethering in the rear-facing mode. 

Circle “(3) N/A” if the CRS is forward facing. 

(Note: The answer to this question should be the same as the answer to the question in the top 

half of the tether column “If rear-facing CRS, can tether be used?”). 
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Tether attachment item (2): Combination used as a BPB with tether. 

Circle “(1) Y” if the seat is a combination child safety seat and it is being used in the belt 

positioning booster (BPB) mode (harness removed, and lap and shoulder belt restraining the 

child). 

Circle “(2) N” if the seat is a combination seat, and it is being used as a CRS (a forward-facing 

seat with the internal harness in use). Combination seats are used as a CRS generally for 

children weighing up to 40 pounds. At 40+ pounds, instructions generally state that the harness 

should be removed so the seat can be used as a BPB with the lap and shoulder belt. 

Circle “(3) N/A” if the seat is not a combination seat. 

Tether attachment item (3): Tether Routing 

Items 3a-3f are designed to describe how the tether is routed. Correct routing is over a nonadjustable head restraint or under an adjustable head restraint. Use “(1) Y” for the item that 

describes how the tether is routed. Use “(2) N” when the item does not describe how the tether is 

routed, but the head restraint system described by the item is applicable to the head restraint that 

you are observing. Use “(3)” N/A when the item does not apply to the kind of head restraint that 

you are observing. 

(3a): Tether routed over an integral/no head restraint. 

Circle “(1) Y” if the tether is routed over an integral head restraint (e.g., the head 

restraint is built into the vehicle seat) or if there is no head restraint on the vehicle 

seat back. 

Circle “(3)” N/A if the head restraint is an adjustable head restraint, and therefore 

this question is not applicable to the type of head restraint observed. 

(NOTE: response “(2) NO” should not be used for this item) 

(3b): Tether routed under an adjustable head restraint. 

Circle “(1) Y” if the tether is routed under an adjustable head restraint. 

Circle “(2) N” if the head restraint is adjustable, but the tether is routed in a manner 

other than under the head restraint. 

Circle “(3) N/A” if the head restraint is integral to the seat (built in) or there is no 

head restraint, and therefore the question is not applicable to the head restraint 

being observed. 
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(3c): Tether routed over a raised-adjustable head restraint. 

Circle “(1) Y” if the tether is routed over a head restraint that is adjustable, and is 

in a raised position. 

Circle “(2) N” if the head restraint is adjustable, and the tether is routed in a 

manner other than over-the-head restraint. 

Circle “(3) N/A” if the head restraint is integral to the seat (built in) or there is no 

head restraint, and therefore the question is not applicable to the head restraint 

being observed. 

(3d): Tether routed over a down-adjustable head restraint. 

Circle “(1) Y” if the tether is routed over a head restraint that is adjustable, and is 

in a lowered (full down) position. 

Circle “(2) N” if the head restraint is adjustable, and the tether is routed in a 

manner other than over the head restraint. 

Circle “(3) N/A” if the head restraint is integral to the seat (built in) or there is no 

head restraint, and therefore the question is not applicable to the head restraint 

being observed. 

(3e): Tether wrapped around head restraint. 

Circle “(1) Y” if the tether is wrapped around the head restraint. 

Circle “(2) N” if the tether is not wrapped around the head restraint. 

Circle “(3) N/A” if the head restraint is integral to the seat (built in) or there is no 

head restraint, and therefore the question is not applicable to the head restraint 

being observed. 

(3f): Other routing. 

If none of the items in 3a-3e describe how the tether is routed (e.g., you did not 

circle “(1) Y” to either 3a, 3b, 3c, 3d, or 3e), then describe here how the tether is 

routed. 

Tether attachment item (4): Attached to designated tether anchor. 

Circle “(1) Y” if the tether is attached to a tether anchor (not a cargo hook or lower anchor) and 

the tether anchor used is the correct one for the seating position (e.g., the anchor point located 

directly behind and closest to the center point of the top of the child restraint). 

Circle “(2) N” if the tether is attached to a cargo hook or a lower anchor (e.g., not attached to a 

tether anchor) or if the tether strap is attached to a tether anchor that is designated for a different 
E-30

seating position. If you circle “(2) N” then use the space to describe what the tether is attached 

to. 

Note: If you indicated earlier that you couldn’t see what the tether was attached to, then leave 

this question blank. 

Tether attachment item (5): One tether per tether anchor. 

Circle “(1) Y” if only 1 tether strap (1 tether strap on 1 CRS) is attached to the tether anchor. If 

you are observing a pick-up truck, it is acceptable for 2 or 3 tethers (for 2 or 3 CRSs) to be 

attached or passed through 1 loop, so circle “(1) Y if this is the case for the seat you are 

observing. 

Circle “(2) N” if there are 2 or more tether straps attached to the tether anchor (e.g., more that 1 

CRS is using the same tether anchor, UNLESS you are observing a pickup truck, where multiple 

tethers may be attached to one loop. 

Tether attachment item (6): Twisted no more than a half-twist. 

Circle “(1) Y” if the tether strap is flat or has no more than one half-twist. 

Circle “(2) N” if the tether strap has one or more twists. 

 Tether attachment item (7): Tether is snug (passes pinch test). 

Circle “(1) Y” if the tether is snug. Snug is defined as “cannot pinch the strap to make a fold in 

the webbing.” 

Circle “(2) N” if the tether is loose (i.e., if you can pinch the strap to make a fold). 

If the tether is loose, then answer Y or N items 7a, 7b, and 7c to indicate the reason for 

the looseness. 

Tether attachment item (8): Tether tightness allows CRS base to rest on seat cushion. 

 

Circle “(1) Y” to indicate that the strap is not overly tight (doesn’t pull base off of vehicle seat 

cushion). 

Circle “(2) N” to indicate that the tether strap is overly tight (the base of the CRS is pulled off of 

the vehicle seat cushion). 

Tether attachment item (9): Other 

If there is anything about how the tether is attached to the vehicle that was not covered by items 

1-8, circle “(1) Y” and describe the situation. If there isn’t anything else about the tether 

attachment, circle “(2) N.” 
E-31

Once you complete all of the items in the middle tether 

column, move to the right column of the form to 

complete the lower anchor observations. 

RIGHT COLUMN ITEMS: LOWER ANCHORS — TOP 

PORTION OF COLUMN 

Are lower anchors present in seat position? 

For all CRSs and boosters, we want to know if lower anchors are available for the seating 

position (whether or not they are being used). 

Circle “(1) Yes” if lower anchors are available for the seating position. 

Circle “(2) No” if lower anchors are not available for the seating position. 

Circle “(3) Unsure” if you don’t know lower anchors are available. 

Does CRS have lower attachments? 

For all CRSs, we want to know if the CRS has lower attachments. 

Circle “(1) Yes” if the CRS is equipped with lower attachments. 

Circle “(2) No” if the CRS is not equipped with lower attachments. 

Circle “(3) Unsure” if you don’t know if the CRS is equipped with lower attachments. 

If YES, Connector Type: 

If you circled “(1) Yes” to the question above, then circle one of the 4 options below to indicate 

what type of connector is present on the lower attachments. Descriptions and figures of the 

connector types follow: 

(1) Flexible strap, hook-on: A flexible, webbed strap with a hook (similar to a tether hook) 

that must be pushed in and over the bar to connect and release. 

Flexible strap with hook-on 

connector 

© Safe Ride News, reproduced with 

permission 
E-32

(2) Flexible strap, push-on: A flexible, webbed strap with 

a push-on connector (with a spring-loaded latch) that 

releases with a push button. 

(3) Rigid attachment: A rigid attachment is part of the CRS 

frame. LATCH restraints with rigid attachments are installed 

by pushing the connectors onto the bars and then pushing the 

CRS toward the back cushion. Adjustment is automatic. 

Only a few CRSs currently have rigid connectors built into 

the base, and include Britax Expressway ISOFIX, MercedesBenz Duo (made by Britax and similar to the Expressway 

ISOFIX) and Baby Trend Latch-Loc. 

(4) Unsure: If you are unsure of the connector type (you can’t get into a position where you 

can see it), then circle this option. 

Flexible strap with push-on 

connector 

© Safe Ride News, reproduced 

with permission 

Rigid attachment

© Safe Ride News, 

reproduced with 

permission 
E-33

If Flexible Strap: 

Webbing Tension Release: 

 Flexible straps must be adjusted by the user. Circle which adjuster type is used on the 

flexible attachments: 

(1) a squeeze release (push button) (2) a tilt lock adjuster 

If you are unsure of the webbing tension release type (e.g., you can’t see it), then circle 

“(3) Unsure.” 

Strap Type: 

 There are currently 3 types of flexible lower attachments, which are described below. 

Circle which type of lower attachments are present on the CRS3

: 

(1) Single – Presently, most CRSs with flexible attachments have a single strap routed 

through the conventional seat belt path with a hook on each end and one adjuster. For 

convertible CRSs, the strap must be rerouted under the pad from the rear-facing belt 

path to the forward-facing path. In some convertibles, the ends also must be reversed 

(connectors moved from one side to the other) and the connectors must be right-side 

up. 

(2) Side Straps – A few convertibles (e.g., the discontinued Fisher-Price Safe Embrace II, 

Britax Marathon/Wizard) have a belt on each side that slides along the side frame of 

the CRS from one installation location to the other. Each strap must be tightened 

separately. 

(3) Two Straps – Separate LATCH attachment straps for rear-facing and forward-facing 

positions on convertible CRSs (e.g., discontinued Cosco Triad, and an early version 

of the Britax Galaxy). Users must use the correct set and store the other. 

 

3

 From: Stewart, D.D. and Kern, K.C. (2003). LATCH: Lower Anchors and Tethers for Child Restraints. Safe Ride 

News Publications. Seattle, WA. 

Flexible strap with hook-on 

connector, and tilt lock adjuster 

© Safe Ride News, reproduced with 

permission 

Flexible strap with push-on 

connector, and push button 

adjuster 

© Safe Ride News, reproduced 

with permission 
E-34

If you are unsure of the strap type, circle “(4) Unsure.” 

Are Lower Anchors in Use? 

For seating positions with lower anchors and CRSs with lower attachments, this question 

relates to whether the lower attachments are being used or not. 

Circle “(1) Yes” if the lower attachments are attached to a lower anchor or anything else 

in the vehicle (this question does not refer to lower anchor misuse, which will be 

recorded later). 

Circle “(2) No (stowed)” if the lower attachments are NOT in use and they are stowed. 

By stowed, we are referring to the lower attachment straps being “stored” so that they do 

not hang loose with the potential to cause injury during emergency maneuvering or a 

crash. Seat instructions variously state that unused lower attachments should be placed 

under the child restraint, or buckled together behind the child restraint, or clipped to 

storage bars on the upper sides of the seat. If the lower attachment straps are not in use 

and are stored/stowed in any manner, circle #2. 

Circle “(3) No (hangs loose)” if the lower attachment straps are not in use and are 

hanging loose. 

Circle “(4)” Unsure, if you can’t determine whether the lower attachments are being 

used. 

 Note: If the lower attachments are not in use, or you are unsure about their use, stop 

the lower anchor observation for this CRS. If the lower attachments are being used, 

continue down the column. 

RIGHT COLUMN ITEMS: LOWER ANCHORS — BOTTOM PORTION OF COLUMN 

Note: You will only make recordings of these items if the lower attachments are in use. 

Can you see what lower attachments are connected to? 

You may have visual or tactile access to (1) what both lower attachments are connected 

to; (2) what only one of the lower attachments is attached to; or (3) or you may not be able to see 

what either attachment is connected to. Circle either (1) Both, (2) One, or (3) Neither. 
E-35

Lower attachment item (1): Combination used as BPB with lower anchors 

Circle “(1) Yes” if the seat is a combination seat used in the belt-positioning booster mode (the 

harness has been removed and the seat belt is restraining the child) and the seat is attached to the 

vehicle using the lower anchors. 

Circle “(2) No” if the seat is a combination seat, but it is being used as a forward-facing child 

seat with the internal harness, and the seat is attached to the vehicle using the lower anchors. 

Circle “(3) N/A” if the seat is not a combination seat. 

Lower attachment item (2): Correct path used for flexible single strap: 

If the lower attachment consists of a single strap: 

Circle “(1) Yes” if the strap is routed in the correct belt path (e.g., toward the rear of the seat for 

a forward-facing seat, and to the front of the seat for a rear-facing seat). 

Circle “(2) No” if the strap is not routed in the correct belt path. 

Circle “(3) N/A” if the lower attachment type is not a single strap. 

Lower attachment item (3): Attached to designated lower anchors: 

Circle “(1) Yes” if the CRS is attached to lower anchors that are designated for this seating 

position. 

Circle “(2) No” if the CRS is attached to something other than a designated anchor for the 

seating position. If the CRS is not attached using the designated lower anchors for the seating 

position, complete items 3a through 3d to describe what the lower attachments are connected to. 

(3a): In non-designated position, attached using lower anchors. 

Circle “(1) Yes” for situations such as a CRS in the back middle seat using outboard 

lower anchors (when the vehicle manufacturer prohibits outboard anchor use for the 

middle position.) 

Circle “(2) No if the CRS is using designated lower anchors for the seating position. 

(3b): In designated position, attached to seat material or spring, and not anchor. 

Circle “(1) Yes” if the CRS is in a seating position with dedicated lower anchors, but the 

lower attachments are connected to something other than the actual lower anchors (e.g., 

the seat material or seat springs). 

Circle “(2) No if the CRS is using designated lower anchors for the seating position. 

(3c): In designated position, only one side attached to anchor. 
E-36

Circle “(1) Yes” if the CRS is in a designated lower anchor seating position, but only one 

side of the CRS is connected to the lower anchors (e.g., only one of the two of lower 

connectors is in use). 

Circle “(2) No if the CRS is using both designated lower anchors for the seating position. 

(3d): Other: 

If the CRS lower attachments are connected in any other way besides those described in 

3a-3c, circle 3d and write how they are attached in the blank provided. 

Lower attachment item (4): One connector per bar.

Circle “(1) Yes” if each of the 2 lower anchor bars has only one lower attachment strap 

connected to it. 

Circle “(2) No” if one or both lower anchor bars has multiple lower attachment straps connected 

to it. 

Lower attachment item (5): Connector installed right-side up. 

Circle “(1) Yes” if both lower attachment connectors are installed to the lower anchor bar rightside up (for hooks, pushed over the bar; for push-on connectors, attached to that the release 

button is accessible; e.g., not wedged between the connector and the shell of the seat.) 

Circle “(2) No” if one or both lower attachment connectors are installed upside down. 

Circle “(3) N/A” if the CRS has rigid attachments (making upside-down connection impossible). 

Lower attachment item (6): Twisted no more than a half-twist. 

Circle “(1) Yes” if the lower attachments are flexible and they are attached without any twists or 

with only one-half of a twist. 

Circle “(2) No” if the lower attachments are flexible and they are attached with a full twist or 

more. 

Circle “(3) N/A” if the CRS has rigid attachments (cannot twist rigid attachments). 

Lower attachment item (7): Tight installation (1-inch rule) 

Circle “(1) Yes” if the CRS attachment is tight (e.g., it cannot move more than one inch forward 

or one inch side to side). 

Circle “(2) No” if the CRS attachment is not tight (e.g., it moves more than one inch forward or 

one inch side to side). 
E-37

If the CRS attachment is not tight (e.g., you circled “No” to the item above), then answer 

7a-7c to indicate the cause of the loose installation: 

(7a) User Error: 

 Circle “(1) Yes” if the loose installation is likely to be the result of human error. 

Circle “(2) No” if the loose installation is likely to be the result of equipment 

incompatibility (e.g., the CRS base is too wide for the vehicle seat). 

 (7b) CRS Base Too Wide:

Circle “(1) Yes” if the loose installation is likely to be the result of the CRS base being 

too wide for the vehicle seat (equipment incompatibility). 

Circle “(2) No” if the loose installation is likely to be the result of human error. 

(7c) Other: 

If the loose installation is neither likely to be the result of human error or the CRS base 

being too wide for the vehicle seat, then Circle 7C and write the reason in the space 

provided. 

Lower attachment item (8): Correct angle for rear-facing CRS. 

Rear-facing CRSs should be reclined at an angle between 30 and 45 degrees, with newborn and 

younger infants closer to 45 degrees. As infants approach 6 to 8 months, the seat may be angled 

closer to 30 degrees. Many rear-facing CRSs have an angle (level) gauge built into the side of 

the seat to verify a correct angle range. 

Circle “(1) Yes” if the CRS is rear-facing, and the recline angle is between 30 and 45 degrees. 

Circle “(2) No” if the CRS is rear-facing, and the angle of recline is more than 45 degrees (too 

reclined) or less than 30 degrees (too upright). 

Circle “(3) N/A” if the CRS is a forward-facing seat. 

Lower attachment item (9): Other (explain) 

If you observe anything else about the lower attachment connection that is not covered by the 

items in 1-8 above, circle (9) and write your observations in the space provided. 
E-38
E-39

INSTRUCTIONS FOR FORM 1002C: 

ARRANGEMENT OF VEHICLE SEATING POSITIONS AND OCCUPANT 

RESTRAINT EQUIPMENT AVAILABLE FOR EACH SEATING POSITION 

 One 1002C form will be completed for each target vehicle, to show the seating 

arrangement in the vehicle, the seat belt type available for each seat, and the kind of LATCH 

equipment available for each seat. 

TOP PORTION OF FORM 

In the blocks provided at the top of the form, fill in the form number, the interviewer and 

observer initials, and the date. Then fill in the blank with the site description. 

BOTTOM PORTION OF FORM 

Enter the number of seating positions available in the vehicle, in the blank provided. 

On the vehicle seating position diagram, draw an X through each seating position that is 

NOT available in the vehicle you are observing. The vehicle diagram is oriented so that the front 

of the vehicle faces the left, just like the seating position diagram shown on the 1002 form. 

Circle the seat belt type for each seating position available in the vehicle, whether or not 

the seating position is occupied, where “L-S” indicates a lap-shoulder belt, “L” indicates a laponly belt, and “S” indicates a shoulder-only belt. 

For each tether-designated seating position, circle “T,” whether or not the seating position 

is occupied

For each lower-anchor designated seating position. Circle “LA,” whether or not the 

seating position is occupied.
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E-41

INSTRUCTIONS FOR COMPLETION OF INTERVIEW FORMS 

(NHTSA 1002A AND NHTSA 1002B) 

Interviewers have the responsibility for completing the forms (in order listed): 

(1) NHTSA 1002A, “CRS and LATCH Use Interview Form” – Complete front side for 

each target driver and on the back side, ask driver the questions for each target child 

(younger than 5 years old, in a CRS with a harness). 

(2) NHTSA 1002B, “CRS and LATCH Use Interview Form, Question: Occupant 

Characteristics Chart 

INSTRUCTIONS FOR FORM 1002A: CRS AND LATCH USE INTERVIEW FORM 

AND FOR QUESTION 6 - THE OCCUPANT CHARACTERISTICS CHART FORM 

(1002B) 

Complete the information at the top of both forms (form number, interviewer and 

observer initials, date, site identifier, and time of day (AM or PM). 

 After initial interaction with driver (includes - introductions, explanation of survey, and 

permission to conduct survey with driver), proceed with survey questions on Form 1002A. 

FRONT SIDE – LEFT COLUMN ITEMS 

1. Vehicle Make 

2. Vehicle Model 

3. Vehicle Year 

Ask driver this information. If driver is not certain of this information, ask permission to 

open driver-side door and look for sticker (on door) that identifies make, model, and year. (Note 

– the data entry staff will record codes.) 

4. Vehicle Type 

 Ten categories are provided. (Make sure data collectors know vehicle types.) Circle 

one. 

5. Total Number of Occupants in Vehicle 

 Count total number of occupants. Enter number in space provided on form. 

6. Occupant Characteristics (Go to NHTSA 1002B form) 

 Complete the Occupant Characteristics Chart (NHTSA 1002B) for all occupants. Ask 

the driver to provide the sex, age, race/ethnicity, height, and weight for each target child (age 12 

or younger) in each seating position. 
E-42

For age of the target children, drivers may respond in a variety of ways, using number of 

days (e.g., 14 days old), number of weeks (e.g., 2 weeks old), number of months (e.g., 24 

months old), or number of years (e.g., 2 years old). Be sure to include the word or abbreviation 

for the unit of time provided by the driver when you record the child’s age in the blank. 

Weight and height for target children are estimates from the driver/parent only. A height 

chart has been provided for each team, with the four height categories color coded to help with 

the task of estimating height, if the parent doesn’t know for sure. If the driver/parent is unable to 

respond, take an educated guess for weight and/or height and record the weight (in pounds) and 

circle the height category. (Note your initials in this box if it’s your guestimate.) 

Ask driver and other adults and teens, their age and race/ethnicity. If they are 

uncomfortable with giving actual age, provide them with age categories. 

Make an observation of the restraint type being used by driver and all passengers in each 

seating position. Circle the restraint type being used (or unrestrained) for each occupant. 

(Go back to NHTSA 1002A) 

FRONT SIDE - RIGHT COLUMN ITEMS 

ASK THE DRIVER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS IF THERE IS A CHILD LESS THAN 

AGE 13 IN THE VEHICLE 

7. Before today, had you ever seen or heard of a “booster seat”? 

Circle (1) Yes or (2) No (If “No”, skip to Q. 10.) 

8. For what size child should a booster seat be used? 

Circle all responses (see form) offered by driver. (Note – Do not give them response items.) 

Enter numbers in the spaces provided if a driver provides a “weight, age, or height” response. If 

a driver gives you an answer that is not listed on the form, circle “(6) Other” and record what the 

driver tells you in the space provided. 

9. Why is a booster seat used? 

Circle all responses (see form) offered by driver. (Note – Do not give them response items.) If a 

driver gives you an answer that is not listed on the form, circle “(6) Other” and record what the 

driver tells you in the space provided. 

10. When is it safe for your child to use a safety belt without a booster seat or child safety 

seat? 

Circle all responses (see form) offered by driver. (Note – Do not give them response items.) If a 

driver gives you an answer that is not listed on the form, circle “(8) Other” and record what the 

driver tells you in the space provided. 
E-43

11. Do you know about a new way to install a child safety seat without a safety belt? 

Circle (1) Yes or (2) No (If “No”, skip to Q. 13.) 

12. (Upon a “yes” response) What is it called? 

Circle one response (see form) If a driver gives you an answer that is not listed on the form, 

circle “(5) Other” and record what the driver tells you in the space provided. 

13. Have you heard of the term “LATCH” associated with child safety seats? 

Circle (1) Yes or (2) No 

14. Does your vehicle have a place to hook the child safety seat top tether strap? 

Circle (1) Yes or (2) No or (3) Don’t Know 

15. Does your vehicle have bars to attach the child safety seat bottom connectors? 

Circle (1) Yes or (2) No or (3) Don’t Know 

On the back side of the form are questions to be asked of drivers who have target children 

(younger than 5 years old, in a CRS with a harness). The same questions are asked for each 

target child. The seating position for each target child is identified by circling the position 

number on the diagram for each set of questions. 

BACK SIDE – TOP LEFT COLUMN 

ASK THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS FOR ALL CHILDREN IN CRSs WITH A HARNESS 

16. Some child safety seats have a strap on the back of the seat near the top called a tether. 

Does your child safety seat have a tether? 

Circle (1) Yes or (2) No or (3) Don’t Know (If “No” or “Don’t Know”, skip to Q. 20.) 

17. Are you using the tether? 

Circle (1) Yes or (2) No (If “No”, skip to Q. 19) 

18. If YES, how easy or difficult is it for you to use? 

Read response categories (see form) to the driver; and then circle one of five choices from (1) 

Very easy to (5) Very difficult. (Skip to Q. 20.) 

19. If NO, why aren’t you using it? 
E-44

Circle as many responses as driver gives. Do not prompt answers. If a driver gives you an 

answer that is not listed on the form, circle “(6) Other” and record what the driver tells you in the 

space provided. 

BACK SIDE – TOP RIGHT COLUMN 

ASK THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS FOR ALL CHILDREN IN CRSs WITH A HARNESS 

20. Does your child safety seat have connectors to attach it to the vehicle?

Circle (1) Yes or (2) No or (3) Don’t Know (If “No” or “Don’t Know”, terminate interview for 

this seating position.) 

21. Are you using the connectors? 

Circle (1) Yes or (2) No (If “No”, skip to Q. 25) 

22. How easy or difficult is it for you to use the connectors? 

Read response categories (see form) to driver, and then circle one of five choices from (1) Very 

easy to (5) Very difficult. 

23. Are you also using the safety belt? 

Circle (1) Yes or (2) No (If “No”, skip to Q. 26.) 

24. Why do you use both the safety belt and the connectors? 

Circle as many responses (see form) as given. Do not prompt answers. If a driver gives you an 

answer that is not listed on the form, circle “(3) Other” and record what the driver tells you in the 

space provided. 

25. If NO, why aren’t you using the connectors?

Driver may provide multiple answers. Do not prompt answers. Circle responses given by driver. 

If a driver gives you an answer that is not listed on the form, circle “(6) Other” and record what 

the driver tells you in the space provided. 

 (Interview is terminated after completion of Q. 25, since lower anchors are not being used.) 

BACK SIDE – BOTTOM COLUMN 

FOR LATCH (LOWER ANCHOR) USERS 

26. Have you personally installed the child safety seat using the LATCH (lower anchor) 

system? 
E-45

Circle (1) Yes or (2) No (If NO, terminate interview.) 

27. What do you like about the LATCH (lower anchor) system? 

Circle all responses (see form) that are given. Do not prompt answers. If a driver gives you an 

answer that is not listed on the form, circle “(5) Other” and record what the driver tells you in the 

space provided. 

28. What don’t you like about connecting or disconnecting the LATCH (lower anchor) 

system? 

Circle all responses (see form) that are given. Do not prompt answers. If a driver gives you an 

answer that is not listed on the form, circle “(8) Other” and record what the driver tells you in the 

space provided. 

29. Can you see the connection bars, or are they hidden between the seat cushions? 

Circle one response (see form) for the ones given. Do not prompt answers. If a driver gives you 

an answer that is not listed on the form, circle “(4) Other” and record what the driver tells you in 

the space provided. 

30. Have you had experience connecting a child safety seat to a vehicle using only the 

safety belts? 

Circle (1) Yes or (2) No 

31. If YES, which method do you prefer? 

Circle (1) LATCH or (2) Safety Belts or (3) Undecided 

31a. Why? 

Write out the driver’s response. 

32. Is it easier to attach a child safety seat to the vehicle with the lower anchors or vehicle 

safety belt? 

Circle (1) Lower anchors or (2) Vehicle safety belt or (3) Undecided 
E-46
E-47

APPENDIX B: OBSERVATION AND INTERVIEW FORMS 
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E-49
E-50
E-51
E-52
E-53
E-54
F-1

ATTACHMENT F: DATA ENTRY AND CHECKS 

Initial Data Checks 

All of the data recorded on the interview and observation forms were checked in the field 

by the SSCs and the field observers. Inconsistencies and errors in recording information were 

mostly resolved with the data collectors on the day of the surveys by the field managers or SSCs. 

The LATCH configuration of each vehicle recorded in the survey was checked with the LATCH 

–Lower Anchors and Tethers for Child Restraints 4th Edition (Stewart, Lang, and Emery, 2005) 

by the SSCs and data analysis staff. 

Each batch of data from a specific site was given a unique site number identifier (e.g., 

Site 1 - Gateway Shopping Center); and other batch-specific information related to site type 

(e.g., shopping center, pediatric center, fast-food restaurant, etc.), population density (e.g., urban, 

suburban, or rural), and socio-economic class (e.g., low/low-middle, middle/middle-upper, and 

upper). This other information was provided by the SSCs for each State. Socio-economic class 

information was a subjective call by the SSCs. This information was put on the form by project 

staff, not by the SSCs or field crew. 

Secondary Data Checks 

Prior to data entry, the data were reviewed by project staff for overall “data 

completeness” and were given a more specific check for inconsistencies in vehicle LATCH 

configurations (i.e., upper tether and/or lower anchor bar systems), target child positions and 

restraint use, and LATCH presence in target child seating position. 

Vehicle LATCH Configurations (upper tether and/or lower anchor bar systems, Form 

1002A)23 were checked and compared with information from the most comprehensive guide on 

the topic (LATCH 2005 – The Essential Guide, by D. Stewart, N. Lang, and S. Emery – the 

“Green Book”). Revisions (or additions) were made to this data collection form, in red ink, upon 

finding missing or inconsistent data from the Green Book review. 

Target Child Position and Child Restraint Use appear on Interview Form 1002B and 

Observer Form 1002. Form 1002C also had a record of vehicle restraint type for seating position 

and was used as an additional verification check. Inconsistencies in the data were checked (e.g., 

if the interviewer recorded that the child was in a booster seat and the observer recorded that the 

child was in a CRS). If a clear-cut decision could not be made about the type of restraint use (by 

looking at the CRS or Booster type, for example), then the data field was left blank. 

LATCH Presence in Seat Occupied by Child appears on Observation Form 1002. 

Recordings were made for the presence of an upper tether and/or the presence of lower anchors 

in the seat positions occupied by the target child or children. Data on this form were checked 

 

23 The data collection forms are presented in Appendix B of the Training Manual, which is Attachment E of the 

report. 
F-2

with Observation Form 1002C to verify consistency with the LATCH system attachments in the 

vehicle. 

Data Entry Procedures 

Data entry specialists received orientation to the content of the data fields for each data 

collection form and were trained by project staff regarding the proper procedure for entering the 

data. Accuracy of data entry was maximized by use of a data entry form in Microsoft Access, 

using combo boxes that have drop-down lists for coding variable choices in each data field. The 

selection of choices for the data entry specialist eliminated the need to remember values and 

minimized the chance of data entry error. 

Data Entry Checks 

Following entry of all data, further data checking activities were conducted. These are 

described below. 

Range Checks. For each field, data was sorted in both ascending and descending orders 

to isolate entries outside of the range of values specified in the coding manual (e.g., a field 

containing the value of “4” when only 1-3 for Yes, No, and N/A were expected). This was rare, 

but when it occurred, the corresponding paper forms were pulled to determine what the correct 

code for the variable should have been, and the correct data was then entered into the database. 

Skip Pattern Checks. Another data checking activity included isolating groups of 

variables that followed skip patterns to see if data was present when there should be none, based 

on the code to a prior variable. If data appeared in fields which should have been blank, the 

corresponding paper forms were pulled to see where the discrepancy was (e.g., an answer should 

have been coded as 1=Yes to the prior variable based on what was circled on the data form, 

instead of 2=No, and the following data was entered correctly; or the prior field was accurately 

coded as 2=No, and the interviewer should have skipped the following questions). 

Data Consistency Checks. Some upper tether and lower anchor observations were 

relevant to specific restraint types (e.g., a rear-facing CRS or a belt-positioning booster). If a 

child was riding in a restraint type that was not relevant to the observation, the item should have 

been coded as 3 =N/A. Occasionally, observers incorrectly recorded such observations as a 

1=Yes or a 2=No. These forms were pulled to double-check the coding of the seat, and the 

database entries were corrected. 

Forms were pulled when there were discrepancies in Survey Group and CRS or Booster 

Type. For example, children riding in booster seats (Booster Type 5) who were coded as either 

Group 2, 3, or 4 were recoded as Group 1. 

When CRS/Booster Attachment to vehicle was coded as a “3” (Lap and Shoulder Belt), 

and the upper tether and lower anchor observation columns indicated that an upper tether and/or 

the lower anchors were in use, Attachment was recoded to either “7” lower anchors + SB, or “8” 

lower anchors + upper tether + SB, or “9” upper tether + SB. 
F-3

When 7a, 7b, and/or 7c were coded as “1=Yes” in the upper tether and lower anchor 

observation columns, and there were blanks for the other 1-2 variables in this sequence, the 

blanks were recoded to “2=No.” 

Review of Text Items. Some recoding of “Other” responses occurred for interview 

questions 8, 9, and 10; and 27, 28, and 29 when the response given for “Other” really fit into one 

of the existing categories. For example, for Question 28, if the interviewer wrote “seat moves too 

much” or “can’t tighten enough” and response #6 (“Can’t get CSS tight”) was not coded as 

1=Yes, than 28(6) was recoded from a “2” to a “1.” 

If numeric codes were entered in a character field, this indicated a position error in the 

entry of the data, either for earlier variables or later variables. Paper forms were pulled to 

determine where the code should have been entered. 

Age Category 2 Children Who Were Missing Actual Age. Six children who were coded 

as Age Group 2 (age 1 to 12 years) were missing actual age. Five of these children were coded 

in a survey group (i.e., Survey Groups 2 through 4) for which the ages of the child passengers 

were defined as being between age 0 and 4. All five of these children were riding in forwardfacing CRSs. Weights were provided for 4 of the 5 children, ranging from 23 pounds to 35 

pounds. A decision was made to enter a “guestimate” of the actual ages of the 5 children in 

Survey Groups 2, 3, and 4 based loosely on their weight, because leaving them blank removes 

them from queries using “< age 5” as a criteria for inclusion. 
G-1

ATTACHMENT G: ADDITIONAL DATA ANALYSES 

CHILD OCCUPANTS YOUNGER THAN AGE 5 IN BOOSTER SEATS 

 There were 185 children younger than age 5 riding restrained in booster seats in back-seat 

seating positions.24 Within this group of 185 children, there were 150 children being transported 

in booster seats in the back seats of vehicle that were equipped with upper tether anchors 

somewhere in the vehicles, but they were not included in Survey Group 3, because booster seats 

were not considered to be CRSs in this study as they have no internal harness, and were not 

designed to be installed with LATCH. Booster seats may have LATCH attachments when they 

are combination seats (i.e., seats that can be either used with the internal harnesses as forwardfacing CRSs or as booster seats with the harnesses removed and the vehicle seat belt restraining 

the child). 

Upper Tether Use 

Upper tether straps were present on 22 of the 150 booster seats (15%) in vehicles with 

upper tether anchors, and the upper tether was in use for 5 of the booster seats with upper tether 

straps. Four of the 5 seats were combination seats being used as belt-positioning boosters 

(considered as a misuse) and 1 seat was a booster with a tethered harness (Ride Ryte with E-Z 

ON Kid Y Harness). These 5 children each weighed between 33 and 40 pounds. 

Lower Attachment Use 

 Of the 185 children younger than 5 riding in booster seats in the back seats of vehicles, 

111 were in vehicles equipped with lower anchors. Eight of these children were in restraints 

equipped with lower attachments, but none of the restraints had the lower attachments in use. 

 

CHILD OCCUPANTS AGE 5 AND OLDER 

 A total of 376 children age 5 to 12 were observed in this study. Thirty-eight of these 

children (10%) were riding in the front seat. Of the 38 children in the front seat, 2 were 

unrestrained, 2 were riding in a lap-only belt, and 34 were restrained in a lap and shoulder belt. 

Restraint use of the 338 children riding in the back seat was as follows: 

• 4 percent were restrained in a CRS. 

• 46 percent were riding in a booster seat. 

• 43 percent were riding in a lap and shoulder belt. 

• 4 percent were in a lap-only belt. 

• 3 percent were unrestrained. 

 

24 This excludes the 8 children assigned to Survey Group 4 who were riding in combination seats being used as both 

a CRS with the internal harness and as a booster seat with the seat belt. 
G-2

Upper Tether Use 

Twenty-two children were riding in restraints equipped with upper tether straps; 17 of 

these children were riding in vehicles that were equipped with upper tether anchors. Of this 

subgroup of 17 children, 2 children (one child age 6 weighing 43 pounds in a booster seat with 

latch attachments and one child age 5 weighing 38 pounds in a forward-facing CRS with a 

harness) had the upper tethers in use. 

Lower Attachment Use 

Of the 338 children riding in the back seats, 18 were in restraints equipped with lower 

attachments; 11 of these children were riding in vehicles equipped with lower anchors. Of this 

subgroup of 11 children, 2 children (i.e., one child age 6 weighing 43 pounds in a booster seat 

with LATCH attachments, one child age 5 weighing 38 pounds in a shield booster) were in 

restraints attached to the vehicles with lower attachments. 

APPROPRIATE RESTRAINT SELECTION FOR CHILD OCCUPANTS 

YOUNGER THAN AGE 13 

One of the goals of the project was to determine if children younger than 13 years were 

riding in the vehicles’ back seats and if they were being restrained with appropriate restraints for 

their age, weight, and height. Of the total sample of 1,728 children younger than age 13, 1,676 

(97%) were riding in the back seats of vehicles, and 52 (3%) were riding in the front seats. 

While it is encouraging that most of the children in this sample were riding in the back seats, the 

high percentage may be more of an artifact of the target vehicle selection methodology (e.g., 

target vehicles were those with a child under age 5 in the back seats) than a true picture of how 

parents position their young children on a national basis. 

While all children younger than 13 should ride in the back seat, NHTSA provides additional 

guidelines to help parents choose the correct restraint for each stage of their child’s development: 

1. Rear-facing infant seats are for babies from birth to at least 1 year old and up to 20 

pounds. Children may continue to ride facing the rear of the car until they have reached 

the maximum weight and height specified by the CRS manufacturer (as some CRSs may 

be used in the rear-facing mode up to 35 pounds). 

2. Forward-facing toddler seats are for when children have outgrown their infant seats to 

about age 4 and at least 40 pounds (or when they reach the upper weight or height limit of 

the child restraint). 

3. Booster seats are for children who outgrow their forward-facing toddler seats, usually 

about age 4 and 40 pounds, until they are at least age 8, unless 4’9” or taller. 

4. Lap and shoulder seat belts are for children who outgrow their booster seats, usually at 

age 8 or older or when they are 4’ 9” or taller. 
G-3

Table G-1 presents the type of restraint system used for groups of children with specific 

characteristics. Drivers were asked to indicate into which of four height categories their child 

occupants fell: < 27 in, 28-40 in, 41-57 in, and > 57 in, as well as to report the weight of their 

child occupants. Children were not weighed or measured in the field. 

Table G-1. Child Restraint Type by Characteristics of Children Important for 

Determining Appropriate Restraint Selection. 

(Note: Appropriate restraint selection is denoted by an *.) 

Restraint Type 

Child 

Characteristics Rear 

Facing 

Forward 

Racing 

with 

Harness 

Booster 

Seat 

(No 

Internal 

Harness) 

Lap and 

Shoulder 

Belt 

Lap 

Belt 

Only 

Unrestrained Total 

Less than age 

1 AND less 

than 20 pounds 

204* 

(98%) 

2 

(1%) 0 0 1 

(<1%)

2 

(1%) 207 

More than age 

1 AND 20 to 

40 pounds 

33* 

(3%) 

775* 

(78%) 

160 

(16%) 

16 

(2%) 

3 

(<1%)

4 

(<1%) 991 

41 pounds to 

80 pounds 0 18* 

(5%) 

181* 

(53%) 

121 

(36%) 

11 

(3%) 

9 

(3%) 340 

81+ pounds 

and < 57 

inches 

0 0 1* 

(4%) 

25 

(92%) 0 1 

(4%) 27 

81+ pounds 

and > 57 

inches 

0 0 0 10* 

(91%) 0 1 

(9%) 11 

Note: The total number of children represented in Table G-1 is less than 1,728 due to missing data for height (155 

children), weight (52 children), and specific CRS general restraint type (5 children). Also, the 8 children in 

integrated (built-in) restraints are not included. 

The children in lap and shoulder belts who were 81+ pounds and less than 57 inches 

ranged in age from 6 to 12 (2 were less than age 8), and ranged in weight from 82 to 106 pounds. 

Focusing only on the 265 children who were younger than 8 years old and weighed 41 to 80 

pounds (as criteria for appropriate CRS/booster seat use), the following was observed: 7 percent 

were in forward-facing CRSs with harnesses; 65 percent were in booster seats; 23 percent were 

in lap and shoulder belts; 3 percent were in lap-only belts; and 2 percent were unrestrained. 
DOT HS 810 679 

December 2006