Acknowledgments

i

Lisa Therrell

USDA Forest Service Okanagan-Wenatchee 

National Forest

David Cole

Aldo Leopold Wilderness Research Institute

Victor Claassen

University of California, Davis

Chris Ryan

USDA Forest Service, Northern Region

Mary Ann Davies

USDA Forest Service

Missoula Technology and Development Center

USDA Forest Service

Technology and Development Program

Missoula, MT

September 2006

Wilderness and 

Backcountry 

Site Restoration 

Guide

The Forest Service, United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), has developed this 

information for the guidance of its employees, its contractors, and its cooperating Federal and 

State agencies, and is not responsible for the interpretation or use of this information by anyone 

except its own employees. The use of trade, firm, or corporation names in this document is for 

the information and convenience of the reader, and does not constitute an endorsement by the 

Department of any product or service to the exclusion of others that may be suitable. 

The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits discrimination in all its programs and 

activities on the basis of race, color, national origin, age, disability, and where applicable, sex, 

marital status, familial status, parental status, religion, sexual orientation, genetic information, 

political beliefs, reprisal, or because all or part of an individual’s income is derived from any public 

assistance program. (Not all prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities 

who require alternative means for communication of program information (Braille, large print, 

audiotape, etc.) should contact USDA’s TARGET Center at (202) 720-2600 (voice and TDD). 

To file a complaint of discrimination, write to USDA, Director, Office of Civil Rights, 1400 

Independence Avenue, S.W., Washington, D.C. 20250-9410, or call (800) 795-3272 (voice) or 

(202) 720-6382 (TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity provider and employer.
Acknowledgments

ii

Acknowledgments
Acknowledgments

iii

For allowing the use of text or illustrations from their 

own publications or writings:

Carol Aubry, Ph.D., USDA Forest Service, Olympic National 

Forest 

Jill S. Cremer, formerly USDA Forest Service, Angeles 

National Forest

Ellen Eubanks and Dexter Meadows, USDA Forest Service, 

San Dimas Technology and Development Center

Rich Haydon, M.S., USDA Forest Service, Okanogan and 

Wenatchee National Forests

Marin County Resource Conservation District

Laura Potash, USDA Forest Service, Mt. Baker-Snoqualmie 

National Forest

University of Washington Press

For help with the project and review of the draft 

publication:

Carol Aubry, Ph.D., USDA Forest Service, Olympic National 

Forest

Jayne Belnap, Ph.D., U.S. Geological Survey

Terry Carlson, M.S., USDA Forest Service, Bitterroot 

National Forest

Efrén Cázares, Ph.D., Oregon State University

Joy Juelson, M.S., USDA Forest Service, Okanogan and 

Wenatchee National Forests 

Lisa Lewis, USDA Forest Service, Olympic National Forest

Karl Lillquist, Ph.D., Central Washington University

Robin Shoal, USDA Forest Service, Olympic National Forest

For compiling much of appendix B:

Amy Carlson, Bear Run Antics, Leavenworth, WA

For contributing case studies:

Fredric Ybright, USDA Forest Service, Dixie National Forest

Jennifer Ebert, USDA Forest Service, Eldorado National Forest

Liese Dean, USDA Forest Service, Sawtooth National Forest

Rich Haydon, M.S., USDA Forest Service, Okanogan and 

Wenatchee National Forests

Planning a well-crafted restoration project in wilderness is like putting together a complicated jigsaw puzzle—after all the pieces from several puzzles have 

been jumbled together and several of the pieces have been 

lost in the couch or sucked up in the vacuum cleaner. Writing 

this guide has been an exercise in furnishing all the puzzle 

pieces for a successful restoration project—or at least enough 

of them that any holes left in the puzzle won’t create a big 

problem.

With a deep sense of gratitude, the authors wish to thank 

others who assisted in the preparation or review of this guide. 

For answering questions and providing invaluable 

support and encouragement:

Matthew Albright, U.S. Department of the Interior National 

Park Service, Olympic National Park 

Tom Carlson, Arthur Carhart National Wilderness Training 

Center

Rich Haydon, M.S., USDA Forest Service, Okanogan and 

Wenatchee National Forests 

Joyce Lapp, U.S. Department of the Interior National Park 

Service, Glacier National Park 

Liza Prunuske, Prunuske Chatham, Inc.

Regina Rochefort, Ph.D., U.S. Department of the Interior 

National Park Service, North Cascades National Park

Ruth Scott, U.S. Department of the Interior National Park 

Service, Olympic National Park 

Brian Vachowski, USDA Forest Service, Missoula Technology and Development Center

Victor Vankus, USDA Forest Service, National Tree Seed 

Laboratory 

Sarah Walker, USDA Forest Service, Clearwater National 

Forest (retired)

Technical support staff from the various USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service Plant Materials Centers 

A special thanks to the many researchers and restoration practitioners who have 

taken the time to share what they have learned so that we all might benefit.
Acknowledgments

iv

Contents
Contents

v

Acknowledgments _____________________________________________________ ii

Contents _____________________________________________________________ iv

Introduction _________________________________________________________ xii

Purpose of This Guide ___________________________________________________________1

Special Wilderness Considerations _________________________________________________2

Goals of This Guide _____________________________________________________________3

Target Audiences ________________________________________________________________3

Nomenclature ___________________________________________________________________3

Chapter 1: The Context for Wilderness Restoration __________________________4

1.1 Wilderness Restoration in the Past, Present, and Future ____________________________5

1.1.1 The Past _______________________________________________________________________________ 6 

1.1.2 The Present ____________________________________________________________________________ 7

1.1.2a Practical Methods of Restoration ________________________________________________________________ 7

1.1.2b How Restoration Fits With Wilderness Management _________________________________________________ 8

1.1.3 The Future _____________________________________________________________________________ 9

1.1.3a Skills Development ___________________________________________________________________________ 9

1.1.3b Holistic Planning ____________________________________________________________________________ 10

1.2 Impacts of Recreation and Similar Small-Scale Disturbances _______________________10

1.2.1 What Are the Impacts of Recreational Use? __________________________________________________ 11

1.2.1a Trampling __________________________________________________________________________________ 11

1.2.1b Trampling Damage to Ecosystem Components ____________________________________________________ 12

1.2.1c Campfire-Related Impacts _____________________________________________________________________ 13

1.2.1d Damage to Standing Trees _____________________________________________________________________ 13

1.2.1e Trail Impacts _______________________________________________________________________________ 13

1.2.2 Which Impacts Should Be Considered Problems? _____________________________________________ 14

1.2.3 Alternative Management Techniques _______________________________________________________ 16

1.2.4 Incorporating Restoration Into Management _________________________________________________ 17

1.3 Overview of Plant and Soil Ecology ____________________________________________18

1.3.1 Environmental Components ______________________________________________________________ 19

1.3.1a Soil _______________________________________________________________________________________ 19

1.3.1b Plants _____________________________________________________________________________________ 22

1.3.1c The Life Stages of a Plant _____________________________________________________________________ 22

1.3.1d Plant Characteristics That Influence Restoration ___________________________________________________ 23

1.3.1e Genetic Considerations _______________________________________________________________________ 24

1.3.1f Microclimate ________________________________________________________________________________ 25
Contents

vi

1.3.1g Animals ___________________________________________________________________________________ 26 

1.3.2 Ecosystem Processes ____________________________________________________________________ 26

1.3.2a Hydrologic Processes _________________________________________________________________________ 26

1.3.2b Succession _________________________________________________________________________________ 27

1.3.2c Biotic Interactions ___________________________________________________________________________ 28

1.3.2d Plant-Plant Interactions _______________________________________________________________________ 28

1.3.2e Plant-Soil Interactions ________________________________________________________________________ 28

1.4 Concluding Thoughts ________________________________________________________29

Chapter 2: Planning for Restoration of Small Sites in Wilderness _____________30

2.1 Gathering the Information To Formulate a Plan __________________________________34

2.1.1 Using Your Land Management Plan and NEPA _______________________________________________ 35

2.1.2 Using the Minimum Requirements Decision Process __________________________________________ 35

2.1.3 Planning Scale and Priorities _____________________________________________________________ 36

2.1.4 Forming an Interdisciplinary Team _________________________________________________________ 37

2.1.5 Developing a Site Assessment _____________________________________________________________ 37

2.1.6 Assessing Historical Human Influences _____________________________________________________ 37

2.1.7 Assessing Current Human Influences _______________________________________________________ 38

2.1.8 Problem Statements _____________________________________________________________________ 41

2.1.9 Scoping the Proposed Action _____________________________________________________________ 41

2.1.10 Selecting Management Actions To Meet Standards ___________________________________________ 42

2.1.11 The Minimum Tool ____________________________________________________________________ 42

2.1.12 Types of Management Actions ___________________________________________________________ 43

2.1.12a Reducing Recreational Use ___________________________________________________________________ 44

2.1.12b Changing Visitor Behavior With Information and Education ________________________________________ 44

2.1.12c Intensive Site Management ___________________________________________________________________ 45

2.1.12d Regulations and Enforcement _________________________________________________________________ 45

2.1.12e Regulations To Reduce Use Directly ____________________________________________________________ 46

2.1.12f Regulations To Reduce High-Impact Behaviors ___________________________________________________ 47

2.1.13 Passive Restoration of Damaged Soil and Vegetation __________________________________________ 49

2.1.14 Active Restoration of Damaged Soil and Vegetation __________________________________________ 51

2.1.15 Adjusting Management Actions: A Tale of Two Lake Basins ___________________________________ 51

2.2 Putting It All Together—Developing a Restoration Plan __________________________ 54

2.2.1 Considering the Time Required for Plant Propagation __________________________________________ 57

2.2.2 Research Opportunities _________________________________________________________________ 58

2.2.3 Identifying Research Needs ______________________________________________________________ 60

2.3 Concluding Thoughts ________________________________________________________61
Contents

vii

Chapter 3: The Art and Science of Restoration _____________________________62

3.1 Developing Site Prescriptions Based on a Reference Site ___________________________63

3.1.1 Determining Reference Sites ______________________________________________________________ 64 

3.1.1a Choosing a Reference Site _____________________________________________________________________ 65

3.1.1b Identifying Undisturbed Reference Sites _________________________________________________________ 65

3.1.1c Identifying Disturbed-But-Revegetated Reference Sites _____________________________________________ 67

3.1.2 Comparing the Reference Site and the Restoration Site _________________________________________ 69 

3.1.3 Evaluating the Surface Condition of Impacted Sites ___________________________________________ 78

3.1.3a Visual Clues for Evaluating Erosion _____________________________________________________________ 79

3.1.3b Evaluating Physical Soil Crusts ________________________________________________________________ 83

3.1.3c Evaluating Biological Soil Crusts _______________________________________________________________ 84

3.1.4 Soil-Water Relations ____________________________________________________________________ 85

3.1.4a Soil Texture and Pore Size ____________________________________________________________________ 85

3.1.4b Available Water-Holding Capacity ______________________________________________________________ 86

3.1.4c Determining Water-Holding Capacity ___________________________________________________________ 87

3.1.5 Determining Soil Texture ________________________________________________________________ 87

3.1.6 Evaluating Soil Compaction ______________________________________________________________ 88

3.1.6a Measuring Bulk Density ______________________________________________________________________ 89

3.1.6b Interpreting Bulk Density _____________________________________________________________________ 90

3.1.6c Evaluating Water Infiltration ___________________________________________________________________ 90

3.2 Making Site Amendments Based on Site Evaluations ______________________________92

3.2.1 Soil Organic Matter and Mulch ____________________________________________________________ 92

3.2.2 Soil Nutrients, pH, and Salts ______________________________________________________________ 92

3.2.3 Rebuilding Damaged Soils _______________________________________________________________ 94

3.2.3a Scarification ________________________________________________________________________________ 94

3.2.3b Rebuilding Missing Layers of Soil ______________________________________________________________ 95

3.2.3c Amending Altered or Depleted Soils ____________________________________________________________ 97

3.2.3d Evaluating Soil Nutrients and Chemical Conditions ________________________________________________ 99

3.2.4 Application of Fertilizers or Soil Amendments ______________________________________________ 107

3.2.5 Restoring Soil Biota ___________________________________________________________________ 109

3.2.5a Types of Mycorrhizal Fungi __________________________________________________________________ 110

3.2.5b Inoculating Plants With Mycorrhizal Fungi ______________________________________________________ 113

3.2.5c Soil Bacteria ______________________________________________________________________________ 114

3.2.5d Restoring Soil Crusts _______________________________________________________________________ 115

3.2.6 Solarization of Weedy Soils _____________________________________________________________ 116

3.3 Concluding Thoughts on Soil _________________________________________________117

3.4 Site Stabilization, Preparation, and Delineation _________________________________117

3.4.1 Reestablishing Site Contours _____________________________________________________________ 119
Contents

viii

3.4.2 Stabilizing Gullies _____________________________________________________________________ 120

3.4.3 Stabilizing Headcuts ___________________________________________________________________ 121

3.4.4 Stabilizing Downcutting ________________________________________________________________ 121

3.4.5 Stabilizing Lateral Erosion Into Gully Banks ________________________________________________ 122

3.4.6 Surface Erosion Control ________________________________________________________________ 122

3.4.7 Subsurface Erosion Control ______________________________________________________________ 124

3.4.8 Nonliving Siltbars and Checkdams ________________________________________________________ 125

3.4.8a Materials Used To Construct Siltbars and Checkdams _____________________________________________ 125

3.4.8b Installation of Checkdams ____________________________________________________________________ 125

3.4.8c Crimping _________________________________________________________________________________ 131

3.4.9 Bioengineering Applications _____________________________________________________________ 131

3.4.9a Selecting and Installing Bioengineered Structures ________________________________________________ 133

3.5 Using Soil Binders __________________________________________________________148

3.6 Using Icebergs _____________________________________________________________149

3.7 Site Delineation ____________________________________________________________151

3.7.1 Barriers ______________________________________________________________________________ 151

3.7.2 String Fences _________________________________________________________________________ 152

3.8 Blending Restoration Projects Into Wilderness __________________________________153

3.9 Common Wilderness Campsite and Trail Problems ______________________________154

3.10 Plant Selection, Collection, and Propagation Techniques _________________________156

3.10.1 Genetic Considerations for Restoration Projects _____________________________________________ 157

3.10.1a Determining a Local Collection Area __________________________________________________________ 158

3.10.1b Preventing Unintentional Selection ____________________________________________________________ 159

3.10.1c Additional Information on Genetic Considerations _______________________________________________ 161

3.10.1d Nonnative Plants, Agronomic Varieties, or Native Cultivars ________________________________________ 161

3.10.2 Plant Selection for Restoration Projects ___________________________________________________ 163

3.10.2a Using the Reference Sites To Develop Plant Prescriptions __________________________________________ 165

3.10.2b Additional Limiting Factors and Design Considerations ___________________________________________ 167

3.10.3 Determining Propagation Methods for Your Site and Species __________________________________ 169

3.10.3a Seed-Increase Programs ____________________________________________________________________ 170

3.10.3b Propagation Methods and Stock Types _________________________________________________________ 171

3.10.3c Noxious Weeds and Other Nonnative Invaders ___________________________________________________ 173

3.10.4 Concluding Thoughts on Plant Selection __________________________________________________ 174

3.10.5 Comparison of Propagation Methods _____________________________________________________ 174

3.10.6 Plant Collection Principles _____________________________________________________________ 178

3.10.7 Preventing Further Damage to the Project Area _____________________________________________ 178

3.10.8 Working With Seed ___________________________________________________________________ 179

3.10.8a Seed Collection ___________________________________________________________________________ 179
Contents

ix

3.10.8b Initial Processing of Seed ___________________________________________________________________ 180

3.10.8c Hand-Processing Seed ______________________________________________________________________ 181

3.10.8d Seed Storage ______________________________________________________________________________ 182

3.10.8e Seed Testing ______________________________________________________________________________ 182

3.10.8f Breaking Dormancy ________________________________________________________________________ 183

3.10.8g Onsite Seeding Techniques __________________________________________________________________ 184

3.10.8h Seeding Rates _____________________________________________________________________________ 187

3.10.9 Working With Cuttings ________________________________________________________________ 187

3.10.9a Collecting and Handling Cuttings _____________________________________________________________ 188

3.10.9b Semihardwood Stem Cuttings ________________________________________________________________ 188

3.10.9c Hardwood Cuttings ________________________________________________________________________ 188

3.10.9d Softwood and Herbaceous Cuttings ___________________________________________________________ 189

3.10.9e Root Cuttings _____________________________________________________________________________ 189

3.10.9f Leaf Cuttings _____________________________________________________________________________ 190

30.10.9g Leaf-Bud Cuttings ________________________________________________________________________ 190

3.10.10 Divisions ___________________________________________________________________________ 190

3.10.11 Layering ___________________________________________________________________________ 190

3.10.11a Simple Layering __________________________________________________________________________ 191

3.10.11b Mound Layering __________________________________________________________________________ 191

3.10.11c Tip Layering _____________________________________________________________________________ 192

3.10.12 Transplanting Wildlings _______________________________________________________________ 192

3.11 Transplanting, Protecting, and Establishing Native Plantings _____________________194

3.11.1 Timing of Transplanting _______________________________________________________________ 194

3.11.2 Transporting Nursery-Grown Plants to the Project Location ___________________________________ 195

3.11.2a Jelly Rolls for Protecting Bareroot Stock _______________________________________________________ 195

3.11.2b Moving Plants in Containers _________________________________________________________________ 196

3.11.2c Moving Container-Grown Plants Without the Container ___________________________________________ 196

3.11.2d Protecting Fragile Foliage ___________________________________________________________________ 197

3.11.2e Moving Plants With Helicopters or Other Vehicles _______________________________________________ 197

3.11.2f Handling Plants After They Arrive at the Project Location _________________________________________ 197

3.11.3 Transplanting Techniques ______________________________________________________________ 197

3.11.4 Salvaged Materials ____________________________________________________________________ 200

3.12 Plant Protection and Establishment __________________________________________201

3.12.1 Mulching ___________________________________________________________________________ 201

3.12.1a Advantages and Disadvantages of Mulching ____________________________________________________ 201

3.12.1b Selecting a Mulch __________________________________________________________________________ 202

3.12.1c Comparison of Different Types of Mulch _______________________________________________________ 203

3.12.2 Irrigation ___________________________________________________________________________ 207

3.12.2a Water Delivery Systems ____________________________________________________________________ 208
Contents

x

3.12.2b Obtaining Water ___________________________________________________________________________ 209

3.12.2c Superabsorbent Polymers ___________________________________________________________________ 209

3.12.3 Preventing Animals From Damaging Plants ________________________________________________ 210

3.12.3a Protective Coverings _______________________________________________________________________ 210

3.12.3b Reduced Fertilization and Irrigation ___________________________________________________________ 210

3.12.3c Animal Repellants _________________________________________________________________________ 210

3.12.4 Signs _______________________________________________________________________________ 210

3.12.5 Regulations _________________________________________________________________________ 212

3.13 Documentation, Monitoring, and Adaptive Management _________________________212

3.13.1 Adaptive Management _________________________________________________________________ 212

3.13.2 Determining Levels of Monitoring _______________________________________________________ 213

3.13.3 Establishing Monitoring Procedures for a Project ___________________________________________ 215

3.13.4 Incorporating Monitoring Into a Project ___________________________________________________ 216

3.14 Project Maintenance _______________________________________________________220

3.14.1 Site Management _____________________________________________________________________ 220

3.14.1a Irrigation _________________________________________________________________________________ 220

3.14.1b Mulching _________________________________________________________________________________ 220

3.14.1c Soil Amendments __________________________________________________________________________ 220

3.14.1d Stabilizing Erosion _________________________________________________________________________ 221

3.14.1e Wildlife Damage ___________________________________________________________________________ 221

3.14.1f Frost Heave _______________________________________________________________________________ 221

3.14.1g Interplanting or Replanting __________________________________________________________________ 221

3.14.1h Exotic Species ____________________________________________________________________________ 221

3.14.2 People Management ___________________________________________________________________ 222

3.14.2a Signs ____________________________________________________________________________________ 222

3.14.2b Barriers __________________________________________________________________________________ 222

3.14.2c Replacing Structures That Fail _______________________________________________________________ 222

3.14.2d Maintaining Social Trails ___________________________________________________________________ 222

3.14.2e New Impacts Caused by Displaced Use ________________________________________________________ 222

3.14.3 Scheduling Maintenance _______________________________________________________________ 223

3.14.4 Concluding Thoughts on Maintenance ____________________________________________________ 223

Chapter 4: Restoration Program Development and Support _________________225

4.1 Funding, Workforce, and Partnerships ________________________________________225

4.1.1 Funding _____________________________________________________________________________ 225

4.1.1a Forest Service Sources of Funding _____________________________________________________________ 225

4.1.1b Other Funding Sources ______________________________________________________________________ 226

4.1.2 Budgeting ____________________________________________________________________________ 226

4.1.3 Workforce ___________________________________________________________________________ 228
Contents

xi

4.1.4 Partnerships __________________________________________________________________________ 229

4.1.5 National Sources for Recruiting Wilderness Volunteers _______________________________________ 230

4.1.6 Using Professional Services _____________________________________________________________ 232

4.1.7 Learning From Others __________________________________________________________________ 232

4.2 Options for Growing Plants __________________________________________________332

4.2.1 Forest Service Nurseries ________________________________________________________________ 232

4.2.2 Plant Material Centers __________________________________________________________________ 233

4.2.3 Other Agency Nurseries ________________________________________________________________ 233

4.2.4 Contract Growers _____________________________________________________________________ 233

4.2.5 School Horticulture Programs ___________________________________________________________ 233

4.2.6 Working With Contractors ______________________________________________________________ 234

4.2.7 General Principles for Successful Contracting _______________________________________________ 234

Chapter 5: Tools of the Trade and Other Resources ________________________236

5.1 Software __________________________________________________________________237

5.2 Government Web Sites ______________________________________________________237

5.3 Organizational Web Sites ____________________________________________________238

5.4 Restoration Tools and Products _______________________________________________239

5.4.1 Pick Hoes or Miniature Plowshares _______________________________________________________ 239

5.4.2 U-Bar Diggers ________________________________________________________________________ 239

5.4.3 Balanced Watering Cans ________________________________________________________________ 240

5.4.4 Systemic Repellants ___________________________________________________________________ 240

5.4.5 Restoration Signs ______________________________________________________________________ 240

5.4.6 Erosion-Control Blankets _______________________________________________________________ 240

References __________________________________________________________246

Appendixes __________________________________________________________257

Appendix A–Treatments To Manage Factors Limiting Restoration ____________________257

Appendix B–Propagation and Establishment Requirements for Selected Plant Species ____263

Appendix C–Detailed Propagation Methods for Beargrass, Heather, Huckleberry, and 

Partridgefoot _________________________________________________________________327

Appendix D–Case Studies ______________________________________________________337

Appendix E–Forms ____________________________________________________________359
Contents

xii

In troducti on
Introduction

1

Purpose of This Guide 

This guide was developed to provide managers with 

information that could help them decide whether to attempt 

restoration and, if so, how to go about it appropriately in 

wilderness. This guide will help managers share information 

and exchange ideas.

This guide is:

• Focused exclusively on restoration of smallscale impacts caused by human actions, such as 

recreation use or removal of administrative or 

special provisional structures (structures 

exempted under “Special Provisions” in section 

4(d) of the Wilderness Act). Use of the word 

“site” in this publication refers to any number of 

small-scale disturbances—not necessarily a 

campsite.

• Based on the assumption that projects are in 

wilderness or backcountry settings (figure 1). 

F

Figure 1—Dinosaur National Monument, UT.

For the past two decades, resource managers have 

attempted to address the impacts caused by human 

actions in backcountry and wilderness areas. In some 

wildernesses, wilderness study areas, and national parks, 

these impacts are quite extensive: large areas denuded of 

vegetation, compacted soils, braided trails, and tree roots exposed after horses have been tied to trees. For many reasons, 

including water quality, soil stability, and esthetics, managers 

would like to prevent further impacts and help the existing 

impacts heal.

Wilderness management plans have addressed impacts 

by establishing desired conditions, indicators, and standards. 

Indicators such as vegetation loss, tree roots exposed, and 

the number of social trails are monitored to keep track of 

changes to the resource. Standards set limits on the amount 

of change that will be accepted before management action. In 

some wilderness areas, standards were not being met when 

the management plan was signed. In such situations, actions 

must be taken to prevent further resource degradation and 

to bring the resource back into compliance with standards. 

A number of actions are possible, one of which is physical 

restoration of the site. Although restoration is not necessarily 

the best choice in many situations, restoration can be very 

effective if it is done properly.

Managers across the Nation have had varying degrees 

of success with restoration. Some areas, such as the North 

Cascades National Park in Washington, have had successful 

restoration programs for years. The North Cascades program 

includes a greenhouse operation where plants are grown from 

seed or from cuttings that are collected on the site, carried 

into the backcountry, and planted. Other areas with fewer 

resources and less precipitation have not been as successful.

There is no textbook answer that guarantees success in 

backcountry site restoration. Much restoration knowledge is 

learned by trial and error. Many, many different techniques 

have been tried in one area or another, although information 

about these techniques may not have been passed along. This 

guide has been developed to facilitate information exchange. 

It is a compilation of the best information available from 

researchers and practitioners.
Introduction

2

Figure 2—Henry M. Jackson Wilderness, WA.

regarded as a form of manipulation or “trammeling.” Many large-scale applications need to 

be designed to meet regulations and engineering specifications that this guide does not 

address. 

• A guide on fire suppression rehabilitation or 

burned area emergency rehabilitation (BAER). 

• A guide to motorized tools or mechanized 

transportation, although these methods may be 

mentioned. 

Special Wilderness 

Considerations

The Wilderness Act of 1964 set aside lands in the United 

States “to secure for the American people of present and 

future generations the benefits of an enduring resource of 

wilderness” to be “administered for the use and enjoyment of 

the American people in such a manner as will leave them [the 

lands] unimpaired for future use and enjoyment as wilderness....”

Congress further defined wilderness “as an area where 

the earth and its community of life are untrammeled by man, 

where man himself is a visitor who does not remain.” Wilderness “is protected and managed so as to preserve its natural 

conditions and which (1) generally appears to have affected 

primarily by the forces of nature, with the imprint of man’s 

work substantially unnoticeable....”

The Wilderness Act also includes special provisions 

allowing certain uses primarily because they existed before 

lands were designated as wilderness. These uses include 

grazing and mining.

The Wilderness Act’s mandate can pose interesting 

challenges for a wilderness manager who needs to manage 

for recreation, mining, grazing, and other activities, while 

keeping “man’s work substantially unnoticeable.” In some 

cases, impacts that occurred before lands became wilderness 

• Based primarily on examples from the Western 

United States—from the Rocky Mountains 

westward (figure 2). Many of the techniques 

and procedures apply to any environment.

This guide is not:

• A guide to large-scale ecological restoration. 

Human-caused disturbances, such as mining 

and grazing, have occurred in wilderness at a 

landscape scale. Large-scale ecosystem 

restoration is a complex topic. Philosophical 

questions could be raised about such large-scale 

restoration in wilderness, where it might be 
Introduction

3

threaten the integrity of the wilderness. Impacts may include 

vegetation and soil loss, unnecessary structures, and invasive 

plant populations. Where these impacts exist, managers feel 

an obligation to do something. Frequently, restoration is the 

solution that comes to mind.

Agency policies require that wilderness be managed to 

allow natural ecological processes to operate freely. Management actions should be the minimum necessary to preserve 

and protect wilderness. The Wilderness Act specifies that 

wilderness be untrammeled by man. It’s appropriate to ask 

questions such as:

• Is active revegetation of a disturbed site too 

manipulative? 

• Is this action the minimum necessary? 

• Do our actions interrupt the natural ecological 

processes? 

Before a wilderness manager begins planning for a restoration project in wilderness, it is critical for the manager to 

think about the answers to these questions. Restoration does 

not consist simply of scarifying a site, sticking plants in the 

ground, and going away for the summer. 

Restoration is a manipulative action that deserves a great 

deal of thought and planning, both to minimize the impacts 

to wilderness and to increase the likelihood of success. In 

many situations, the solution is simply to eliminate use at the 

site and allow the natural process of healing to occur. It is 

important to question your actions continually to be confident 

that they are the minimum necessary.

Goals of This Guide

• To provide guidance on developing a plan that 

thoroughly addresses the question of whether 

site restoration is the best management action 

and, if so, how to develop a site-specific 

restoration plan.

• To provide the latest information on sitespecific restoration techniques, including site 

preparation, soil amendments, planting, 

mulching, and so forth.

• To explore the various methods of plant 

propagation both on and off the site.

• To inform managers of the documentation and 

monitoring required before undertaking a 

project and for ongoing progress reports.

Target Audiences

The target audiences for this guide include anyone who 

plans or implements site restoration in backcountry or wilderness areas or who would like to do so, including wilderness 

rangers, wilderness managers, resource specialists, recreation planners, or trail crew members. Anyone who reviews 

restoration plans or advises anyone who implements the plans 

would benefit from reading this guide.

Nomenclature

Not only common names, but also the scientific names 

of many plant species have been changing in recent years. 

An attempt has been made to determine current usage, to 

determine which of the species discussed in this book has 

a new name, and to determine whether any name used is 

authoritative. 

One of the easiest sources for help in sorting out common and scientific names is the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) PLANTS database on the Internet at http://

plants.usda.gov, although this database may not be up to date 

for all species.
Introduction

4

Chapter 1
5

Chapter 1: The Context for Wilderness Restoration Chapter 3

T

The Context for Wilderness Restoration

This chapter includes three sections. The first section provides a historical context for wilderness restoration projects. The second section explains 

the relationship between wilderness impacts and ecological 

processes. The third section is an overview of the ecological 

concepts that influence the success of restoration projects.

1.1 Wilderness Restoration 

in the Past, Present, 

and Future

The Wilderness Act directs agencies to protect and 

manage wilderness “so as to preserve its natural conditions,” 

Figure 1–1a—Cascade Pass in North Cascades National Park, WA.

ensuring that wilderness “generally appears to have been 

affected primarily by the forces of nature, with the imprint 

of man’s work substantially unnoticeable.” Although the 

Wilderness Act does not specifically mention restoration, 

increasingly managers are turning to restoration to preserve 

wilderness character. Heavy scars on the land—whether from 

past practices or ongoing uses—compromise the goals of the 

Wilderness Act. Restoration (figures 1–1a and 1b) is one way 

to reduce the scars. Interest in wilderness restoration is at an 

all-time high.

Figure 1–1b—Since the 1970s and continuing to this day, North Cascades 

National Park has worked to restore meadows at Cascade Pass using native 

plants grown in the park’s greenhouse.
6

Chapter 1: The Context for Wilderness Restoration

1.1.1 The Past

It is difficult to trace the true beginnings of wilderness 

restoration. Recent related efforts consist of attempts to 

reforest areas of timber harvest, to rehabilitate overgrazed 

rangelands, and to revegetate roadcuts and other disturbances 

in parks. In the 1960s, research was conducted on maintaining or restoring vegetation at developed campgrounds (Wagar 

1965, Jollif 1969).

In wilderness, most efforts can be traced to the Pacific 

Northwest and several projects undertaken by the Forest 

Service and the U.S. Department of the Interior National 

Park Service, based on the research and recommendations 

of Dale Thornburgh, a forestry professor at Humboldt State 

University (1962, 1970). These projects were undertaken in 

1970 and shortly thereafter—first in the Glacier Peak Wilderness (figures 1–2a and 2b) and North Cascades National Park 

and then at Mt. Rainier and Olympic National Parks. By the 

mid-1970s, wilderness restoration projects had spread to a 

number of other national parks, such as Rocky Mountain and 

Yosemite.

Much of the credit for the blossoming of wilderness 

restoration in the Pacific Northwest goes to volunteer biologists Joe and Margaret Miller (figure 1–3). In 1970 they were 

given the task of carrying out Thornburgh’s suggestions. 

They started with a few of his ideas, and developed and tried 

many more of their own. Concerned managers from neighboring areas adopted the Millers’ ideas and developed others. 

Many revegetation efforts in Pacific Northwest national 

parks were documented. It is possible to learn from the early 

progress of the Millers (Miller and Miller 1979) and other 

practitioners at North Cascades (Lester 1989), Mt. Rainier 

(Dalle-Molle 1977), and Olympic National Parks (Scott 

1977).

Figure 1–2a—Image Lake in the Glacier Peak Wilderness, WA, wasn’t 

always this scenic.

Figure 1–2b—By the 1960s unregulated recreational stock use had severely degraded meadows and forested campsites. In response, the Forest 

Service closed the lake basin to all stock use and overnight backpacker 

use and began restoration. The lush meadows responded quickly to the 

elimination of stock use, but the drier shaded campsites have responded 

slowly to treatments. 
7

Chapter 1: The Context for Wilderness Restoration Chapter 3

1.1.2 The Present

Restoration appears to have become one of the jobs of 

wilderness management. The number of wilderness rangers 

with rudimentary site restoration skills is increasing rapidly. 

Many national parks now have greenhouses or nurseries. 

Restoration skills are being taught both by agencies and by 

outside specialists, such as the Student Conservation Association. 

The most important lessons of site restoration have been: 

• Practical methods for restoring damaged sites 

• Improved perspectives on restoration’s role in 

wilderness management

1.1.2a Practical Methods of Restoration

The initial restoration projects in the Pacific Northwest 

usually involved transplanting plugs of vegetation from 

neighboring areas. This technique, while simple and generally successful, affects adjacent areas. It is impossible to find 

much material for revegetation without causing substantial 

impacts elsewhere. This problem has been alleviated by offsite propagation and improved methods of revegetation from 

seeding.

At North Cascades National Park, the Millers pioneered 

the technique of removing plant plugs from the field, dividing and growing them at low-elevation greenhouses, and 

transporting plants back to the damaged site for planting. 

This technique was effective, but costly and time consuming. 

Moreover, it had the added disadvantage of reducing the genetic diversity of the population because all individuals were 

clones of a few original plants.

Some of these problems were overcome when workers 

discovered effective means of propagating plants from seed 

in the greenhouse. Now it is possible to collect seed in the 

field, germinate these seeds, grow plants in the greenhouse, 

and then transplant the seedlings to the field. The key to 

successful germination of subalpine plants includes sunlight, 

high humidity around the seed, and high soil temperatures 

(Lester 1989). Through trial and error, workers have come up 

with more effective means of propagating difficult species, 

such as the heathers.

In some parts of the country, such as the Colorado 

Rocky Mountains, rangers have had considerable success 

using direct seeding to revegetate damaged sites. However, in 

the Pacific Northwest, seeding has been used effectively only 

in recent years. Through trial and error, managers found that 

seeds would germinate in abundance if they were kept warm 

and moist. The key was to cover the site with polyethylene 

Figure 1–3—Volunteer biologists Joe and Margaret Miller deserve much 

of the credit for the blossoming of wilderness restoration in the Pacific 

Northwest. [This photograph was digitally altered to remove distracting 

elements.]
8

Chapter 1: The Context for Wilderness Restoration

sheeting (Visqueen). Difficulties still remain, such as the cost 

of collecting seed. Generally, seeding will be the most costeffective means of revegetating damaged sites.

Progress also has been made in understanding the 

importance of mulches, which help retain moisture and 

prevent seeds from blowing or washing away. While native 

mulch is the best option, commercial mulches are often a 

more feasible alternative. Initially, jute netting was the most 

commonly used mulch. However, jute often decomposed too 

slowly, was too obtrusive, and entangled emerging plants. 

Jute is still used, but practitioners now use a wider variety of 

mulches that can be tailored to individual needs. 

Most of these advances in technique were made through 

trial and error. A few individuals experimented with different 

techniques, monitored the effectiveness of each technique, 

and communicated what they had learned to others. It is 

imperative that all of us continue this process. This means we 

must experiment, document, monitor, and communicate our 

successes and our failures.

1.1.2b How Restoration Fits With 

Wilderness Management

Any time visitor use is shifted, impacts will shift as well. 

New impacts are created, while scars from old impacts may 

remain. These scars should be healed as quickly as possible. 

For example, restoration should be an integral part of trail 

relocation programs. Eroded trail segments frequently are 

abandoned without rehabilitation when trails are relocated. 

Restoration should be part of the original trail reconstruction 

plan. Building a trail may leave a substantial amount of soil 

and plant material that can be used to revegetate old tread 

(figures 1–4a and 4b). The key is to time the work and to 

have resources available to use the soil and plant materials as 

they become available.

In many wildernesses, camping is prohibited near lakeshores, where the impacts of past use are pronounced. This 

prohibition often has been ineffective and managers may 

have expended little effort trying to enforce it. If management is serious about a lakeshore setback, restoration should 

Figures 1–4a and 4b—If the vegetation type matches, plugs of sod 

salvaged during trail relocation (top) can be used to restore (bottom) an 

abandoned section of trail.
9

Chapter 1: The Context for Wilderness Restoration Chapter 3

be part of the program. Because the impacts of visitors will 

be extended into new areas farther from the lakeshore, it is 

important to restore at least some of the lakeshore. Restoration generally will require keeping all use (not just camping) 

off the restoration sites for a substantial period. One way of 

proceeding might be to fence off 20 percent of the lakeshore 

until that area has been restored and then move to the next 

20 percent of the lakeshore. It might take 100 years to restore 

the lakeshore, but at least restoration could occur.

As we become more aware of the decades required for 

restoration and the difficult odds that must be overcome, 

some workers are becoming more conservative. Increasingly, 

they decide that it may be better to allow an impacted area 

to continue being used than to move that impact elsewhere 

while attempting to restore the old site. Or they decide to 

restore the fringes of damaged sites (figures 1–5a and 5b), 

reducing the size of the area being damaged without moving 

use elsewhere.

Restoration should be undertaken only when adequate 

resources are available and success is likely. The causes 

of the impacts must be identified and a feasible means of 

keeping the impacts from recurring elsewhere must be laid 

out. Preventing impacts usually involves a variety of visitor 

management techniques, from access restrictions to visitor 

education. Site restoration becomes just one technique among 

a suite of techniques needed to deal with impacts.

1.1.3 The Future

We do not have a crystal ball allowing us to predict the 

future. However, if current trends continue, the future of site 

restoration in wilderness will bring:

• More specific skill development

• An increase in holistic planning

1.1.3a Skills Development

The blossoming of restoration ecology as a discipline, 

along with the acceleration of wilderness restoration, should 

lead to dramatically improved restoration skills. The rate of 

improvement will depend primarily on the rigor that goes 

into experimentation and documentation of restoration trials. 

Everyone can contribute to the long-term success of restoraFigure 1–5a—The margin of this campsite was revegetated with locally native plants grown in a greenhouse. The flat portions of the site remain open 

for camping at Little Caroline Lakes in the Alpine Lakes Wilderness, WA.

Figure 1–5b— This trail at Lake Mary was narrowed using rocks so the 

margins could be restored. 
10

Chapter 1: The Context for Wilderness Restoration

tion techniques by documenting their restoration projects and 

communicating their results.

Often, nurseries and greenhouses are being used as 

restoration tools. Techniques for propagating species that 

are difficult to grow are being developed. More commercial 

nurseries are taking an interest in native species and more 

volunteer organizations are available to help.

1.1.3b Holistic Planning

A good plan doesn’t guarantee a good project, but it can 

help. Plans are likely to improve in comprehensiveness, scale, 

and integration. In the past, most restoration plans dealt 

primarily with the specific techniques that were used to get 

plants growing on the site again. Increasingly, we are seeing 

plans that start with goals, assess constraints, set targets, and 

monitor success in relation to these targets. Such programs 

are more likely to be successful and are more likely to help 

us learn from the failures that inevitably occur.

In the future, planners are more likely to: 

• Consider one specific site in the context of 

larger areas or even an entire wilderness.

• Link site restoration to other management 

actions needed to keep problems from recurring 

or simply being shifted elsewhere.

• Recognize the long timeframes that generally 

are required, such as the more than 20 years 

needed to restore Cascade Pass (figures 1–6a 

and 6b) in the North Cascades.

• Consider issues of genetics, which were given 

little thought a decade or two ago.

Finally, future plans will do a better job of integrating 

people and ecosystem management. Research on visitors and 

visitor management is as important to success as research 

on plant propagation and site management. An excellent 

example of planning that integrates people and ecosystem 

management is the work done to rehabilitate Paradise Meadows at Mt. Rainier (Rochefort and Gibbons 1992). Ecosystem 

management is a recent buzzword, but the interdisciplinary 

approach it implies is critical to the success of wilderness 

restoration.

1.2 Impacts of Recreation 

and Similar Small-Scale 

Disturbances

There is always a tendency to jump into a restoration 

project. The impacts are obvious and the desired outcome 

is easy to visualize. This section describes the nature of site 

impacts and discusses the types of impacts that are likely to 

be considered problems. An understanding of site impacts 

guides decisions about the site conditions and processes that 

need to be repaired. Problem definition makes it possible to 

measure success and also helps set priorities for projects.

Figures 1–6a and 6b—These photos, taken 28 years apart, show the effects 

of restoration at Cascade Pass in North Cascades National Park, WA. 

1975

2003
11

Chapter 1: The Context for Wilderness Restoration Chapter 3

For restoration to be a long-term success, it is 

important to:

• Understand the nature of impacts caused by 

recreational use.

• Decide which impacts are significant problems 

that require restoration.

• Identify the causes of those problems.

• Devise ways of changing visitor use so that the 

problems do not recur.

The planning process and management techniques described in chapter 2 address these issues.

Management techniques focus on identifying the causes 

of problems and selecting management actions to decrease 

the likelihood that problems will recur or simply be shifted 

elsewhere. 

1.2.1 What Are the Impacts of 

Recreational Use?

This discussion of the impacts caused by recreation use 

is divided into linear impacts, such as those caused by trails 

(figure 1–7), and the impacts of concentrated use on larger 

sites. Trails are linear and may run up and down steep slopes, 

making them susceptible to erosion. Impacts of primitive 

roads are similar to those of trails. Recreation sites—campsites, picnic sites, vista points, or popular fishing spots—have 

a different pattern of impacts caused by people or animals 

that trample one spot. These sites usually are relatively flat 

and, in most wilderness areas, are created by users. Impacts 

around administrative improvements, such as water guzzlers 

for wildlife, and around other areas of concentrated use have 

impacts that are similar to those around campsites.

1.2.1a Trampling

At recreation sites, most of the damage that requires 

restoration is caused when visitors or their stock trample vegetation. If the damage is light, most plants may survive, even 

though their height, vigor, and reproductive capacity may 

decline. If the damage is more severe, certain plants may be 

killed. Vegetation cover will decline and species composition 

will change. If the damage is severe, all plant cover will be 

eliminated. This is the situation that most frequently confronts the restorationist.

Trampling also affects soil characteristics (figure 1–8). 

These changes further degrade the vegetative community. 

Trampling disturbs the soil’s organic horizons, the dead and 

decomposed plant matter that form the uppermost layer of 

most soils. If the disturbance is pronounced, the organic 

horizons may be lost completely. Loss of surface organic 

horizons makes the underlying mineral soil horizons more 

vulnerable to compaction and erosion. It also can reduce the 

amount of organic matter that becomes incorporated into 

the soil, leading to a number of detrimental effects. Organic 

matter promotes the aggregation of soil particles into clumps, 

increasing the soil’s ability to retain water and nutrients. 

Aggregation allows proper soil aeration and promotes root 

elongation and growth. Organic matter is particularly important to water and nutrient retention in sandy soils. Without 

organic matter, these soils may be susceptible to drought and 

become infertile.

Figure 1–7—Recreational use that exacerbated past damage from sheep 

grazing was responsible for these parallel trails in the Selway-Bitterroot 

Wilderness, ID.
12

Chapter 1: The Context for Wilderness Restoration

Figure 1–8—A conceptual model of trampling effects, based, in part, on 

Liddle (1975) and Manning (1979). 

Trampling also compacts the underlying mineral soil. 

Normally, less than half the volume of soil is solid matter; 

the rest is pore space occupied by air and water. Compaction 

presses soil particles close together, eliminating pore space, 

particularly the larger pores that allow water to percolate 

rapidly after rain. By decreasing the permeability of the soil, 

compaction can increase surface runoff and erosion. 

Generally, compaction reduces water availability to 

plants, but in certain situations, compaction can increase a 

soil’s water-holding capacity, increasing water availability. 

Reduced soil aeration can shift conditions from aerobic to anaerobic, creating an environment that is less favorable for soil 

biota, including mycorrhizal fungi. These changes adversely 

affect nutrient cycling. 

Trampling

Abrasion of

organic

matter

Reduction in

litter cover

Increase in

runoff and

erosion

Reduction in

plant vigor

Compaction

of soil

Reduction in

plant

reproduction

Reduction in

vegetative

cover

Reduction in

air and water

permeability

Change in

species

composition

Abrasion of

vegetation

Change in

soil biota

Compacted soils often are so smooth that they offer no 

safe sites where seedlings can germinate and establish successfully. Rough surfaces have small depressions that collect 

moisture and organic matter, increasing the chance that 

seeds will lodge there and contact the soil. Even if seedlings 

become established in compacted soils, plant growth may be 

limited because it is difficult for roots to penetrate soils with 

low porosity.

The conceptual model of trampling impacts shows that 

some ecosystem components are affected along multiple 

pathways and that there are numerous positive feedback 

loops (vicious cycles). Populations of soil biota are altered 

by all three of the direct effects of trampling—elimination 

of vegetative cover, loss of surface organic horizons, and soil 

compaction. Loss of vegetative cover eliminates the primary 

energy source of soil microbes; loss of organic horizons 

eliminates another energy source; and compaction reduces 

pore size and aggregation, influencing critical habitat characteristics, such as the mobility of water. Even if just one or two 

of these impacts can be dealt with effectively, soil biota will 

benefit. 

1.2.1b Trampling Damage to Ecosystem 

Components

Positive feedback loops are of particular concern because impacts may continue to intensify even if disturbance 

from the original source has been reduced. One positive feedback loop involves soil compaction, erosion, and litter loss. 

Soil compaction reduces porosity and rates of water infiltration. Runoff increases, increasing erosion of mineral soil 

and organic horizons. Loss of organic horizons aggravates 

compaction problems, leading to more erosion, and so on. 

Another cycle involves loss of vegetation, soil organic 

matter, soil biota, and favorable conditions for plant growth. 

Loss of vegetation removes a major source of organic matter. 

Reduced organic matter leads to changes in the soil biota and 

less favorable conditions for plant growth. With less plant 

growth, vegetation cover declines further, organic matter 
13

Chapter 1: The Context for Wilderness Restoration Chapter 3

inputs to the soil decline further, soil conditions decline 

further, and so on. 

Compacted soils, loss of organic matter, and altered soil 

biotic populations lie at the center of many of these vicious 

cycles. Perhaps the most critical task for the restorationist is 

to mitigate impacts to these ecosystem components and break 

these vicious cycles of impacts.

Many different ecological changes, working together, 

contribute to the lack of vegetation on a disturbed recreation 

site. Even if recreation use is eliminated, the changes to the 

soil may prevent vegetation from becoming reestablished. 

Plants may not flourish because soils have been altered so 

severely. For the system to regain its normal function, soil 

organic horizons, soil biota, and soil structure all need to be 

repaired. Making soils more receptive to plants—by improving soil structure and biotic communities—may be more 

important than introducing plant propagules, such as seeds or 

cuttings.

1.2.1c Campfire-Related Impacts

Impacts associated with collecting and burning wood in 

campfires aggravate problems caused by trampling (Cole and 

Dalle-Molle 1982). The removal of fallen wood further reduces sources of soil organic matter. Removal of large decaying wood is particularly detrimental. Large woody debris has 

an unusually high water-holding capacity; stores nitrogen, 

phosphorus, and sometimes calcium and magnesium; and 

serves as a significant site for the establishment of nitrogen-fixing micro-organisms and mycorrhizal fungi. When 

wood is burned in a campfire, soil organic matter, nitrogen, 

and microbes all are reduced dramatically. Special attention 

may be required when rehabilitating firerings at campsites or 

at other areas where soils have been altered.

1.2.1d Damage to Standing Trees

Damage to standing trees is another common impact at 

campsites. Campers damage trees by:

• Tying horses to them (figure 1–9)

• Cutting down saplings for tent poles or firewood

• Carving initials in their bark

• Hacking them with axes

• Pounding nails into them

If trees are not chopped down or girdled, usually they 

can survive injuries, even though their vigor may be reduced. 

Opportunities to reverse damage are limited. However, if 

the behavior of recreational users can be changed, additional 

damage can be prevented.

Figure 1–9—Trees damaged by stock pawing the ground at Lake Augusta 

in the Alpine Lakes Wilderness, WA.

1.2.1e Trail Impacts

Trampling also occurs on trails. When trails are constructed, vegetation and organic matter are removed, and 

soils are compacted. These impacts are intentional and make 

the trail convenient to use. When trails need to be restored, 

the impacts of trampling and trail construction must be repaired. In areas where trails cross slopes, construction commonly leaves a cutbank above the trail and some fill material 

below the trail. When a trail is restored, often fill should be 

pulled back on the trail to reestablish the original contour. 

This is particularly true for primitive roads. 

Trails may intercept drainages. Problems with erosion 

(figure 1–10) may be particularly severe in such areas. It is 

not unusual for several feet of soil to have been lost on or 
14

Chapter 1: The Context for Wilderness Restoration

along trails, exposing lower soil horizons, which typically are 

less capable of supporting vegetation. Soil structure is less 

developed in the subsoil. Organic matter and soil biota are 

negligible. Restoring productive soil processes is particularly 

challenging. In areas where it is possible, trails should be 

filled with topsoil to bring them back to grade.

Another problem with trails is that once drainage systems have been disrupted, erosion can continue even if the 

trails are no longer used. Once trails become lower than their 

surroundings, water tends to be channeled down trails. The 

first priority of trail restoration is to deal with drainage and 

erosion problems.

1.2.2 Which Impacts Should Be 

Considered Problems?

Problems on campsites and other sites that receive 

concentrated use (picnic sites, vista points, fishing spots, 

and so on) are relatively easy to define. Any site that has 

been substantially altered by humans could be considered a 

problem. But such an approach is not tenable. With repeated 

use, mineral soil will be exposed, compacted, and inevitably 

lost. Numerous studies have shown that substantial impact 

Figure 1–10—A deeply incised trail at Lake Valhalla in the Henry M. 

Jackson Wilderness, WA. Once an erosion channel forms, water—rather 

than foot traffic—causes most of the damage.

occurs within a short time, even with relatively light camping use (Cole 1987). We must accept that any sites that 

receive repeated use will be substantially impacted. In these 

places, managers can more effectively control the number 

and distribution of impacted sites than the level of impact on 

individual sites.

At popular wilderness destinations, the most appropriate objectives for a site restoration program are to reduce the 

number of impacted sites (figure 1–11) or to eliminate sites 

in undesirable locations. For instance, a restoration program 

Figure 1–11—This map shows impacts around Rampart Lakes in the Alpine Lakes Wilderness, WA. In such cases, it is easier to reduce the number 

of trails and sites that are being impacted than it is to reduce the severity of 

impact on any particular trail or site.
15

Chapter 1: The Context for Wilderness Restoration Chapter 3

Figure 1–12—Will restoration of these social trails meet with success? 

Probably not, because the lakeshore and big rock are magnetic attractions 

in the Enchantment Lakes Basin in the Alpine Lakes Wilderness, WA. 

could be beneficial in areas where campsites are too close 

to lakes or other fragile locations. In remote, lightly used 

areas, it may be desirable to attempt to close and restore all 

sites that show signs of use and impact. But in other areas, it 

is probably not reasonable to close sites simply because they 

have been altered substantially. 

The problems caused by user-created (social) trails and 

off-trail routes are similar. Wherever consistent use occurs, 

these impacts cannot be eliminated (figure 1–12). The most 

realistic options are to keep trails to a minimum and to try 

to eliminate them in undesirable locations. When deciding which trails to eliminate and which to keep, carefully 

consider people’s desires (where they are trying to go) and 

the physical constraints that affect trail development (such as 

snowmelt patterns or the visibility of sites from the trail).

Restoration may be considered when a road or constructed trail is being relocated or decommissioned. Restoration also is appropriate when users have created multiple or 

shortcut trails. The initial goal of restoration is to eliminate 

further use of the road, trail, or shortcut. Longer term goals 

involve restoring the natural topography and plant communities.

The reasons why recreation site impacts are considered 

problems are more likely to be anthropocentric (based on human preferences) than biocentric (based on biology). Campsites may be considered to be too close to each other or too 

large. Trails may be considered to be too muddy, too rocky, 

or too rutted—problems for humans, but not for nature. By 

carefully defining why we consider problems to be serious 

(and in need of restoration), we are more likely to make good 

decisions about what we are trying to accomplish and how 

we should invest our limited restoration resources. Also, it is 

helpful to get input from the public.

Our goals must be articulated carefully. Restoration 

implies trying to return a site to its historical condition, 

making it like it would have been before it was affected by 

recreation. If rare or highly vulnerable species have been lost, 

this goal may be unrealistic. In such cases, rehabilitation may 

be a more feasible goal. In situations where it is impossible or 

undesirable to restore species composition and structure (Society for Ecological Restoration Science and Policy Working 

Group 2002), the goal of rehabilitation is the repair of ecosystem processes. There may be cases where reclamation is 

the most appropriate goal. Reclamation attempts to stabilize 

terrain and return it to a useful purpose (Society for Ecological Restoration Science and Policy Working Group 2002). In 

other cases, revegetation—establishing native species on an 

abandoned trail or around the periphery of a campsite that is 

still in use—may be the only realistic goal.
16

Chapter 1: The Context for Wilderness Restoration

Good sources of additional information on the impacts 

of recreation include Cole (1987), Hammitt and Cole (1998), 

and Liddle (1997).

1.2.3 Alternative Management 

Techniques

Site restoration is just one of a number of management 

techniques that can be used to address wilderness impacts 

(Cole and others 1987; Hendee and Dawson 2002). It is 

important to recognize the broad array of techniques that are 

available and to understand how restoration fits with other 

techniques. Restoration treats the symptoms rather than 

the root cause of problems. If sites cannot be managed in a 

way that reduces the damage, they can be restored endlessly 

without making any substantial progress. This makes no 

more sense than constantly picking up litter without simultaneously working to convince people not to litter. It is critical 

to understand the primary management actions that must be 

undertaken before considering restoration.

The effectiveness of alternative management practices 

can be assessed by understanding why certain sites and trails 

become severely impacted while others do not. Four factors 

that can influence the severity of impacts are: 

• Amount of use

• Type of use

• Environmental conditions

• Spatial distribution of use

Managers can manipulate each of these factors when attempting to reduce impacts.

The amount of use often has been considered the most 

critical of these factors. Frequently, managers use terms such 

as overused and used beyond its carrying capacity to describe 

a seriously impacted site. Most studies of campsites suggest 

that the amount of use a site receives is seldom the most critical factor in determining whether impacts at a site represent a 

problem or not (Cole 1987). Even relatively infrequently used 

sites can have serious problems. The amount of use does not 

explain much of the variation in impacts, except when very 

lightly used campsites are compared. 

The same principle applies to trails. Trail segments with 

problems frequently alternate with segments that are in good 

condition. Because the amount of use is relatively constant 

along the trail, something other than the amount of use must 

explain these differences. There are few situations where 

reducing the amount of use by itself will reduce impacts 

substantially.

More variation in the amount of impact can be explained 

by the type of use and visitor behavior. Large camping parties are likely to create larger campsites than small parties. 

Parties that have campfires cause impacts that parties using 

cooking stoves do not. Parties that travel on packstock cause 

impacts that travelers on foot do not. Hikers who shortcut 

trails or leave the trail tread cause impacts that hikers who 

are careful to keep to the main tread do not. Many—but not 

all—problems result from inappropriate behavior. Large 

campsites, excessive tree damage, and multiple parallel 

trails are examples of such problems. These problems can be 

reduced by changing the behavior of visitors, either through 

regulation or education.

Other problems result primarily from the location of use. 

Sometimes trails and campsites are located in particularly 

fragile environments. For example, problems commonly occur where trails traverse soils that are saturated with water. 

Trails along fragile shorelines also may affect ecological values. Cole (1995a) has shown that some vegetation types are 

30 times as tolerant of trampling as other vegetation types. 

More often, the problem is the desirability of the location 

rather than its fragility. For example, campsite impacts are 

more visually obtrusive in meadows than forests, even though 

meadow vegetation is generally more durable than forest 

understory vegetation. 

Campsites also may be located too close to each other 

or to the main trail. These campsite and trail problems can 

be eliminated by shifting use to more durable locations or to 

locations where the impacts cause less disturbance.
17

Chapter 1: The Context for Wilderness Restoration Chapter 3

Finally, total impact will be influenced by whether use 

is spread across a large area or concentrated. Increasing the 

concentration of use will increase the impact on individual 

sites while decreasing the total number of impacted sites. In 

popular places, total impact is generally minimized when 

recreation use is concentrated. In remote areas, impacts 

sometimes can be kept to negligible levels if use is dispersed 

widely (Cole 1994). 

Often the most effective management programs combine different management techniques. For example, when 

the amount of use is reduced, it will be easier to confine use 

and impact to a few sites. Use limits must be accompanied 

by controls on the distribution of use, such as a system of designated campsites.

1.2.4 Incorporating Restoration Into 

Management

Site restoration is most helpful as part of a management 

program (Hendee and others 1990) designed to keep problems from recurring or simply being shifted elsewhere. Two 

conditions of a successful restoration project are:

• Effectively closing the site—getting people to 

move elsewhere

• Finding a better location for the use—one that 

is either more durable or in an area where 

impacts are less objectionable 

These conditions are not always met. Often a lakeshore 

may be closed to camping, but picnickers or anglers continue 

using old campsites that do not recover. Often, trail segments 

are closed because of damage, with use being shifted to an 

adjacent segment that soon is damaged as badly as the original. In either case, impacts proliferate because new areas are 

damaged while old sites recover slowly, at best.

Restoration is most appropriate in areas with too many 

campsites or trails and where sites or trails are poorly 

located. When an area has too many campsites or trails, 

restoration efforts should be supplemented with a policy 

that requires camping at designated campsites or with an 

educational program that encourages use of well-established 

campsites and trails (figures 1–13a and 13b). Site designation 

also is a means of encouraging use of durable or preferred 

locations. Suggesting preferred campsite locations as part of 

an educational program is a more light-handed approach than 

requiring use of designated campsites.

Figure 1–13a—Designating campsites is one technique that can be employed to successfully reduce users’ impacts.
18

Chapter 1: The Context for Wilderness Restoration

The success of most restoration projects will depend on 

the success of supplemental management actions, particularly 

those actions designed to change the behavior of visitors or 

the distribution of use. Visitors must be kept off sites that 

are being restored so the sites have a chance to recover. 

Closure notices should be conspicuous in the vicinity of the 

closed site. Visitors are more likely to comply with closures 

if the reasons for the closure are explained and if visitors are 

directed to alternative sites that are equally desirable. Visitor 

behaviors also need to be changed so that the original problems do not recur. 

Figure 1–13b—This map (b) shows a camp for stock users at Buck Creek 

Pass in the Glacier Peak Wilderness, WA. 

These visitor management actions are a more critical 

part of the restoration plan than the planting of vegetation. 

An effectively closed site will eventually recover, whether 

it is planted or not. But a site that continues to be used will 

never recover, even if it has been planted.

Without considerable thought and care, the success of 

restoration projects can be limited. In the worst case, restoration projects may actually increase impacts by shifting use 

and problems to undisturbed locations. The likelihood of a 

successful restoration project can be increased by:

• Trying to define the problem that the restoration 

project is designed to solve

• Attempting to identify what caused the problem 

(and whether it will recur or be moved elsewhere)

• Implementing supplemental management 

actions that will complement the restoration 

project

These measures should be an integral part of a restoration plan, which will be discussed later.

1.3 Overview of Plant and 

Soil Ecology

Restoration has been called the acid test of our ecological knowledge (Bradshaw 1993). We should be able to judge 

the quality of our ecological understanding by the success 

of our restoration programs. Restoration allows us to check 

whether our ecological theories work. We would be foolish 

if we did not use our ecological insights as fully as possible 

in our restoration programs. The following sections provide 

a brief overview of ecology as it applies to site restoration. 

Chapter 3, which focuses on restoration techniques, will 

explain how to apply the ecological principles in this chapter 

to your project design.
19

Chapter 1: The Context for Wilderness Restoration Chapter 3

Zone of least weathering. 

Accumulation of calcium

and magnesium carbonates. Cementation. 

Organic–original forms 

recognized (litter).

Organic–original forms 

not recognized (humus).

Mineral-mixed with 

humus-dark colored.

Solum Bedrock

Horizon of maximum 

eluviation of silicate 

clays. Iron and aluminum 

oxides, etc. Light colored.

Maximum eluviation of 

silicate clays. Iron and 

aluminum oxides. Some 

organic matter.

1.3.1 Environmental Components

Restorationists need to understand various components 

of the environment and the restrictions and opportunities 

they present. Of particular importance are soil, plant characteristics, microclimate, and animals. See appendix A, Treatments To Manage Factors Limiting Restoration, for suggestions on managing environmental limitations when designing 

restoration projects.

1.3.1a Soil

Soil is much more than an inert medium providing 

structural support for plants. Soil consists of mineral and 

organic matter (dead and alive), water, and air. Mineral and 

organic particles are packed together, but pores between 

these particles account for as much as 50 percent of the soil 

volume. Smaller pores (micropores) typically are filled with 

water, while the larger pores (macropores) are filled with air, 

except immediately after a rain. The soil provides a home for 

many organisms other than the plants we see growing on its 

surface. Microscopically sized organisms and larger organisms (such as earthworms) live in and move through the soil. 

Soil is constantly changing. It develops over hundreds to 

many thousands of years through the influences of biological 

and inorganic processes at the Earth’s surface. Hans Jenny 

identified five distinct factors that contribute to soil formation: climate, biological organisms, relief or topography, 

parent material or geology, and time (Jenny 1965). Because 

each of these factors can vary independently, soils can vary 

across the landscape. The variation can occur by location or 

landscape position, and also with depth below the ground 

surface. 

Soils that develop in wet climates differ substantially 

from those that develop in dry climates. The soils of cool 

climates also differ from those of warm climates. The soils 

that develop under grasslands differ from those that develop 

under forests. Soils also are influenced by the types and 

abundance of soil organisms and litter. Soils on steep slopes 

that are prone to erosion differ from those on gentle slopes 

and those in locations where sediment and debris are deposited. The parent material has much to do with soil texture 

and soil chemistry. Finally, the time soils have had to develop 

influences soil mineralogy, soil structure, and the amount of 

organic matter in the soil.

An understanding of soils and their characteristics is 

important when assessing the effects of disturbance and 

when designing a strategy to mitigate those effects. The 

physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of soils can 

be disturbed.

Soils typically are organized as a series of layers termed 

soil horizons (figure 1–14). The uppermost horizons are 

Figure 1–14—An idealized representation of soil horizons. The combined 

A and B horizons are called the solum, or true soil. 
20

Chapter 1: The Context for Wilderness Restoration

Figure 1–15—This pyramid shows the relationship between soil texture 

class and a soil’s particle-size distribution. To use the diagram, find the 

percentages of any two of the particle sizes (sand, silt, or clay) on their 

respective lines. Then project lines inward from these points. Clay should 

be projected parallel to the sand line, silt parallel to the clay line, and sand 

parallel to the silt line. The name of the compartment in which the lines 

intersect is the name of the soil’s textural class.

organic horizons that consist of partially to completely decomposed organic material (the litter of dead plants). These 

horizons shield the underlying mineral soil from forces that 

compact or erode the soil. Surface organic matter continues 

to decompose and move downward into the soil with rainwater. Below the organic horizons are the largely mineral 

soil horizons. Usually, three horizons are recognized (A, B, 

and C), although these horizons can be further subdivided or 

may be missing in certain soils. From the top (A horizon) to 

the bottom (C horizon), organic matter generally declines. 

Minerals, small soil particles, and organic materials are often 

leached from the A horizon and deposited in the B horizon.

Restorationists should study the soil horizons of an 

unimpacted site, or reference site, which represents the 

condition of the impacted site before it was disturbed. The 

impacted site is compared with the reference site to identify 

whether soil horizons have been lost. Usually, the organic 

horizon is lost. The darker A horizons (see figure 1–14) or 

clay-rich B horizons also may be gone. If soil development on 

the reference site is minimal, restoration can proceed without 

intensive soil treatment on the impacted site. Considerations 

for selecting a reference site or sites are described in more 

detail in chapter 3.

Soils vary greatly in their mix of soil particles of different sizes. This mix influences soil behavior and appropriate 

restoration procedures. Size classes are: 

• Clays—smaller than 0.0001 inch (0.002 millimeter) in diameter

• Silts—0.0001 to 0.002 inch (0.002 to 0.05 millimeter)

• Sands—0.002 to 0.08 inch (0.05 to 2 millimeter)

Rock fragments larger than 0.08 inch (2 millimeters) are 

not considered soil particles, although they can be incorporated into the soil. 

Soil texture is determined by the mix of particle 

sizes (figure 1–15). Sandy soils typically are well drained, 

droughty, and infertile. They are not highly susceptible to 

compaction, but they are erosive. Silty soils typically absorb 

and hold water well but do not become waterlogged. Because 

they hold water and nutrients well, silty soils are good for 

plant growth. However, they compact easily and the compacted soils can be erosive if they are dry. Clay soils drain 

poorly. They are often resistant to erosion. They compact 

easily when wet, but not when they are dry. 

Loamy soils, which contain roughly equal proportions of 

sand, silt, and clay, often are considered most favorable. They 

have some of the favorable characteristics of all of those 

soils. Loamy soils are highly susceptible to compaction. 

When rock fragments are incorporated into the soil, they 

reduce the risk of compaction and erosion. If rock fragments 

are excessive, they provide a poor medium for plant growth. 

Restorationists should assess the texture of the surface mineral horizon, at least, to help predict the severity of compaction 

and erosion, as well as the extent to which low soil moisture 

and fertility are likely to limit plant growth. 
21

Chapter 1: The Context for Wilderness Restoration Chapter 3

Soil structure, the way in which soil particles are arranged, can be altered by disturbance and can become a 

major limitation to restoration success. Soil structure is the 

spatial grouping of soil particles into aggregates: clusters of 

air spaces and soil particles held together as a clod, crumb, 

block, or prism (Brady and Weil 2002). Larger aggregates—those larger than 0.01 inch (250 micrometers)—allow 

improved infiltration and drainage, but are easily destroyed 

by disturbance. The abundance of larger aggregates is highly 

correlated with mycorrhizal fungal hyphae and fine roots. 

Small aggregates—those smaller than 0.01 inch (250 micrometers)—are formed from particles of primary minerals, 

soil organic matter that is being converted to humus, microbial residues, and inorganic oxides. Once formed, these 

aggregates are much more resistant to disturbance than larger 

aggregates. Aggregates provide water-holding capacity and 

allow water and air to diffuse within a soil. 

Ideally, soils have 50 percent or more of pore space. 

Aggregation of soil particles occurs over time as a result of 

processes such as the synthesis of clay and humus, movement of nutrients, cycles of freezing and thawing, and biotic 

interactions. Seeds are less likely to be caught and germinate 

if the soil surface is smooth, a characteristic of soils that 

have been compacted and lost their structure. Restorationists should compare the structure of the disturbed site to the 

reference site to assess the severity of compaction problems 

and the loss of soil aggregates. The need for soil amendments 

is largely dictated by the severity of structural disturbance. 

Soil moisture and its availability to plants is largely determined by soil texture, organic matter, the extent to which 

the soil has been compacted, and topographic effects on 

water supply. The topographic effects will be discussed under 

microclimate. No matter how much moisture soils with sandy 

textures receive, they will hold relatively little. Soils with silt 

and clay particles will hold more moisture. Surface organic 

matter decreases the evaporative loss of water, while organic 

matter incorporated into the mineral soil will increase the 

soil’s water-holding capacity. 

Compaction usually decreases water-holding capacity by 

reducing water infiltration and porosity. However, in sandy 

soils, compaction can increase water availability (Blom 

1976). The likelihood that drought will limit plant establishment and growth should be assessed. First, consider the 

general climate of the area (in some places drought is never 

a problem, while in others, it always is) and local topography 

(depositional areas and depressions should be less prone to 

drought than ridges, for example). Then evaluate the influence of soil texture, organic content, and the degree of 

compaction.

Plants require many different mineral elements that 

must be obtained from the soil. The availability of these soil 

nutrients has a profound influence on plant growth. In many 

wilderness environments (such as those at high elevation or 

in deserts), nitrogen is the element needed in most abundance 

and the element most likely to be limiting. Nutrient availability is determined to a great extent by the nature of the parent 

material and the local climate. However, nutrient availability 

also is profoundly affected by soil organic matter content and 

by the activity of soil micro-organisms, characteristics that 

are readily disturbed at recreation sites. Organic matter is a 

source of nutrients and its presence helps soil particles hold 

onto mobile nutrients that would otherwise be leached away 

by water percolating through the soil. 

Soil micro-organisms decompose soil organic matter 

and release (mineralize) nutrients, making them more readily 

available to plants. They also promote the aggregation of 

soil particles. These micro-organisms obtain their energy 

from organic matter, providing another example of organic 

matter’s importance, and they release hormones, allelochemicals, and chelators into the soil. Allelochemicals are compounds that prevent another organism from growing nearby. 

For instance, in the Mojave Desert, creosote bush (Larrea 

tridentata) releases an allelopathic chemical into the soil that 

keeps other plants (including other creosote bushes) from 

growing nearby. Chelators are compounds that make nutrients more available to plants.

Many micro-organisms, including mycorrhizal fungi and 

bacteria, develop symbiotic relationships with plants, extending the ability of plants to capture nutrients and water. Ninety 

percent of all plant species are estimated to form mycorrhizal 
22

Chapter 1: The Context for Wilderness Restoration

associations that allow nutrients and water to be interchanged 

through the root systems of plants connected with fungal 

hyphae. 

Other micro-organisms form crusts on the soil surface. 

Particularly in arid environments, these crusts are critical 

both in nutrient cycling and in protecting soils from erosive 

forces. Larger soil organisms (such as ants and earthworms) 

help improve soil structure and aeration. These biological 

concepts and processes are described further in chapter 3. 

Generally, soil fertility problems can be dealt with best 

by increasing the organic content of the soil and promoting 

development of microbial populations. In areas where the 

upper soil horizons have been removed, exposing less fertile 

subsoil, or where unusually rapid plant growth is critical, 

fertilization may be worthwhile. Infertile soils are a natural 

characteristic of many mountainous areas and should not be 

a problem in the long term, if other soil limitations can be 

corrected.

1.3.1b Plants

Restorationists need to understand how plant growth requirements vary during different stages in the plant’s life history and how characteristics of different plants influence their 

establishment, growth, and reproduction. This knowledge 

is important when selecting species for planting, selecting 

planting techniques, and assessing the techniques to maintain 

plantings. A basic understanding of genetic considerations 

is important when collecting or producing plant propagules 

(collecting seed, digging transplants, or propagating plants in 

a greenhouse).

1.3.1c The Life Stages of a Plant

A vascular plant undergoes a series of stages in its life. 

Each stage has different requirements. In particular, we need 

to understand the biology of seeds, seedlings, and mature 

plants. 

For plants to recolonize a disturbed site from seed, seed 

must be present on the site. Seeds arrive on a site through 

seed rain and seed dispersal. Seeds produced by a mother 

plant typically are deposited near the base of the plant or just 

a short distance away (often less than 3 feet or about 1 meter 

for herbaceous plants). Dispersal distances increase as plant 

height increases and seed size decreases. In addition, specialized appendages on seeds can facilitate wind dispersal or 

dispersal by animals. Seeds also build up in the soil, where 

they provide a long-lived seed bank. 

Often, there is little relation between the abundance of 

species aboveground and the abundance of seeds in the soil. 

Colonizing, early successional, and short-lived species are 

often particularly common in the soil seed bank. Restoration success may not be limited by the availability of plant 

propagules if the disturbance is small (allowing seeds to 

disperse to the site from undisturbed areas nearby) or if the 

seed banks are intact.

To germinate, seeds must find safe sites (figure 1–16), 

microhabitats that allow seeds to escape hazards (such as 

predators, competitors, toxic substances, and pathogens) before germination. Safe sites also must provide the conditions 

to overcome seed dormancy. Seed germination is inhibited 

until dormancy is broken. 

Figure 1–16—The installation of this closure sign created a safe site for 

plants to become established.
23

Chapter 1: The Context for Wilderness Restoration Chapter 3

Breaking dormancy can require a specific light intensity, 

photoperiod, temperature, moisture, fluctuations in conditions, or physical changes, such as abrasion. Overcoming 

seed dormancy should not be a problem if seeds are sown in 

the field at the appropriate time under conditions that mimic 

natural conditions. Dormancy can be a concern when seeds 

are collected and propagated in greenhouses. Reports and 

books describe detailed techniques for breaking dormancy 

(Young and Young 1986, 1992). 

Finally, safe sites must provide conditions that allow germination to proceed. The shape and size of seeds, in relation 

to soil particle size, largely determine:

• Whether a seed will lodge in the soil rather than 

blow away across the surface

• Whether the contact between the soil and the 

seed is good, allowing for the optimal flow of 

water from soil to seed

The lack of safe sites often can be a limiting factor 

where soils are compacted, soil structure has been lost, there 

is no organic matter, and no plants provide shelter from wind 

and sun.

When an area has enough seeds and safe sites, seeds 

will germinate, and seedlings will emerge and become 

established. Initially, the seed coat breaks down and a rootlet 

(radicle) emerges and elongates. The rootlet anchors the seed 

in the soil and begins to absorb water and solutes (dissolved 

minerals). Then a shoot (hypocotyl) emerges from the seed, 

pierces the soil surface, and expands into a photosynthetic 

surface, allowing the plant to survive independent of seed 

reserves. Limiting factors during seedling establishment 

include compacted soils (that roots and shoots cannot penetrate), and desiccation (because of inadequate soil moisture). 

In some alpine environments, frost activity (aggravated by 

trampling that denudes soil surfaces) is a major cause of 

seedling mortality (Roach and Marchand 1984). Plants that 

emerge from large seeds are better able to survive the initial 

stresses of seedling establishment because they can rely longer on reserves within the seed.

Once established, seedlings grow into mature plants, 

reproduce, and eventually die. Growth of mature plants depends largely on the plant’s ability to obtain light, water, and 

nutrients, assuming it is not damaged or killed by grazing 

animals, trampling, or some other disturbance. During the 

initial phases of restoration—when plant density is low—

competition between plants should not be a concern. 

Poor soil structure, low organic matter content, and 

altered soil microbial populations may contribute to unusually slow growth of the first plant colonists. Plant growth is 

determined to a great extent by the ability of the root system to 

grow and capture water and nutrients. Compacted soils can seriously restrict root growth and contribute to soil water stress, 

while depleted soil organic matter and soil biota can limit the 

availability of nutrients. After plants have begun growing, 

competition between plants for resources becomes an additional concern. Inadequate resources can affect the competitive 

fitness of plants as well as their ability to reproduce.

1.3.1d Plant Characteristics That Influence 

Restoration

Plants vary greatly in morphology (their forms and 

structures) and in their reproductive biology. Certain characteristics make plants easy to establish and grow, while other 

characteristics make planting difficult. The planting and 

maintenance techniques required vary depending on these 

characteristics.

Higher plants can be divided roughly into those with 

woody shoots (trees and shrubs) and those with herbaceous 

shoots (forbs and graminoids). Woody structures are resistant 

to damage, but recover slowly (Cole 1995b). They also grow 

relatively slowly. Woody plants may be easier to grow from 

transplants than from seed. However, woody plants often 

have lower root:shoot ratios than herbaceous plants (Bliss 

1985), making them more susceptible to damage during 

transplanting. 

Rooting patterns have a pronounced influence on how 

well a plant is adapted to different soil conditions as well 

as on the ease of transplanting. Plants with high root:shoot 

ratios can extract more water and nutrients from the soil (per 

unit of leaf area) than plants with lower ratios. If a disturbed 

site has low moisture or nutrient levels, species with high 
24

Chapter 1: The Context for Wilderness Restoration

root:shoot ratios are more likely to be successful. Plants with 

fibrous root systems are more likely to flourish as transplants 

than plants with spreading root systems (May and others 

1982). Plants with taproots often do not transplant well because it is so difficult to avoid damaging the taproot. 

Plants and environments vary in the relative importance 

of sexual reproduction (from seed) and clonal growth (in 

which plants spread primarily through growth and asexual 

reproduction by rhizomes, stolons, or tillers). Sexual reproduction is likely to be less important than clonal growth in 

environments or species where plant productivity is limited 

(because fewer resources are available to produce reproductive structures) or where the frequency and predictability of 

favorable conditions for germination are low. Clonal growth 

is especially important in high-altitude and in arid environments. 

Plants also vary greatly in the extent to which they allocate energy to reproduction. Some plants tend to be short 

lived, mature rapidly, and devote most of their energy to 

producing flowers, fruits, and seeds. Although the terminology is not entirely equivalent, these plants may be described 

as r-selected, ruderal, or early seral. These plants tend to 

have smaller seeds that are readily dispersed, higher growth 

rates, and higher nutrient demands. They commonly colonize 

disturbed areas (figure 1–17).

Other plants are long lived, slow growing, and allocate 

much less energy to reproduction. These are K-selected, 

stress-tolerant, or late-seral species. These plants are abundant only in successionally advanced communities.

1.3.1e Genetic Considerations

The general reason for paying attention to genetics is 

to maintain contemporary patterns of biodiversity within 

and among populations of plants. One of the most important 

components of biodiversity is genetic diversity. Most species 

have a number of different ecotypes, populations that are 

genetically adapted to different habitats. High-elevation ecotypes of a species, for example, grow better at high elevations 

and low-elevation ecotypes of the same species grow better 

at low elevations. Besides elevation, plants develop ecotypic 

responses to such environmental variables as light intensity, 

soil chemistry, growing season, and moisture availability. 

In restoration, this ecotypic diversity is critical for at 

least two reasons. First, since ecotypes are best adapted to 

particular environments, it only makes sense to plant them 

in the conditions where they will grow well. Second, this 

genetic diversity should be considered as wealth that has built 

up over the years, as species have adapted to environmental 

conditions. Genetic mixing of different ecotypes diminishes 

this wealth, making all populations respond less favorably to 

environmental conditions. 

Ecotypic variation can be maintained by collecting seed 

or transplants from similar environments that are as close 

as possible to the site to be restored. Rules of thumb include 

collecting seed or transplants within the same major vegetation type (preferably within the same watershed) and not 

transferring material more than 500 feet (about 152 meters) 

in elevation. Sources should be even more localized when 

species are self-pollinated and in areas with steep topography 

or discontinuous ecological and physical characteristics.

It is also important to maintain genetic variation among 

individual plants within the same population. Doing so may 

not affect the short-term success of your restoration project, 

but it is important to the long-term fitness of the plants. This 

Figure 1–17—Partridgefoot (Leutkea pectinata), an early-seral species of 

the subalpine zone, forms dense mats of foliage topped by creamy clusters 

of tiny flowers. The tiny seed, flanked by paper-thin membranous margins, 

is dispersed by wind.
25

Chapter 1: The Context for Wilderness Restoration Chapter 3

genetic variation allows the population to adapt to highly 

localized conditions or to changes in conditions over time. 

This genetic variation is maintained by collecting seed or 

transplants from a large and diverse set of plants, located in 

scattered populations, while equalizing contributions from 

each plant. 

Some common rules of thumb include collecting from a 

minimum of 30 donor plants located at least 100 feet (about 

30 meters) apart. While it is common to suggest that seed and 

transplants should be from healthy plants, one should refrain 

from selecting only the largest and most vigorous plants. Collecting from plants of varying size and vigor will contribute 

to genetic variation. If conditions change, the less vigorous 

plant may be better suited than the plant that is vigorous under current conditions. Chapter 3 includes additional guidelines that will help you think about applying these principles 

to your projects.

1.3.1f Microclimate

It is important to consider microclimate throughout 

a restoration project, but it is particularly important to do 

so during the critical stage of seedling establishment. The 

seedling is vulnerable as it switches from relying on the 

reserves within the seed to external sources of nutrients. 

Generally, the most favorable microenvironments provide 

shelter from wind, some shade from excessive sunlight, and 

funnel moisture to the plant. Restoration projects are likely 

to be less challenging in areas where moisture is less limiting 

(such as in depressions or below a late-melting snowbank) 

and where there are some rocks, downed logs, or trees to 

protect seedlings from wind and excessive sun (figures 1–18a, 

18b, and 18c).

To some extent, microclimates can be created. Plantings can be shaded, for example. In the desert, it is common 

practice to create pits in the soil. These pits collect moisture 

and organic matter and protect plants from wind. Figures 1–18a, 18b, and 18c—Late-melting snow and partial shade 

contributed to the recovery of this campsite at Snow Lake in the Alpine 

Lakes Wilderness, WA. When the site was first treated by transplanting 

wildling plugs in 1980, it was extremely compacted and completely devoid 

of vegetation (top). Thirteen years later, dense native vegetation covers the 

site (middle) and is even spreading into an adjacent social trail. By 1998, 

shrubs began to invade the site (bottom), showing that the site is becoming 

more like the reference condition. 
26

Chapter 1: The Context for Wilderness Restoration

1.3.1g Animals

When a restoration project is being designed, animals 

need to be considered. Insects, birds, and small mammals 

will consume seed that is scattered on the ground. Seeding 

density can be increased or a mulch can be added on the 

ground surface. Larger mammals will consume seedlings 

and mature plants. Plants grown in the greenhouse and fertilized plants can be attractive to herbivores. This is a particular 

problem in arid environments, where it is often necessary to 

protect plantings with screening. 

1.3.2 Ecosystem Processes

Restoration will be more likely to succeed if it works 

with rather than against the processes that operate in natural 

environments. Working with natural processes requires understanding how those processes operate, how disturbances 

have disrupted them, and how the processes can be repaired. 

This section focuses on hydrological processes, succession, 

and biotic interactions. Energy flow and nutrient cycling, two 

of the most fundamental ecosystem processes, are considered 

under the topic of biotic interactions.

1.3.2a Hydrologic Processes

Typically, the hydrologic cycle involves precipitation, 

incorporation of water into the soil, use and transpiration 

of some of the water by plants, and transport of excess 

groundwater by drainage channels to sinks (playas, lakes) or 

oceans, where water is reincorporated into the atmosphere 

as it evaporates. The aspect of this cycle that is critical to the 

restorationist is incorporation of water into the soil. If water 

runs across the soil, instead of infiltrating, it causes erosion. 

Surface runoff increases with disturbance, either because 

topography has been altered, vegetation has been disturbed, 

or because soils have been degraded. 

Problems are most severe in areas where a trail (or road) 

collects water, concentrating the erosional forces of running water. A partial solution is to place frequent drainage 

devices or checkdams along the trail. Water continues to be 

collected by the trail, but it is shunted off the trail before it 

can do much damage. Erosion is reduced, but is still greater 

than would occur otherwise. Some of the soil that is eroded is 

deposited behind the checkdams. A complete solution to the 

problem would require importing soil to bring the trail back 

up to grade, so it no longer collects water.

At recreation areas, such as campsites and vista points, 

excessive runoff is usually a result of soil and vegetation disturbance rather than topographic change. Elimination of vegetation, organic horizons, and rocks, along with compaction 

of mineral soils, all contribute to reduced infiltration rates 

and increased runoff. If these sites are small and flat, erosion 

is generally not a critical problem. However, if sites are large 

and sloping, erosion can be a problem (figure 1–19). Even on 

small, flat sites, poor infiltration can contribute to soil water 

stress and to the loss of seeds as they are washed across the 

soil surface. On such sites, soil structure needs to be restored 

and organic matter and mulch layers need to be replenished. 

Figure 1–19—The disturbed area of this campsite acts like a funnel, 

directing the flow of water and silt into Snow Lake in the Alpine Lakes 

Wilderness, WA.
27

Chapter 1: The Context for Wilderness Restoration Chapter 3

1.3.2b Succession

Succession is the change in plant species that occurs 

over time. A disturbed or denuded land surface becomes 

covered with plants, which are replaced by other plants. 

Succession will occur on a disturbed site without any human 

intervention. Restoration is an attempt to increase the rate of 

succession or to alter the trajectory of succession toward an 

outcome that closely mimics natural outcomes. This concept 

is discussed in more detail in chapter 3.

Problems arise when attempts to increase the rate of 

succession actually slow succession or alter the trajectory of 

succession and, perhaps, the ultimate state of the ecosystem. 

Both of these effects have been demonstrated. For example, 

fertilization may increase the growth of pioneering plant 

species but retard the development of microbial communities (DePuit and Redente 1988). The result is a more rapid 

development of vegetation cover, but a slower return to plant 

communities similar to those that existed before disturbance.

There is considerable controversy among ecologists 

about how succession proceeds and what drives succession. 

Early views of succession described a process of successive 

discrete plant communities, in which the initial colonizers 

(early-seral species) modify the site so that subsequent invaders (late-seral species) are at a competitive advantage. The 

late-seral species should outcompete and replace the earlier 

seral species and, in turn, modify the environment before 

being replaced by climax species. This model (termed relay 

floristics) differs from the alternative—the initial floristic 

composition model. 

According to the initial floristic composition model, 

most species—early-seral, late-seral, and climax species—are 

on the site initially. Early-seral species germinate in abundance, are initially at a competitive advantage, and dominate 

the site during early succession; later successional species 

grow more slowly and do not dominate until much later. 

Both models probably contain useful insights, with their 

validity varying among environments and with the type 

and severity of disturbance. According to the initial floristic 

composition model, we should attempt to get propagules of 

late-seral species onto the site early in the restoration process, along with the propagules of early-seral species. If we 

do not, late-seral species may never have an opportunity to 

invade the site. This approach is probably the most useful and 

conservative approach at most locations. 

On sites where disturbance has been severe, late-seral 

species may not be able to establish and survive. This is 

probably the case on sites where upper soil layers have been 

lost to erosion. In these cases, it may be necessary to confine plantings to early-seral species that hold soil, contribute 

organic matter, and retain or fix nutrients. For instance, nitrogen fixers, particularly legumes, could be planted to build up 

depleted soil nitrogen (figures 1–20a and 20b).

Figure 1–20a—Bacteria in root nodules allow some nitrogen-fixing plant 

species, such as bitterbrush (Purshia tridentata), to convert atmospheric 

nitrogen to a soluble form that can be used by plants.
28

Chapter 1: The Context for Wilderness Restoration

1.3.2c Biotic Interactions

A number of biotic interactions are of concern to restorationists. We have already discussed herbivory, a potentially 

serious problem. Animals also can provide benefits. Many 

animals dig up the soil, breaking up compacted soils and 

improving the quality of seedbeds. Generally, the interactions 

between plants and other plants and between plants and soils 

are of more concern to restorationists than the interactions 

between plants and animals. 

1.3.2d Plant-Plant Interactions

Early in the restoration process, when plant density is 

low, plant-plant interactions are more likely to be positive 

than negative. One plant can provide shade for another or 

protect it from grazing animals. In compacted soils, sometimes the force of several emerging seedlings is needed for 

any of them to break through the surface. In other cases, 

one plant species may support mycorrhizal fungi that benefit 

survival of another plant species.

Negative interactions also are possible. One plant may 

produce metabolic byproducts (allelochemicals) that inhibit 

other organisms. As plant density increases, opportunities for 

negative interactions—through competition for resources—

increase. Potential competitive relations will determine the 

appropriateness of different species mixes we might choose 

for seeding or planting. Unfortunately, our understanding of 

competitive relationships among plant species is negligible. 

This suggests again that the most conservative approach is to 

try to plant a mixture of species that is similar to the mixture 

on the site before disturbance. 

1.3.2e Plant-Soil Interactions

Interactions between plants and soil micro-organisms 

are of critical importance to restorationists. Again, our 

understanding is rudimentary. We know that soil micro-organisms are critical to nutrient cycling and to increasing the 

efficiency of water and nutrient uptake. We also know that 

micro-organisms derive their resources from organic matter 

and exudates from plants. They cannot flourish under certain 

soil conditions. A site that has been trampled and denuded 

for many years cannot support a healthy soil biota, because 

it does not support a healthy plant population. Conversely, it 

cannot support a healthy plant population because the soil 

biota is impoverished. 

How can this vicious cycle be broken? Again, we have 

little to go on besides intuition and some common sense 

suggestions. Soil structure needs to be improved and organic 

matter needs to be increased. Scarification and organic 

amendments should help. Perry and Amaranthus (1990) 

suggest reintroducing micro-organisms at the same time 

that plants are reintroduced. For field transplants, this can be 

accomplished simply by transferring small amounts of soil 

Figure 1–20b—Bitterbrush drawing courtesy of University of Washington 

Press (Hitchcock and Cronquist 1976).

Fruit

Purshia tridentata
29

Chapter 1: The Context for Wilderness Restoration Chapter 3

from around donor locations to the restoration site. When 

seeding or planting greenhouse plants, soil can be dug from 

nearby areas with similar vegetation and environments. Alternatively, plants can be inoculated in the greenhouse. 

1.4 Concluding Thoughts

It is relatively easy to describe ecosystem characteristics 

and processes, but it is difficult to predict the effects of ecosystem manipulations (which is what our restoration activities 

are). The systems we are attempting to restore are extremely 

complex. The effects of our manipulations may not be obvious 

for decades or centuries. We have invested little in documenting the success of ecosystem manipulations. While many millions have been spent studying how to restore strip mines, for 

instance, virtually nothing has been spent to study wilderness 

restoration. Moreover, even when we do know what happened 

when a particular restoration technique was used, we seldom 

know why it had the effect it did. Nor do we know if the same 

thing would happen under other circumstances. 

Do we know enough to restore wilderness ecosystems or 

would we be better off leaving them alone? Each of us would 

answer this question differently. The severity and potential 

irreversibility of certain disturbances suggest we may have 

to pursue riskier policies than some would prefer. However, 

our inability to predict accurately the long-term effects of our 

manipulations suggests that we should be more passive than 

others might prefer. We must balance courage with humility, 

taking action, but doing so in a manner that is appropriate to 

the wilderness context. 
30

Chapter 1: The Context for Wilderness Restoration

Chapter 2
31

Chapter 2: Planning for Restoration of Small Sites in Wilderness

T

Planning for Restoration of Small Sites in Wilderness

This chapter provides a conceptual overview of the 

components of restoration planning (figure 2–1) for a 

wilderness setting with ongoing recreational use. 

This chapter explains the concepts depicted on the accompanying flowchart, A Process for Small-Site Restoration in 

Wilderness. Chapter 3, which is more technical, will provide 

the restoration methodologies. This chapter serves more as 

the “trail map” to help you see where you are headed. 

Chapter 3 serves as a guide to help you get there. 

Just as there is usually more than one right way to travel 

to a destination, the process laid out in this chapter may not 

occur in exactly the same order in all restoration projects. 

That’s the wilderness restoration experience!

The flowchart on pages 32 and 33, developed by Tom 

Carlson of the Arthur Carhart National Wilderness Training 

Center and others, was revised by Lisa Therrell. 

Figure 2–1—Restoration planning in the Desolation Wilderness, CA, considered the Three Es: engineering the project design to succeed, education of 

the public so they know how to reduce wilderness impacts, and enforcement of regulations designed to protect the wilderness resource.
Chapter 2: Planning for Restoration of Small Sites in Wilderness

32

A Process for Small-Site Restoration in Wilderness

Monitor resource conditions

Soils, vegetation, water, fish, wildlife, social, etc.

OK–Standards met

Continue mgmt. actions

Monitor again

Not OK–Standards not met

(Revised mgmt. actions needed)

Site assessment 

• Determine initial and ongoing causes of impacts and unnatural conditions

• Assess visitor-use patterns (displacement, attractions, trends, etc.)

• Assess other factors (biophysical resources, climate, politics, etc.)

• Involve interdisciplinary resource specialists

• Prepare Minimum Requirements Analysis Step 1—Is action needed?

• Conduct scoping for NEPA analysis based on proposed action

Detailed assessment of ecological and resource parameters 

(Interdisciplinary)

Soil analysis

Soil classification

Mycorrhizal fungi

Borrow/fill sources

Plant communities Invasives

Nonnatives

Other local factors

ESA listed species

Aquatic and terrestrial

 species

Cultural/heritage

Identify limiting factors

Identify revised mgmt. actions needed to meet standards

Information

Education 

Use regulations

Permits—No limit

Designated sites

Area closures

Permits—Limited entry

Restoration

Revegetation Site mgmt.

Closure

Confinement

Harden

Facilities

Signs

Trail delineation

Management or unit plan defines resource and social setting objectives

Goals, Objectives, Standards, Guidelines (derived from LAC/VERP or other wilderness planning process)

Prioritize need for revised mgmt. action 

• Degree of noncompliance

• Sensitivity of resource

• Resource/funding availability

Other mgmt. options
33

Chapter 2: Planning for Restoration of Small Sites in Wilderness

Process concerns Site prescription elements

Natural

revegetation

Collect seed

OK Not OK

Continue mgmt. actions Adjust mgmt. actions

Monitor Monitor

Propagate offsite

Restore natural contour

Plant protrection, mulching

Transplant wildlings

Salvage

School

greenhouse Agencygreenhouse Commercialgreenhouse

Scarification

Stabilization

Amendments

Site stabilization needs

Soil preparation and amendments

Species

Propagation methods

Mulching and plant protection

Signing

Identify sources of plants, soil, and 

barriers

Site improvement, preparation, and protection measures

• Delineate open areas and closed revegetation areas

• Confine campsites and delineate trails

• Install barriers, facilities, etc.

Restoration plan—Set goals, constraints, and identify specific actions, including restoration site prescriptions, site management, and other actions and mitigating measures

Implementation of restoration plan

Implement other support actions—Engineering, education, enforcement

Maintenance—Watering, exotic removal

Determine project success—Were restoration planning goals and objectives met?

Monitoring

Assess local and landscape wilderness context, etc.

Address interdisciplinary concerns

Develop NEPA preferred

alternative/more alternatives if 

needed

Conduct interdisciplinary NEPA 

analysis

Implement ESA consultation

Prepare Minimum Requirements

 Analysis, Step 2—Minimum Tools

Consider designing project for 

research opportunity

Utilize research, training, networks

Establish partnerships for funding,

labor, tools, and equipment

Identify funding from wilderness,

fish, water, soils, grants, etc.

Consider plant genetics, invasives,

and use of native species

Soils Plants

Plant onsite

Plant onsite
Chapter 2: Planning for Restoration of Small Sites in Wilderness

34

2.1 Gathering the 

Information To 

Formulate a Plan

As can be seen from the flowchart, A Process for SmallSite Restoration in Wilderness, many factors must be 

considered during the restoration planning. Law, policy, and 

land management plans provide sideboards and the desired 

conditions for the land. A site assessment examines the role 

of historical and continuing influences, leading to proposed 

management actions. Designing a holistic package of 

management actions helps support restoration success.

2.1.1 Using Your Land Management 

Plan and NEPA

Most agencies manage wilderness and backcountry areas 

according to management direction provided in a land 

management plan. The management plan, tiered to law and 

policy, provides clear goals, objectives, and management 

standards that steer wilderness management. Development of 

a restoration project, as with any project on Federal land, also 

needs to follow the procedures mandated by the National 

Environmental Policy Act (NEPA). In this chapter, 

we will show how to dovetail restoration 

planning with the NEPA process.

Many Forest Service and U.S. 

Department of the Interior 

Bureau of Land Management 

(BLM) wildernesses use the 

accompanying Limits of 

Acceptable Change (LAC) 

model (Stankey and others 

1985) to formulate management direction. The U.S. 

Department of the Interior 

National Park Service uses the 

accompanying Visitor Experience 

and Resource Protection (VERP) 

framework (U.S. Department of the 

Interior National Park Service 1993) for planning. Both 

planning systems include the concept of zones governed by 

indicators of condition. Management actions are selected to 

achieve desirable resource conditions, while preserving an 

appropriate social setting.

Resource conditions are monitored to determine when 

management actions might be needed. Restoration treatments 

often are considered because recreation-related campsite 

condition indicators such as vegetation loss, campsite density, 

or a site’s distance from a trail or water do not comply with 

the management plan. Other campsite condition indicators 

may be based on social concerns, such as whether campers in 

one site can see and hear campers in another site (such sites 

are said to be intervisible and interaudible). These indicators 

are likely to have quantitatively measurable standards. 

Qualitative standards also may come into play, such as 

indicators describing the degree of naturalness or those 

describing the overall visual setting. Indicators based on 

other resources may drive the need for action. For example, 

such indicators might be based on riparian condition, unique 

plant communities, or soil degradation.

Once monitoring for an area has been completed, 

managers analyze whether conditions in the area comply with 

the standards for that zone or opportunity class 

(using LAC terminology). If standards are 

being met, current management 

direction may be appropriate; 

restoration doesn’t need to be 

considered (See the flowchart, 

A Process for Small-Site 

Restoration in Wilderness, at 

the beginning of this chapter.). If conditions in the area 

do not comply with management standards, revised 

management actions are 

needed. Vegetative restoration 

may, or may not, be part of the mix 

of possible solutions.

LAC

Planning

System

Step 8

Evaluation & 

selection of an 

alternative

Step 6

Identify alternative opportunity class 

allocations

Step 2

Define & 

describe 

opportunity 

classes

Step 1

Identify area 

concerns & 

 issues

Step 3

Select indicators of resource

 & social con-

 ditions

Step 4

Inventory

 resource &

 social con-

 ditions

Step 5

 Specify stan- 

 dards for re-

 source &

 social

 indicators

Step 9

Implement 

actions & monitor

conditions

Step 7

Identify mgmt.

actions for each

alternative
35

Chapter 2: Planning for Restoration of Small Sites in Wilderness

2.1.2 Using the Minimum 

Requirements Decision 

Process

If a proposed project is in congressionally designated 

wilderness, the first step is to ask the question—“Is administrative action needed?” This question is the first step in the 

Minimum Requirements Decision process, developed to 

ensure compliance with the intent of the Wilderness Act and 

agency policies. The Minimum Requirements Decision Guide

is available from the Arthur Carhart National Wilderness 

Training Center (Arthur Carhart National Wilderness 

Training Center 2004) and on the Internet at http://www.

wilderness.net. Worksheets in the guide will lead you 

through the minimum requirements decision process.

To oversimplify the minimum requirements concept, 

administrative action in wilderness is “required” when 

necessary to achieve the purposes of the Wilderness Act, 

such as:

• Allowing for natural processes, solitude, and 

primitive and unconfined recreation

• Ensuring a lack of human manipulation and 

permanent structures 

• Providing for provisional uses of wilderness, 

such as valid existing rights

• Addressing emergencies

General Management Planning Park Management

Step 1—Assemble the project 

team.

Step 2—Develop statements of 

park purposes, significance, and oprimary 

interpretive themes.

Step 3—Map and analyze 

resources and visitor 

experiences.

Step 6—Select quality indicators and specify 

associated standards 

for each zone.

Step 7—Compare desired 

conditions to existing

conditions.

Step 8—Identify probable causes 

of discrepancies between 

desired and existing 

conditions.

Step 9—Develop/refine 

management 

strategies to address 

discrepancies.

Step 4—Establish the spectrum 

(or range) of desired

resource and social 

conditions (potential

management zones).

Step 5—Use zoning to identify 

proposed plan and 

alternatives.

Amend General Management Plan

Reevaluate Indicators and Modify If Necessary

Monitoring

Process for Addressing Visitor Experience and Resource Protection

in the National Park System
Chapter 2: Planning for Restoration of Small Sites in Wilderness

36

2.1.3 Planning Scale and Priorities

Planning scale also needs to be determined. Many of the 

national parks have developed programmatic vegetation 

restoration management plans covering the entire park. The 

Rocky Mountain National Park Vegetation Restoration 

Management Plan, version 2, 2006, is one example. This 

approach allows managers to look at all human-caused 

disturbances, define parkwide goals and objectives, and sort 

out priorities and procedures at a large scale. Individual 

projects are selected based on priorities. Selected projects 

receive site-specific planning.

It doesn’t make much sense to go through the entire 

planning process for one campsite. On the other hand, if the 

plan includes too large an area, such as an entire watershed, 

the site-specific planning required for a successful plan (and 

required by NEPA) might become unmanageable. 

One suggestion is to focus on one destination or trail, or 

on closely interrelated areas. For example, planning might be 

more efficient if you consider restoration of nearby campsites 

when planning a trail relocation and restoration project. A 

number of wilderness projects have employed this strategy 

quite successfully. The planning area should be large enough 

(figure 2–2) to address the problems created when users are 

displaced to other areas nearby.

Determining which projects receive priority depends on 

resource management objectives, conditions in the planning 

area, budgets, and compatible opportunities. It would be easy 

to say that the most serious problem should be your first 

priority. But there may be too many constraints to solve the 

most serious problem right away. The constraints may be 

financial, biological, logistical, financial, or political. For 

your first projects, consider choosing ones where your 

chances of success are fairly high. Another approach would 

be to choose projects that address small pieces of a complex 

problem. As you learn from your successes, you can move on 

to more challenging projects.

Figure 2–2—The planning scale should be large enough to address problems that arise when users are being displaced from closed areas.
37

Chapter 2: Planning for Restoration of Small Sites in Wilderness

2.1.4 Forming an Interdisciplinary 

Team

Persons knowledgeable about any resources potentially 

affected by a proposed project need to be included on an 

interdisciplinary team. At a minimum, a typical Forest 

Service team would include the recreation or wilderness 

manager, an archeologist or cultural resource technician, a 

botanist, and a soil scientist (figure 2–3). Additional support 

may be needed from a landscape architect, wildlife biologist, 

fisheries biologist, hydrologist, engineer, or trails specialist. 

The team will identify and gather any additional resource 

data or visitor-use data needed. 

2.1.5 Developing a Site Assessment

The next step is to develop a more detailed assessment of 

the planning area. The purpose of the site assessment (figure 

2–4) is to gather the information for a clear problem statement and site-specific proposed action. A quick initial 

assessment may be followed by a more exhaustive assessment. During the site assessment process, you will gather all 

the information needed to formulate the preferred alternative 

(NEPA terminology) and write a detailed restoration plan. 

The restoration plan also will include other supporting 

management actions.

Figure 2–3—An interdisciplinary team field trip will help build a mutual 

understanding of human-caused impacts and viable solutions.

The next chapter will provide technical background to 

help you evaluate erosion, soil, and vegetative conditions as 

part of your site assessment. The remainder of this chapter 

will help you identify and correct problems caused by human 

use, so your plan can address not just the problems, but their 

causes.

2.1.6 Assessing Historical Human 

Influences

The team will determine the initial and ongoing causes 

of resource impacts. Don’t assume that the impacts you see 

today are from current recreation use patterns—take enough 

time to research past uses of the area that may have contributed to current conditions. Even if a specific use ended long 

ago, you will want to understand the full context of impacts 

caused by human use. This research also will help identify 

cultural sites you may not wish to disturb with a restoration 

project.

Figure 2–4—Restorationists Joy Juelson and Greg Shannon collaborate on 

a site assessment for Juelson’s research project in the Alpine Lakes Wilderness, WA.
Chapter 2: Planning for Restoration of Small Sites in Wilderness

38

Figure 2–5—Inoculating planting holes with mycorrhizal fungi.

Historical influences might include grazing, old sheep 

camps, use by large groups, old developments such as roads 

or mines, logging (yes, even in wilderness), homesteads, 

administrative sites, airfields, or damage by off-road vehicles. 

In some cases, an area may continue to erode or noxious 

weeds may continue to spread, even after the original cause 

of the problem has been eliminated.

Your staff archeologist may help you find relevant 

information sources. You may wish to consult agency 

heritage resource files, range records, local historical 

libraries, local history books or memoirs, and expedition 

journals. Local residents, oldtimers at your work unit, and 

former employees also are excellent sources of information. 

2.1.7 Assessing Current Human 

Influences

Impacts may be declining because of changes in use. 

Perhaps conditions have stabilized to a new norm. Thorough 

observation and analysis of current human use patterns is 

A Lesson Learned the Hard Way

One week, I hiked to Lake Mary in Washington’s Alpine Lakes Wilderness, joining the restoration crew to 

plant a site we had designed as an experiment to test the effectiveness of inoculating planting holes with mycorrhizal fungi (figure 2–5). Working together, we were planting specific numbers of several species in a grid pattern, 

mixing a spoonful of inoculum into half the planting holes. While we were planting the site with greenhouse-grown 

stock, I was surprised to feel a very sharp angular chip of stone that was not characteristic of the powdery ashbased soil. Taking a close look, I recognized the tiny chip as a lithic flake—a byproduct of making arrowheads. A 

thoughtful debate on whether to stop or continue our work followed. Because the site had already been disturbed 

with a restoration treatment 10 years before, we continued our work. This taught me the importance of making sure 

an archeologist or cultural resource technician visits each site before treatment. 

Lisa Therrell
39

Chapter 2: Planning for Restoration of Small Sites in Wilderness

essential. The restorationist or wilderness manager needs to 

be part psychologist or sociologist, gaining a feel for the 

management tactics that might succeed or fail based on an 

understanding of the local clientele. Future management 

actions will be based, in part, on these determinations. 

Identify the regulations that are in place. How are these 

regulations helping your situation? How might they be 

making things worse? Are additional regulations or adjustments needed?

Look for situations where management direction or 

regulations do not complement the indicators or standards, 

resulting in noncompliance. For example, the Alpine Lakes 

Wilderness in Washington has a campsite vegetation loss 

standard of 400 square feet (about 37 square meters) or less. 

The group size limit, including stock, is 12. Groups of 12, 

especially those with stock, occupy and impact larger areas 

than allowed by the standards. In fact, any group with a large 

wall tent will impact more vegetation than allowed by the 

400-square-foot (about 37-square-meter) standard. Such discrepancies need to be addressed during the planning process.

It is helpful to think of the larger project as a series of 

miniprojects. Assign each campsite and trail segment (or 

other feature) a unique number, cross-referenced to a map 

(figure 2–6). The number allows each feature to be tracked 

all the way through planning, implementation, and monitoring. The project area map needs to be detailed enough that 

each campsite and trail segment can be identified on the 

ground. Be sure to indicate key features such as north, the 

Figure 2–6—One example of a project map.

No.

No.

No.
Chapter 2: Planning for Restoration of Small Sites in Wilderness

40

Evaluating Snowmelt Patterns

For any wilderness with winter snow cover, the early-season snowmelt is a pivotal time for assessing impacts. When 

the ground is partially covered with snow, visitors will select campsites and travel routes differently than when the 

ground is bare. They may walk or camp on vegetation because they can’t find the main trail and camps, forming duplicate 

sites and trails (figures 2–7a and 7b). Restorationists will want to avoid closing the first trails and camps that become 

snowfree. Document your findings with photos and maps.

direction of waterflow, system trails, the direction to system 

trails, and so forth. It may not be possible to map every single 

social trail at this scale; more detailed site maps will show 

the trails. Establish photopoints, so you can use a series of 

pictures of impacted campsites and trails to show changes in 

their condition. Your numbering system will allow you to 

identify each site.

It pays to study human use patterns in an area. Hang out 

and watch what people do during peak-use periods and 

during different parts of the use season.

• Who are the users?

• Where do users wander when they select a 

campsite? 

• Which campsites receive the most use? 

• Are all campsites occupied during peak-use periods?

• Does campsite occupancy change use patterns 

(forcing visitors to bypass the occupied sites 

when accessing areas of interest, for example)? 

• Do groups avoid camping in campsites that 

have impacts? 

• How and where do users access water, firewood, and toilet areas? 

• How do fishing and other area attractions affect 

trail and campsite development? 

• What other seasonal conditions influence use 

patterns? High water? Seasonal snowmelt? 

Figure 2–7a—Would you believe that the Pacific Crest Trail could still 

be covered with snow on Labor Day weekend?

Figure 2–7b—Two additional trails were formed to skirt the snow. This 

problem can be avoided with careful planning, but you have to survey 

conditions in the early season when the snow is beginning to melt off 

trails and camps.
41

Chapter 2: Planning for Restoration of Small Sites in Wilderness

2.1.9 Scoping the Proposed Action

Fairly early in the interdisciplinary process, the team 

will formulate a proposed action (NEPA terminology) 

describing the purpose for the proposed project, the project 

location, and the types of actions that might be taken. At this 

point, the proposed action is specific to a particular area, but 

doesn’t go into excruciating detail. For example, enumerate 

Figure 2–8—Cradle Lake in the Alpine Lakes Wilderness, WA.

The project area is on the south shore of Cradle 

Lake (figure 2–8), between Trail No. 1550 and 

the lake. It involves two campsites, totaling about 

4,000 square feet (about 372 square meters), six 

social trails, and an area where horses are tied 

for short periods. These sites are now the best 

options for camping with stock at Cradle Lake, 

even though they are inside the 200-foot (about 

61-meter) setback where camping is not allowed. 

Cradle Lake also has a 200-foot (about 61-meter) 

campfire setback from the lakeshore. Illegal 

fires and stock camping continue to be a problem. Campsite sizes do not conform to standards. 

The campsites and social trails, highly visible 

from most portions of the lake basin, are not in 

conformance with visual standards.

Presence or lack of shade during the hot 

months? Access to water?

• How do current regulations and other management strategies shape these patterns?

Review use statistics for the area. Are use levels stable, 

rising, or falling? Have the types of users changed over time?

What behaviors, use levels, or conditions need to change 

to bring the planning area back into compliance with 

standards or management objectives?

Each specialist will contribute to the assessment based 

on his or her discipline. Chapter 3 discusses a process and 

method for completing a soil and vegetation assessment. 

Assuming that restoration might be part of a proposed action, 

the focus is on comparing the damaged sites to one or more 

reference sites to determine what is missing and what can 

realistically be restored.

The information gathered for the site assessment is quite 

specific. Plant species and the distribution of native plant 

communities are noted. Potential site treatments are based on 

soils, vegetation, and use patterns. An archeologist or cultural 

resource technician needs to survey any sites that might be 

slated for ground disturbance or another action that might 

affect heritage resources. Native sources of plant material, 

rock, and quantities of nearby fill are noted. 

In short, any factors that could limit project success are 

identified. Appendix A, Treatments To Manage Factors 

Limiting Restoration, lists potential factors that limit 

restoration success, along with the corresponding treatments.

2.1.8 Problem Statements

It is helpful to write a problem statement to focus 

planning. This brief statement includes the location of the 

project, description of the impacts addressed by the project, 

causes of the impacts, the magnitude of the impacts, and 

any special considerations. A sample problem statement 

would be:
Chapter 2: Planning for Restoration of Small Sites in Wilderness

42

exactly which campsites will be closed for restoration. The 

proposed action is included in a letter and mailed to the 

concerned public as a part of scoping for the NEPA process. 

Scoping is the stage when concerns about the proposed 

action and possible mitigating measures are identified.

Based on the Cradle Lake example, a proposed action 

might look like this:

2.1.10 Selecting Management 

Actions To Meet Standards

During this stage of planning, your team will identify 

the appropriate management actions needed to help the 

planning area meet wilderness standards or other applicable 

standards. Even though we often start a planning process 

with restoration in mind, don’t assume that restoration is the 

answer. Other options may be more desirable or appropriate. 

The process of selecting the best management actions begins 

with studying the range of options, then choosing options that 

best complement each other to form an appropriate holistic 

solution. Even though it is tempting to rush ahead to plan a 

restoration project, back up a few steps to ensure that you 

have considered all options.

You have already determined that administrative action 

is necessary, the first step of the Minimum Requirements 

Decision Guide (Arthur Carhart National Wilderness 

Training Center 2004). The next step is to determine the 

minimum tool. This step requires answering four questions. 

• What are the alternative methods for solving the 

problem?

• What are the effects and benefits of each 

method?

• What is the minimum tool and the rationale for 

its selection?

• What operating requirements will minimize 

impacts?

This section will discuss the first three questions.

2.1.11 The Minimum Tool 

Sometimes the concepts of “primitive tool” and “minimum tool” are confused. Part of the tradition of wilderness 

management includes using primitive tools. Essentially, 

primitive tools are the tools used during the settlement of 

America. Based on the language of the Wilderness Act, 

primitive tools don’t have motors and don’t have wheels (even 

though the wheel itself is primitive). Our expert use of these 

The proposed action includes the following 

strategies:

• Relocate Trail No. 1550 to a more 

durable location through talus on the 

other side of the lake.

• Retain the portion of the old system 

trail needed to provide lakeshore 

access. 

• Restore the portion of the old system 

trail where it leaves the lake to climb 

toward the pass.

• Close and restore the two large 

lakeshore campsites.

• Direct users to camp on benches away 

from the lake and at a nearby stock 

camp.

• Close four of six social trails. 

• Harden the two remaining social trails 

to provide durable lakeshore access.

Your agency may have a standard scoping mailing list. 

Work with your team to identify other interested parties, such 

as local user groups, wilderness advocates, native plant 

societies, or outfitters and guides. Your scoping process also 

may include public meetings, club meetings, field trips, 

articles for newsletters, or press releases. You may need to 

contact representatives of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

or the National Marine Fisheries Service. They are expected 

to consult on the project if threatened or endangered species 

or their habitats could be affected.
43

Chapter 2: Planning for Restoration of Small Sites in Wilderness

tools and techniques preserves a disappearing slice of our 

heritage, representing one of the enduring cultural and 

historical benefits of wilderness.

On the other hand, the minimum tool may not be 

primitive. The minimum tool represents the minimum action 

necessary, within the context of wilderness values, to meet 

management direction or to accomplish other administratively necessary activities. The minimum tool may refer to 

tools, such as a type of saw, drill, or transportation. Or it may 

refer to actions, such as the degree of signing, regulation, or 

physical development in wilderness. 

At this stage, consider all the available options. Some 

methods may not appear to be feasible initially, but conduct 

some research before reaching conclusions.

Management direction and policy will help frame the 

options that are appropriate. Many wilderness areas are 

zoned into “opportunity classes” using the LAC process. The 

types of management actions identified as acceptable in a 

transition or semiprimitive zone might be considered 

unacceptable or possibly a last resort in a primitive or pristine 

zone. For example, obvious barriers and signs to delineate 

trails and campsites may be appropriate in the transition 

zone, but those techniques are inappropriate in a pristine 

zone.

Public support also will shape the selection of management options. In one study of high-use wilderness destinations, visitors showed low support for limiting use and high 

support for intensive campsite management techniques, 

including active restoration (Cole and others 1997). A similar 

study, using an exit survey of persons who had visited heavily 

impacted wilderness locations, found that 71 percent did not 

view agency management favorably. When visitors were 

surveyed after visits to areas with restoration work in 

progress, 74 percent reported “positive” to “extremely 

positive” views of management (Flood and McAvoy 2000).

Before beginning a restoration project, contact users or 

groups that might be displaced by change (figure 2–9). They 

may suggest a better alternative that addresses public desires 

and wilderness protection. In the Seven Lakes Basin of the 

Selway Bitterroot Wilderness, ID, local stock users suggested 

a number of ideas that allowed continued limited stock use of 

fragile subalpine lake basins (Walker 2002). 

These publications will help guide your wilderness 

impact analysis:

• Minimum Requirements Decision Guide

(Arthur Carhart National Wilderness Training 

Center 2004)

• Managing Wilderness Recreation Use: Common Problems and Potential Solutions (Cole 

and others 1987)

• The Limits of Acceptable Change (LAC) System 

for Wilderness Planning (Stankey and others 

1985)

2.1.12 Types of Management Actions

The challenge facing wilderness managers is to develop 

methods of handling problems that not only address the 

symptoms, but solve the underlying problems. We will need 

public support for our new tactics. To borrow vernacular 

from off-highway vehicle managers, we need to address “The 

Three Es”—engineering, education, and enforcement. We 

engineer the project’s design so it will succeed, we educate to 

Figure 2–9—“I love this place—We do, too.” 
Chapter 2: Planning for Restoration of Small Sites in Wilderness

44

persuade visitors to practice new behaviors, and we enforce 

regulations when visitors don’t comply.

Wilderness research scientist David Cole (Cole and 

others 1997) suggests three broad categories of management 

actions for reducing recreation impacts:

• Reducing recreational use

• Changing visitor behavior with information and 

education

• Managing sites intensively by controlling recreational use patterns and restoring damaged sites 

Each category of actions has strengths and limitations. 

Your proposed actions are likely to include a mix of these 

categories of action as you craft a viable management 

solution. 

2.1.12a Reducing Recreational Use

While limiting use is commonly accepted in the national 

parks, it is generally seen as a draconian measure in national 

forests. Limiting use may be the only way to stabilize or 

reverse impacts to soil and vegetation, especially in areas 

with too few campsites to support the existing overnight use. 

Limiting use is not only politically unpopular, it could 

exclude some users from wilderness and may displace users 

to other areas. The displaced users could increase the 

environmental and social impacts at those areas.

The large volume of literature on permit systems should 

be reviewed carefully before considering limits on use. 

Nonetheless, it is always appropriate to ask whether the level 

of use is contributing to the problem. If resource impacts 

cannot be stabilized at current use levels, reducing use 

becomes a minimum tool.

An indirect method of reducing use is to lengthen the 

approach to an area—usually by closing a road to lengthen 

trail access. Many wilderness visitors will oppose the mere 

suggestion of lengthening access. However, this management 

action may complement other objectives, such as reducing 

road mileage for wildlife habitat needs or reducing the costs 

of road maintenance.

2.1.12b Changing Visitor Behavior With 

Information and Education

The strategic use of information and education can, over 

time, change unnecessary or discretionary high-impact 

behaviors, such as littering or damaging trees. However, 

intensified educational programs are unlikely to reverse 

damage to vegetation and ongoing soil erosion. It is difficult 

for many visitors to grasp the impact of their individual 

actions. Changes to old ways, such as the tradition of 

enjoying a campfire, evolve ever so slowly.

If stabilizing or reversing damage to vegetation and soils 

is a project goal, education can be an important tool, but 

education alone will not solve the problem. Visitors need to 

be told the actions they can take to prevent further damage, 

such as staying in the confines of existing campsites and 

trails, learning to travel off trail on durable surfaces (rock, 

snow, or gravel), refraining from having a fire, and not 

removing any vegetation.

Common methods to convey information include Web 

sites, brochures, information on maps, trailhead posters, 

signs at the site, contacts by receptionists, and contacts by 

wilderness rangers (figure 2–10). If adequate resources are 

available, a more comprehensive wilderness education 

program may be designed. A process for wilderness education planning is available at http://www.wilderness.net.

Principles of Leave No Trace 

Wilderness Travel

• Plan ahead and prepare. 

• Travel and camp on durable surfaces. 

• Dispose of waste properly. 

• Leave what you find. 

• Minimize campfire impacts. 

• Respect wildlife. 

• Be considerate of other visitors. 

(For more information, visit http://www.lnt.org)
45

Chapter 2: Planning for Restoration of Small Sites in Wilderness

2.1.12c Intensive Site Management

Intensive site management includes a variety of direct 

controls: using regulations to require visitors to practice lowimpact techniques for wilderness travel, redesigning the area 

to stabilize impacts and concentrate use, and actively 

restoring damaged soil and vegetation. The techniques 

discussed for each of these controls will focus primarily on 

correcting damage to soil and vegetation. Other problems 

identified through monitoring and the site assessment process 

may require additional solutions.

Figure 2–10—Information on bulletin boards can help visitors learn what’s 

expected of them in wilderness. Photos or maps help draw visitors in for a 

closer look at the materials. 

2.1.12d Regulations and Enforcement

Chances are that some regulations may already be in 

place to reduce impacts to soil and vegetation. Perhaps these 

regulations have worked in part, but have not allowed the 

area to reach the appropriate objective for management. It 

may be necessary to alter regulations or put additional 

regulations into place. Regulations mandate low-impact 

behavior in situations where visitors may not normally 

choose such practices. Regulations are unlikely to succeed 

without enforcement (figure 2–11).

Figure 2–11—Regulations enforced by rangers can help reduce damage 

caused by visitors in wilderness areas. Regulations might apply to the 

entire wilderness, to a series of wilderness areas, or to specific locations. 

When considering new regulations or changes to existing 

regulations, consider the potential that users and their 

impacts could be displaced. Would this displacement be 

acceptable? If displaced users meet their needs close by, the 

impacts will show up close to your project area. They might 

camp in the next basin over. Perhaps they will seek similar 

destinations elsewhere or choose another favorite place. Some 

visitors will seek out completely different wilderness areas, 

perhaps in other States, where they are less regulated. 

Visitors displaced from the Enchantment permit area of the 

Alpine Lakes Wilderness in Washington said they would 
Chapter 2: Planning for Restoration of Small Sites in Wilderness

46

adopt all strategies discussed above, making it difficult to 

pinpoint a specific effect of displacement (Shelby and others, 

no date).

2.1.12e Regulations To Reduce Use Directly

Any regulation may result in an indirect decrease in use 

if the user would rather go elsewhere than endure the 

regulation. However, some regulations may reduce overall 

use directly without actually limiting the number of groups 

that enter the area. Examples include: 

• Limiting Group Size—A group size limit (for 

people and/or stock) can be set based on levels 

that are sustainable for the campsites, stockholding areas, and available forage. Larger 

groups have more impact, especially when their 

activities spread onto vegetated areas and their 

social interactions require lots of travel back 

and forth. Some areas of a wilderness may 

require a lower group size than other areas. 

Regulations limiting group size can be very 

effective if they are combined with low-impact 

practices. Large groups will be displaced to 

areas of wilderness that allow larger groups or 

to other backcountry areas.

• Limiting Length of Stay—Many national 

forests already limit the length of stay (2 weeks 

is quite common). At a popular destination, a 

shorter length of stay may prevent crowding 

while giving more persons an opportunity to 

visit.

• Prohibiting Certain Uses in an Area—An 

area may be closed to a certain type of use, 

such as all stock use, overnight use with stock, 

or any overnight use altogether.

• Modifying the Location of Use—Some 

possibilities include requiring the use of 

designated campsites, prohibiting use at closed 

sites, or having a camping setback from a lake 

or desert waterhole. 

It is important to have a clear understanding of why a 

site should be closed. Is it to allow access to a day-use area? 

To improve the view for others? To reduce campsite intervisibility? To prevent further damage? 

Closing a site may or may not fix a problem. Sites are 

unlikely to recover on their own unless they are impacted 

only lightly or are located in the lushest of environments. 

Malcontents may remove signs in closed sites and then say, 

“We didn’t see a sign.”

Designated sites help concentrate impacts (figure 2–12). 

Designated stock camps and areas to hold stock are an 

excellent way to concentrate stock impacts. 

There is less incentive for campers to remove a sign that 

designates a campsite, because once the sign is gone they can 

no longer camp there. Any area that charges a fee for entry 

incurs more liability for environmental hazards, such as 

falling trees. If a campsite is designated, forcing a visitor to 

use it, liability issues may become an increased concern.

Figure 2–12—Signs telling campers where they’re welcome to camp aren’t 

as likely to be pulled up and thrown into the bushes as signs telling campers where not to camp.

Camping setbacks should be considered only when 

adequate and appropriate places exist to camp outside the 

setback. Tragically, the number of impacted sites doubled at 

many wilderness lakes after setbacks were instituted. These 
47

Chapter 2: Planning for Restoration of Small Sites in Wilderness

sites heal slowly, even with active restoration. Setbacks are 

common and ecologically important in desert areas where 

wildlife need undisturbed access to limited water. 

Stock setbacks can be used to protect fragile areas, such 

as shorelines. The national forests in the Washington 

Cascades implemented a 200-foot (about 61-meter) setback 

from all lakes and ponds; stock can be within this area only 

if they are being led to water or passing by on a trail. This 

practice also reduces user conflicts.

2.1.12f Regulations To Reduce HighImpact Behaviors

Examples of regulations that can be used to reduce or 

eliminate high-impact behaviors include: 

• Prohibiting Campfires—Combined with 

limiting group size, prohibiting campfires may 

be the most important regulation to reduce 

impacts to vegetation and soils. Campfires 

thoroughly alter soil qualities, making revegetation very difficult. Even in areas where a firepit 

is considered an acceptable impact, firewood 

gathering creates many additional impacts. 

Users create social trails while they are 

scavenging for wood. The loss of woody debris 

eliminates habitat for a host of organisms and 

an important component of the forest floor that 

contributes to soil development. Trees are 

damaged as firewood gatherers snap off limbs, 

creating a human browse line. Large feeder logs 

in a campfire often remain partially burned. 

Unless firewood is locally abundant and excess 

social trails are not a problem, prohibiting 

campfires (figure 2–13) is a good practice that 

will reduce impacts over the long term.

• Requiring Low-Impact Methods for Confining Stock—Many low-impact alternatives for 

confining stock eliminate the need to tie stock 

to trees (except for short periods). Tying stock 

to trees not only destroys vegetation around the 

tree, but could expose the tree’s roots and girdle 

the bark, possibly killing the tree. The telltale 

sign that a tree has met this fate is a doughnutshaped depression with a standing dead tree or 

stump in the middle. Appropriate use of 

highlines, hobbles, pickets, or electric corrals 

can prevent this problem. Regulations requiring 

these types of stock containment are in place at 

several wilderness areas, including the Lake 

Chelan-Sawtooth Wilderness and Alpine Lakes 

Wilderness in Washington.

Figure 2–13—Campfires may leave scars that are difficult to erase. 

• Limiting Campsite Occupancy—Some areas, 

such as the Mt. Hood Wilderness, regulate the 

number of tents or people allowed for a given 

campsite. This practice prevents a large group 

from spilling onto vegetated areas. Nor can a 

small group claim a large campsite that is better 

suited for a large group. Displacement to other 

nearby camping areas could become an issue as 

groups seek a site for a party of their size.

• Prohibiting Cutting Switchbacks or Leaving 

the Trail—Switchback cutting leads to contin-
Chapter 2: Planning for Restoration of Small Sites in Wilderness

48

ued erosion and loss of leaf litter and limbs that 

often are used to disguise switchback cuts. A 

special order can be written to make it illegal to 

cut switchbacks. Rangers in some areas with 

fragile soils or vegetation, such as Paradise 

Meadows at Mt. Rainier National Park, cite 

visitors who leave the trail. With many thousands of visitors, this is the only way to 

stabilize human-caused impacts to the meadow.

• Modifying Timing of Use—Several methods 

can be used to regulate timing of use without 

instituting a permit system. The first method is 

to prohibit certain uses (such as overnight use 

or grazing) when the potential for impact is the 

highest. This may be early in the season, when 

vegetation is just emerging, or it may be at 

another time to accommodate seasonal wildlife 

habitat needs. A fee could be charged during 

the sensitive time period to discourage use. 

Another way to discourage use could be to gate 

a road and prohibit vehicle access during the 

sensitive time period.

• Redesigning Infrastructure To Stabilize 

Impacts and Concentrate Use—With the 

possible exception of constructed trails or 

administrative sites, most impacts at wilderness 

destinations are caused by the ordinary wear 

and tear of public use. User trails, often called 

social trails, generally connect various amenities that visitors are seeking. Such amenities 

might include campsites, viewpoints, access to 

water for drinking or fishing, firewood sources, 

and private places for toileting. 

Such a network of trails often looks like the spokes of a 

wheel, or a spider’s web. Users often establish many more 

trails than are really needed (figure 2–14). Trails shift, 

depending on snow conditions, wet areas, rockfall, or fallen 

logs. In addition, trails often shift onto vulnerable locations, 

such as along the fall line of the slope, which is subject to 

erosion, or onto areas with fragile vegetation.

Most campsites are on relatively flat areas near water. 

The earliest users (in some cases, indigenous peoples) wanted 

the best view, which means that many scenic areas have 

large, denuded, and sometimes eroding campsites. When 

these sites are occupied, other users may have difficulties 

reaching the shoreline or campsites nearby.

Good project planning will take into account a variety of 

criteria that might include:

• Leaving the necessary infrastructure of social 

trails and improving them if needed

• Closing unneeded social trails

• Closing excess campsites, while leaving enough 

campsites to meet demand

• Stabilizing or closing eroding trails or campsites

• Closing or reducing the size of trails or campsites that do not meet visual objectives

• Closing campsites that are visible from other 

campsites

• Closing trails or campsites to protect other 

resource values, such as cultural artifacts, rare 

plants, or animal habitat

• Installing barriers to delineate trails and 

campsites

• Hardening trails or campsites as needed to 

concentrate use

Figure 2–14—Multiple trails established by visitors can cause more damage than one carefully located trail. A maze of trails going every which 

way is a common problem in recreation areas. 
49

Chapter 2: Planning for Restoration of Small Sites in Wilderness

• Providing facilities to concentrate use (figure 2–

15), such as toilets or facilities to hold stock.

• Identifying signs that might be needed to 

inform the public

• Anticipating the likelihood of public acceptance 

and the range of possible user behaviors when 

making these determinations

Methods for implementing these criteria will be discussed in more detail in chapter 3.

2.1.13 Passive Restoration of 

Damaged Soil and Vegetation

Before concluding that a vegetative restoration treatment 

is the minimum tool, consider whether natural recovery, or 

passive restoration, might be successful. Passive restoration 

allows secondary succession of native plant communities 

once the conditions preventing vegetative recovery have been 

abated. Passive restoration has the benefit of allowing Mother 

Nature to do the healing, producing a more natural result.

Figure 2–15—The Wallowa toilet design has been used by the Forest 

Service since the 1920s. A carefully located toilet helps alleviate recreation 

impact by reducing the number of social trails, by reducing vegetation 

disturbance, and by protecting water quality.

Sometimes active restoration may not be necessary once 

the human impact has been removed. This is especially true 

in areas:

• That are wet 

• That still have live plant material in the soil

• Where the soil is in good condition to serve as a 

seedbed

• That have a suitable native seed source nearby

The following criteria favoring passive restoration are 

based on those used by Rocky Mountain National Park (U.S. 

Department of the Interior National Park Service, Rocky 

Mountain National Park, 2006):

• The disturbed site will resemble an early-, mid-, 

or late-seral condition for an undisturbed 

community growing under similar environmental conditions.

• Adequate native propagules remain in the soil 

or plants will be able to colonize from nearby 

sources.

• The disturbed site will preserve natural 

interactions between individual plants growing 

on the site and adjacent to the site, including 

their genetic integrity.

• No exotic plant species that could impede 

revegetation are on the disturbed site or nearby.

• The site is more than 160 feet (about 50 meters) 

from a trail, destination area, or campsite. 

• Recreation use can be controlled to manage site 

recovery.

• The site’s appearance is not a factor.

• The site has topsoil, natural levels of soil 

compaction, and soil microbes are still intact.

• The site is stable (no active human-caused soil 

erosion).

• No other factors are known that might impede 

natural recovery.
Chapter 2: Planning for Restoration of Small Sites in Wilderness

50

Natural Recovery in Rocky Mountain National Park

At Rocky Mountain National Park, a lake shoreline (figure 2–16a) recovered naturally (figure 2–16b) after a dam was 

breached. The soil was rich with nutrients and still held a large seedbank and pieces of live plant material. The park was 

able to save the expense of a costly restoration project (Connor 2002).

Rocky Mountain National Park addresses passive restoration in the park’s vegetation restoration management plan 

(U.S. Department of the Interior National Park Service, Rocky Mountain National Park, 2006). A go/no-go checklist 

(U.S. Department of the Interior National Park Service 2002) ensures that passive restoration is considered when criteria 

can be met. Otherwise, the checklist helps managers document the need for active restoration.

Figure 2–16a—A lakeshore in Rocky Mountain National Park, CO, 

before recovery. 

Passive restoration requires managers to accept whatever 

time scale Mother Nature dictates. For example, the lush 

forests of the Eastern United States seem to recover rapidly 

without human intervention. In contrast, most upland 

Western ecosystems require decades, if not centuries or 

millennia, to recover. A long timeframe for recovery may be 

acceptable—give yourself permission to think beyond human 

time scales. Such long time scales may not be acceptable if 

resource values would continue to degrade or if social setting 

objectives cannot be met. Appendix D, Case Studies, 

includes an excellent case study that describes how implemention of a grazing system allowed a meadow on the Dixie 

National Forest in southern Utah to recover naturally.

Figure 2–16b—The same lakeshore after natural recovery. 
51

Chapter 2: Planning for Restoration of Small Sites in Wilderness

Campsite

2.1.14 Active Restoration of 

Damaged Soil and Vegetation

Even with volunteer labor and partnerships, restoration 

projects in wilderness are expensive per square foot of area 

treated. In addition, restoration is a form of manipulation, 

although at a very small scale. For example, future researchers will want to know where your restoration sites are so they 

don’t become confused while studying otherwise intact 

native plant communities. 

Restoration becomes the “minimum tool” when less 

manipulative options would fail to return the area to an 

acceptable standard. If excessive impacts remain once other 

options have been implemented, restoration may be part of 

the solution.

2.1.15 Adjusting Management 

Actions: A Tale of Two Lake 

Basins

The examples of two different lake basins in the Alpine 

Lakes Wilderness in Washington show how management can 

be adjusted to bring areas toward their desired condition. The 

“minimum tool” strategy for each of these locations, developed through trial and error, involved a multipronged 

approach.

Lake Mary (figure 2–17), a subalpine lake basin, 

experienced many years of sheep grazing before it became a 

popular recreation destination. In the 1960s, managers 

installed picnic tables, a hitch rack, and garbage pits. In the 

1980s, a number of management strategies were employed to 

reduce impacts. These included:

• Prohibiting campfires 

• Installing two toilets

• Moving the access trail to a more durable 

alignment

• Restoring the area by transplanting plants 

salvaged during the trails project

By then, the area had become wilderness, so all structures other than toilets were removed. Additional wildernesswide regulations included a limit of 12 combined people and 

stock in a group, a 200-foot (about 61-meter) setback for 

stock access, and a regulation making it illegal to enter a 

closed restoration site.

These strategies were working in part, but the impacted 

areas, including the areas that had received restoration 

treatments, were not improving (figure 2–18), according to 

monitoring data. Factors that prevented the impacted areas 

from improving included continued erosion and compaction, 

Figure 2–17—Lake Mary, a popular recreation destination in the Alpine 

Lakes Wilderness, WA. 

Figure 2–18— The worst eyesore at Lake Mary was a large, denuded stock 

camp near the lake’s outlet. Despite previous restoration attempts, continued use of the site deterred recovery. (This view of the camp was created 

by splicing two photos.) 
Chapter 2: Planning for Restoration of Small Sites in Wilderness

52

continued human and stock use in closed sites, and the loss of 

the organic soil horizons. In 1992, a site assessment was 

completed. The following year, additional strategies were 

adopted. They included:

• 200-foot (about 61-meter) stock setback

• Campsite designations to concentrate use

• Delineation of trails and campsites with 

barriers such as logs or rocks 

The restoration work was redone with a much more 

intensive approach—steep sites were stabilized with checkdams before being backfilled with mineral soil and topsoil 

carefully gleaned from sources nearby. High school students 

grew plants from locally collected seed. In addition, the sites 

were seeded when the seedlings were transplanted. A better 

erosion-control product was used and oak signs were 

installed to close restoration sites permanently. At first, a 

small map was installed to help users locate campsites, 

because only two sites were visible from the lakeshore.

Fast forward from 1993 to 2002. The revised management strategy is meeting with success. The restoration work 

is flourishing in most locations. Visitors know where they can 

walk and camp. The foreground view by the lake is dominated by native vegetation and well-located trails (figure 2–

19), instead of a huge, bare-dirt campsite that blocked access 

to the lake. Visitors say that Lake Mary looks far better now 

than it did in previous decades.

Now let’s contrast the experience at Lake Mary with the 

experience at the popular Enchantment Lakes Basin. In 

comparison to the annual precipitation of 81 to 100 inches 

(2.06 to 2.54 meters) at Lake Mary, the Enchantments receive 

about 46 to 60 inches (1.17 to 1.53 meters) of precipitation, 

mostly as snow in winter. Climbing into the Enchantments 

requires a very steep scramble. As a result, the area has never 

had stock use or commercial grazing. The area became 

popular in the 1960s and 70s when hundreds of people 

camped in the 3-square-mile (7.8-square-kilometer) basin on 

weekends. Campsites formed on virtually every flat, dry spot. 

Hundreds of campsite inventories document extensive 

impacts during that era.

By the early 1980s, the vegetative condition had declined 

to a range rating of “poor” because of human foot traffic 

alone, despite many aggressive management strategies. 

Campfires had been prohibited, toilets had been installed, 

trails had been hardened, and group size had been limited. 

Local soils are so thin and dry that attempts at restoration 

succeeded only in the wettest of locations (figure 2–20). 

Because the lakes had measurable levels of fecal coliform 

Figure 2–19—Two volunteers and a paid crewleader spent 33 workdays 

installing barriers and adding locally collected topsoil to this former stock 

camp at Lake Mary. Native greenhouse-grown seedlings were planted, 

and locally collected seed was sown across the site. Four years later, most 

plantings were thriving and seeded species, such as Sitka valerian, were 

becoming established. Barrier logs defining the trail remained in place. Silt 

no longer flowed directly into the lake, and a more attractive view greeted 

visitors to Lake Mary.

Figure 2–20—Thin, dry soils in the Enchantment Lakes Basin have 

scuttled most restoration efforts. (This photograph was digitally altered to 

remove distracting elements.)
53

Chapter 2: Planning for Restoration of Small Sites in Wilderness

Long-time visitors are beginning to notice an improvement in vegetative condition, which can be attributed to many 

factors. Trail hardening (figure 2–21b) and cairns marking 

the trails keep most traffic on a durable route, preventing 

hikers from creating parallel trails and damaging sensitive 

shorelines. Well-established campsites can accommodate the 

reduced use. Prohibiting campfires and providing toilets 

(figure 2–21c) further limited the development of social trails. 

This area will always pose management challenges, but the 

overall trend of wilderness quality is no longer declining. 

Because of the area’s harsh conditions, management actions 

other than restoration proved more effective in reaching 

objectives.

and fecal streptococcus from human and dog feces, vault 

toilets were installed and dogs were prohibited.

In 1987, a limited entry permit system was implemented 

to manage a carrying capacity of no more than 60 people 

overnight at one time. A few years later, the group size was 

reduced to eight. Education messages (figure 2–21a) were 

strengthened to coach people on how to walk, camp, and 

even urinate (the mountain goats paw up vegetation to eat the 

salt in urine) in a way that protects fragile meadows.

Figures 2–21b and 21c—The combination of reducing use, hardening trails 

(top), installing toilets (bottom), and prohibiting fires has been a more successful strategy than restoration for reducing impacts at the Enchantment 

Lakes Basin.

Figure 2–21a—Coauthor Chris Ryan (left) checks a climber’s limited 

entry permit and explains policies designed to reduce visitor impacts at the 

fragile Enchantment Lakes Basin. 
Chapter 2: Planning for Restoration of Small Sites in Wilderness

54

Figure 2–22—If a site is discontinuous, identify each of the sections to be 

treated. For example, the area above the trail could be identified as site F–1 

and the area below the trail as site F–2.

2.2 Putting It All Together—

Developing a 

Restoration Plan

Now that your team has considered all the options, it’s 

time to develop a strategy likely to succeed at meeting 

wilderness goals and standards. In other words, your team 

determines the minimum tool based on step 2 of the Minimum Requirements Decision Guide. If you are completing an 

environmental assessment to comply with NEPA procedures, 

you will develop several alternatives (such as a no action 

alternative, a partial alternative, and a complete restoration 

alternative)—with each alternative being responsive in some 

way to the key issues identified during scoping. 

The restoration plan includes pertinent wilderness goals 

from the land management plan or regulatory mandates and 

incorporates local concerns. The plan describes all the 

supporting actions to be taken as part of a holistic solution. 

These actions may include reducing use, furthering information and education programs, or recommending intensive site 

management techniques. An example of a good restoration 

plan is included in appendix D, Case Studies.

A restoration plan contains site-specific prescriptions for 

miniprojects that are linked to sites and trails numbered on a 

map (see figure 2–6). A specific prescription is developed for 

each miniproject, including the objective of the treatment, 

stabilization and site preparation treatments, soil treatments, 

vegetative treatments, and plant protection treatments. The 

needs for signs also are identified. 

A project area map should show the location of specific 

action items, such as which trails and campsites are to be 

closed and which are to remain open. Sketch maps help show 

the design of each miniproject. For instance, a sketch map 

might show how a campsite could be reconfigured. Photos of 

each miniproject site (figure 2–22) can be included with the 

prescription and sketch map. Provide enough detail that a 

new crewleader could implement the prescription successfully. 

Locations of suitable native materials, such as rocks and 

downed logs, are mentioned in the plan. Note potential 

sources of local fill material, topsoil, and organic matter. 

Strategies for rehabilitating borrow areas are addressed.

The restoration plan also addresses the best management 

practices for protecting wilderness resource concerns. 

Examples of best management practices include:

• Measures for preventing the introduction of 

noxious weeds, pests, or diseases

• Protocols for maintaining the genetic integrity 

and diversity of plant communities when 

collecting plant materials for the project

Select the best management practices that are responsive 

to the minimum tool requirement, answering the question, 

“What operating requirements will minimize impacts?”
55

Chapter 2: Planning for Restoration of Small Sites in Wilderness

Safety concerns also should be engineered into the 

project. What tools, supplies, personal protective equipment, 

and work procedures will reduce exposure to illness or 

accidents? How will the crew communicate if a problem 

occurs? Consider the logistics of an evacuation, should one 

be needed. Develop or revise a safety plan and job hazard 

analysis. Job hazards specific to restoration work include 

back strain (figure 2–23), knee strain, wrist fatigue, injuries 

related to walking, and dirt that can get into your eyes. 

Exposure to environmental factors becomes more prolonged 

because the work keeps you in one place. Consider the effects 

of sun, heat, cold, precipitation, and biting insects.

The restoration plan may include cost estimates and 

potential labor sources. For logistical planning, it is helpful to 

include specific information, such as the length and width of 

each miniproject, and estimates of any materials needed; the 

numbers of checkdams and their sizes, the amount of fill 

material needed, the estimated number of plants needed (by 

species), the amount of erosion-control blanket needed, and 

the number of signs that might be needed. Such detailed 

estimates will take much of the guesswork out of purchasing 

supplies, growing plants, and determining whether adequate 

native materials are available at the project location.

It is helpful to identify in advance where workers will 

camp (figure 2–24a), and any supplies they will need. If 

workers will stay at the area for days or weeks, determine 

how to arrange for food storage, water treatment and storage, 

and warm clothing and bedding. Careful planning will 

prevent further damage to vegetation. It is also important to 

identify a staging area where tools, supplies, and plant 

materials can be stored (figure 2–24b). If transplants remain 

Figure 2–23—Lift with your legs, not with your back! Plan restoration 

projects with safety in mind.

Figures 2–24a and 24b—Select camping (top) and staging (bottom) areas 

that can absorb the wear and tear of crew traffic.
Chapter 2: Planning for Restoration of Small Sites in Wilderness

56

in containers for more than a couple of days, they will need 

to be watered. If the staging area is not near water, you may 

need to provide water with a gravity feed system, or use 

another system to provide water.

The restoration plan may consider a phased-in approach, 

treating the less stable or more highly visible problems first. 

This is especially important when the project is not fully 

funded, or when all the work cannot be completed at once.

A Sample Small-Site Prescription

Site 4 at Cradle Lake will be closed to camping. The main trail (Trail No. 1) to the site will be left open for those 

circumnavigating the lake. Trail No. 12, a social trail that drops down to the lakeshore, will remain open to provide access 

to water. The applicable reference plant community is dominated by Idaho fescue (Festuca idahoensis), Sitka valerian 

(Valeriana sitchensis), American bistort (Polygonum bistortoides), glacier lilies (Erythronium grandiflorum), and spring 

beauty (Claytonia lanceolata). Material containing these plant species will be salvaged as plugs from the planned trail 

relocation (figure 2–25). Seed from these plant species and any others in seed in this same meadow type will be collected 

and sown when the project is implemented. The site is 1,200 square feet (about 111 square meters), requiring 300 lineal 

feet (about 91 meters) of an excelsior erosion-control blanket. One oak sign with a post will be needed to close the site.

The restoration plan should include an information plan. 

Site-specific signs are one means of providing information, 

but other means may be needed to gain the support and 

cooperation of area users. The different ways of gaining 

support and cooperation are considered in more detail in 

chapter 4.

Training needs can be included in the restoration plan. 

Restoration training (workshops or on-the-job training) and 

Figure 2–25— This site at Cradle Lake in the Alpine Lakes Wilderness, WA, was restored using plant material salvaged during a trail

relocation project.
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Chapter 2: Planning for Restoration of Small Sites in Wilderness

certification may be needed before some measures can be 

implemented. Include training as part of project costs.

The plan needs to include a format for documenting 

accomplished work and a monitoring plan. Ongoing maintenance requirements also are addressed. Refer to chapter 4, 

Restoration Program Development and Support, for additional suggestions.

Using the NEPA process, you now have a preferred 

alternative that will be sent out with the additional alternatives for public comment. Or, if your decision falls under the 

criteria for a categorical exclusion (from further documentation in an environmental assessment), you have formulated 

your decision (provided, of course, that the decisionmaker 

approves). Any further analyses, such as biological assessments (sometimes required for compliance with the Endangered Species Act) or cultural resource reports, are finalized. 

Formal concurrences are obtained from other agencies before 

the decision document is signed.

2.2.1 Considering the Time Required 

for Plant Propagation

Restoration projects take at least 3 years (Hanbey 1992). 

The first year is for completing the site assessment, formulating a restoration plan, reaching a NEPA decision, and for 

collecting plant material used for propagation. The second 

year is for implementation of management strategies, 

including site treatments. The third year is for maintenance 

of the project, including any watering, signing, and initial 

adjustments. Each step may take much longer. 

Project implementation often takes place over the course 

of several years or even longer. For example, at Paradise 

Meadows in Mt. Rainier National Park restoration treatments 

have been ongoing for decades because of the challenges of 

managing millions of visitors in a fragile subalpine setting. 

The maintenance phase extends into the future, because 

restoration projects are a long-term commitment. Monitoring 

may continue over many years.

So where does collecting and propagating plant material 

fit in this schedule? If you have a guarantee of project 

funding for a multiple-year project, you may hedge your bets 

and collect plant material as part of the site assessment 

during the first year. Unfortunately, this puts the cart before 

the horse—you haven’t even determined whether restoration 

will be included in the preferred alternative. 

If you are collecting seed, this is really no big deal; seed 

is easy to collect for small-scale projects. Refer to section 

3.10.8, Working With Seed, to learn how to collect and store 

seed properly. Once funding is secured, you can arrange for 

plants to be grown from seed, keeping in mind that it takes at 

least 6 months to produce transplant-sized stock (figure 2–

26). Any cuttings you collect will need to be transported to a 

grower immediately. Some trees and shrubs are best planted 

as larger stock, which may take several years to grow.

If you are unsure of project funding, collect seed during 

the planning phase and store it. If the project is funded, 

deliver the seed to a grower with a goal of planting seedlings 

during the second year. Collect cuttings during the second 

Figure 2–26—Sedges and grasses were planted during the fall in the 

greenhouse at North Cascades National Park, WA. They were transplanted 

nearly a year later.
Chapter 2: Planning for Restoration of Small Sites in Wilderness

58

year. During the third year, plants grown from cuttings would 

be interplanted with seedlings planted during the second 

year. You could obligate money for the third year’s work 

during the second year with a small contract to cover the cost 

out of the second year’s funds. 

Plant storage also requires attention to timing. Your 

grower may have plants ready before you are able to plant. If 

so, arrangements must be made for plant care and storage.

2.2.2 Research Opportunities

Early in the planning process, it is worth discussing 

whether your project might provide opportunities for research. While a large body of research exists on restoration, 

there is still much to learn, especially with restoration in our 

remote and fragile wilderness environments. 

Including a research element in the project design could 

change your project. For example, a research design might 

need to be laid out in defined plots (figure 2–27) that may not 

meet visual objectives. A certain number of replicates will be 

needed, requiring treated areas to be as similar as possible. 

This could require restoration sites to be selected based on 

research needs rather than recreation management objectives. 

Research will require some areas to be marked, at least 

temporarily. Incorporating research objectives might require 

additional funding. And finally, because research may require 

different treatments to be compared, some treatments may 

fail or be significantly less successful than accepted restoration treatments. 

Research projects require further consideration of the 

minimum requirement and minimum tool process. Can the 

research take place outside of wilderness? If not, will the 

knowledge gained by the research further the purposes of 

wilderness? And, if research will be conducted in wilderness, 

how can the project be designed to accomplish research 

objectives while minimizing permanent or temporary impact 

to the wilderness environment.

Even if you don’t incorporate formal research in your 

project, it is important to experiment with different species, 

new products, or different techniques on some portion of 

your project. Be sure to share your findings, so the art and 

science of restoration will continue to develop.

Figure 2–27—This restoration research design studied seedling emergence 

using five different site treatments in 10.76-square-foot (1-square-meter) 

cells.
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Chapter 2: Planning for Restoration of Small Sites in Wilderness

Figure 2–28—Counting seedlings requires attention to detail.

For her graduate research study, Joy Juelson compared a control (no site preparation) to five different site 

preparation treatments intended to enhance seedling 

emergence (Juelson 2001). Her research was conducted at 

the dry Enchantment Lakes Basin in the Alpine Lakes 

Wilderness in Washington. The area averages 46 to 60 

inches (1.17 to 1.53 meters) of precipitation annually, but 

almost all of the precipitation falls as snow during the 

winter months; summers are dry with little or no rainfall. 

Species used in the study included Parry’s rush (Juncus 

parryi), black sedge (Carex nigricans), and partridgefoot 

(Leutkea pectinata).

Standard treatments that occurred on all plot cells 

included scarification, inoculation with mycorrhizal fungi, 

addition of organic material, creation of safe sites for seed, 

mulching, and weekly watering. Differences in seedling 

emergence (figure 2–28) were compared for the following 

treatments: 

• Covering the site with polyethylene sheeting 

(Visqueen) during the germination period.

• Doubling the amount of water given weekly.

• Supplementing all missing soil nutrients.

• Supplementing only magnesium (in the form 

of Epsom salts) to restore cation (positively 

charged ion) exchange.

• All treatments combined.

Her findings generated many useful observations:

• Seedlings emerged even as the snow was 

melting off the sites.

• All treatments supported seedling emergence in dramatic comparison to the control. 

The Visqueen treatment yielded the most 

seedlings. The “all treatments combined” 

treatment yielded the least seedlings.

• During the first season, partridgefoot 

seedlings were more abundant than those of 

the other individual species.

• During the second growing season, when the 

plants were watered less, many of the 

partridgefoot seedlings died, allowing the 

sedge and rush to become more dominant.

• During the second season, seedlings at sites 

with a north to northwest aspect had substantially better survival rates than seedlings at 

sites with a south to southeast aspect. Plots 

that initially had the Visqueen treatment 

fared the best during the second year.

This story had a sad ending. During the third season, 

watering was delayed until about 3 weeks after the snow 

had melted. The soil dried out completely and all the tiny 

seedlings perished. Retaining soil moisture is a major 

limiting factor to restoration success in the Enchantment 

Lakes Basin.

Example of a Graduate Study
Chapter 2: Planning for Restoration of Small Sites in Wilderness

60

2.2.3 Identifying Research Needs

What are the limiting factors to successful restoration in 

your environment? What are the potential detrimental effects 

of restoration? The following suggestions may generate 

additional research questions (Rochefort 1990, Juelson 2001). 

Also refer to appendix A, Treatments To Manage Factors 

Limiting Restoration, as a source of ideas for research or 

experimentation.

• Water Limitations—Many plantings fail 

because of seasonally dry conditions. Regular 

watering programs usually are not feasible and 

cost effective on remote sites. Experimentation 

with techniques to improve water availability 

(figure 2–29) for plants would be a worthwhile 

research endeavor.

• Soil Treatments—Research is needed to 

determine which techniques can be used to 

restore native soil characteristics, benefiting 

vegetative recovery. Treatments might address 

problems caused by compaction or missing 

organic layers and consider whether soil amendments and reestablishment of soil organisms 

would help solve such problems.

• Plant Genetic Diversity—Research is needed 

to identify the genetic characteristics of plant 

species used for restoration. This research will 

be used to determine scientifically the proper 

distances for gathering plant materials when 

treating a restoration site.

Figure 2–29—Coauthors David Cole (far left) and Vic Claassen (far right) assess water availability on a dry site with wilderness rangers T.J. Broom (in 

Forest Service jacket) and Gabe Snider.
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Chapter 2: Planning for Restoration of Small Sites in Wilderness

• Plant Propagation—Research is needed to 

determine how to propagate species that lack 

propagation protocols or that are difficult to 

propagate.

• Species Introductions—Restoration projects 

risk introducing organisms that are not indigenous to the local area. When a site is treated, 

little is known about the presence of such 

organisms and whether they will survive in the 

wild. Such organisms could be in imported soil, 

soil amendments, or plant materials. Examples 

of such organisms include soil or plant pathogens, soil micro-organisms, plant seeds, plant or 

fungal spores, and insects.

2.3 Concluding Thoughts

Good restoration planning takes time. Your team will 

want to be clear on what needs fixing, why it is broken, and 

the best methods for repair. Your aim should be to design an 

integrated sustainable solution that is compatible with 

management objectives. Adjustments can be made over time 

as results are monitored. 
Chapter 2: Planning for Restoration of Small Sites in Wilderness

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Chapter 3
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Chapter 3: The Art and Science of Restoration

The Art and Science of Restoration

T This chapter follows the sequence used when implementing a restoration project:

1. Select an appropriate plant community as a 

model for the restoration prescription.

2. Assess soil conditions and formulate treatments.

3. Select appropriate plant species and propagation methods (figure 3–2).

4. Identify methods for protecting the project from 

damaging environmental forces and human use.

5. Determine how the project will be documented 

and monitored.

6. Identify ongoing maintenance needs.

Figure 3–1—Many of the restoration techniques developed for use on arid 

lands also are beneficial on dry forested sites or alpine sites.

Figure 3–2—At Joshua Tree National Park, CA, tall pots are used to propagate deeply rooted plants native to the Mojave Desert.

3.1 Developing Site 

Prescriptions Based on 

a Reference Site

Much of the success of a restoration project involves 

treating the conditions that limit plant growth in the site’s 

degraded substrate. Some of the problems with a degraded 

site are obvious, such as erosion or compaction. Others are 

less obvious, such as the reduced availability of water late in 

the season or changes in microbial activity. This section 

This chapter will explain the techniques (figure 3–1) 

used in a restoration project, providing enough 

technical background to get project planners pointed 

in the right direction. Some concepts underlying the techniques are explained as thoroughly as possible, while others 

are too technical to treat fully here. To address the most 

technical issues affecting your restoration project, recruit 

specialists with the needed expertise.
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Chapter 3: The Art and Science of Restoration

addresses three aspects of site evaluation: 

1. Selection of a reference (example) site

2. Evaluation of the impacted site and the reference site

3. Analysis of soils and selection of treatments

3.1.1 Determining Reference Sites

One of the most difficult and important steps of the 

restoration planning process is determining what type of site 

treatment will be effective in achieving revegetation. Clues to 

potential treatments or target conditions are provided by 

selecting a suitable target plant community called the 

reference site, reference community, or even just reference 

(Clewell and others 2000). Selecting an appropriate reference 

site guides development of the site prescription, including the 

treatment of soils and vegetation. 

Ideally, a representative disturbed-but-revegetated 

reference site that supports sustainable and appropriate 

vegetative cover would be selected. This reference site will 

illustrate the process of secondary succession—how natural 

systems reclaim a disturbed area. Perhaps your project is in 

an area that is in the latter stages of succession. In such a 

case, the reference site should be in an undisturbed area 

nearby that is representative of the plant community before 

disturbance. 

Sections 3.1 to 3.1.1c discuss how to select a reference 

site. The more technical how-to information for evaluating 

soil condition and selecting appropriate plant species is 

covered in the sections on soils (3.1.2 to 3.1.6c) and plant 

selection (3.10 to 3.10.4). 

True ecological restoration would restore the structure 

(species composition), process (the way ecosystem components interact), and function (overall energy flows) of the 

missing native plant community. Unless a restorationist has a 

very simple community to restore, ecological restoration may 

not be fully achievable, even after decades of recovery. 

Perhaps your goal stops short of restoration. You may be 

attempting to rehabilitate a site with native vegetation that 

can withstand ongoing use or to establish native plants on 

toxic mine tailings.

Fortunately, most wilderness restoration projects are 

small. Restoration usually addresses vegetative restoration or 

soil stabilization. The disturbances may not impair ecosystem processes and function. Our goal may not specifically 

include recovery of habitat for animal species. For a restoration site to fully recover its vegetative community, often soils 

and the associated animal species must recover as well.

To begin evaluating a site, become an observer of the 

landscape and ecosystem. Identify distinct plant communities 

within your ecosystem (figure 3–3). Notice how the vegetaFigure 3–3—Most landscapes are comprised of many different plant 

communities, each adapted to features such as slope, aspect, soil depth, 

and water availability. Understanding how your restoration site fits into 

landscape patterns is a critical part of planning.
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Chapter 3: The Art and Science of Restoration

tion changes from north to south aspects, from sun to shade, 

from slopes to flat areas, from moist shorelines or meadows 

to dry knolls or ridges. Notice patterns in the vegetative 

layers: the juxtaposition of trees, shrubs, forbs, and grasses, 

and even mosses and lichens. Examine how the soil profile 

changes from one plant community to another. 

Pay attention to signs of animal life: rodents, insects, 

worms, and others. Locate disturbed areas that have recovered by themselves, such as trail cutbanks, revegetated 

ditches leading from drain dips, craters behind windthrown 

trees, areas where animals have burrowed, slides and slumps, 

or old burns. An ecologist familiar with your ecosystem will 

help you interpret the processes you observe.

3.1.1a Choosing a Reference Site

Conceptually, the steps for selecting a reference site are 

simple. But understanding ecological processes and patterns 

is not. Your interdisciplinary team will help you bring the 

pieces of the ecological puzzle together. Together, the team 

will work to identify a reference site that reflects project 

goals and perhaps even sites with intermediate communities 

that represent steps during succession that lead toward the 

communities at the reference site. The Society for Ecological 

Restoration Science and Policy Working Group (2002) 

describes this approach as identifying an ecological trajectory to recover natural conditions on a site. If your short-term 

goals do not match your long-term goals, your prescriptions 

should attempt to meet your short-term goals while moving 

the site toward your long-term goals.

Choosing a reference site is easily confused with trying 

to freeze a moment in time. Don’t think of the reference site 

as a precise set of conditions. Rather, think of it as a range of 

natural conditions found on similar undisturbed or disturbedbut-revegetated sites. The restoration project will be designed 

to move the disturbed site toward this range of conditions. 

More than one reference site may be needed to express this 

range of conditions.

3.1.1b Identifying Undisturbed Reference 

Sites

It is virtually impossible to reconstruct the exact 

conditions of a site or to determine the exact vegetation that 

was on a site before it was disturbed. However, several 

sources of information can be the basis for ecological 

conjecture. The most important sources of information are 

nearby undisturbed areas that share slope, aspect, moisture 

regime, canopy cover, and similar features with the disturbed 

site.

To select reference sites, find areas that are well away 

from concentrated human use. Based on research conducted 

by the U.S. Department of the Interior National Park Service 

at Glacier National Park, a loss of species diversity was 

documented up to 61⁄2 feet (about 2 meters) on either side of a 

trail (Hartley 2000). More than one similar area should be 

identified to form a composite picture of the missing vegetative community and its associated soil structure and other 

habitat components. In addition, the disturbed site should be 

examined for any surviving remnants of native vegetation. 

The vegetation surrounding the disturbed site may or 

may not provide helpful information. If the features of the 

area surrounding the disturbed site are distinctly different 

from those of the disturbed site itself, the vegetation is likely 

to differ as well and the surrounding area may not be 

appropriate for a reference site. 

For example, in the Cascades, Olympics, and Northern 

Rocky Mountains, typical subalpine parkland is comprised of 

a mosaic of vegetation types. The vegetation found in clumps 

of mature trees includes shrubs such as currant (Ribes) and 

rhododendron that don’t grow on open slopes in full sun. 

Ground cover within the tree clumps may include plants such 

as trailing bramble (Rubus), Sitka valerian (Valeriana 

sitchensis) or wood rush (Luzula). Partridgefoot (Leutkea 

pectinata) often dominates recent disturbances and seems to 

like areas of partial shade. Nearby sloping meadows may be 

an early successional community of forbs and grasses, a later 

successional community of heather and huckleberry, or a mix 
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Chapter 3: The Art and Science of Restoration

of both. Flat areas at the bottom of slopes may be thick with 

the moisture-loving black sedge (Carex nigricans). But the 

plants that really like their feet in the water along boggy 

lakeshores or streambanks may be marsh marigold (Caltha) 

and different species of sedge. 

The species of plants found growing on the tops of 

knolls and ridges will be those adapted to drier conditions, 

thinner soils, and more wind. Only a few plants, such as the 

early colonizing Parry’s rush (Juncus parryi) seem to grow 

in almost all of these settings. As an illustration of the 

complexity of vegetation types within an ecosystem, Roger 

del Moral (1978) identified 21 different recognized plant 

community types, including 11 forested community types 

and 10 alpine community types in his studies of a subalpine 

basin in the North Cascades (figure 3–4). 

Sometimes it is necessary to view information in a 

broader historical context. For example, if an entire landscape has been changed because of a human-caused disturFigure 3–4—Roger del Moral identified 21 different recognized plant community types in a subalpine basin in the North Cascades, WA, including 11 

forested communities and 10 alpine communities (del Moral 1978).
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Chapter 3: The Art and Science of Restoration

bance, such as grazing or excessive trampling, historical 

records and range science may provide additional clues to the 

vegetative community before disturbance. Helpful sources of 

information might include historical photographs, vegetative 

surveys, field notes, or species lists.

On landscapes disturbed by grazing, different plants 

respond differently to grazing pressure. Although the most 

delectable ice cream plants may once have been common, 

they may be underrepresented or even missing after grazing. 

Species favored by disturbances, such as pussytoes (Antennaria), will be more abundant (figure 3–5). In such situations, it may be appropriate to select a disturbed-but-revegetated reference site rather than a pristine, undisturbed site.

3.1.1c Identifying Disturbed-ButRevegetated Reference Sites

Many project sites slated for restoration are so altered 

that plants from the historical plant community may not 

thrive there, even after being replanted. It is helpful to 

distinguish between a human disturbance that resembles a 

natural disturbance and a disturbance that results in an 

unnaturally stressful environment for reestablishing plants. If 

site conditions can be made more favorable, early- to midseral species that are adapted to disturbance are likely to 

succeed. If site conditions cannot be improved, it is important 

to select a reference site with a plant community adapted to 

these types of environmental stress. Few plants are adapted 

Figure 3–5—In the subalpine landscapes of the Pacific Northwest, concentrations of pussytoes (Antennaria) indicate where large bands of sheep took 

their afternoon siestas. The invasion of pussytoes represents secondary succession, the succession that takes place after a vegetated landscape is disturbed.
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Chapter 3: The Art and Science of Restoration

to withstand both high disturbance and high environmental 

stress (Chapin 1992). The factors likely to limit restoration 

success need to be identified (see appendix A, Treatments To 

Manage Factors Limiting Restoration). Reference sites 

should be selected that best portray the site characteristics 

and the factors that may limit success.

Examples of naturally disturbed areas to examine 

include slumps or slides, alluvial fans, avalanche paths, areas 

near retreating glaciers, recently flooded areas, and so forth. 

Trail or road cutbanks or the disturbed site itself also may be 

good indicators of potentially appropriate plant species for 

the restored site. 

Damage to the soil structure and associated water 

relations often are the biggest challenge to reestablishing a 

desired plant community. Such challenges might include: loss 

of the organic soil layers (including micro-organisms), 

increased compaction, change in pH, increased toxicity, 

change in slope or drainage patterns, past or active erosion 

(figure 3–6), and changes in soil texture. Treatments, such as 

importing topsoil, soil amendments, or fertilizer, bear 

scrutiny. Consider the resource tradeoffs and remember to 

apply the minimum requirements principle. Additional 

environmental factors affecting plant establishment might 

include extremes of heat or cold, wind, grazing animals, and 

so forth. 

Technological feasibility may limit some aspects of 

restoration, such as which tools might be used on remote 

sites. For example, if reestablishing the slope angle with 

heavy equipment is inappropriate or infeasible, the original 

plant community may be replaced with a different community. In wilderness, the option of using motorized or mechanized equipment would require an analysis to determine 

whether these methods are the minimum requirement for 

accomplishing project objectives. There are no easy cookbook answers to such ethical dilemmas. Each project must 

weigh such factors on a case-by-case basis. 

Some dominant plant species are difficult to reestablish 

through restoration. For example, restoration of heather 

communities (figure 3–7) is problematic in the Pacific 

Northwest, as is the reestablishment of creosote bush in the 

deserts of the Southwest. Fortunately, reliable restoration 

protocols are being developed by the U.S. Department of the 

Interior National Park Service for these environments. See 

appendix C, Detailed Propagation Methods for Beargrass, 

Heather, Huckleberry, and Partridgefoot, for more information.

Figure 3–6—This sod continues to be eaten away by the wind and the burrowing of pocket gophers in the Alpine Lakes Wilderness, WA. 

Figure 3–7—Matt Albright, greenhouse manager for Olympic National 

Park, WA, has successfully propagated a number of difficult species in the 

heath family. Several of his protocols are in appendix C.
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Chapter 3: The Art and Science of Restoration

Continued patterns of human use also may influence the 

selection of a reference site. If the project goals include 

allowing continued human use, the reclaimed site will 

require a resilient vegetative community. For these situations, 

find native plant communities nearby that mimic the conditions you must work within to reestablish vegetation. Plant 

communities on these reference sites might have revegetated 

themselves after a natural disturbance (such as fire), or they 

might be revegetating themselves naturally after a humancaused disturbance (such as an abandoned and now recovering campsite). These plant communities probably will 

represent an earlier seral community than that at the impacted site, but otherwise have similar site characteristics, such as 

topography, soil development, and shade. 

For example, at Denali National Park in Alaska, road 

cutbanks slowly colonize with the same plant species that are 

found on naturally unstable slopes. The park decided to treat 

cutbanks using species that grew on naturally disturbed 

slopes (Densmore and others 1990). 

In their work reclaiming toxic mining spoils on alpine 

sites in the Intermountain West, Brown and Johnston (1980) 

sought to reestablish a native stand of vegetation that “will 

resemble the posture of a native plant community when it 

becomes self-reproducing, stabilizes the soil on the site, and 

reaches a successional status involving native plant species of 

the area.” They acknowledged that recovery could take 

decades or even centuries, making it impossible to prescribe 

a mandatory timeframe.

The next step is to describe the assemblage of plant 

species, their relative abundance, and the soil structure at the 

reference site. If reference examples exist in the project area, 

note their location so they can be referred to for planning, 

project implementation, and monitoring.

If determining a reference site seems daunting, you can 

take some comfort from knowing that if you select the 

“wrong” plant species, they may eventually die out. Although 

it might be discouraging to lose some plants, letting nature 

shape the result is what restoration is all about.

3.1.2 Comparing the Reference Site 

and the Restoration Site 

This section will help you identify conditions at the 

reference site that will serve as a realistic example of 

conditions at the impacted site after it has been restored. 

Comparing Soils 

For many wildland situations, the required or desired 

soil conditions for sustainable plant growth are not well 

known. Soil data and target nutritional or soil chemistry 

values from agricultural and horticultural systems may not be 

appropriate for revegetation projects in wildlands. Agricultural systems tend to have soils with nutrients in highly 

available forms. While wildland soils tend to have larger total 

nutrient contents, the nutrients are not as readily available as 

those in agricultural soils. The characteristics of wildland 

soils are best modeled by choosing a suitable reference site 

that represents the intended soil characteristics of the 

impacted site after treatment. 

The following sections of this guide outline how to use 

topography, mineralogy or geology, general soil profile, and 

soil surface conditions to evaluate soil characteristics. More 

detailed lab analyses can provide technical nutrient data, but 

a good field evaluation can provide many important clues to 

site condition, soil condition, and the potential need for 

treatment. At many disturbed sites, field evaluations may be 

good enough for treatment. Plant community types or 

indicator species can be excellent indicators of long-term soil 

functions, because they indicate the integrated response of 

plants to site conditions over many seasons.

Evaluating soils on a field site requires a different 

investigative approach than the approach used for counting 

plants or species. The processes are often more important 

than a particular quantity. For instance, a wildland soil’s 

water-holding capacity is more important than its water 

content at any given time and the organic matter cycle is 

more important than the soil’s short-term nitrate content.

Even though we may measure some of the soil characteristics and contents in lab analyses, the processes that support 
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Chapter 3: The Art and Science of Restoration

Figures 3–9a and 9b—Black sedge (Carex nigricans), drawings (top) 

and photo (bottom). Drawings courtesy of the University of Washington Press (Hitchcock and Cronquist 1976).

Figure 3–8—Heavy sheep grazing began the process of erosion at 

upper Florence Lake in the Alpine Lakes Wilderness, WA. 

Upper Florence Lake in the Alpine Lakes Wilderness 

sustained heavy sheep grazing for 70 years, resulting 

in substantial soil erosion and loss of vegetation (figure 3–8). The forces of wind and water erosion, as 

well as recreational use, continue to degrade this site. 

An adjacent meadow would indicate that the historical plant community was a well-developed heather 

and huckleberry meadow interspersed with sedges 

and herbaceous species. However, replacing the 

amount of topsoil needed to support a heath community would not be realistic. Several plant species have 

volunteered in the disturbed area, including black 

sedge (Carex nigricans, figures 3–9a and 9b), Parry’s 

rush (Juncus parryi, figures 3–10a and 10b), and partridgefoot (Leutkea pectinata, figures 3–11a and 11b). 

These species would suggest that a nearby sedge 

meadow or a south-facing slope with partridgefoot 

could serve as a reference site.

Selecting a Reference Site at Upper Florence Lake

Carex nigricans
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Chapter 3: The Art and Science of Restoration

Figures 3–10a and 10b—Parry’s rush (Juncus parryi), drawings (top) 

and photo (bottom). Drawings courtesy of the University of Washington Press (Hitchcock and Cronquist 1976).

Figures 3–11a and 11b—Partridgefoot (Leutkea pectinata), drawing (top) and photo (bottom). Drawing courtesy of the University of 

Washington Press (Hitchcock and Cronquist 1976).

Juncus parryi Luetkea pectinata
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Chapter 3: The Art and Science of Restoration

plant growth long after irrigation treatments or fertilizer 

amendments have ended are most important for long-term, 

sustainable soil regeneration. To determine whether the soil 

characteristics are appropriate for plant growth, conditions 

must be evaluated based on time scales that range from 

centuries (soil profile development), to decades (organic 

matter accumulation), months (water storage and microbial 

growth), days (nutrient cycles), or minutes (infiltration and 

surface erosion from the impact of raindrops). 

While all soil characteristics interact, they can be 

assessed independently, allowing deficient conditions to be 

corrected without creating imbalances in related conditions. 

As each characteristic is considered below, look for ways that 

one characteristic influences another to provide an integrated 

network of plants, fauna, soils, and watersheds. 

Landforms

Understanding how soils are influenced by landform 

position will help you find a suitable reference site for the 

impacted site.

The position of the selected site within the topographical 

landscape provides the first clues to the characteristics of the 

soils in an area. Soils that developed directly on the underlying rock (figure 3–12) are said to have been formed on 

residual parent materials (geological substrates) and can be 

expected to derive their chemical and textural characteristics 

from the underlying rocks. 

Soils that form on transported substrates develop on 

parent materials that have been washed downstream, carried 

by glaciers (figure 3–13), or blown by the wind (aeolian 

deposits). The soils will acquire many of the characteristics 

of the transported source materials. Such soils often occur on 

low-lying areas. They may not resemble soils that developed 

on the local bedrock, even though the bedrock rises just a 

short distance away.

Figure 3–12—The green serpentine soils on these open slopes formed from 

the decomposition of parent material.

Figure 3–13—Glaciers transport glacial till.

How long a soil has been forming on a site influences how 

strongly the soil horizons will have developed. Some residual 

soils are very stable, remaining in place for hundreds of 

thousands of years. In these older soils, thick clay layers and 

well-developed soil horizons are generated as rocks weather 

and soil processes continue. Restoration of a disturbed site for 

revegetation of a plant community requiring these soil 

conditions requires careful replacement of various horizons of 

soil, paying attention to the thickness of each horizon. 

Examples of sites requiring careful attention would 

include:

• Low-lying sites, such as vernal pools that 

require restricted drainage and standing water 

for certain periods in the spring.

• Level upland sites with high clay content that 

store moisture that is available for plants during 

periods of drought. 
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Chapter 3: The Art and Science of Restoration

A recently formed soil that has had little development of 

soil horizons can be regenerated after disturbance with 

relatively little treatment, because little soil development has 

occurred at the site. An example of such a soil would be the 

coarse soil with poorly developed horizons often found on 

glacial deposits or along riparian areas subject to frequent 

flooding. 

Landform position also influences soil development. 

Soils on lower slopes are commonly deeper than soils on 

upper slopes, because gravity and water remove soil from the 

upper slope and deposit it lower on the slope. Soils in the 

bottom of old swales or draws can be especially deep compared to soils only a few feet (a meter) on either side of the 

drainage. Often, low-lying areas are more heavily impacted 

by human use than adjoining slopes because campsites and 

social trails tend to be more common on flatter terrain. 

Unless rock is well fractured, soil drainage and plants’ 

rooting depths often are limited by underlying layers of solid 

rock. Intensely fractured rock may not have much nutrient 

value, but it offers roots access to deeper water reserves 

during drought. Soils that form on transported substrates 

with fine-textured horizons (such as ash) overlying coarsetextured horizons (such as gravel) have a special limitation 

regarding moisture distribution. Water is retained in the 

smaller pores of the upper horizons and it may not flow 

downward into the coarse sandy or gravelly lower horizon. 

Roots often do not grow into the coarse lower horizon 

because it is comparatively dry. Such soils are found in the 

Enchantment Lakes Basin in the Alpine Lakes Wilderness of 

Washington, where a fine-textured soil from ash fall overlies 

coarse glacial deposits (Juelson 2001). This problem is 

discussed in more detail in section 3.1.4a, Soil Texture and 

Pore Size.

The aspect of a site can influence the depth of soil 

development. Soils on the north (shady) side of steep slopes 

tend to be cooler and moister. They have more plant growth 

and deeper soil development than slopes on other aspects. If 

the site is at high elevation, north-facing sites may be colder 

and hold snow longer, in which case soil development will 

not be as deep as on warmer, south-facing slopes. 

Sometimes the fine and coarse sediments laid down by 

streamflow mimic soil horizons, giving the impression of soil 

development where there is none. The way to distinguish soil 

profile development from silt or clay-rich layers that were laid 

down by geological processes such as streamflow is to 

observe the pattern of layering over a broad, exposed slope—

a slope about 15 to 30 feet (about 4.5 to 9 meters) wide or 

wider. Road cuts or exposed streambanks are the easiest way 

to see these formations. A shallow pit at the upper shoulder 

of the slope will show a profile that can be compared with a 

(usually) deeper soil profile lower on the slope. 

In contrast, if the layers tend to follow the surface of the 

landform with its hills and swales, the layers would be 

attributed to soil-forming processes. If the layers are horizontal or follow the pattern of the local geological layers or 

fluvial (stream) deposits, they probably were laid down by 

geological processes. Another clue is that transported 

sediments often have patterns of alternating coarse and fine 

layers as a result of fluctuations in moisture (rainfall erosion 

versus dry ravel) or depositional energy (high or low streamflows).

Most prospective wilderness restoration sites, such as 

campsites, are likely to be stable, because they may be on 

relatively level ground. In other situations, slope failure could 

become an issue, such as in areas with excessive runoff, road 

cutbanks, mine tailings, or slopes undercut by old roads, 

trails, or streams. A soil scientist or geomorphologist on your 

team can evaluate the potential for slope failure in such areas. 

If slope instability is induced by human activities, slope 

stabilization may be addressed in the site prescription. Be 

careful to distinguish surface erosion issues from geotechnical issues that are larger in scale and that are not directly 

treatable by revegetation. 

Mineralogy

You need to confirm that the mineralogy of the impacted 

site matches the reference site.

 Observe the geology of the general area, or at least of 

the substrates on which the soils are forming. Soils derived 

from sandstones or granites tend to have coarse, sandy soil 
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near their weathering sources (figure 3–14). If the area has 

had glacial activity, the fine materials may have washed into 

the site, making the soils finer, or the fine materials may have 

been washed away, making the soils coarser. Look at the 

sand grains with a magnifying lens. Have the grains been 

rounded by water? Or are the edges angular and cracked, as 

they would be after being frozen and ground down a slope by 

a glacier? Do the particles contain vesicular cavities (small 

gas bubbles) formed during rapid cooling of molten material 

after a volcanic eruption?

Soil Profile Development

You will need to evaluate the soil profile and soil 

formation at the impacted site, including the soil horizon 

development and the volume of soils in each horizon, 

comparing these soil characteristics to those of the reference 

site.

Compare soil profiles by digging at least two soil pits, 

one at the impacted site and one at the undisturbed reference 

site (figure 3–15). As described previously, the reference site 

may be a site that had previously been disturbed but is now 

revegetated. This type of comparison provides a general 

Figure 3–14—The coarse, sandy soil of this high Sierra basin in the John 

Muir Wilderness, CA, is derived from granite. In restoration prescriptions, 

the parent material at the reference site should match the parent material at 

the restoration site. 

Try to determine whether the region is derived from 

intrusive volcanics (granites or diorites with large crystals), 

or extrusive volcanics (fine-grained andesites or basalts). The 

intrusive (granite-like) materials have larger crystals and the 

rocks as a whole may physically weather and crumble more 

rapidly. The extrusive (ash-like) materials have smaller 

crystals so that rocks tend to chemically weather more 

quickly. Soils derived from extrusive materials will be deeper 

or have more clay. The parent material and mineralogy will 

be related to general trends in the water-holding capacity of 

soils and the abundance or scarcity of some soil nutrients, 

topics that will be covered later. Figure 3–15—Soil pits should be excavated to the depth of root penetration.
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estimate of how much the soil has degraded and how much 

treatment is needed to reestablish plant growth. Because 

organic matter and soil structure develop over many hundreds of years, an undisturbed native reference site may 

provide an unrealistic goal for soil regeneration spanning 

only a few years. For example, a dry, south-facing slope that 

develops a thinner soil may be a closer representative of the 

outcome at the project site than a deep, rich soil that has 

formed for many years on a valley floor. 

Ideally, pits should be excavated to the depth of root 

penetration. Because many plants are deeply rooted, that’s 

not always practical. Usually most of the important aspects of 

the horizons can be observed in the top 3 feet (1 meter) of the 

pit or perhaps in the top 12, 20, or 28 inches (300, 500, or 

700 millimeters) in shallower soils. For better lighting and 

photos, orient the pit so that the wall facing you will be in 

sunlight when you’re done digging. A pit about 20 inches 

(500 millimeters) across is usually wide enough to observe 

soil characteristics. Some soils have repeated patterns of 

mounds and swales, requiring careful placement of the pit. 

Estimating the Volume of Coarse Fragments

Keep a pile of the coarse fragments that are excavated 

from the pit. Coarse fragments include:

• Gravels—Smaller than 3 inches (75 millimeters)

• Cobbles—3 to 10 inches (75 to 250 millimeters)

• Stones—Larger than 10 inches (250 millimeters). 

Keep these separate from the finer soil excavated from 

the pit and estimate the volume of the coarse fragments as a 

percentage of the whole soil volume. For example, if the pile 

of rocks is half the volume of the pile with the rest of the soil, 

the soil would be 33-percent coarse fragments and 67-percent 

field fines. The coarse fragment (rock) content of a soil 

reduces the nutrient content, but can allow deeper rooting 

and can influence plant community patterns. 

When samples are taken to the lab, the true fine soil—

soil with particles smaller than the head of a pin, about 0.08 

inch (2 millimeters)—is sieved out. The rocks and gravels are 

assumed to have little nutrient content and to dilute the 

fertility of the fine soil, but in some soils, even the coarse 

fragments (coarse woody debris and decomposed rock) have 

significant water-holding capacity or provide important 

nutrients. In such cases, they should be considered part of the 

plant community’s soil resource (Whitney and Zabowski 

2004; Jones and Graham 1993).

Soil Horizons

If you look in a soil pit or on a roadside cut, you will see 

various layers in the soil. These layers are called soil horizons (see figure 1-14). The arrangement of these horizons is 

known as a soil profile.

The O or Organic Horizon

If the top horizon has more than 20-percent organic 

carbon, it is called the O horizon. This horizon includes dead 

material from plant leaves and roots, invertebrate animals, 

and micro-organisms. Undecomposed plant material on the 

soil surface is called litter, which decomposes into small 

pieces called duff. Beneath the layer of undecomposed plant 

material may be plant material that has broken down into 

small, unrecognizable pieces and organic residues. This 

material is called humus. It is usually a dark color and feels 

slippery or waxy. 

While humus generally represents a very small portion 

of the soil profile (a few percent or less), it performs critical 

functions, such as holding water, maintaining a crumb 

structure, contributing nitrogen, and making nutrients more 

available to plants (Brady and Weil 2002). Humus also 

benefits other soil organisms, especially the Actinomycetes (a 

type of filamentous bacteria that creates the “earthy” smell of 

rich soil). Organic matter in the soil also reduces formation 

of physical soil crusts and reduces runoff. 

Not all natural, undisturbed soils have organic matter 

horizons. Areas such as deserts or alpine fellfields (rockstrewn areas above timberline) may be so sparsely vegetated 

that there is very little leaf litter and no humus layer. Desert 

shrublands may have organic matter distributed in patches 

under shrubs, with none between the shrubs. Semiarid lands 
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have from just 0.5- to more than 8-percent organic matter in 

their soils. Tropical areas also may lack organic matter in the 

soil because organic matter breaks down so quickly in the 

warm, humid climate. 

High-elevation forested areas with little soil development 

may accumulate organic materials in a thicker mat in the 

surface horizons, because materials decompose so slowly in 

these cold, dry areas. Disturbed areas in the Enchantment 

Lakes Basin of Washington had a 0.6-inch- (15-millimeter-) 

thick layer of duff, but foot traffic and lack of plant growth 

had eliminated this layer from areas that had been impacted 

by camping (Juelson 2001). 

The organic horizons have technical names that are used 

in soil survey maps. These horizons are sometimes labeled 

from the top down as: Oi (fresh, undecomposed plant litter), 

Oe (distinct plant parts, but partially decomposed to fibers), 

and Oa (unrecognizable plant parts and humus).

The A or Topsoil Horizon

The A soil horizon is the top mineral soil horizon, 

meaning that it has less than 20-percent organic carbon. The 

A horizon is rich in organic matter that has leached from the 

O horizon, giving topsoil a dark brown or gray color. This 

horizon has the most biological activity, contains much of the 

soil’s fertility, and allows rainfall to infiltrate into the soil. 

Infiltration of water from rainfall and snowmelt depends 

on a soil’s texture. Infiltration will be relatively rapid if soil 

texture is coarse or if individual soil particles have formed 

larger aggregates, separated by drainage pores. The size of 

these aggregates ranges from less than 0.04 inch to over 0.4 

inch (1 to 10 millimeters) in diameter. The aggregates are 

shaped like small bread crumbs or popcorn.

If the A horizon is impacted or disturbed, some or all of 

the horizon may be lost. Foot traffic on the O or A horizons 

will grind these layers to dust that can blow or wash away 

rapidly. Finely powdered surface horizons indicate mechanical damage (traffic), even if they have not yet eroded away. 

When the aggregates are crushed, the soil pores are smaller, 

decreasing infiltration and increasing overland waterflow and 

surface erosion. 

After excavating the soil pits, examine the exposed wall, 

looking carefully for small horizontal lines or fracture planes 

between packed or compacted soil (called platy structures). 

These horizontal structures form when soils are compressed 

while they are wet, as happens on a trail. The structures 

indicate loss of drainage and shallower root penetration. 

Scarification (surface tillage) can disrupt these platy structures, but unless organic matter is incorporated into the soil, 

the platy structures will quickly reform. If the soil has salt 

problems, white crusts will form on the surface of the A 

horizon or on organic matter in the O horizon. 

You should observe the soil profile for signs of biological 

activity, paying special attention to the A horizon. Soil organisms are found primarily in humus, rotting wood, and the 

upper soil layers. Fungi have root-like structures underground 

(called hyphae) that form intricate webs (called mycelium). A 

fungal mycelium is readily observed as white or yellow weblike tissue in the soil or rotting wood. Mushrooms are the 

mycelium’s fruiting bodies. Mushrooms sprout when the soil 

reaches appropriate moisture and temperature levels. Insects, 

worms, or rodent activity are also signs of biological activity. 

Large pieces of rotting wood are critically important to the 

survival of fungi and arthropods (invertebrates such as 

insects and spiders). Rotting wood stores water long after the 

soil surface moisture has dried out. 

In the Enchantment Lakes Basin of Washington, the A 

soil horizons at undisturbed areas had well-aggregated 

granular or crumb soil structure, while the impacted sites had 

platy soil structure, indicating compaction from foot traffic 

(Juelson 2001). Soil aggregates in the undisturbed soil 

provided more rapid infiltration of surface moisture and 

allowed roots to grow deeper on these droughty sites. 

Perry and Amaranthus (1990) provide another dramatic 

example of soil degradation when fragile soils are disturbed. 

A highly productive forested site on decomposed granite 

soils in the Oregon Cascades was clearcut for timber. The site 

was treated with herbicide several times to reduce brush 

cover. Without plant cover and the organic matter plants 

provide, the aggregates degenerated and the coarse soil lost 
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its structure. The soil’s ability to infiltrate water decreased 

and the nutrient-rich topsoil horizons washed away. The 

formerly productive forested site then only supported 

scattered annual grasses, ferns, and manzanita. Restoration 

efforts involved replanting the correct tree species and 

inoculating the soil with mycorrhizal fungi. 

The E or Leached Horizon

The next soil horizon in coniferous forests is the E 

horizon, which is created by rapid loss of clay minerals, 

leaving a light-colored, sandy layer under the A horizon. 

These horizons are nutrient poor, and may contribute to 

unique communities of stunted or endemic plants. Many soils 

do not form an E horizon.

The B or Subsoil Horizon 

As soils develop, clays, carbonates (lime), or salts 

gradually leach from the A horizon to the B horizon. In a soil 

pit, the crumb structure of the A horizon will be replaced by 

larger, blockier structures called blocks or prisms (up to 12 

inches or several hundreds of millimeters in diameter). B 

horizons often are more intensely colored (brown, yellow, or 

reddish) than the A horizons.

Because the B horizon has higher clay content, it 

becomes the reservoir of moisture for plant growth during 

droughty seasons. If the A horizon has been lost because of 

erosion, the B horizon is exposed. This makes revegetation 

difficult, because the higher clay content of the B horizon can 

prevent infiltration. Unless the exposed horizon is modified 

to make it function more like an A horizon, plants may find it 

difficult to become established and grow adequate roots. 

The C or Parent Material Horizon

The C horizon is little affected by soil-forming processes. If it is comprised of transported sediments, it will be 

loose, unconsolidated material. If the soil is forming on 

residual bedrock, the C horizon will be weathered enough to 

be dug with a shovel. On severely impacted sites with 

extensive erosion or landslides, the C horizon is the exposed 

soil that must be revegetated. 

Observe how plants grow on nearby soils with simple A/

C horizons (a thin A horizon over the C horizon) because this 

may be the only possible way to remediate remote or large 

and severely impacted sites. These simple A/C soil systems 

can be made to work over time, but plant communities 

growing on such simple soil systems will not develop in the 

Did You Know?

About 25 percent of the total root biomass in a tall-grass 

prairie (figure 3–16) dies each year, contributing organic 

matter to the soil. The drier short-grass prairie contributes 

50 percent of its root biomass to the soil’s organic matter 

each year, but the total root biomass in the short-grass 

prairie is less than in the tall-grass prairie.

Figure 3–16—Prairie junegrass (Koeleria macrantha). Photo by J. 

Lokemon, Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center, U.S. Department 

of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey.
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same way as plant communities growing on complete soil 

systems. 

If subsurface rocks are exposed at the site, look for ways 

to incorporate them into site design. They could be used to 

provide a hardened surface that can resist erosion and handle 

more foot traffic. The rocks can be used to help delineate 

sites or paths or to improve the microclimate for plants.

Sometimes layers of volcanic ash show up as reddish or 

gray bands (figure 3–17) separating the dark organic layers. 

Such soil profiles may mean that organic matter accumulated 

at an A horizon before an eruption buried that surface. 

Organics accumulated at the new surface, regenerating an 

overlying A horizon. These buried horizons could be used to 

cover exposed subsoil horizons. They may not be biologically 

active, but may contain residual organic carbon and may have 

a particle size distribution that is more suitable for plant 

growth than an exposed B horizon. You might consider using 

these buried horizons for restoration if you have opportunities to salvage soil.

When you examine an impacted site, determine which 

soil layers are missing relative to the reference site, and 

whether it is feasible to replace the missing layers. A change 

in soil depth (known as soil potential) probably will change 

the types of plants that can grow on a site. In some cases, as 

soil depth is lost, the same species may grow on the site but 

the plants may be smaller or may be spaced farther apart. In 

some cases, the impacted site (which could be an eroded 

trail) needs to be brought back up to grade. The project 

design should specify the type and amount of each soil layer 

needing replacement.

3.1.3 Evaluating the Surface 

Condition of Impacted Sites

The surface condition of the impacted site, including 

patterns of crust formation, compaction, erosion, and slope 

stability, should be compared to that at the reference site.

Soils typically will be covered with a layer of plant litter 

and a fine, powdery layer of decomposed organic materials. 

If this layer is at the reference site, but is not at the impacted 

site, why is it missing? Does its absence indicate the zone of 

disturbance or a normal difference in soil formation? 

Be cautious. Some natural areas, such as the rocky 

pavement of desert areas, do not have an organic layer. In 

such cases, the mineral surface of the ground may be 

exposed, but the upper sides of undisturbed stones and 

gravels probably have a dark patina. Because the patina takes 

a long time to form, it indicates a landscape that is relatively 

undisturbed. 

Organic-rich layers may be present under plant canopies 

or in the lee area downwind of plant clumps, but not in the 

open areas between plants. Biological crusts (see section 

3.1.3c, Evaluating Biological Soil Crusts) can help determine 

whether such areas have been disturbed. In alpine areas, 

lichens growing on rocks may indicate that the area has not 

been disturbed for many years (figure 3–18).

Figure 3–17—The distinct band of light gray ash exposed just below the 

vegetation in this damaged campsite is Mount Mazama ash that was deposited 6,600 years ago. Tens of thousands of years of soil development were 

wiped away when a careless camper carved this tent spot out of a hillside.
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Another indicator of erosion is the presence of lag 

gravels. These lag behind when the fine soil surrounding 

them erodes away—the lag gravels often form a pebble 

pavement (figure 3–19). To confirm the presence of lag 

gravels, check the soil horizon to see whether more gravel is 

on the surface than in the next lower horizon. 

Figure 3–18—The presence of well-established lichens on these rocks atop 

the Beartooth Plateau, MT, suggests that they haven’t been disturbed for a 

long time.

Figure 3–19—Erosion has left behind a series of terraces and deposits of 

lag gravels in areas once grazed by sheep in the Alpine Lakes Wilderness, 

WA.

The soil may have geological bands of gravel deposits. In 

such cases, there should be other examples of soil deposition 

elsewhere in the soil profile, such as fine and coarse bands 

from stream deposits. If the soil is made predominantly of 

fine particles, it could erode without lag gravels accumulating 

on the surface.

In any of the cases discussed above, if erosion is occurring, a depositional delta of fine particles should be visible 

somewhere nearby, either downstream or downwind. Deposits of fines may show up in small terraces—about 4 inches 

(100 millimeters) high—that accumulate behind plant litter or 

grass clumps, or as small deltas in low-lying areas where 

water slows. Depending on the slope and water velocity, these 

deltas may be several feet (a meter) to several yards (meters) 

away from the area that lost the fines.

When the surface litter is removed, fine particles in the 

soil are exposed to the impact of raindrops and to drying 

cycles between rains. Raindrop dispersion crusts will form 

within 0.04 to 0.08 inch (a millimeter or two) of the surface. 

These crusts may become weak to moderately strong. 

Sometimes this crust will have the horizontal platy structure 

that forms with compaction from foot traffic. If crusts form, 

the soil becomes less porous and less rain infiltrates. Precipitation and snowmelt increasingly flow overland, producing 

the surface waterflow that leads to particle transport and 

erosion. 

3.1.3a Visual Clues for Evaluating Erosion

Erosion is caused by the impact of raindrops on bare 

soil, by the force of running water on the soil surface, by 

wind, and by rodent activity. Erosion is a natural process that 

leaves its signs across the landscape. Erosion from unnatural 

processes, however, often moves more soil more quickly than 

the erosion that occurs naturally. Erosion from unnatural 

processes produces significant impacts that require treatment. 

Both types of erosion are influenced by climate, soil type, 

slope, and vegetation type. Loam and silt loam soils are more 

erodible than clay or sandy soils. However, sandy granitic 

soils are highly erodible. Steep slopes are more erodible than 
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Chapter 3: The Art and Science of Restoration

gentle slopes. And well-vegetated slopes, especially those 

with a variety of root forms and aboveground biomass, are 

less erodible than areas with sparser vegetation.

Plant cover, surface debris, and biological crusts stabilize the soil. Bare soil between plants is the most susceptible 

to erosion. Soil compaction allows increased runoff. Trails 

that are poorly located or maintained funnel water into 

erosion channels (figure 3–20a). Sloped campsites lose soil in 

a downhill flow. Additional factors contributing to erosion 

include soil surface stability, soil aggregate stability, water 

infiltration, and organic matter content, all of which can be 

evaluated in comparison with suitable reference sites. Heavy 

grazing or weed establishment increases the risk of erosion.

than the upper horizons in the soil profile, the 

fine soil may have been eroded away, leaving 

the heavier rocks to “lag” behind (see figure 3–

19). If the process is very slow, as it is in the 

desert, the rocks may have a dark, oxidized 

patina, indicating slow erosion rates. If the soil 

is actively moving away from the local area 

because of raindrop impacts, soil protected 

under bits of wood or rocks may form pedestals 

(small, uneroded columns of soil with a 

protective cap). This indicates a more rapid, 

possibly unnatural process.

• Exposed roots—If soil has moved since a tree or 

shrub grew roots into the soil, the exposed roots 

will show the old soil levels (figure 3–20b).

Figure 3–20a—Sheep driveways established in the 1880s became the 

Forest Service trail system in the high country of many wilderness areas. 

Because this former driveway was located on the fall line, running water 

continues to widen and erode this trail in the Alpine Lakes Wilderness, WA.

Clues for surface erosion and degraded soil condition at 

the impacted site relative to the reference sites include:

• Bare soil—Unless the soil has been recently disturbed (by a burrowing animal or fallen tree, 

for instance), the soil should have a protective 

biotic crust, a thin layer of organic duff, or an 

armoring layer of gravel or stones. 

• Lag gravels or plants or rocks on “pedestals”—

If the surface has many more gravels or stones Figure 3–20b—Exposed roots show the old soil level.
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Chapter 3: The Art and Science of Restoration

• Terracettes—Level benches of soil deposited 

behind obstacles are an indication that erosion 

removed the surrounding soil (figure 3–21). 

Figure 3–21—Vegetation growing on level benches of soil deposited behind rocks is evidence of past erosion.

• Waterflow patterns—An increase in the number, 

size, and connectivity of waterflow patterns 

(rills) between plants is an indication of erosion.

• Soil deposition at slope changes—Where a steep 

slope flattens into a shallow slope, the speed of 

waterflow decreases and sediments will deposit, 

forming a fan if soil is being eroded.

• Changes in thickness of topsoil—Thick topsoils 

in areas of deposition (swales or lower on 

slopes) mean soil has been lost higher up the 

slope (on the shoulder of the slope or midslope).

• Exposure of subsoil at the surface—Subsoils are 

marked by higher clay content, redder color, or 

larger blocky or massive soil structure. These 

subsoils may form small cliffs. The softer 

surface soils and deeper subsoils weather away, 

leaving the subsoil protruding prominently.

• Rills, headcutting (movement of a gully upslope 

by progressive erosion), and/or downcutting 

(deepening) in gullies—Rills (only about 0.1 

inch or a few millimeters deep) are formed by 

moving water that has enough energy to carry 

sediment. 

• Reduced plant vigor—As topsoil is removed, 

less moisture and nutrients are available for 

plant growth and plants are smaller. 

• Long, unsheltered, smooth soil surfaces—Wide 

expanses of fines in playas or deltas, with silt 

accumulations behind rocks or shrubs in gullies 

are potential indicators of windblown sites.

• Exposed, erosive subsoil under a resistant cap— 

Look for evidence of rodents burrowing into 

terraces or pedestals, further eating away at the 

remaining soil. Pedestal faces relate to trails or 

old erosion patterns, not to natural landforms 

and stream hydrology (U.S. Department of 

Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation 

Service, Soil Quality Institute 2001c).

• Evidence of wind erosion—Wind-scoured areas 

between plants, a drifted or rippled soil surface, 

biological crusts buried by blown soil, loose 

sand on physical crusts, and soil or leaf litter 

accumulating on the leeward side of plants and 

obstacles are signs of wind erosion (U.S. 

Department of Agriculture Natural Resources 

Conservation Service, Soil Quality Institute 

2001d).

Table 3–1 provides a summary of soil indicators you 

might consider during your soil assessment.
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Table 3–1 —Indicators of soil quality and their relationship to soil health. (Adapted from Guidelines for Soil Quality Assessment in Conservation Planning, U.S. Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service, Soil Quality Institute 2001a)

Soil organic matter (SOM) Improves fertility, soil structure, soil stability, nutrient 

retention, soil erosion, and available water capacity, but 

must be renewed by continued plant growth.

Physical

Soil structure Good soil structure and aggregation increases water 

infiltration, retention of water and nutrients, and habitat for 

microbes, while decreasing erosion. Aggregates are 

destroyed by traffic and plant removal.

Depth of soil and rooting Deeper soil increases site potential (annual weeds vs. forbs 

vs. shrubs vs. trees). Soil compaction, plow pan, and 

impermeable rock layers reduce growth.

Infiltration and bulk density Soil structure increases and bulk density decreases water 

movement, soil porosity, and soil workability (soil tilth).

Chemical

pH Soil reaction (pH) has wide ranging influences on biological and nutrient availability, and on plant species that are 

appropriate for restoration.

Electrical conductivity (EC) EC is a measure of salinity, which influences plant growth, 

microbial activity, and the formation of salt crusts.

Cation exchange capacity (CEC) The capacity of soil to hold nutrients for plant use. Specifically, CEC is the amount of negative charges on clay and 

humus that are available to hold positively charged ions.

Extractable nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) These plant nutrients are essential for growth. Excess 

nutrients may degrade local watersheds.

Biological

Microbial biomass carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) Microbes catalyze the decomposition of organic matter to 

release nutrients for continued plant growth. The microbial 

biomass provides a repository for carbon and nitrogen, 

creating a long-term nitrogen supply.

Potentially mineralizable nitrogen (PMN) An operational pool made up of microbial plant litter and 

animal scat that provides a medium-term nitrogen supply. 

Soils with low PMN have short-term and often insufficient 

supplies of nitrogen.

Soil respiration Respiration indicates microbial activity, which relates to 

nutrient cycling, organic residue formation, soil aggregation, root health, and symbiotic associations.

Indicator Influence on soil function
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On the undisturbed site, you can expect to see several 

types of evidence of soil stability if erosion processes are 

minimal (except in areas such as naturally occurring badlands or sites at high elevation). Evidences of stability include 

an accumulated layer of plant litter and powdery organics in 

the O horizon, formation of weathering patinas or dark stains 

on surface rocks, aggregated soils, and a lack of surface 

erosion patterns, including pedestals or deltas formed by 

transported particles. Biological crusts formed by bacteria, 

fungi, lichens, algae and mosses that tolerate drying are 

another desirable feature of stable soil. Crusts create a natural 

protective layer at the ground surface that resists erosion. 

3.1.3b Evaluating Physical Soil Crusts 

Soil surfaces often develop a structured surface layer 

called a soil crust. A physical crust is a thin, compressed 

layer of soil minerals that indicates a loss of soil aggregate 

structure, decreased water infiltration, and increased runoff. 

Physical crusts are commonly formed by raindrop splash, 

erosion, and intense fire. Physical soil crusts support very 

little biological activity. 

A physical crust is likely to be found on a site that has 

very little organic material where the soil aggregates are 

disintegrating into single-grain particles. A physical crust 

may form after a restoration treatment once the soil has been 

decompacted. The combination of a smooth surface and the 

lack of organic matter provide conditions for the formation of 

physical crusts. Physical crusts reform quickly after disturbance as raindrops disperse the fines and settle them into a 

thin, dense layer. Drying allows the crust to harden. Many 

wilderness campsites or social trails are firmly compacted, 

but they would not be said to have a crust because the surface 

is not denser or more structured than the underlying soil 

profile. 

Excess salt in the soil can promote a chemically induced 

physical crust. Salt crusts appear as white areas that coat the 

existing soil surface. Some physical crusts formed by the 

evaporation of small pools of water are harmless. These have 

been observed in granitic areas where a pool of rain has 

evaporated and left a frost-like ring of salt crystals on pine 

needles on the forest floor. Lowland areas and arid environments can generate more serious salt accumulations, which 

are visible as some pattern of light-colored evaporates (salt 

crystals) from groundwater or rainwater. The salt may be left 

in lines that form on the sides of ponded areas, at the top of 

mounds of soil, or as rings around seeps. The measurement 

of salinity will be covered in section 3.2.2, Soil Nutrients, 

pH, and Salts.

To evaluate a site for physical crusts, lift the soil surface 

with the tip of a knife and look for cohesive layers parallel to 

the soil surface. Physical crusts (figure 3–22) will have no 

evidence of organisms, such as dangling plant roots or 

cyanobacteria holding the layers together. Fragments of a 

physical crust will fall apart (slake) when they are placed in 

water. This test is used to distinguish them from cemented 

layers that would occur in drier environments. Platy structures parallel to the soil surface that disintegrate in water are 

the clues to identifying physical crusts. Well-aggregated soils 

break into round crumb structures rather than platy structures.

Figure 3–22—Physical crusts, which often form on disturbed soils, will 

hinder vegetative recovery. Photo courtesy of the U.S. Department of 

Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service.
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The formation of a physical crust will deter a site’s 

recovery. First, crusts indicate a soil low in organic matter. 

Raindrops disperse the soil into particles that clog pores in 

the soil, impeding plant growth. Second, the crust’s low 

infiltration rate means rainwater and snowmelt will not seep 

down into a soil, but will run off the surface as sheet flow. 

Third, crusts suggest that salts or too many fine particles may 

cause drainage or nutrient problems. Tillage can disrupt 

crust, but organic material must be amended into the soil to 

keep the crust from reforming during the next rain. Foot 

traffic can disrupt a surface crust, causing it to disappear, but 

it will reform readily.

3.1.3c Evaluating Biological Soil Crusts

Some crusts are beneficial. A biological or microbiotic 

soil crust is comprised of bacteria, fungi, algae, lichen, 

mosses, or liverworts that form at the soil surface, stabilizing 

the soil, improving water infiltration, and increasing the flow 

of water and nutrients to plants. Biological crusts have an 

uneven surface and pore spaces that increase infiltration, 

reducing runoff. Although biological crusts can enhance seed 

germination, depending on the type of crust and plant species 

involved, in very hot deserts biological crusts may inhibit 

germination. Unlike physical crusts, biological crusts have 

high levels of organic matter, typically are the colors of the 

organisms that form them, and are not prone to slaking in 

water.

Although biological crusts do not form in all soil types 

and vegetative communities, the presence or absence of a 

biological crust is critically important in some environments. 

Biological soil crusts are common in arid and semiarid 

regions and in alpine areas with little litter accumulation. 

Crusts also have been studied in native prairies, in the sandy 

soils of Glacier Bay, AK, and even in the Antarctic.

Biological or microbiotic crusts also are referred to as 

cryptogamic, cryptobiotic, and microphytic crusts, depending 

on the type of organisms present. Biological crusts form 

when living organisms or their byproducts create a surface 

crust of soil particles bound by organic materials (figure 3–

23). In disturbed sites, look for biological soil crusts in 

fenced areas, lightly used areas under shrubs, or between 

closely spaced rocks.

Figure 3–23—This electron micrograph shows soil particles bound by the 

sheaths of micro-organisms found in biological crusts. Photo courtesy 

of the U.S. Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation 

Service. 

Biological crusts vary tremendously in thickness, 

texture, color, and in the species that form them. For example, the cyanobacteria that are dominant in arid soils form 

pinnacles up to 6 inches (150 millimeters) high (figures 3–

24a and 24b). Other soils may have moss or lichen growing 

on the surface (U.S. Department of Agriculture Natural 

Resources Conservation Service, Soil Quality Institute 1997 

and 2001b). A common pattern is for a moss or lichen crust 

to form terracettes, benches 2 to 4 inches (50 to 100 millimeters) wide that are flatter than the slope angle. Because the 

terracettes are stable when wet, they trap sediment and 

persist during rains.
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Chapter 3: The Art and Science of Restoration

Figures 3–24a and 24b—Intact biological soil crusts (top) provide many 

ecological benefits. They stabilize the soil, increase nutrient flow to plants, 

and provide safe sites for seeds to germinate (bottom).

Rocks or large plants often serve as microhabitats, 

creating safe sites for biological crusts and other plants to 

grow around or under. In evaluating the reference site, note 

such features and include them in the restoration prescription, 

if feasible. The rocks provide shelter, additional moisture 

from runoff, shade, heat, and protection from trampling.

3.1.4 Soil-Water Relations 

A soil’s ability to provide water for plant growth is 

influenced by three factors: 

• Infiltration of moisture

• Water-holding capacity 

• Overall size of the rooting volume

3.1.4a Soil Texture and Pore Size

Infiltration is governed by the size of pores in the soil. 

Healthy soils are about 50-percent open pore space. That 

space is divided into many individual pores of various sizes. 

The distribution of large and small pores determines how 

well the soil soaks up moisture and holds it for plant growth. 

Large, continuous pores allow rainwater or snowmelt to 

infiltrate into the soil. These pores are created by burrowing 

insects and worms, old root channels, and spaces between 

large soil aggregates. Small pores, on the other hand, retain 

If a biological soil crust has been broken, compressed, or 

removed because of grazing pressure or compaction (figure 

3–25), the soil is susceptible to wind and water erosion, as 

well as the formation of a physical crust. In addition, the 

biological crust loses some of its ability to fix nitrogen. If biological crusts are buried by blowing sand, they will die. Fire 

also can kill organisms that form biological crusts. For more 

information on biological soil crusts, visit the U.S. Geological Survey Canyonlands Research Station’s Web site at http://

www.soilcrust.org.

Figure 3–25—Biological soil crusts are easily damaged.
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Chapter 3: The Art and Science of Restoration

water that plants can use later. The small pores are mainly 

spaces between clay and silt particles. 

Infiltration can be improved by the formation of soil 

aggregates, which create voids between adjacent clusters of 

soil particles. Macroaggregates are 0.01- to 0.4-inch (0.25- to 

10-millimeter) groups of soil particles glued together by soil 

organic materials and fungal hyphae. Spaces between 

aggregate clusters are large enough for water to flow through. 

Gravity can pull water through pores that are as large as 

about 0.1 inch (several millimeters) or as small as about 

0.0003 inch (7 micrometers)—10 times thinner than a human 

hair. When water falls on degraded sites, it often does not 

infiltrate. Instead, the water begins to flow overland, generating erosion and transporting sediment.

3.1.4b Available Water-Holding Capacity

After water has infiltrated, the soil’s ability to hold water 

until plants use it is called the available water-holding 

capacity (AWC). This value is estimated from the maximum 

soil water capacity after a rain minus the residual water 

plants cannot withdraw from the soil. The maximum soil 

water capacity is called the field capacity, defined as the 

water content after the soil is drained by gravity after a rain. 

This amount is estimated by applying suction with a pressure 

of about –0.0142 British thermal units per pound (–33 joules 

per kilogram) of soil. This negative pressure used to be 

described as “–1⁄3 bar” (1 bar is normal atmospheric pressure). Residual water left when crop plants can no longer 

remove moisture (wilting point) is set at –0.6449 British 

thermal unit per pound (–1,500 joules per kilogram, formerly 

“–15 bar”). Some wildland plants can withdraw water to 

pressures of –2.1496 British thermal units per pound (–5,000 

joules per kilogram, formerly –50 bar).

While compost, soil aggregates, root channels, and 

animal burrows help increase infiltration of moisture into the 

soil, they have less effect on the water retained during 

droughty periods. Clay content is the primary soil characteristic that influences the amount of water retained in the soil 

during drier conditions. In such conditions, water is estimated to be held in pores 0.00001 inch (0.16 micrometer) or 

smaller (based on a hypothetical circular pore). Clay particles 

are 0.0001 inch (2 micrometers) or smaller. The spaces 

between these particles create pores of the appropriate size to 

store water that can be withdrawn by a plant during dry 

conditions. Often, wildland plants can withdraw water held in 

pores smaller than 0.000002 inch (0.05 micrometer). Because 

only clay-sized particles provide such small pores, little else 

in the soil can provide this kind of long-term moisture 

retention. 

Generally, if soil AWC was less than 10 percent, 

moisture retention was increased with organic amendment 

using yard waste components (Curtis and Claassen 2005). If 

the soil’s AWC was greater than 10 percent, net water 

availability remained about the same after amendment, 

although infiltration increased. If organic amendments are 

near the surface, however, they may dry out by evaporation 

before plants can access their stored water later in the year. 

Moisture deep in the profile is more likely to be available to 

plants during dry times. Another way to increase moisture 

availability is to increase rooting volume by decompacting 

the soil.

The distribution of pore sizes controls water relations in 

soils. The pore structure tends to be more open in the upper 

horizons compared to the lower horizons. This distribution 

occurs because organic materials that accumulate in the A 

horizon increase particle aggregation. The smaller pores in 

the clay-rich B horizon pull harder on the soil moisture, 

drawing it deep into the soil profile. When fine-textured 

substrates are on top of coarse-textured substrates (small 

pores over large pores), soil water may not percolate deeply 

into the soil. It may remain near the surface where it can 

evaporate or run off.

An example of this situation occurs in the Enchantment 

Lakes Basin of the Alpine Lakes Wilderness in Washington 

where fine-textured ash soils overlie coarser mixtures of ash 

and glacial gravels (Juelson 2001). Water is retained in the 

upper horizons, especially when the impacts of foot traffic 

cause soils to lose their structure. A potential treatment 
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Chapter 3: The Art and Science of Restoration

would be to mix soils in at least some of the areas to the 

rooting depth, increasing the amount of water deep in the soil 

profile.

3.1.4c Determining Water-Holding Capacity

Soils can be evaluated for plant available water content 

by measuring the water at field capacity, –0.0142 British 

thermal units per pound (–33 joules per kilogram), minus the 

water content at some drier condition, usually –0.6449 

British thermal units per pound (–1,500 joules per kilogram). 

This measurement, called third bar minus 15 bar water 

content, often is available through commercial soil analysis 

labs. The problem with sending in a sieved soil sample for lab 

analysis is that the process of sieving the sample to get the 

rocks out tends to fluff up the soil and increase its fieldcapacity water content. Also, the actual water content of the 

soil at the project site will be decreased if the substrate is 

compacted there. The wilting-point water content is determined mainly by the sample’s clay content. Sieving or 

processing the sample will not affect the wilting-point water 

content.

Soil additives that are intended to increase moisture 

availability must be evaluated with respect to the water 

demands of plants. Amendments that supply temporary or 

near-surface water, but do not improve general infiltration or 

increase the volume of water stored for droughty periods will 

not sustain plant communities. Soil amendments will be 

discussed in more detail in section 3.2, Making Site Amendments Based on Site Evaluations. 

3.1.5 Determining Soil Texture 

Soil particle sizes can be estimated in the field by hand 

or determined in the lab by several methods. Soil particles 

are categorized into three groups (sand, silt, and clay) that occur in various combinations. Each type of particle lends a 

distinct feel to the soil. Sand has visible, coarse grains, feels 

gritty, and does not hold together when compressed in your 

fist. Silt particles are slightly larger than clay particles and 

will feel like talcum powder when you rub moist silt between 

your fingers. Individual clay particles are not visible with the 

naked eye. When moist, clay will hold together when 

compressed in your fist (figure 3–26). Wet clay particles tend 

to stain the fingers, even when the soil has been wiped off. 

When dry, clay may be too hard for a shovel to penetrate. 

Figure 3–26—The hand test is a reasonably reliable way to determine soil 

type. An uncompressed soil sample is squeezed in the palm of the hand. 

A soil with equal influences (not volumes) of clay, silt, 

and sand is called a loam. Clay has more surface area, giving 

it more influence than its percentage of the soil’s volume 

would indicate. Loam has the benefits of all particle types. A 

native soil also may have gravel (smaller than 3 inches or 75 

millimeters), cobbles (smaller than 10 inches or 250 millimeters), stones or boulders (larger than 24 inches or 600 

millimeters) mixed in. The type of loam depends on the ratio 

of clay, silt, and sand. The different types of loam can be 

recognized in the field using techniques described in the 

following box.
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A soil’s texture has great influence on its potential to 

hold water and nutrients and to diffuse air for root growth. If 

plants require irrigation, the soil type makes a huge difference in the frequency of watering and in the amount of water 

that will be needed. Clay particles have the most surface area 

for water films. They attract the most nutrients because the 

clay minerals have a negative charge that holds positively 

charged nutrients. Because of the small pore sizes, a perpetually saturated clay soil will prevent most plant roots from 

getting enough oxygen. Organic matter, such as the cellulose 

and lignin found in decaying plant materials, and humified 

soil organic matter hold more water and nutrients than clay. 

Sand drains water and leaches nutrients away more quickly 

than any other particle type. Loam soils provide a balance of 

water, nutrients, and oxygen. 

If soil needs to be added to a restoration site, match the 

soil texture to that on the reference site. Native plants often 

are adapted to specific soil conditions, which must be 

approximated in the project design.

3.1.6 Evaluating Soil Compaction

Compaction reduces the pore space between soil 

particles, affecting the ability of water, nutrients, and air to 

penetrate the soil. Compaction impairs root growth and alters 

or eliminates the proper functions of soil micro-organisms. 

Dry soils offer more resistance to compaction than wet soils. 

Finer textured soils are compacted more easily than coarser 

soils. Volcanic ash is prone to compaction, because it has fine 

particles with a uniform particle distribution. Decomposed 

granite is prone to compaction because it has coarse particle 

size (and low pore volume) and a high silt content. Silts are 

less charged and sticky than clays, so they can plug the pores 

between the large grains. Overland flows easily wash the silty 

and fine sand particles from the soil.

Field Tests To Determine

Types of Loam

Refer to figure 1–15 for the percentages 

of clay, silt, and sand in the different types of 

loam. 

Sandy loam—Grains of sand can be 

seen readily. The damp soil will not form 

casts (the shape the soil forms when pressed 

inside the fingers and palm), but the wet soil 

forms slightly stable casts. A ribbon will not 

form when the soil is rolled between the fingers. The soil feels gritty between thumb and 

forefinger.

Loam—A few grains of sand can be 

seen. Moist casts will form, but are easy to 

break apart. Wet casts are moderately stable. 

A ribbon will not form when the soil is rolled 

between the fingers.

Silt loam—Only a very few grains of 

sand can be seen. Damp casts form and resist 

breaking apart somewhat. Wet casts are stable. When the soil is rolled between the fingers, a thick ribbon will form, but will break 

apart.

Clay loam—No grains of sand can be 

seen. Damp casts are hard and stable. Wet 

casts are stable. When the soil is rolled between the fingers, wet soil will form a thin 

ribbon, but the ribbon will break under the 

pull of gravity (unlike true clay).
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Soils with a well-developed structure, high aggregate 

stability, or ample leaf litter are less susceptible to compaction. In compacted soils, films of water bridge pores and 

block gas flow, leading to anaerobic conditions (lack of 

oxygen) that cause nitrogen to be lost through denitrification. 

Interestingly, some compaction increases the water-holding 

capacity of sandy soils.

Compaction from human use or grazing can extend 6 

inches (150 millimeters) deep, sometimes deeper. Compaction from vehicles on a well-traveled road may be 2 feet (600 

millimeters) deep or deeper. Deep layers of compaction 

interfere with the percolation of water to deep root zones, 

favoring more shallowly rooted plants, such as annual 

grasses.

Compaction is common at wilderness campsites, trails, 

or any other areas of concentrated recreational use. In areas 

with heavy snowfall, scarified restoration sites are likely to 

become recompacted under the mantle of snow, especially if 

the soil lacks ample organic material, mulch, and a mixture 

of particle sizes. 

Compare the degree of soil compaction at the restoration 

site and at the reference site by using a shovel or a tent stake 

to pierce soil layers at each site. Compaction may be obvious 

if digging is more difficult at the impacted site. Often, a 

compacted loam will become compressed into platy layers 

that are easily recognized once a shovelful of soil has been 

exposed. 

Comparing plant root penetration is also useful; if roots 

only penetrate to a certain depth at the impacted site before 

spreading out, compaction should be suspected. Roots also 

may appear to be restricted, flattened, turned, horizontal, or 

stubby at the impacted site relative to the reference site (U.S. 

Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation 

Service, Soil Quality Institute 2001f). 

Sometimes a layer of compaction forms well below the 

soil surface. For example, in an agricultural setting, a “plow 

pan” layer may form just below the reach of the plow. Water 

and roots may not be able to penetrate this layer. 

3.1.6a Measuring Bulk Density

A more scientific assessment of compaction can be made 

by using a soil penetrometer or by measuring the soil’s bulk 

density as part of a soil test. Bulk density is calculated by 

dividing the weight of the soil by its volume. Each soil 

texture has a bulk density at which root penetration may 

become restricted (table 3–2). Gravels and cobbles may 

increase bulk density weights even though the fine soils are 

not compacted. Be sure the bulk density samples are fairly 

uniform soil volumes without rocks.

Table 3–2—Bulk densities at which root growth becomes restricted. 

(Excerpted from Rangeland Soil Quality—Compaction, U.S. Department 

of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service, Soil Quality 

Institute 2001e)

Root-restricting

bulk density

oz/cubic in (gm/cubic cm)

Coarse, medium, and fine sand; 

and loamy sand, other than 

loamy very fine sand 3.12 (1.80)

Very fine sand, loamy 

very fine sand 3.07 (1.77)

Sandy loam 3.03 (1.75)

Loam, sandy clay loam 2.95 (1.70)

Clay loam 2.95 (1.70)

Sandy clay 2.77 (1.60)

Silt, silt loam 2.69 (1.55)

Silty clay loam 2.60 (1.50)

Silty clay 2.51 (1.45)

Clay 2.43 (1.40)

Texture
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soaking into the soil before it wicks down the slope. The 

infiltration rate is highest when soils are dry, well aggregated, 

and unfrozen. Soils with a high percentage of plant cover, 

root mass, and organic content have higher infiltration rates.

Other natural functions that affect infiltration include 

soil texture, clay crusts, mineral content, soil horizons, soil 

depth, organic matter, soil biota, soil structure and aggregation, biological crusts, and the presence of a water-repellent 

layer (such as from the oils of waxy vegetation). Some of 

these factors can be managed as part of a site prescription.

Infiltration is measured by how fast the water enters the 

soil (in inches or millimeters per hour). To measure the 

infiltration rate, a cylinder is partially forced into the upper 

layer of the soil, sealing the cylinder’s edges. Water is added 

to a depth of about 1 inch (25.4 millimeters) in the cylinder. 

The rate of infiltration is timed. 

Standing water can run quickly down burrows, root 

channels or cracks, indicating a high potential for infiltration. 

However, natural rainfall leaves a thinner layer of water 

across the soil, which will flow across and down the slope. A 

standing-water infiltration test can give overly high readings 

on soils with burrowing activity, old root channels, or 

shrinkage cracks. 

If the restoration site is compacted, breaking up the 

compaction will be critical to plant establishment. Breaking 

up compaction in the subsoil often helps reestablish soil 

micro-organisms, but can reduce the numbers of burrowing 

organisms, such as earthworms. 

3.1.6b Interpreting Bulk Density 

When using bulk density numbers, remember that these 

values only represent rooting restrictions in a massive soil 

(one that has no natural cleavage planes; the soil is uniformly 

dense). Massive soils occur in freshly deposited materials or 

after tillage and excavation. Soil-forming processes create 

organic films and channels, making the bulk density and 

structure of soil uneven. Bulk density values are difficult to 

apply to well-developed soils in which roots follow old root 

channels or fractures between rocks or soil aggregates, rather 

than penetrating directly through uniform soil masses. Roots 

may penetrate dense material easily if the soil has welldeveloped cracks along soil structures, as in the case of a 

very dense, clayey subsoil that has its structure intact. After 

being tilled and disrupted, the same soil may settle into a 

massive structure that plant roots cannot penetrate. 

In summary, bulk density data must be interpreted with 

regard to soil structure. When plant roots grow down to 

restricting layers and spread laterally or become stunted, the 

soil depth or compaction is limiting root growth. When roots 

find fissures and cracks and continue growing downward, 

bulk density is of secondary importance.

3.1.6c Evaluating Water Infiltration

Infiltration is the rate at which water soaks into the soil. 

Infiltration determines the amount of water that will be in the 

soil for plants, rather than being lost as overland flow. 

Infiltration is impaired on compacted soils or soils with 

physical crusts. Sometimes, deep layers of dry needles or 

duff or areas with dense root mats can keep water from 

Did You Know?

Infiltration rate is a measure of how fast water 

enters the soil. Water entering too slowly may 

lead to ponding on level fields or to erosion 

from surface runoff on sloping fields.
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Chapter 3: The Art and Science of Restoration

Procedure for Infiltration Test 

Excerpted from: Soil Quality Test Kit Guide, U.S. Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation 

Service, Soil Quality Institute 1999

Materials Needed

6-inch- (152-millimeter-) diameter ring

Plastic wrap

500-milliliter- (17-ounce-) plastic bottle or graduated cylinder

Distilled water

Stopwatch or timer

Block of wood

Hand sledge

Test Steps

Step 1—Drive the ring into the soil.

• Clear the sampling area of surface residue and other materials. If the site is covered with vegetation, trim 

the vegetation as close to the soil surface as possible.

• Using the hand sledge and a block of wood, drive the 6-inch- (about 152-millimeter-) diameter ring 

(beveled edge down) to a depth of 3 inches (about 76 millimeters, line marked on outside of ring).

Step 2—Firm the soil.

• With the 6-inch- (about 152-millimeter-) ring in place, use your finger to gently firm the soil surface (only 

around the inside edges of the ring) to prevent seepage there. Minimize disturbance to the soil surface 

inside the ring.

Step 3—Line the ring with plastic wrap.

• Line the soil surface inside the ring with a sheet of plastic wrap, completely covering the soil and ring. 

This procedure prevents disturbing the soil surface when water is added.

Step 4—Add water.

• Fill the plastic bottle or graduated cylinder with distilled water to the 15-ounce (444-milliliter) mark.

• Pour 1 inch (25.4 millimeters) of water into the ring.

Step 5—Remove the plastic wrap and record the time.

• Gently pull the plastic wrap out, leaving the water in the ring. Note the time.

• Record the time (in minutes) it takes for the 1 inch (25.4 millimeters) of water to infiltrate the soil. Stop 

timing when the soil surface is just glistening.

• If the soil surface is uneven inside the ring, count the time until half of the surface is exposed and just 

glistening.

Step 6—Repeat the infiltration test.

• In the same ring, repeat steps 3, 4, and 5. Record the number of minutes for water to infiltrate the second 

time.

The moisture content of the soil will affect the rate of infiltration. Two infiltration tests are usually performed if 

the soil is dry. The first inch of water wets the soil, and the second inch gives a better estimate of the infiltration rate.
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Chapter 3: The Art and Science of Restoration

3.2 Making Site 

Amendments Based on 

Site Evaluations

Soil treatments will improve the soil conditions so they 

came as close as possible to the reference condition. Prescriptions address needs for correcting soil organic matter, 

nutrient balance, and biota. Soil organic matter is that 

fraction of the soil composed of anything that once lived. 

Soil compaction is broken up, and missing soil horizons are 

rebuilt as much as feasible. Invasive species concerns also 

affect the types of soil treatment that might be needed.

3.2.1 Soil Organic Matter and Mulch

Mulch can form a protective layer over the soil, blocking 

the impact of raindrops and keeping the soil cooler and 

moister during the summer and warmer during the winter. 

Because of the large accumulation of litter in many undisturbed systems, organic horizons can be harvested from 

existing forest floors (by hand raking, for instance). Litter can 

be spread on the impacted site to speed regeneration. Litter 

may have to be harvested from a different location several 

years later to continue helping the treated site recover. For 

comparison, about 2,000 pounds per acre of weed-free straw 

(about 1 megagram per hectare) are applied for erosion 

control at construction sites. 

Commercial composts can also be used. Regulations on 

compost production should keep viable weed seeds from 

contaminating the site, but problems may occur. For instance, 

the edges of compost piles may harbor weed seeds; compost 

can be contaminated in trucks during transport; and weeds 

may blow in or grow on the compost pile after it has finished 

actively composting. 

Many commercial composts are screened to create a 

uniform product. While screening produces a uniform, fine 

material, the material is less resistant to erosion. Coarse, 

unscreened composts with shreds of wood around 4 to 6 

inches (100 to 150 millimeters) long are more resistant to 

erosion. Wood chips are not as good as shreds of wood; the 

chips can move because they are not long enough to intermesh. Despite these problems, composts are excellent ways to 

build mulches and soil organic matter in general. Although 

nutrient release (especially nitrogen) varies initially in 

compost and organic amendments, they do increasingly well 

in subsequent seasons, even if they are a little hot (releasing 

nutrients too quickly) or cold (releasing nutrients too slowly) 

during the first year. 

A thin layer of straw is a cost-effective way of providing 

a minimal level of erosion protection. If native grass hay can 

be used, the seed heads can help provide some seeding. 

Thicker layers (1⁄4 to 3⁄4 inch, or 6 to 19 millimeters) of straw 

help retain soil warmth and moisture but may delay seed 

germination in cooler climates. 

3.2.2 Soil Nutrients, pH, and Salts

Nutrients available for plants are derived from a number 

of sources, including organic material, atmospheric cycles, 

and the weathering of bedrock. Soil tests are designed to 

extract an amount of nutrient that is proportional to the “plant 

available” nutrient pools in the soil that are accessed by the 

plant. Each general type of nutrient is extracted by a separate 

test. The test for each type of nutrient must be interpreted 

differently, often with regard for the type of geological 

material at the site. Soil test data must be interpreted appropriately based on the type of sampling, soil type, and test 

method. Furthermore, plant growth is constrained by the 

most limiting soil condition, so an adequate level of one 

nutrient is no guarantee that all other conditions are adequate. 

Comprehensive soil tests cost between $25 and more 

than $100 per sample. They can be used to survey a site 

initially, or they can be used to track the effectiveness of an 

amendment. Often, their cost is inexpensive compared to the 

overall project costs. 

Comparative soil testing or, in some cases, plant tissue 

analysis, is the only way to determine whether the soil is 

deficient in nutrients. Soil nutrients or plant tissue from the 
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Chapter 3: The Art and Science of Restoration

restoration site are compared to samples from an undamaged 

control site. A soil lab will recommend how to correct soil 

deficiencies using fertilizers or other soil amendments. Most 

soil labs primarily service the agricultural industry, so test 

results are often geared toward remedying deficiencies of 

agricultural nutrients. Native plants tend to have much lower 

nutrient requirements. The comparative test is important 

because it allows the restorationist to compare the difference 

between undisturbed soils and soils from the impacted site. 

Even if nutrient levels appear to be low by agricultural 

standards, if plants are surviving and reproducing on the 

reference site, the nutrient level there can be assumed 

adequate for the impacted site. 

To locate a soil lab, consult with your agency soil 

scientist or call the land grant university that operates 

extension services in your State. These universities have soil 

labs and soil chemists who work directly with the public and 

with agencies. Specialized soil labs also can test for biological properties of soils, such as microbial respiration or the 

numbers of soil micro-organisms. Agricultural labs can be 

used for many important tests, but be sure to interpret the 

results with respect to wildland sites, not agricultural sites. 

The revegetated or native reference site provides the comparison that is the most representative for your project conditions. 

Your soil scientist and soil lab can tell you how to collect 

the sample. Having four replicates of soil samples provides 

more reliable results, and can show how much variation there 

is in the site. Alternatively, the samples can be mixed 

together (composited), which saves money, but will not show 

areas in the site with high or low nutrient conditions. The 

following example shows how soils are generally sampled.

1. View the whole area and divide it into parts 

with similar characteristics for sampling 

(landform, usage, plant type). For example, you 

may want to evaluate a slope in contrast to a 

basin or flood plain, or north- versus southfacing slopes. For each contrasting area of the 

site, try to identify a similar “revegetated 

reference” area that supports acceptable cover 

and diversity. Three or four replicate samples 

will show whether the measured values are 

consistent, but a single sample composited 

(mixed equally) from several samples also can 

indicate a general condition.

2. If surface horizons of organics, litter, mulch, or 

biotic crusts are important at the site, delineate 

a known area (often 9.8 or 19.6 inches [250 or 

500 millimeters] square) and harvest the 

organic layer. Organic litter can be measured by 

weight or thickness and used in a specification 

for regenerating the impacted site. The crust, if 

present, can be laid aside and reapplied after 

disturbance. Collecting from a defined area 

allows one to specify the weight or volume of 

material needed for the impacted site.

3. Dig the pit to the maximum rooting depth. This 

allows you to tell whether the pit will be 

successful (no buried boulders) and to see the 

most general aspects of the soil before details 

are evaluated. Hand-excavated pits often are 

about 11.8 inches (300 millimeters) square. 

When the pit has been dug, clean the walls that 

will be sampled. Afterward, sample the deepest 

horizon first. 

 This horizon usually has the least organic 

carbon, so it is important not to contaminate it 

with debris from the A horizon. Collect about 

17 ounces (500 milliliters) of material and note 

the relative proportion of coarse fragments as a 

percentage of fine (smaller than 0.08 inch [2 

millimeters]) soil material. Often, an estimate 

of the coarse fragments that are not put in the 

bag is combined with the sieved fractions 

(larger than 0.08 inch [2 millimeters] and 

smaller than 0.08 inch [2 millimeters]) from lab 

analysis. In this way the fine soil analysis for 

nutrients and water content can be prorated for 

soil volumes with high rock content.
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4. Next, successively sample higher horizons from 

the bottom up, so that nutrient-rich higher 

horizons are not sloughed down on lower 

horizons. Commonly, a deepest rooting horizon 

is sampled (often the C horizon) and a surface 

horizon (often the A horizon) with maximum 

nutrient content is sampled. This often works out 

to be samples from 0 to 3.9 inches (0 to 100 

millimeters), 7.9 to 11.8 inches (200 to 300 

millimeters), and 19.7 to 23.6 inches (500 to 600 

millimeters).

5. Dry the samples (within 24 hours if possible) by 

spreading them out to air dry or in an oven 

overnight. Avoid high heat (temperatures above 

113 degrees Fahrenheit, 45 degrees Celsius).

6. Ship the samples immediately in properly 

labeled sample bags or boxes. Avoid using 

generic labels, such as “Soil A,” because the lab 

(or your database) may have many such samples. 

If plant samples are collected, it is important to 

know the part of plant where the samples were 

taken. When comparing plants on the reference 

site and those on the impacted site, sample 

similar plants, and similar tissues on the plants.

7. Additional information that could help you 

interpret sample data later on includes the 

previous type of vegetation on the site, the 

species to be grown there, whether the soil was 

hard or loose, topsoil depth, the relative amount 

of roots in the soil (no roots, few roots, many 

roots), the vigor of existing vegetation, leaf color 

(dark green, light green, yellow or brown spots 

on upper or lower leaves), and previous soil 

treatments. Often, an agriculturally oriented lab 

will not be able to provide a coherent interpretation of the analysis results for a wildland site. 

You should be able to interpret the results by 

comparing samples from the reference site to 

samples from the impacted site.

8. Once you have the test results, you might use 

amendments or fertilizers to increase nutrients 

to low, but adequate, thresholds. When working 

with native plant communities, more is not 

better. Be sure the interpretations are appropriate for wildland plants, not agricultural or 

horticultural plants. See section 3.2.3d, Evaluating Soil Nutrients and Chemical Conditions.

Subsequent tests should be done at the same lab so the 

analyses are consistent. For monitoring, take soil samples at 

the same time of year under similar moisture conditions, if 

possible.

A sample site assessment field form can be found in 

appendix E, Forms. This form can be modified to meet your 

needs. 

3.2.3 Rebuilding Damaged Soils

Ideally, the restorationist will attempt to re-create the 

structure and function of the altered soil layers. The soil 

assessment evaluates soil function by identifying attributes or 

properties that have been altered, or that would impair 

reestablishment of the desired plant community. For each 

attribute that has been damaged, the restorationist identifies a 

method to ameliorate the damage. The two most important 

issues commonly limiting plant growth on drastically 

disturbed sites are water availability (based on slope structural stability, infiltration, and rooting volume) and long-term 

nitrogen release (Claassen 2002). Nutrients other than 

nitrogen can be added easily by fertilizer amendments, if 

they are needed. 

3.2.3a Scarification

In some instances, the topsoil layer is largely intact, but 

its function has been impaired by compaction. Thoroughly 

loosening the soil may reintroduce the macropores that allow 

water and air to circulate. This process, called scarification, 

is particularly helpful in making sure that germinating 

seedlings have enough water available during their first 

weeks of establishment.
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Figure 3–27—The U-bar digger is used to break up compacted soil. 

 Tilling usually is not appropriate, because it mixes and 

pulverizes the soil, destroying soil aggregates. In some soils 

the rotating tines may create a tillage compaction layer. If 

organic matter has accumulated on the site, a priority may be 

to keep the topsoil layer on top where it can serve its proper 

function rather than tilling it into deeper soil layers. Most 

wilderness and backcountry sites are decompacted by 

breaking up the soil with a shovel or garden fork without 

mixing the C horizon into the organic layers. 

Infiltration in a compacted soil may be improved with 

the incorporation of organic matter. A replacement mulch 

layer also may be a good idea. It is not entirely clear how 

important it is to keep the soil layers separate. Work by Dr. 

David Cole in the Eagle Cap Wilderness of Oregon (Cole and 

Spildie 2000) produced favorable results after various soil 

layers were mixed. Focus on patterns of water movement 

through the soil profile (no abrupt soil texture differences), 

accumulated organic matter on the surface (leave these 

valuable materials in place or replace them), and soil horizons (leave finer B horizon materials at depth and minimize 

damage to soil aggregates in the A horizon).

It may be necessary to crumble compacted soil by hand 

to break up compressed plates. The soil needs to be decompacted to the depth that plant roots need to reach (check the 

reference site for rooting depth). For highly compacted soils, 

a pick may be the tool of choice. Another tool to try in 

backcountry settings is the U-bar digger. This U-shaped tool 

has long tines at the base mounted to a crosspiece, with two 

long handles coming up the sides (figure 3–27). The operator 

steps on the crosspiece, grasps the handles, and rocks the 

tines back and forth to penetrate the soil. This works nicely 

to break up moderate compaction to just over a foot deep. 

The tool could be broken down for transport, but it is 

heavy. The tines need to be sheathed for safety if the tool is 

transported on stock. (See chapter 5, Tools of the Trade and 

Other Resources, for more information about acquiring this 

tool, a personal favorite of the author.)

Dr. Jayne Belnap cautions that desert soils may become 

more compacted after scarification, making matters worse 

(Belnap 2003). This may occur because fragile soil aggregates disintegrate when they are tilled. According to Belnap, 

it remains unclear when scarification is appropriate in a 

desert environment, so restorationists be warned! Find out 

what others have done in your area. Often, damaged soils 

must have organic matter mixed in to keep the soil open. 

Shredded wood from thinning projects could be used or 

harvested forest floor duff could be harvested and incorporated into the top 6 to 8 inches (150 to 200 millimeters) or so 

of soil. Olympic National Park uses Cocobrick, a product 

made from coconut fiber, to increase the organic content of 

soils.

3.2.3b Rebuilding Missing Layers of Soil

If the topsoil layer or deeper layers of soil are missing, as 

will be the case for eroded trails and excavated or sloping 

campsites, the task is to add one layer of soil at a time, if 

possible, being mindful of how limited each soil material 

may be in the wilderness. Soil horizons usually are added 

back when the site is being stabilized. 

Regenerating Subsoil Horizons

If part of the B horizon is missing, it is added back first. 

If possible, the goal is to match the original soil profile, 

restoring its hydrologic characteristics. Rock or gravel may 

be a component of the B horizon. If you add rock and gravel, 

mix them with soil to fill large voids and air pockets. 
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Chapter 3: The Art and Science of Restoration

Figure 3–28a—Collecting topsoil without harming wilderness lands is a 

challenge in restoration projects. Possible sources include topsoil skimmed 

from temporary ponds or topsoil salvaged when drain dips are maintained 

along trails nearby. 

topsoil completely dries out during storage, it is a valuable 

resource for restoration.

Other sources of topsoil might include soil that collects 

in drain dips along trails, soil salvaged when new drain dips 

are constructed, soil salvaged when removing the trail berm 

(also a good source of transplants), tailings scavenged from 

rodent burrows (such as marmot burrows), or soil collected 

from the roots of windthrown trees. Sometimes eroded 

topsoil can be borrowed from depressions where it has 

settled, without leaving obvious scars (figure 3–28a).

Otherwise, fine materials may settle deep into the rock fill, 

leaving surface roots exposed in the empty spaces between 

the rocks. 

In the wilderness, subsoil may be removed carefully 

from slumps on trail cutbanks, from tree wells, or from other 

areas where the mineral soil is exposed naturally. When 

borrowing soil, try to do so in a manner that will be unnoticeable and will have the least impact on the environment. In 

some soils, coarse fragments of wood or weathered rock have 

significant water-holding capacity or nutrient content and 

they should be included (Whitney and Zabowski 2004).

Regenerating Topsoil Horizons

Topsoil is added on top of the subsoil. Topsoil is best 

collected in the project location, if you can do so without 

causing unacceptable damage. Ideally, the topsoil should be 

from the same plant community you are seeking to replace 

through restoration. That soil will have similar properties to 

the soil that was lost from the disturbed site, and it will have 

the micro-organisms needed for successful restoration as 

well as the seeds of native plants. If available, clumps of 

topsoil may retain pore structure better than sieved or mixed 

topsoil.

Do not place finer textured materials, such as loams, 

over coarser textured soils, such as sands or gravels. The finer 

soils will retain more water than the coarse subsoils and will 

not allow the water to drain deep into the profile. Roots will 

tend to remain shallow and the plants will be prevented from 

developing deeper, drought-resistant root systems. If you 

cannot avoid placing fine soils over coarse soils, mix portions 

of each horizon to eliminate a clear textural boundary 

between the horizons. 

Often, the best sources of topsoil (and vegetation for 

transplanting) include soil that is salvaged during a companion project, such as trail construction or even road construction. Organisms can survive for several months in stockpiled 

topsoil. If the topsoil must be stored for longer than several 

months, a cover crop should be planted on the windrows of 

topsoil to maintain biological processes. Even if salvaged 

Regenerating Organic Horizons

Depending on the site’s characteristics, duff and plant 

litter may be added as the final surface layer. The duff will 

provide a source of nutrients as it continues to break down. 

The duff and litter also help prevent erosion and compaction 

by deflecting raindrops.
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Chapter 3: The Art and Science of Restoration

Compost (figure 3–28b) has long been a superior choice 

for home gardening and growing crops. Compost provides a 

good source of organic materials and nutrients that allows for 

a slow release of nitrogen. Compost also has many potentially beneficial soil micro-organisms.

Figure 3–28b—Compost from an urban composting facility provided organic material and nutrients for a restoration research project in the Eagle 

Cap Wilderness, OR.

Compost was used successfully in the Eagle Cap 

Wilderness in Oregon as part of a restoration research project 

(Cole and Spildie 2000). Treatments including scarification, 

planting, and soil amendments were examined separately and 

in combinations. A portion of the study compared plots 

treated with organic material to plots treated with organic 

material plus additional compost. A 1-inch- (25-millimeter-) 

layer of organic material (moistened peat moss mixed with 

well-decomposed organic matter that had been collected 

locally) was applied to both plots and mixed to a depth of 3 

inches (75 millimeters). Compost was spread 1 inch (25 

millimeters) thick, watered, and worked into the top 4 inches 

(100 millimeters) of the soil. The combination of organic 

material plus compost outperformed the other treatments, 

supporting higher seedling densities, taller seedlings, and 

more canopy cover. 

During a similar study in Montana, Zabinski and Cole 

(2000) found that adding compost benefited just one species, 

Duff may be mixed accidentally with the soil during 

planting. You can avoid this possibility by adding duff as a 

final mulch after planting is complete. Match the duff to the 

plant community you are working with. For example, if the 

restoration site is under trees, duff could be removed carefully from nearby tree clumps. Decomposing grasses, sedges, 

and forbs would be a more appropriate duff material in 

meadows. Duff often accumulates in pockets, such as in 

depressions on talus slopes, under shrubs, or in areas 

sheltered from the wind.

3.2.3c Amending Altered or Depleted Soils

If soil testing shows that the pH or nutritional content of 

a soil has been altered, the soil may require treatment or 

amendment, not just additional material. Naturally occurring 

organic material may have been stripped away, requiring 

replacement. A number of treatments are available. The best 

possible option, especially for wilderness or backcountry 

sites, is topsoiling. Topsoiling is adding a layer of surrogate 

topsoil from another source. Often the layer needs to be no 

more than a few inches thick to provide the nutrients, microorganisms, and soil functions required by locally adapted 

native plants. The organic material may be duff collected 

from areas nearby, minimizing the difficulty of hauling the 

material.

Other methods for ameliorating soil conditions include 

the addition of soil amendments or fertilizer. The term, 

“fertilizer,” refers to elemental nutrients, usually in a mix, 

that are applied to support seedling emergence after germination and to promote root penetration, shoot growth and vigor, 

and flower and seed production. Nutrients also can be added 

by using soil nutritional supplements. Typically these are 

plant, animal, or mineral materials that may contribute to the 

long-term improvement of soil structure. Balancing these 

nutrient inputs for the correct plant response is difficult and 

differs with each nutrient (see section 3.2.3d, Evaluating Soil 

Nutrients and Chemical Conditions). 

Additional sources of organic material include commercial compost, peat moss, or Cocobrick. Each source has 

advantages and disadvantages. 
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pearly everlasting (Anaphalis margaritacea). This study 

found that lack of soil moisture was more of a limiting factor 

than soil nutrients and organic matter, despite soil tests 

showing changes in soil chemistry on the disturbed site. That 

was also the case in Juelson’s study at the Enchantment Lakes 

Basin in Washington (2001).

The use of imported compost in wilderness introduces a 

dilemma—should nonnative micro-organisms be introduced 

to the wilderness environment, even if they are potentially 

beneficial? In addition, compost may introduce disease 

organisms and nonnative plant seeds.

If compost is used, it should be stored for 1 or 2 years in 

an aerobic environment such as windrows so it is thoroughly 

composted; if the compost is too hot (has too much nitrogen), 

it will withdraw nitrogen from the plants. Compost also 

should be certified and tested to be weed free, although 

weeds can still be picked up in storage or transit. Using a 

liquid compost product or making your own compost tea will 

help alleviate weed concerns, but such treatments do not add 

organic material to the soil.

Using organic matter collected on the site fulfills many 

of the same functions as compost. It provides local microbial 

inoculum and it may provide a source for sustained release of 

nitrogen. An earthy smell produced by the filamentous 

bacteria Actinomycetes suggests that other microbes are 

active as well. Inactive soils will have little or no dirt smell. 

Wetland soils may have the sulfurous smell of rotten eggs.

Peat moss is used primarily to improve moisture 

retention in wetter environments, although in drier environments it could reduce water availability compared to clay 

soils. Peat bogs are not a renewable resource on a human 

time scale and such ecosystems are at risk of being depleted. 

Coconut fiber products provide a more sustainable alternative 

and are easy to transport in their compressed form. A 

Cocobrick is about the size of a loaf of bread, and can be 

placed in a bucket of water overnight to rehydrate.

Use of Fertilizers

Fertilizers or soil amendments may be needed when the 

soil does not have the nutrients to establish the desired 

vegetation. If soils are compacted, fertilizer may make up for 

the reduced function of soil micro-organisms and the 

decreased volume of soil where roots can grow. The addition 

of fertilizer also will produce the maximum growth during 

short growing seasons (Hingston 1982).

Native plants are adapted naturally to the nutrient 

content of their native soils. Unless the topsoil layer is 

missing from a restoration site, the use of soil amendments or 

fertilizer is generally not necessary and could well be 

counterproductive. Soil nutrients are just one of many 

limiting factors. Often, another factor, such as soil moisture, 

will be the key factor limiting plant reestablishment (Chapin 

1992).

Topsoiling, mulching with organic matter that will 

rebuild the soil, establishing nitrogen-fixing native plants, 

and inoculating plants all are better options than applying 

fertilizer. If these techniques are not an option, fertilizer will 

help to establish vegetative cover initially. Fertilizer generally 

favors nitrogen-hungry grasses, sometimes at the expense of 

mid- to late-seral species, reversing the pattern of natural 

succession (Belnap and Sharpe 1995). This is especially true 

if the fertilizer is one of the common, quick-release chemical 

formulations that are highly soluble in water. 

If topsoil is completely missing, several years of ongoing 

maintenance fertilization may be required. The plants will 

continue to need fertilizer until an organic soil layer is 

reestablished through decomposition of dead plant and 

animal matter.

The potential disadvantages of fertilization include:

• Burning the roots of emerging plants with too 

much nitrogen

• Increasing the damage by grazing animals that 

are attracted to the most palatable plants

• Retarding reestablishment of soil mycorrhizal 

fungi

• Stimulating weeds at the expense of native 

plants
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• Creating a nutrient pulse that is rapidly leached 

away

• Disrupting the function of soil micro-organisms

• Artificially supporting plants without rebuilding 

soil structure

Arid lands are particularly prone to weed infestations. 

Restorationists should maintain low soil nutrient levels that 

approximate the natural condition. In a bunchgrass community, Belnap and Sharpe (1995) applied sugar at the rate of 

200 pounds per acre (224 kilograms per hectare) to stimulate 

soil micro-organisms that would tie up soil nitrogen, discouraging the establishment of grasses and weeds while benefiting shrubs.

Overfertilization can cause adjacent water bodies to 

become eutrophic (rich in nutrients, but possibly poor in 

oxygen). Surface runoff also can carry fertilizer downslope, 

where it may be undesirable. Over time, chemical fertilizers 

leave a buildup of byproducts, including salts and heavy 

metals that may be toxic. Such problems are unlikely at 

wildland sites, given the low rates of application.

Fertilization is used extensively during reclamation of 

strip mines, where topsoil is missing from large acreages. In 

other cases, fertilization is used to increase forage for 

grazing.

Large-scale restorations tend to use synthetic fertilizers 

or sewage sludge to provide missing nutrients. In addition, 

they sometimes incorporate vegetative matter into the soil. 

Chemical fertilizers tend to weigh less than organic fertilizers, reducing the problem of transporting them. If chemical 

fertilizers are used, a slow-release formulation is preferred, 

especially for projects in arid lands where excess nitrogen 

will stimulate weeds. Fertilizers with chelated nutrients don’t 

leach through the soil as quickly as other fertilizers.

Organic fertilizers may be made from plant materials, 

animal materials, or crushed minerals. Organic fertilizers 

tend to release nutrients at a slow rate, but some may do so 

too slowly for plants. The nutrients last longer in the soil, are 

taken up as the plants need nutrients, and with the exception 

of manure or urea, are less likely to pollute nearby water 

sources. Soil labs generally report suggestions for using 

chemical fertilizers. If you are interested in using organic 

fertilizers, select a suitable soil lab that will work with you, 

such as a lab that works with organic growers.

The respective amounts of the macronutrients in 

fertilizers are expressed as percentages of nitrogen (N), 

phosphorus pentoxide (P2O5), and potassium oxide (K2O). 

For example, a 20–10–5 formulation is 20-percent nitrogen, 

10-percent phosphorus pentoxide, and 5-percent potassium 

oxide. Often, the fertilizer formulation is expressed simply as 

N–P–K. For instance, someone may say “The N–P–K 

content is 16–48–0.” The percentage of elemental phosphorus in phosphorus pentoxide is calculated as the percentage 

of phosphorus pentoxide multiplied by 0.43. The percentage 

of elemental potassium is calculated as the percentage of 

potassium oxide multiplied by 0.83 (Redente 1993).

Chemical or organic fertilizers can be used as an interim 

solution to make up for the lack of nutrients. An agricultural 

supply company can help calculate an amendment prescription if the soil scientist on your team is not accustomed to 

working with soil amendments. Agricultural resources are 

listed in chapter 5, Tools of the Trade and Other Resources. 

You may also ask your local county extension agent or one of 

the increasing number of restoration-oriented consulting 

companies for suggestions.

3.2.3d Evaluating Soil Nutrients and 

Chemical Conditions

Soil tests use various laboratory extracts to estimate the 

amount of a particular nutrient that would be available to 

plants for some estimated period of growth. There are many 

different soil tests with many different interpretations—don’t 

take test results literally. Also, wildland plants tend to have 

lower nutrient requirements and to need the nutrients longer 

than agricultural plants. Unfortunately, most soil tests were 

developed for agricultural systems. Always ask yourself what 

type of test is being used for a given nutrient and what an 

appropriate value would be for the field site. Some indicators 

of appropriate values can come from the vegetated reference 
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site or from low-input managed systems like unimproved pastures or forests. 

Soil nutrient evaluation has two steps: correlation and 

calibration. Correlation is the process of relating the results 

from the soil nutrient tests to the plant’s response. Tests from 

an area on the reference site that has adequate plant growth 

can help indicate when nutrient levels are sufficient. Calibration is the process of specifying the amount of amendment 

needed for plant growth goals. Calibration requires knowing 

how much amendment is needed, if any, to bring the soil test 

results to an acceptable level. 

Work with a soil scientist to learn how much amendment 

is needed, or establish several small field trials with low, 

medium, and high amounts of amendment. The plants’ 

responses will tell you the correct amount of amendment. As 

you read through the following sections on various nutrients 

or soil conditions, keep the two steps in mind: 

• What is the relationship between adequate plant 

growth and soil test results (correlation)?

• What amount of amendment would correct the 

problem and how long would it be needed 

(calibration)?

Soil Reaction (pH)

Soil pH is a measurement of acidity or alkalinity. A pH 

of 7.0 is neutral. Acidity increases exponentially below pH 

7.0, while alkalinity increases exponentially above pH 7.0. 

Most soils have a pH between 5.0 and 7.5. Natural soils may 

lack certain nutrients or have tendencies to be alkaline or 

acidic. Often the native flora is adapted to these conditions 

and no correction is necessary. For example, a peat bog might 

have a pH of about 4.0, while an alkaline flat might have a 

pH of about 8.5. Soil tests also will address any toxicity 

issues and measure the soil’s cation exchange capacity 

(CEC), which affects how readily plants take up nutrients. 

The pH level tells how acid or alkaline a soil is, but it 

does not tell how much amendment is needed. For example, 

the pH of a cranberry may be equal to that of a grapefruit, 

but it will take much more antacid to neutralize all the acid in 

a grapefruit than in a cranberry. Consider having a soil 

scientist conduct buffering and neutralization tests to help 

estimate the amount of amendment that is needed or you can 

conduct field trials using several levels of lime (for excessively acid situations) or sulfur (for excessively alkaline 

situations) amendments. These amendments may take several 

months, or a wet season, to work. At an abandoned mine, 

acid mine drainage may neutralize even large amendments of 

lime and the soil eventually will become more acidic. On the 

other hand, the small amount of acidity in litter added as a 

duff layer usually will be neutralized by the soil or by 

decomposition.

Nitrogen (N) 

Nitrogen is an essential nutrient element that forms a 

major component of plant proteins. Proteins form enzymes 

that help the plant grow, produce chemicals that make the 

plant unpalatable, produce viable seed, and perform other 

vital functions. Nitrogen availability increases root growth, 

enhancing the absorption of phosphorus, potassium, and 

other nutrients (Hingston 1982). 

Nitrogen in Plants

Plants that have too little nitrogen grow poorly and may 

be too weak to survive drought or grazing. Their leaves may 

turn yellow or purple and drop early. 

On substrates that are very deficient in nutrients, small 

nitrogen amendments may improve plant health and size and 

increase nitrogen fixation. On the other hand, if too much 

nitrogen is added to soils, weeds may find it easier to invade 

plant communities. Large amounts of additional nitrogen 

may decrease the ability of nitrogen-fixing plants to form the 

nodules where fixation takes place.

Often, nitrogen is added at seeding, but excess nitrogen 

(particularly from quick-release chemical fertilizers) can 

burn the roots of seedlings as they germinate. Too much 

nitrogen can reduce root growth and can prolong the vegetative growth phase, delaying the start of flowering and 
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seeding. In addition, too much nitrogen may increase the 

succulent growth that attracts grazing animals. 

At many sites, no additional nitrogen is needed. If 

nitrogen appears to be deficient, try to keep amendments at 

the low end of the scale. Because plants take several seasons 

to complete root growth, the most beneficial scheme for 

regenerating wildlands plants on low-nutrient, drastically 

disturbed sites is to provide low levels of available nitrogen 

for several years until the plant community is fully reestablished. 

Nitrogen in the Soil

Nitrogen is found in soils either in inorganic or organic 

forms. The inorganic (mineral) forms can be highly soluble 

and mobile. In the form of ammonia (NH3), nitrogen volatilizes readily from alkaline soils back into the atmosphere. In 

the form of nitrate (NO3–), nitrogen leaches readily into the 

ground water. In neutral to acid soils, nitrogen often is in the 

ammonium form (NH4+) that is held by the negative charge 

on the surface of mineral and organic matter. Bacteria get 

energy by oxidizing ammonium to nitrate, so the ammonium 

form may not last long in the soil.

When soil is waterlogged, bacteria can convert nitrate to 

N2 gas (the original atmospheric form), in which case the 

fertilizer or mineralized nitrogen is lost from the “plant 

available” pool. Regenerating soil nitrogen pools on disturbed sites involves preventing nitrogen from being lost and 

re-creating some approximation of the nitrogen cycles that 

existed on the site before disturbance. 

Typically, wildland systems have very large pools of 

humified soil organic matter, of which only 1 to 2 percent are 

decomposed (mineralized) each year. The amount of nitrogen 

in inorganic (mineral) forms at any one time is small.

For example, the oak/annual grass savanna of northern 

California has 2,605 pounds of total nitrogen per acre (2,920 

kilograms of total nitrogen per hectare), of which 51 pounds 

per acre (57 kilograms per hectare) is mineralized each year 

through decomposition (Jackson and others 1988). Only 2.05 

pounds of nitrogen per acre (2.3 kilograms of nitrogen per 

hectare) is in the inorganic forms (ammonium and nitrate) 

that are extracted by standard soil analysis tests.

In the Lake Tahoe Basin white fir forest, an average of 

1,095 pounds of total nitrogen per acre (1,228 kilograms of 

total nitrogen per hectare) accumulated in the soil organic 

matter, with 23 pounds of nitrogen per acre (26 kilograms of 

nitrogen per hectare) being released by mineralization each 

year (Claassen and Hogan 2002). Less than 4.5 pounds of 

nitrogen per acre (5 kilograms of nitrogen per hectare) were 

extracted by standard soil analysis tests.

Many other examples of organic matter pools in wildland soils are reviewed in Claassen and Hogan (1998). The 

pool of total nitrogen is in the low thousands of pounds of 

nitrogen per acre (or kilograms of nitrogen per hectare), 

while the mineralizable form that is available for plant 

growth is about 1 to 2 percent of the total nitrogen—tens of 

pounds of nitrogen per acre (or kilograms of nitrogen per 

hectare). The small, variable amount of inorganic nitrogen 

(ammonium or nitrate) has little bearing on predicting plant 

growth, except on undisturbed sites. 

Sources of Nitrogen for Soil Amendments

The most foolproof way to regenerate soil nitrogen pools 

is to bring in topsoil that similar in quality and quantity to 

the topsoil that had been on the site originally. Using topsoil 

provides a sustainable long-term source of nitrogen complete 

with soil micro-organisms (Redente 1993), seeds, and 

possibly plant rhizomes. The nitrogen pools in topsoil are 

large enough to allow plant growth to regenerate after 

repeated disturbances such as grazing, fire, or plant disease. 

However, if just 1 percent of the total nitrogen is being 

mineralized each year, several thousand pounds of nitrogen 

will be needed per acre (or kilograms of total nitrogen per 

hectare), requiring applications of about 8 to 12 inches (200 

to 300 millimeters) of topsoil, depending on the amount of 

organic matter in the topsoil. It may be cost prohibitive or 

logistically infeasible to provide this much topsoil. 
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An alternative, less intensive approach would be to 

provide the nitrogen needed for the plant community to 

regrow. The plant community will need several years to fully 

establish, meaning that nutrients need to be available for 2 or 

3 years after amendment. Most chemical fertilizers are very 

soluble, ensuring that the crop or lawn gets quick access to 

the complete dose of nutrients. If standard chemical fertilizers were used for wildland restoration, much of the fertility 

intended for the second and third year of plant growth would 

leach away or be used to grow weeds.

Chemical coatings can slow the release of nitrogen. 

Fertilizer prills with polyurethane coatings are more likely to 

survive application by hydroseeding than sulfur- or resincoated prills. Once weaker coatings break apart, the fertilizer 

is released just as fast as it would have been without the 

coating.

Synthetic nitrogen fertilizers come in the form of urea 

and ammonium nitrate, both derived from petroleum 

products. Urea is less expensive. Its disadvantage is that it is 

converted to nitrogen gas rapidly, leaches quickly, and is 

toxic to some plants. To compensate for the amount lost as 

gas, twice as much urea must be applied as would be indicated otherwise, and it should be applied on a cool, humid 

day. Ammonium nitrate is taken up more readily by plants, 

and is more effective in cold or very wet soils (Hingston 

1982; Potash and Aubry 1997).

Higher availability may be more important in cold or 

very wet soils (Hingston 1982; Potash and Aubry 1997). Even 

the “slow release” chemical fertilizer formulations release 

nitrogen more quickly than does organic matter in topsoil. 

The ratio of decomposable carbon to decomposable 

nitrogen determines the rate of nitrogen release from organic 

materials. As microbes decompose carbon in organic matter, 

their populations grow and they need to incorporate nitrogen 

to build their biomass. If the ratio of carbon to nitrogen is 

about 20, microbial populations grow smoothly. But when the 

carbon-to-nitrogen ratio is higher than 25, microbes take up 

the majority of the available nitrogen, a process called 

immobilization. Because plants are less efficient at taking up 

nitrogen than microbes, plants will be left with access to too 

little nitrogen.

Eventually, microbes use up the carbon source. As the 

microbes decline, more nitrogen becomes available. In 

contrast, organic amendments with a low carbon-to-nitrogen 

ratio can support microbial growth and release some of the 

extra nitrogen, a process called mineralization.

Woody materials may have a carbon-to-nitrogen ratio of 

100 or more, so they tend to immobilize nitrogen in the 

surrounding area. A dead insect or rodent, on the other hand, 

has a carbon-to-nitrogen ratio of 5 to 10, so as the carbon 

decomposes, abundant nitrogen is available to be released, or 

mineralized. 

Materials C:N Ratio

Alfalfa hay 13:1

Seaweed 19:1

Rotten manure 20:1

Apple pomace* 21:1

Leaves 40–80:1

Oat straw 24:1

Wheat straw 80:1

Paper 170:1

Decayed hemlock 200:1

Sawdust 400:1

Fresh hemlock 500:1

The Carbon-to-Nitrogen (C:N) Ratios

of Selected Materials

(Haydon 1991; Martin and Gershuny 1992)

*Pulp after juice has been squeezed
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Organic soil amendments have a range of release rates 

(Claassen and Carey 2004) depending on their carbon-tonitrogen ratios and on their stage of decomposition. Some 

organic materials release nitrogen as quickly as chemical 

fertilizers and others barely release nitrogen. Several agricultural byproducts are available that release a third to half of 

the total nitrogen content initially, then release the rest more 

slowly. For instance, a product called Biosol is made from the 

remains of microbes used to produce pharmaceuticals. It 

probably decomposes in much the same way that dead 

microbes decompose in the soil. 

Sources of nitrogen-rich organic amendments include 

compost and well-composted manure, but take care to find a 

quality source. Clopyralid, an ingredient of commercial 

herbicides such as Transline, Stinger, and Reclaim, can be 

present in compost and manure for a year—even longer under 

anaerobic conditions. Be wary of sewage sludge, which can 

have toxins (including heavy metals), and of cottonseed meal, 

which can have pesticide residues. Less toxic sources of 

nitrogen include blood meal, canola meal, and some types of 

vegetative residue.

Yard waste composts provide a long-term release of 

nitrogen similar to that of topsoil (Claassen and Carey 2004). 

The fibrous materials in the composts also improve surface 

infiltration of rainwater. 

Biological nitrogen fixation occurs when free-living soil 

bacteria and algae fix atmospheric nitrogen. This mechanism 

can fix up to 50 pounds of nitrogen per acre (56 kilograms 

per hectare) per year, although a sagebrush community that 

has very few nitrogen-fixing plants may fix just 2 pounds of 

nitrogen per acre (2.24 kilograms per hectare) per year. 

Ceanothus in northern Oregon fixed 9.8 pounds of nitrogen 

per acre (11 kilograms per hectare) per year (McNabb and 

others 1979). Red alder fixed 50 to 300 pounds of nitrogen 

per acre (56 to 336 kilograms of nitrogen per hectare) per 

year (Miller and others 1989). 

Nitrogen fixation requires a lot of energy. Plants that are 

struggling to survive cannot be expected to fix much nitrogen. They may even deplete nitrogen in the soil as they 

attempt to become established (Harvey and others 1989). On 

drastically disturbed sites, a small amendment of nitrogen 

may have to be added to get the nitrogen fixation system 

functioning.

Falling rain collects nitrogen compounds from the 

atmosphere that become available to plants as the rain 

percolates into the soil. Volcanoes, forest fires, and industrial 

emissions contribute ammonium to the atmosphere. Nitrate 

(NO3) is formed in the atmosphere by electrical discharge 

during thunderstorms, by ultraviolet light, and in coastal 

areas by saltwater that evaporates and suspends salts in the 

air (figure 3–29). For semiarid regions unaffected by air 

pollution, the nitrogen input from thunderstorms is estimated 

at 2 pounds per acre (2.24 kilograms per hectare) per year 

(Redente 1993; Salisbury and Ross 1978).

In many conditions, no nitrogen amendment may be 

necessary. On small disturbed patches (trails, a single 

campsite) enough nitrogen may be available in the soil for 

plant growth. In areas downwind from metropolitan areas, 

atmospheric deposition may provide enough nitrogen. In 

disturbed areas that still retain some of the preexisting 

topsoil, tilling may allow enough nitrogen to be mineralized 

for the plant community to regenerate. Nevertheless, the 

more a site has been disturbed, the more likely that soil 

organic matter levels are low and that long-term supplies of 

nitrogen are insufficient for plant growth and community 

development.

The trick for appropriate amendment with fertilizers or 

soil amendments is to estimate the amount of nitrogen 

needed for each of the first two or three growing seasons. Not 

only do plants use nitrogen to produce roots and shoots each 

year, but some nitrogen will end up in plant litter, residual 

soil organic matter, woody stems, and the microbial community. Given the wide range of ecosystems, the amount of 

nitrogen any particular ecosystem requires may vary widely. 

When a site is restored, nitrogen amendments will be needed 

for each of the first several years until the various components of the plant community have regenerated. 
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Atmospheric 

nitrogen N2

Ammonia

NH3

Nitrification

NH4

+, NO3–

Rain

The Nitrogen Cycle

Nitrification

NH4

+

Dead plants and

animals, manure

Fossil fuels

Ion

uptake

Ion

uptake

Cyclic

salts

Industrial

burning,

gasoline

engines

Fertilizer

Denitrification

Ammonification

Atmospheric 

nitrous

oxide

N2O

N2,N2O

H2O table

NO3

–

Leaching

Nitrates

NO2

–

O2

Figure 3–29—The nitrogen cycle.

Testing for Soil Nitrogen

Testing soils for relevant pools of plant-available soil 

nitrogen is difficult. Commercial soil tests are easily obtained 

for total nitrogen and for extractable nitrogen. The total 

nitrogen tests are called total elemental nitrogen analyses or 

if an acid digest is used, Kjeldhal nitrogen tests. These tests 

measure the total amount of nitrogen in the sample, including 

nitrogen that is not available to plants. 

The extractable nitrogen tests are called potassium 

chloride (KCl) extracts or acetate salt extracts. These tests 

measure only the ammonium or nitrate that is in the soil solution being tested or that is held on the soil surfaces, a very 

small pool. 

For an existing topsoil, nitrogen mineralization is steady 

enough that a quick test of extractable nitrogen will show that 

the process is active (1 to 10 parts per million extractable 

nitrogen) and that there is enough total nitrogen to keep it 

going for several decades. Any time the soil is disturbed or 

large amounts of amendment are added, it is difficult to know 
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how much nitrogen is being produced and how long it will last. 

Sites with no vegetative cover can accumulate nitrate 

from rainwater for a decade or so. Soil tests will detect 

adequate levels of nitrate and predict that corn can be grown. 

However, because these sites may have no organic matter 

(measured by total nitrogen and total carbon), the small pool 

of extractable nitrogen cannot be replaced once it is taken up 

by plants, probably within the first month of growth. Plant 

growth on the site would be short lived. 

Until tests are available for intermediate- and long-term 

nitrogen availability, determining how to evaluate and amend 

soils depends more on empirical experience or field test plots 

than on laboratory tests. 

Phosphorus (P)

A lack of phosphorus is the second most common soil 

deficiency, especially on arid lands. Phosphorus is lost 

through erosion of mineral and organic sediments. In contrast 

to nitrogen, phosphorus is immobile and insoluble in the soil. 

Overapplication of phosphorus is not toxic to plants, but may 

reduce colonization by mycorrhizae. Because of its immobility, phosphorus is not prone to leaching and must be amended 

into the plant’s root zone (an area extending not only under 

the plant’s canopy, but half the canopy’s width beyond the 

canopy).

Phosphorus stimulates root growth, which is very 

important for seedlings. It also promotes maturity, including 

seed production. Phosphorus strengthens stems, helps the 

plants absorb nutrients, and increases disease resistance. 

Plants that are deficient in phosphorus may be stunted. 

Seedlings may have purplish foliage (Hingston 1982; Redente 

1993).

Phosphorus is present in many compound fertilizers, 

including ammonium nitrate-phosphate (23–23–0) and 

ammonium phosphate (11–48–0). If only phosphorus is 

needed, triple superphosphate fertilizer (0–46–0) is the 

common choice. This formulation also contains sulfur and 

calcium (Hingston 1982; Redente 1993).

Organic amendments containing phosphorus include 

rock phosphate, basic slag, bonemeal, bloodmeal, cottonseed 

meal, and activated sludge. All these are applied at three to 

four times the rate of triple superphosphate (Rodale 1961). 

Because these amendments also may have significant 

amounts of nitrogen, be sure to balance these two elements in 

your amendment design. Steamed bonemeal and pelletized 

rock phosphate (with a lignosulphate binder) are reputed to 

be the best source of organic phosphorus (IFM 1995). Tilling 

in legumes as a green manure also will add phosphorus 

(Rodale 1961).

In clayey soils, the soluble phosphorus in fertilizer will 

eventually bind with clay particles, making it unavailable to 

plants temporarily. Cold soils tend to inhibit the absorption of 

phosphorus.

Legumes have a high phosphorus demand. Ample 

supplies of phosphorus will stimulate nitrogen fixation in 

legumes.

Soil tests are used to judge when to amend phosphorus. 

The extracts are generally different for acid soils than for 

neutral or alkaline soils, and have different minimum 

thresholds indicating when an amendment might be needed. 

Generally, extract levels less than 10 parts per million (or 

about 15 parts per million for acid extracts) may be low 

enough that a phosphorus amendment could help plants grow. 

Soil conditions may change the amount of phosphorus that 

might need to be added. Reddish soils (that are coated with 

oxides), clayey soils (that have a lot of surface area), or 

volcanic soils (that have reactive minerals) generally bind 

phosphorus, so they require more phosphorus when they are 

amended.

Composted organic matter or duff will have phosphorus 

in organic forms that will not fix onto surface soils as rapidly. 

Amendment of 110 to 220 pounds of phosphorus per acre (50 

to 100 kilograms of phosphorus per hectare) in southern pine 

plantations has increased plant growth. In the Northwest, 

however, soils have higher amounts of ambient phosphorus, 

and their potential for fixing added phosphorus (so it can’t 

leach through the soil) is huge. For this reason, plant response 

to phosphorus amendment in the Northwest is erratic and the 

effect of the amendment is unlikely to last for long (Powers 

1989).
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Potassium (K)

Potassium (K), also called potash, is taken up in large 

quantities by plants. It helps plants pull water from the soil, is 

used in many enzymes, improves seed viability, and strengthens the stem. Potassium promotes photosynthesis, root 

development, plant vigor, and growth, and maturation of 

flowers, fruits, and seeds. Potassium also increases winter 

hardiness in legumes (Hingston 1982; Redente 1993). Signs 

of potassium deficiencies in plants can include dull, bluishgreen leaves with yellowing between veins, which progresses 

to browning leaf tips and spots or patches of discoloration. 

Older leaves may have rolled edges that appear to have been 

scorched.

Because potassium is common in minerals, it is less 

likely to be deficient in the soil than nitrogen or phosphorus. 

Its availability can be limited in coarse soils. Potassium is 

more mobile than phosphorus. Leaching generally is not a 

concern unless soils are sandy or prone to flooding. Potassium is most effective if it is incorporated into the root zone.

Potassium is taken up by waterflow into the plant’s roots 

along with other cations (calcium, magnesium, sodium). The 

ratio of potassium to other cations should not be too low (less 

than 1 percent of the soil’s cation exchange capacity), or too 

little potassium will be taken up. So, the extracted amount of 

potassium (usually around 100 parts per million or more in 

the soil extract) is less important than the minimum ratio of 

the different cations on the soil surface. In soils that are 

alkaline, calcium interferes with potassium absorption. 

Synthetic potassium fertilizer is commonly available as 

potassium chloride, also called muriate of potash (0–0–60). 

Potassium also is available in compound fertilizers (those 

that include a range of nutrients).

Organic amendments used to increase potassium in the 

soil include kelp, manure, plant composts, granite dust, 

greensand, basalt rock, wood ash, and hay. Kelp is especially 

high in potassium and also is rich in trace elements. Leaves, 

canola meal, and bonemeal have less potassium (IFM 1995; 

Rodale 1961). Potassium is abundant but balanced in plantbased organic matter amendments such as litter and compost, 

so applying too much amendment is not a problem as it might 

be in the case of other nutrients.

Calcium (Ca)

Calcium is a component of most rock minerals, plant 

biomass, and lime. It may be lacking in soils that have 

become acidified, such as mining spoils. Calcium can be 

used to increase the pH of the soil, and it stimulates microorganisms.

Calcium helps plants form cell walls and helps shoots to 

grow. Calcium (in the form of bonemeal) has long been used 

as a supplement for plants that grow from bulbs. Calcium 

increases the availability of phosphorus and decreases the 

uptake of iron, aluminum, and manganese, which can be 

present in toxic levels in acid soils.

The symptoms of calcium deficiencies include terminal 

buds that may fail to develop and leaves that may be distorted 

by appearing to be rolled forward along the margins or rolled 

backward toward the underside of the leaves. The edges of 

the leaves may show yellow bands or they may appear to have 

been scorched.

Some acid-loving species, such as blueberries and 

cranberries, cannot tolerate calcium.

Often calcium is amended to increase the soil’s pH. 

Ground calcium carbonate, also called limestone flour, is a 

good choice if magnesium does not need to be supplemented. 

Calcium carbonate is one of the safer forms of calcium and is 

released into the soil more slowly than some other lime 

amendments. Ground dolomite lime (a blend of magnesium 

and calcium carbonates) should be used only if magnesium 

needs to be supplemented. If altering the soil pH is undesirable, gypsum makes an excellent calcium amendment. It 

contains 23 percent available calcium and 18 percent sulfur. 

Gypsum is a common amendment on clayey soils where it 

loosens the cohesion of the clay particles, making the soil 

more workable (IFM 1995).
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Magnesium (Mg)

Magnesium occurs naturally in limestone formations. 

Magnesium plays a role in the formation of chlorophyll, aids 

in the assimilation of phosphorus, and regulates respiration. 

Plants with magnesium deficiencies may be discolored 

between the veins of older leaves or may have yellow leaves 

with brilliant tints (before the leaves drop). Grasses with 

magnesium deficiencies may be dwarfed and may have leaves 

with yellow stripes between the veins.

If the soil’s pH does not need to be changed, magnesium 

sulfate is the best supplement to correct a magnesium 

deficiency. In acid soils, ground dolomite lime is good.

Sulfur (S)

Sulfur is fixed into the soil from the atmosphere. 

However, soils may still be lacking in sulfur. Soil tests for 

sulfur are not very accurate, so the results are approximate. 

The levels of sulfur on the reference site may be the best 

indicator of the levels needed by plants at the restoration site.

Sulfur stimulates root growth, chlorophyll production, 

seed production, and the formation of root nodules on 

legumes, which need more sulfur than grasses. Plants convert 

sulfur into proteins and amino acids. 

Sulfur deficiencies observed in plants include leaves that 

turn light green, then yellow; plants that are small and 

spindly; and seed that matures late. In legumes, nodule 

formation is reduced.

Synthetic sulfur is found in compound fertilizers and is 

available as elemental sulfur, a byproduct of the petroleum 

industry. Highly basic soils are treated with the addition of 

elemental sulfur and certain bacteria (probably already 

present at the site), which form sulfuric acid, a process that 

may take many months.

If the soil needs to be acidified, pelletized sulfur may be 

used as an amendment. Otherwise, gypsum or K-mag can be 

used. K-mag contains 27-percent sulfur, 22-percent potassium, and 11-percent magnesium (IFM 1995). 

3.2.4 Application of Fertilizers or Soil 

Amendments

With most restoration projects, fertilizer is added during 

seeding—generally in the fall. However, this timing is for 

convenience and cost savings. If the fertilizers are very 

soluble, they will burn the germinating plant roots. A better 

approach is to fertilize the seedlings once true leaves have 

appeared on them, but this requires tilling in the fertilizer 

and may require a separate trip to the site. With this approach, nitrogen is sure to be available when it is needed. 

Otherwise, it may have leached away before the seedlings 

need it.

Fertilizer can be broadcast with a spreader—a hand 

operated “belly grinder.” Fertilizer should not be placed 

directly into planting holes unless the fertilizer is a slowrelease formulation. Several formulations of “tea bag” 

fertilizers are easily dropped into planting holes.

Treating Saline Sites

In theory, if a soil is naturally saline, the native plants 

already are adapted to saline conditions. But salts can build 

up in the soil unnaturally because of irrigation with saline 

water, excessive use of fertilizers, or even because hunters or 

herders have placed salt blocks. If you notice a salty white 

crust on the soil, your site may be saline. These conditions 

typically occur in arid regions and in low-lying areas such as 

basins and playas.

Two issues arise with saline soils. The initial challenge is 

to discourage stock or wildlife from pawing and eating salty 

soil, which is not helpful when you’re trying to reestablish 

native vegetation. In addition, if the salinity level is very 

high, the soil may be toxic to native plants. The best way to 

determine whether salinity levels may be too high is to work 

with a soil scientist.

Salinity can be reduced by flushing soils with copious 

quantities of water, or by treating soils with gypsum before 

flushing them. Wildlife or stock disturbance on saline soils 

can be reduced by reducing salinity or by using a fence or 

lots of logs to block access to the salty area. If human 
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Chapter 3: The Art and Science of Restoration

activities have hindered soil drainage, improved drainage 

also should be considered.

Some salt crusts are relatively mild, such as those 

indicated by frost-like white crusts left on pine needle litter 

in Yosemite National Park, CA, after rainwater pools 

evaporate. If the site is at high elevations or is not in an area 

with sedimentary rocks, salts are unlikely to be a problem.

Interpreting Soil Test Results

The soil test results in table 3–4 show comparisons of 

soil test results at restoration site and a revegetated reference 

site. 

Soil nutrient levels should be evaluated with respect to 

wildland conditions. Because data on adequate nutrient levels 

at wildland sites are scarce, a comparison to an undisturbed 

reference site is valuable. Many of the soil tests are standard 

agricultural tests, so a large data set is available from 

agricultural and forestry experiments. If plants survive on 

your reference site, nutrient levels from that site are more 

meaningful than levels from agricultural fields. 

The pH of the soil in the Enchantment Lakes Basin is 

less acidic (pH 5.5) at the disturbed site than at the undisturbed site (pH 4.6). Both soils are acidic, but plants adapted 

to acidic soils can live there. The subsoil at both the disturbed and undisturbed sites was less acidic (pH of 5.8 at the 

 Test Disturbed site Undisturbed site

Potassium 52.5 ppm 94.0 ppm

Potassium saturation of CEC 1.3% 2.0%

Calcium 151 ppm 256 ppm

Calcium saturation of CEC 3.8% 5.4%

Magnesium 7.0 ppm 24.3 ppm

Calcium/Magnesium ratio 13:1 6:1

Sodium 26.7 ppm 17.0 ppm

Sum of exchangeable bases 1.06 meq per 3.5 oz (100 gm) 1.79 meq per 3.5 oz (100 gm)

CEC 10.0 meq per 3.5 oz (100 gm) 11.9 meq per 3.5 oz (100 gm)

pH 5.5 4.6

Lime required for neutralization 6.0 tons per acre (2.7 metric tons per hectare) 15 tons per acre (6.7 metric tons per hectare)

Soluble salts (1.7 millimhos per millimeter) (1.4 millimhos per millimeter)

Phosphorus 10.7 ppm 18.7 ppm

Boron < 0.05 ppm 0.27 ppm

Organic matter 4.8% 9.8%

Estimated nitrogen release 140 lb (63.5 kg) 290 lb (131.5 kg)

(agricultural fields)

Nitrate < 0.4 ppm per 2 lb (0.91 kg) < 0.4 ppm per 2 lb (0.91 kg)

Table 3–4—An example of results from a comparative soil analysis test of the A2 soil horizon in the Enchantment Lakes Basin of the Alpine Lakes Wilderness, WA (Juelson 2001). CEC stands for cation exchange capacity; ppm stands for parts per million; meq stands for milligram equivalents.
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disturbed site and 5.5 at the undisturbed site) than the soil. 

Because soil is more acidic on the well-vegetated undisturbed 

site, acidic conditions at the disturbed site probably are not 

the cause of poor plant growth. 

The CEC (cation exchange capacity) indicates how well 

the soil can retain nutrient cations. It is moderate at both 

sites, but is 20 percent lower at the disturbed site. The 

proportion of nutrient (base) cations is a very low proportion 

of the CEC. Typically, the proportion of base cations would 

be more than 50 percent of the CEC. The undisturbed site 

also has a low proportion of base cations, but it is nearly 

twice that of the disturbed site. The general numerical picture 

is of a nutrient-stressed site. The salinity of the soil is very 

low, as would be expected at a high-elevation site where 

abundant precipitation leaches salt from the soil.

Specific nutrient analyses include potassium, calcium, 

magnesium, and phosphorus. Potassium occupies 1.3 

(disturbed site) and 2.0 percent (undisturbed site) of the CEC 

(calculations not shown), which approaches values for poor 

agricultural soil. Calcium is very low at 3.8 and 5.4 percent 

of the CEC. Values over 50 percent would be expected, but 

the vegetated reference site is also low. One could speculate 

that the overlying organic layer (present on the undisturbed 

site but missing from the disturbed site) is a significant 

source of calcium for plant growth. Magnesium also was low, 

but was equally low on the undisturbed site. Phosphorus 

levels of 10.7 (disturbed site) and 18.7 parts per million 

(undisturbed site) are adequate for agricultural plant growth, 

and would not be viewed as limiting at this site. 

The combination of relatively high organic matter levels, 

4.8 (disturbed site) and 9.8 percent (undisturbed site), with 

such low calcium levels is puzzling. Interpretation of soil 

tests is a complex task and subject to guesswork. One 

technique to help interpret soil tests is to send in soils that 

have previously been analyzed, making sure that current 

results are correct or to send in multiple samples from the 

site. Such methods increase the cost of sample analysis. 

Estimated nitrogen release is a calculated number based 

on nitrogen release from agricultural-quality organic matter. 

These values are disregarded for wildland systems except to 

show differences between sites. The nitrate pools change 

quickly with weather, plant growth, and season. Any given 

nitrate value has little long-term significance, except for a 

well-fed agricultural crop. Appropriate analysis of soil 

nitrogen levels is difficult for wildland situations. Given the 

importance of nitrogen in plant nutrition, analysis of wildland 

soil nitrogen levels is a major research need for revegetation 

science. 

This brief review of soil analyses shows how soil data 

need to be viewed in relation to each other, in the context of 

the site, and with a critical eye to whether the tests were 

appropriate. No distinct thresholds can be defined. Plants can 

compensate for low levels of nutrient availability by sending 

their roots deeper or by greater spacing between plants. 

3.2.5 Restoring Soil Biota

Depending on the degree of soil disturbance, the plant 

species being reestablished, and the availability of local 

topsoil, it may be necessary to inoculate plants with mycorrhizal fungi or nitrogen-fixing bacteria. Some species of 

plants cannot grow without their associated mycorrhizal 

fungi. Others may survive, but would not be able to grow, 

spread, and reproduce. Studies of soil micro-organisms have 

produced a fascinating, complex, and growing body of 

scientific information. For the purposes of restoration, the 

principles can be generalized to establish a fairly simple 

process allowing you to determine what you need for your 

project.

Before going into the specifics of working with mycorrhizal fungi, some background is needed. First, if vegetative 

cover is largely missing from a site, it is safe to assume that 

the soil micro-organisms have been altered or are gone 

altogether. Some organisms can survive in the soil for up to a 

few years without plant cover, but the biota will be radically 

different from that in areas with a full complement of plant 

cover. This is the case for most of our highly disturbed 

wilderness campsites and trails.
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About 80 to 90 percent of the Earth’s vascular plants are 

thought to depend on mycorrhizal associates. Plants that do 

not depend on mycorrhizal associates include the genera 

Saxifraga (saxifrage), Juncus (rushes), Carex (sedges), and 

plants in the Brassicaceae (mustard) and Caryophyllaceae 

(pink) families. These plants are often the first colonizers of 

naturally disturbed areas, such as the areas left after a glacier 

recedes (figure 3–30). Often, the early colonizers are 

replaced as the plant community develops (Cázares 1992). 

The lack of soil moisture or cold temperatures in arid or 

alpine regions limits the establishment of mycorrhizal fungi 

and may limit plant establishment during restoration (Amaranthus and others 1999). 

survival of the plant species that depend on one species of 

fungus or the other (Amaranthus and others 1999). 

Some species require the establishment of mycorrhizal 

fungi when they are young. Sometimes whole plant communities (or guilds) that follow each other in ecological succession, such as the shrub communities preceding conifer 

establishment, have a shared soil microflora. If the conifer 

species are removed, the shrub community maintains the soil 

flora, allowing conifers to reestablish (Amaranthus and 

others 1999).

The following section on the types of mycorrhizal fungi 

will help you determine which type of mycorrhizal fungi you 

might need. The most specific way to determine mycorrhizal 

needs is to read the scientific literature about the selected 

plant species. 

Lacking species-specific information, experiment. To 

quote Aramanthus and others (1990): 

The best advice for those working in reclamation [of soil 

organisms] is to try. One does not have to be a rocket 

scientist, or even have a high school diploma, in order to 

experiment. All it takes is common sense—perhaps 

backed up by a little intuition and access to the proper 

soil organisms.

3.2.5a Types of Mycorrhizal Fungi

Worldwide, seven general groups of mycorrhizal fungi 

are important to distinguish, based on the species of plants 

you select.

Ectomycorrhizae

This group of mycorrhizae is associated with many tree 

(figure 3–31) and shrub species. The prefix, ecto, refers to the 

fungal hyphae wrapping a web-like structure around plant 

roots and colonizing the spaces between the cells without 

penetrating the interior of the cells. Nutrients are absorbed 

through the cell walls of the plant’s roots. Some plant roots 

can be linked by ectomycorrhizal hyphae, which can act like 

a plumbing system that allows nutrients to move from plant 

to plant. 

Figure 3–30—As a glacier recedes, the first plants to colonize the raw, exposed soils do not rely on associations with mycorrhizal fungi. Such plants 

include the graminoids (grasses, sedges, and rushes), members of the 

mustard and pink families, and plants belonging to the genus Saxifraga.

Most of our weedy, introduced species do not depend on 

mycorrhizal associations. This characteristic is a key reason 

why they are able to invade disturbed areas rapidly.

In some cases, the mycorrhizal fungi needed to support 

young stands of a plant, such as Douglas-fir, differ markedly 

from those needed by mature stands. Some plants need their 

mycorrhizal associates all the time, while other species just 

call on them to help survive drought or resist disease. 

Sometimes the presence of one type of mycorrhizal fungus 

can suppress the establishment of another type, affecting 
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Figure 3–31—Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) associates with up to 

2,000 different species of mycorrhizal fungi throughout North America 

(Trappe 1977). Ectomycorrhizal fungi tend to be generalists; one species 

of fungus can interact with many different species of plants. Drawings 

courtesy of the University of Washington Press (Hitchcock and Cronquist 

1976).

The spores of ectomycorrhizae can travel through the air 

and through the soil. Because the spores are so mobile, 

ectomycorrhizal host plants are less likely to require inoculation, even though they will still benefit. 

Arbuscular Mycorrhizae

This group is associated with grasses and forbs, and with 

some shrub and tree species. The prefix, arbo, refers to the 

vesicles of the mycorrhizae, which branch in a treelike 

pattern. The hyphae of arbuscular mycorrhizae penetrate 

directly into the cells at the growing tips of plant roots. 

Vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizae have large soilborne spores 

that migrate only short distances through the soil. 

In arid and semiarid lands, 90 percent or more of the 

vascular plant species depend on arbuscular mycorrhizae. 

The arbuscular mycorrhizae fungi are less diverse than the 

ectomycorrhizae, but are still generalists. Sagebrush (Artemesia), for example, has only four species of fungus that interact 

with it (figure 3–32), but these fungi interact with other plant 

species as well (Moldenke and others 1994). Western 

redcedar (Thuja plicata), species of Ceanothus, and species 

of Rubus (blackberries and salmonberry) also rely on 

arbuscular mycorrhizae.

Figure 3–32—At least 90 percent of arid and semiarid land plants rely on 

vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. Four such fungi species associate 

with big sage (Artemesia tridentata). Drawing courtesy of the University 

of Washington Press (Hitchcock and Cronquist 1976).

Artemesia tridentata

Pseudotsuga menziesii

Var. menziesii
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Ericoid Mycorrhizae

This group is specific to the heath family (Ericaceae), 

which includes plants such as heather, huckleberry, azalea, 

rhododendron, Labrador tea, and salal (figure 3–33). If you 

are working with a plant in the heath family, it will be 

important to collect inoculum from the same species.

Arbutoid Mycorrhizae

This group is specific mostly to Mediterranean species, 

but also interacts with Pyrola (wintergreen), Arbutus

(madrone, figure 3–35a) and Arctostaphylos (manzanita and 

kinnikinnick, figure 3–35b).

Figure 3–33—Ericoid mycorrhizae associate with plants of the heath 

family, such as this slender wintergreen (Gaultheria ovatifolia). Drawings 

courtesy of the University of Washington Press (Hitchcock and Cronquist 

1976).

Ectendo Mycorrhizae

This group is found predominately on pines (Pinus, 

figure 3–34), and can occur along with ectomycorrhizae. 

Some plant species that are not normally thought to be 

mycorrhizal, such as sedges, have been colonized by ectendo 

mycorrhizae, particularly in alpine or arctic areas where 

arbuscular mycorrhizae are not well represented.

Figure 3–35b—Kinnikinnick (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi) is an excellent 

restoration species because it spreads readily. Drawings courtesy of the 

University of Washington Press (Hitchcock and Cronquist 1976).

Figure 3–34—Endomycorrhizae associate with pines, such as this 

whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis), and are more likely to be represented in 

subalpine or alpine environments. Drawings courtesy of the University of 

Washington Press (Hitchcock and Cronquist 1976).

Arctostaphylos uva-ursi

Figure 3–35a—Arbutoid mycorrhizae associate with a few North 

American genera, including genera in the heath family such as Arbutus

(madrone). Drawings courtesy of the University of Washington Press 

(Hitchcock and Cronquist 1976).

Arutus menziesii

Gaultheria ovatifolia

Pinus albicaulis
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Figure 3–36—Orchidaceous mycorrhizae associate with plants of the orchid family, such as this rare clustered ladyslipper (Cypripedium fasciculatum). Drawing courtesy of the University of Washington Press (Hitchcock 

and Cronquist 1976).

Dark Monotropoid Septate Endophytes

Not much is known about this group of mycorrhizal 

fungi, but it can be associated with any plant species. The 

dark-brown hyphae penetrate inside root cells.

Orchidaceous Mycorrhizae

As the name suggests, this type of mycorrhizal fungi is 

specific to the orchid family (figure 3–36). The hyphae form 

a spiraling structure that looks like spaghetti in the plant’s 

root cells. While it seems unlikely that a wilderness restorationist would select an orchid species for restoration, the 

orchidaceous mycorrhizae are mentioned here to point out 

the specific needs of this beautiful and often rare group of 

plants.

3.2.5b Inoculating Plants With Mycorrhizal 

Fungi

While commercial cultures of some mycorrhizal fungi 

are available, in wilderness areas it is more appropriate to 

inoculate plants with mycorrhizal propagules collected near 

the restoration project area. Mycorrhizal propagules are 

spores, hyphae, and plant root fragments containing mycorrhizal fungi. 

Preserving biological integrity should be a primary 

project goal. Too little is known about the effects of introducing new soil organisms, such as nonnative mycorrhizal fungi. 

They might harm the beneficial native organisms. Collecting 

inoculum locally also is more likely to be effective because 

the correct fungal species are guaranteed to be present. Some 

of the commercially grown inocula contain completely 

different species that are derived from tropical soils and may 

not be suitable for North American native plant communities 

(Cázares 2002). 

Although there are many ecological uncertainties about 

the use of commercial inoculum in wilderness or pristine 

habitats, commercial inoculum could be a last resort in soil 

reclamation projects where mycorrhizal propagules do not 

exist.

The technique for collecting mycorrhizal inoculum is 

quite simple; dig into the root zone of the type of plant 

species (or group) that you will be using for restoration. 

Remove some soil, including small pieces of roots (figure 3–

37). This soil is your inoculum. If local topsoil or organic 

matter is being used, the appropriate fungal spores also are 

likely to be present in the topsoil or organic matter.

You may choose to inoculate soils when growing plants 

in the greenhouse or on the restoration site when planting 

them. Inoculating both times will enhance success. Inoculation is most successful when plants are seedlings. Inoculating 

Cypripedium fasciculatum
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a more mature plant at the restoration site after it has been 

grown in a nursery is less likely to succeed than if the plant is 

inoculated when it is being grown at the greenhouse.

If plants are being propagated offsite, use the inoculum 

as part of the planting medium. It is critical for the growing 

roots to contact fungal spores. Partially fill the flats or 

containers with potting soil, add a thin but continuous layer 

of inoculum, add the seed and cover the seed with potting 

soil. Mycorrhizal fungi expert Dr. Efrén Cázares, a research 

scientist at Oregon State University, has observed that more 

inoculum will survive if the inoculum is spread once the 

seedling plant has emerged, allowing the mutually beneficial 

interaction between plant and fungus to begin taking place as 

soon as possible. This is especially important if there is a 

significant lag between the time when seed is sown and 

germination (Cázares and others 2002).

In some instances, it may not be possible to acquire fresh 

inoculum just before seedling emergence. For instance, plants 

may be grown in the winter when the project site is under a 

mantle of snow. According to Cázares, inoculum can be 

stored in a dormant state at a cold temperature, but not frozen 

(Cázares and others 2005).

Plants that have been inoculated at the nursery are more 

likely to thrive than plants that were not. Growing conditions 

in the nursery will alter the soil flora because the growing 

conditions and nutrient levels (such as those supplied by 

fertilizer) are different than in the native plant community. 

Some nurseries may not want to inoculate seedlings because 

of the risk of introducing soil pathogens to the nursery. Other 

nurseries have ways to isolate different plant populations.

Whether plants have been inoculated at the nursery or 

not, they can be inoculated at the restoration site. Ideally, if 

you are applying topsoil, you already will be introducing 

mycorrhizal fungi (and soil bacteria). If it is not feasible to 

apply topsoil, you can spread a thin layer (about 1 to 2 

teaspoons of inoculum) into the root zone of each planting 

hole. If you are planting seed at the restoration site, it is best 

to inoculate the seedling plants as soon as they emerge. 

The other option is to inoculate the planting site just 

before seeding. The risk of this approach is that the fungi 

may die before the seedlings emerge. After the soil is 

prepared, a thin layer of inoculum is spread over the soil 

surface, seed is sprinkled on top of the inoculum so that the 

roots will push through the inoculum when they emerge, and 

a thin layer of soil is spread on top of the seed (depending on 

the species). Adding woody materials will benefit fungi by 

providing a reserve of moisture, as will mulch applied on top 

of the soil. 

3.2.5c Soil Bacteria

Depending on the environment and the plant species 

involved, various beneficial bacteria live in the soil and 

improve growing conditions for plants. The beneficial 

bacteria include nitrogen-fixing bacteria found in root 

nodules on some plants, and “free-living” aerobic bacteria 

found in soil crusts. Free-living bacteria do not live inside a 

host, as do the nitrogen-fixing bacteria that live in nodules on 

plant roots or the bacteria that live in the guts of insects. 

Some anaerobic bacteria thrive in soils saturated by water. 

These bacteria can be detrimental to root growth and release 

nitrogen from the soil into the atmosphere.

Figure 3–37—Mycorrhizal inoculum is collected by removing soil and 

small root fragments from the root zones of healthy populations of the 

same species that is being planted. The plug of vegetation dug up for this 

purpose is replanted into its hole after the inoculum has been collected. 
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Nitrogen-Fixing Bacteria

Some types of plants host bacteria that live symbiotically 

in nodules on the plant’s roots. These bacteria thrive by 

metabolizing sugars supplied by the plant, while converting 

atmospheric nitrogen that has washed into the soil through 

rain to a mineralized form that can be used by the plants. 

Plants that host colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria are called 

nitrogen-fixing plants. Such plants are very important to 

rebuilding nitrogen in damaged soils. These bacteria, as well 

as free-living bacteria, are likely to be present in all but the 

most damaged soils.

The legume or pea family (Fabaceae), the best-known 

group of nitrogen-fixing plants, is colonized by a bacteria 

called Rhizobium. Other plants (figure 3–38) host different 

genera of bacteria, which also may be nitrogen fixers.

If a plant is a known nitrogen fixer, inoculation is similar 

to the method used for mycorrhizal fungi. The inoculum is 

collected from the same species or group of plants. However, 

the bacteria are found in visible nodules on the root of the 

plant. A slurry can be made by blending the roots with water 

to break open the nodules, releasing the bacteria. This slurry 

can be used to water nitrogen-fixing plants.

Green materials high in nitrogen (such as alfalfa 

crumbles) can be mixed into the soil to favor bacteria. 

Grasslands tend to be dominated by bacteria rather than 

fungi.

3.2.5d Restoring Soil Crusts

Some soils, especially soils lacking a litter or duff layer 

(such as arid or alpine soils), form visible microbiotic crusts 

(see figures 3–24a and 24b, and 3–25).

The restoration of soil crusts (figure 3–39) is an emerging science. Restorationists such as Dr. Jayne Belnap, who 

works in the arid Southwest, are leading the way. Crusts are 

easy to pulverize underfoot. It is best not to disturb these 

crusts because full recovery may take hundreds, if not 

Figure 3–38—Alders, once thought of as weedy tree species by foresters, 

have gained more respect now that their role as nitrogen fixers is understood. Alnus sinuata, wavy-leaved alder, has a very sweet fragrance when 

its leaf buds are opening. It is found throughout mountainous regions in 

the Pacific Northwest and as far east as the Rocky Mountains of Colorado. 

Drawings courtesy of the University of Washington Press (Hitchcock and 

Cronquist 1976).

Figure 3–39—Biological crusts are recognized easily by their distinct 

structure. Salvaged crusts can be pulverized before being added back to 

the surface of restoration sites to inoculate the site.

Alnus sinuata
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thousands, of years. However, if soil crust has already been 

damaged (or damage is unavoidable), it may be wise to 

stockpile soil crust and use the stockpile to reinoculate the 

restoration site afterward.

Once a disturbed site in an area with soil crusts has been 

stabilized, backfilled, and planted, the final step is to broadcast the pulverized crust. The ideal is to replace the crust at a 

1:1 ratio with the backfilled material. It is rare to have this 

much crust material available. A 1:10 or 1:20 ratio of crust to 

backfill is more common. The pulverized crust material 

should be no deeper than 1 inch (about 25 millimeters) after 

it has been spread.

If salvaged soil is to be respread immediately, the crust 

can be salvaged simultaneously with the topsoil layer to a 

depth of about 8 inches (about 200 millimeters). The live soil 

organisms will quickly recolonize the restoration site.

If salvaged soil must be stored before being reused, the 

top inch (about 25 millimeters) of crust should be removed 

and stored separately from the remaining 3 to 8 inches (about 

80 to 200 millimeters) of topsoil. Salvaged crusts can be 

stored in an active or dormant state. For the crust to remain 

active, it must be able to photosynthesize and receive 

moisture. Spread the crust material just an inch or two thick. 

For dormant storage, store dry crust material away from 

moisture and sunlight, for instance, by storing it in buckets 

with lids. For dormant storage, the material must be dry 

when stored (Belnap and Furman 1997).

3.2.6 Solarization of Weedy Soils

If a restoration site is plagued by exotic plant species, it 

may be necessary to treat the soil before seeding or transplanting. Solarization, if done correctly, will kill most plants 

and seeds in the soil. Solarization, which involves covering 

the soil with plastic sheeting for 6 to 8 weeks, is most 

effective with cool-season weed and grass species. The 

treatment is less effective with deeply rooted summer weeds 

or plants that spread underground by rhizomes. Rhizomatous 

plants may require a second treatment, with the ground being 

rescarified or ripped between the treatments.

A side benefit of solarization is an increase in plant 

growth rates after treatment. While this effect is poorly 

understood, decomposition of vegetative matter may increase 

during solarization, making nutrients more available to 

plants. 

However, the solarization technique kills not only weed 

seeds, but native seeds and some soil micro-organisms. 

Because the soil is nearly sterilized, solarization should be 

used only if the exotic species are invasive and too difficult to 

remove by other means. This technique also can kill pathogenic fungi, bacteria, and viruses. Interestingly, mycorrhizal 

fungi and earthworms seem to survive solarization.

The procedure for soil solarization follows Bainbridge 

(1990). Prepare the site by decompacting the soil or by 

spreading out salvaged topsoil 6 inches (about 150 millimeters) deep. Make sure the soil is slightly moist by adding up 

to 1 inch (about 25 millimeters) of water, if needed. At the 

time of year when weed seeds would be germinating, spread 

out sheets of clear 0.04- to 0.08-inch- (1- to 2-millimeter-) 

thick polyethylene sheeting, ideally leaving a slight airspace 

between the sheeting and the soil. Rocks, sticks, or small 

bags full of soil can be used to maintain the airspace. For 

windy sites, sheeting may need to be 0.16 to 0.24 inch (4 to 6 

millimeters) thick. Cooler sites may need a double layer of 

plastic with an airspace between the layers. Bubble-pack 

material is inexpensive and may be worthy of experimentation. Anchor the sheeting, especially around the edges, to 

prevent moisture and heat from being lost and to make sure 

that the wind does not lift it. As an alternative, the edges of 

the sheeting may be buried.

Leave the sheeting in place for 6 to 8 weeks. Monitor the 

soil temperature (figure 3–40) using a soil thermometer. 

Most weed seeds are killed at temperatures of 180 degrees 

Fahrenheit (about 82 degrees Celsius). Some species may 

survive to temperatures of 212 degrees Fahrenheit (100 

degrees Celsius). Any holes in the sheeting must be patched 

with clear packaging tape; check for holes by looking for 

areas where water has not condensed under the plastic. Avoid 

walking on the sheeting. If it is absolutely necessary to cross 

the sheeting, wear soft-soled shoes or go barefoot. 
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3.3 Concluding Thoughts 

on Soil

Here are the basic steps to remember when analyzing 

and working with soil.

• Select a reference site that is representative of 

the impacted site and that reflects project 

limitations, including soil limitations. 

• Analyze the differences between the site to be 

treated and one or more reference sites.

• Work with a soil specialist to devise a prescription that will correct as many soil deficits as 

necessary.

• Use native and local soil sources to the extent 

possible, without damaging the borrow site.

• Use additional materials or supplements if 

native sources are not adequate.

• Monitor and maintain your site. If at first you 

don’t succeed, try a different approach.

• Recognize that the process of correcting and 

rebuilding damaged soils is very slow and 

difficult, taking many years, if not decades. You 

should be able to notice the site improving as it 

becomes more like the desired native plant 

community.

3.4 Site Stabilization, 

Preparation, and 

Delineation

The precise order of actions taken to prepare a site may 

vary, but generally follows this sequence:

1. Recontour the site if needed.

2. Scarify the soil.

3. Install erosion-control features.

4. Install barriers.

5. Add additional soil needed for fill.

Figure 3–40—This thermometer shows the soil temperatures that will 

kill weed seeds, insects, and plant pathogens. Temperatures assume heat 

treatment for 30 minutes under moist soil conditions (Hartmann and others 

1990).

Once the soil has been treated, minimize any further 

disturbance to the top 6 inches (about 150 millimeters) of the 

soil to prevent bringing viable weed seed deep in the soil to 

the surface, where it will germinate.
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6. Add icebergs and posts for signs, if any are 

needed to discourage use of the site as it 

recovers.

7. Add soil amendments and additional organic 

material.

8. Leave the soil surface uneven (pitted).

9. Install crimping before seeding.

Site stabilization and delineation help create a stable area 

where native plants can reestablish themselves, given enough 

time. Your goal may be to further stabilize a relatively flat 

area (such as a campsite), or to stabilize an unstable slope 

(such as a steep site or trail slump) or a gully (such as an 

entrenched trail). 

A site-stabilization strategy needs to be designed to 

handle peak annual waterflows. Peak flows may occur during 

snowmelt, the rainy season, or heavy thunderstorms.

A number of additional techniques for establishing 

vegetation and reducing erosion are described in more detail 

elsewhere in this guide. Such methods include:

• Using mulch and erosion-control blankets—see 

section 3.12, Plant Protection and Establishment.

• Preventing further damage to biological 

crusts—see section 3.1.3c, Evaluating Biological Soil Crusts.

• Inoculating plants with mycorrhizal fungi—see 

section 3.2.5b, Inoculating Plants With Mycorrhizal Fungi.

• Adding organic matter—see section 3.2.3c, 

Amending Altered or Depleted Soils.

• Selecting plant species that provide rapid cover 

and a variety of root forms—see section 3.10, 

Plant Selection, Collection, and Propagation 

Techniques.

Site delineation is the process of engineering a site to 

keep users where you want them. This involves designing 

visual cues or even physical barriers to concentrate use.

In the mechanical world of industrial-strength restoration, crawler tractors, backhoes, dump trucks, rippers, and 

imprinters make short work of site preparation. In the 

wilderness world, we work with modified stock panniers, 5-

gallon (19-liter) buckets, stretchers, log carriers, come-alongs, 

pick axes, shovels, grub hoes, and McLeods—not to mention 

blood, sweat, and tears. In some areas, helicopters and 

wheelbarrows have been deemed the minimum tool, moving 

material more quickly and, in some cases, with less damage 

than other techniques. 

Livestock can haul soil and gravel in specialized panniers 

(figure 3–41). These panniers are loaded from the top and 

unloaded from the bottom without removing them from the 

animal. Gravel Bags for Packstock (Vachowski 1995) offers 

alternative designs, sources, and even a plan for making your 

own specialized panniers.

Figure 3–41—Fabric bags (panniers) that can be loaded from the top 

and unloaded by releasing the bottom are handy when stock are used to 

haul gravel or soil.
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Figures 3–42a and 42b—This wide, severely eroded trail at Snow Lake 

in the Alpine Lakes Wilderness, WA (top), was brought back up to grade 

(bottom) by installing siltbars and adding many buckets of locally collected fill. 

3.4.1 Reestablishing Site Contours

Recontouring your site (figures 3–42a and 42b) is likely 

to be part of a restoration prescription. In an ideal world, a 

site would be restored to its original contour. However, the 

fill material needed to achieve such an ambitious goal may 

not be available. In addition, the slope angle may have 

become too steep to support successful restoration. A more 

intermediate set of goals could include: restoring a more 

natural appearing line, controlling the movement of water 

through the area to be replanted, and creating a favorable 

medium for reestablishing vegetation. Meeting such goals 

may involve rearranging existing site materials or building 

structures that are backfilled with rock and soil.

Runoff contributes more to erosion than all the trampling hooves and feet on a trail. Methods for evaluating 

erosion were addressed in the section on assessing soil 

conditions. Is water channeled into the site causing ongoing 

damage? Is it desirable to redirect water away from the site or 

would this cause unacceptable change to slope hydrology? 

Work with your soil scientist or geologist to address these 

issues.

For example, digging an uphill parallel ditch (figure 3–

43), is a time-tested trail management strategy to dry up 

muddy trail segments and redirect water across the trail at a 

natural sag in the grade. This strategy drops the water table, 

which changes the vegetation on the site. Differing solutions 

Figure 3–43—A small parallel ditch dug alongside this social trail will dry 

out the tread surface, reducing the likelihood that hikers will walk to the 

side of the trail, making it wider and wider. The salvaged plugs of plants 

and soil were transplanted into closed social trails nearby. The plant community may change because the water table will drop to the depth of the 

parallel ditch.
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might come into play. Water can be redirected away from the 

site, channeled through the site, slowed while being allowed 

to continue moving through the site, fanned out across the 

site—or managed using any combination of these techniques. 

Bioengineering techniques also can be used to reduce excess 

water on projects (Eubanks and Meadows 2002).

Steep sites may be reworked to eliminate erosion 

channels by creating a smooth slope with no vertical rills, 

enabling water to spread out across the slope. Another 

approach is to harden erosion gullies with a series of structures designed to absorb the impact of flowing water and to 

trap sediment. Water has to go somewhere; if you don’t plan 

for the flow, it is likely to cause erosion someplace else.

If the top of a steep slope is headcutting, the headcut (figures 3–44a and 44b) must be stabilized by laying back the 

slope. The headcut is where the slope is eroding the fastest, 

generally at the top. Where headcutting is occurring under 

mats of vegetation, it is sometimes possible to excavate 

underneath the vegetated mat and lay the mat down over the 

recontoured slope break.

Arid land restorationist and researcher Jayne Belnap 

recommends recontouring with a 3:1 (33 percent), or shallower slope. She suggests that any slope steeper than 2:1 (50-

percent slope) will be too steep to treat successfully (Belnap 

and Furman 1997). A series of terraces could be created on 

steeper slopes. In riparian areas, bioengineering techniques 

could be used. 

3.4.2 Stabilizing Gullies

Three mechanisms contribute to the formation of gullies: 

headcutting, downcutting (erosion that deepens the gully), 

Figure 3–44a—Soil lost because of extensive historical sheep grazing initiated the headcutting shown above, which continues eating into the bank, 

destroying the integrity of this subalpine meadow in the Alpine Lakes 

Wilderness, WA.

Figure 3–44b—This roadbank headcut will continue to erode unless it is 

treated. The slope angle could be reduced by hollowing out the bank from 

below. The mat of vegetation could be pinned to the soil substrate. 
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Figure 3–46—The headcut is laid back to a 3:1 slope angle. Drawing courtesy of Liza Prunuske (Prunuske 1987).

and lateral cutting into the banks (Prunuske 1987). You need 

to address all three mechanisms when you are stabilizing 

erosion in a gully. A deeply incised trail may not have 

headcutting, but it will be eroding through the other two 

mechanisms.

3.4.3 Stabilizing Headcuts

A headcut is where a gully is eroding the fastest, 

generally at the upper end. If a headcut is not treated, it will 

continue to eat its way upslope (figure 3–45). A bank headcut 

is found at the top of road or trail cutbanks.

A headcut with low gully erosion and low flow velocities 

may be treated by reshaping the headwall to a 3:1 or shallower slope (figure 3–46), armoring the slope with rock 

riprap, or revegetating the slope with herbaceous cover, 

shrubs, or trees. Moderate gully erosion requires a combination of treatments. Serious gully erosion requires the combination of shaping, rock riprapping, and establishing a variety 

of plants, including woody plants (Prunuske 1987).

Figure 3–45—The process of gully movement. Drawing courtesy of Susan 

Pinkerton (Prunuske 1987).

3.4.4 Stabilizing Downcutting

Downcutting erodes the gully deeper (figure 3–47), 

which also drops the water table, changing vegetative 

characteristics. Downcutting can be slowed by reducing the 

speed of flowing water and raising the level of the gully. This 

is accomplished by constructing checkdams, then backfilling 

the checkdams or allowing adjacent surface erosion to fill the 

dams. Checkdams are small dams designed to check (stop) 

erosion, but not to store water. Checkdams that are more than 

4 feet (about 1.2 meters) tall need to be designed by an 

engineer.
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the Sierra Nevada Mountains of California and Nevada. 

Riprap has been used at rather grand scales—such as 

armoring entire stretches of riverbanks or shorelines. This 

guide just explores small-scale applications.

Figure 3–47—Downcutting in gullies not only increases soil lost through 

erosion, but also drops the groundwater table to the base of the gully. 

Drawing courtesy of Liza Prunuske (Prunuske 1987).

3.4.5 Stabilizing Lateral Erosion Into 

Gully Banks

Unless a gully is backfilled completely, its banks should 

be stabilized with vegetation. If the banks are too steep for 

vegetation to become established, the banks must be laid 

back to a shallow angle so plants can grow. 

3.4.6 Surface Erosion Control 

Riprap (figure 3–48) is a layer of heavy stones laid down 

to armor the soil surface, preventing further erosion. Riprap 

also may be used to armor trails, as is commonly the case in 

The size of the largest rocks used to construct riprap is 

based on the water velocity at peak flows. Once you have 

placed the largest rocks, fit smaller rocks between them to 

construct a stable surface that doesn’t wobble underfoot. 

Refer to tables 3–5 and 3–6 to determine rock weights and 

the relative proportions of different sizes of rocks.

Figure 3–48—Riprap reduces surface erosion by providing a durable 

surface in Grand Canyon National Park, AZ. 
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Before riprap is installed (figure 3–49), a layer of filter 

material is laid down to prevent piping, a problem that 

develops when water sluices out of fill material underground. 

Natural filter materials include gravel or a thick layer of 

organic leaf litter. A commercial filter fabric can be installed 

using 6-inch (about 150-millimeter) staples. This option 

deters establishment of long-rooted plants. Riprap is installed 

from the base up. A trench is dug at the toe of the slope. Big 

rocks are keyed into this trench. Then angular rocks are fitted 

together working up the slope, using intermediate-sized rock 

to fill spaces between the larger rocks. Plantings can be 

incorporated between the rocks, if desired. Live stakes, 

which will sprout into shrubs, can be driven through openings between the rocks (see figure 3–62). During the first few 

years, areas of riprap where rocks have washed out will need 

to be patched. 

 Approximate

 Water velocity Rock diameter Weight of a rock

 feet per second inches pounds

 (meters per second) (millimeters) (kilograms)

 2 (0.6) 2 (51) --

 4 (1.2) 4 (102) --

 6 (1.8) 7 (178) --

 8 (2.4) 10 (254) 50 (23)

 10 (3.1) 14 (356) 150 (68)

 12 (3.7) 19 (483) 375 (170)

 14 (4.3) 25 (635) 1,000 (454)

 16 (4.9) 33 (838) 2,000 (907)

*This calculation assumes rock weighs 165 pounds per cubic foot (2,643 

kilograms per cubic meter). Rock should have a minimum specific 

gravity of 2.5, meaning a cubic foot (0.028 cubic meter) of rock weighs 

2.5 times as much as a cubic foot (0.028 cubic meter) of water.

Table 3–5—Determining the size of riprap (Prunuske 1987).

Table 3–6—Determining relative proportions of stone sizes for riprap (Prunuske 1987).

 Maximum Minimum and maximum Weight range

 weight of rock weight of rocks of 75 percent of rocks

 pounds (kilograms) pounds (kilograms) pounds (kilograms)

150 (68) 25 to 150 (11 to 68) 50 to 150 (23 to 68)

 200 (91) 25 to 200 (11 to 91) 50 to 200 (23 to 91)

 250 (113) 25 to 250 (11 to 113) 50 to 250 (23 to 113)

 400 (181) 25 to 400 (11 to 181) 100 to 400 (45 to 181)

 600 (272) 25 to 600 (11 to 272) 150 to 600 (68 to 272)

 800 (363) 25 to 800 (11 to 363) 200 to 800 (91 to 363)

 1,000 (454) 50 to 1,000 (23 to 454) 250 to 1,000 (113 to 454)

 1,300 (590) 50 to 1,300 (23 to 590) 325 to 1,300 (147 to 590)

 1,600 (726) 50 to 1,600 (23 to 726) 400 to 1,600 (181 to 726)

 2,000 (907) 75 to 2,000 (34 to 907) 600 to 2,000 (272 to 907)
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3.4.7 Subsurface Erosion Control 

In general, structures are installed in the order that 

creates the least additional disturbance. As much as possible, 

excavated soil or rock is piled within the existing disturbed 

area. Another suitable staging area might be located nearby 

to hold excess fill or salvaged plant materials. Work back 

toward a hardened “escape route.” If possible, work your way 

downhill to avoid back strain. Training and constant reminders will prevent workers from walking on vegetation adjacent 

to the site, causing further damage.

Subsurface erosion-control structures fall into two broad 

categories, living and nonliving. Nonliving structures include 

siltbars or checkdams built of wood (figure 3–50), rock, or 

erosion-control blanket. On wet sites, native plant materials 

can be used to craft a variety of structures, a technique 

known as bioengineering. The plants not only physically 

stabilize the site, but also provide a plant community (figure 

3–51).

Figure 3–50—Log checkdams are an example of a nonliving subsurface 

erosion control structure. The checkdams are keyed into the bottom and 

sides of an eroded hiking trail, preventing further erosion and collecting 

sediment.

Figure 3–49—Placing rock for riprap. Drawings courtesy of Susan Pinkerton (Prunuske 1987).
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Chapter 3: The Art and Science of Restoration

the rock can be collected without causing undue harm to 

ecological processes or the visual setting. For instance, 

partially submerged rocks with plants growing around them 

would be a poor choice for removal—the plants are likely to 

die once they are exposed and an unsightly hole will be left 

behind. 

Log Siltbars or Checkdams—Log checkdams can be 

constructed from dead material nearby. Native materials also 

may be brought in using packstock or helicopters. Cedar rails 

are a common choice for checkdams in the national parks of 

the Pacific Northwest. 

Dimensional Lumber Siltbars or Checkdams—If you 

strike out on native material, consider using dimensional 

lumber such as 2 by 6s or 2 by 8s; such material is more 

challenging to blend with the wilderness environment. You 

will also need wooden upright material for attaching planks. 

Erosion-Control Blanket Siltbars—Erosion-control 

blankets can function as a siltbar when the blanket is partially buried and pinned with ridges protruding slightly above 

the ground surface. This technique has been used successfully in arid lands.

3.4.8b Installation of Checkdams

Siltbars (figure 3–52) and checkdams are installed 

perpendicular to the flow of water. The direction of flow may 

be tricky to determine in a sinuous gully. Construct siltbars 

and checkdams so they are deeper and wider than the 

opening they are blocking to prevent water from flowing 

under or around the checkdams. 

Siltbars, whether rock or wood, are installed by toeing 

them into the base of the slope. The sides are anchored into 

the slope or are anchored with wooden pegs. 

Checkdam installation involves more technical considerations. Start by digging a trench 6 inches (about 150 millimeters) deep contouring the slope (or perpendicular to the bed 

of the trail or gully). For eroded trails, continue the trench up 

the sidewalls of the gully to form a 6- to 12-inch- (about 150- 

to 310-millimeter-) deep vertical slot (called a keyway) 

slightly wider than your checkdam material (figures 3–53a 

and 53b).

Figure 3–51—The live trench pack stabilizing this gully is one example of a 

living subsurface erosion control structure (Eubanks and Meadows 2002).

3.4.8 Nonliving Siltbars and 

Checkdams

Siltbars are shallower than checkdams and are just one 

layer high. Siltbars are used to address erosion on low-angle 

slopes. They may be used to control erosion at campsites, on 

trails that are not too deeply incised, or in areas that don’t 

have enough material for checkdams. Checkdams (sometimes 

called siltdams) are created by stacking siltbars one on top of 

another. Crimping, a technique that incorporates straw or 

native hay into the soil surface, can be used when log or rock 

checkdams would not be appropriate.

3.4.8a Materials Used To Construct Siltbars 

and Checkdams

In the wilderness and backcountry, native materials are 

preferred for siltbars and checkdams, if they can be obtained 

without further damage to the landscape. Checkdams should 

be constructed to allow water to percolate through the dam; 

an impervious checkdam is more likely to blow out during 

heavy runoff.

Native Rock Siltbars or Checkdams—Native rock, if 

available, is often the best material for siltdams because of 

rock’s longevity and ability to blend with the environment. 

As is always the case with native materials, evaluate whether 
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Figure 3–52—Siltbar installation. Siltbars have just one tier of material, 

unlike checkdams that have more than one tier of material. Drawing courtesy of Regina Rochefort (1990).

Once the trench has been established, begin fitting in the 

materials for the siltbar or checkdam. You may need to 

improve the trench to seat your materials properly. Check 

your work to assure that the base of the checkdam is well 

seated, preventing water from flowing under the material. 

Keep stacking materials until the desired height has been 

reached—ideally flush with the ground level (figure 3–54). It 

is not necessary for the top of the checkdam to be above the 

ground. Keep the checkdam level to avoid channeling water 

to one side. 

Figure 3–53a—To properly seat a siltbar or checkdam, a trench is dug 

about 6 inches deep across the contour or perpendicular to the gully.

Figure 3–53b—In gullies, a keyway is excavated about 6 inches into each 

sidewall to pin the checkdam or siltbar material into place.

Figure 3–54—Keep stacking materials until the desired height has been 

reached—ideally flush with the ground level. (This photo has been digitally altered.)
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If planks are used for the checkdam, attach them to 

upright 4 by 4s that have been buried into the bed of the gully 

to half the depth of the exposed checkdam. The deeply buried 

uprights prevent the planks from becoming misaligned, which 

could cause the checkdam to malfunction. Uprights should be 

about 3 feet (910 millimeters) apart for shorter dams, but no 

more than 2 feet (610 millimeters) apart for dams that are 3 to 

4 feet (0.91 to 1.22 meters) tall (figure 3–55a).

Figure 3–55b—Installing a rock checkdam. Drawings courtesy of Liza 

Prunuske (1987).

Firmly tamp the excavated soil back around the dam. 

Avoid backfilling the checkdam with rock. Rock backfill 

could direct water to the dam material, allowing some water 

to get through. 

Rock checkdams (figure 3–55b) also require a trench. 

Using your very best dry stone masonry skills, select rocks 

that fit well together to build up a triangular-shaped wall that 

is broad at the base. Use the same principles you would when 

building a rock crib. Be sure to stagger the seams between 

rocks as you add each layer. 

Figure 3–55a—Checkdam installation. Wooden checkdams are constructed by stacking logs or split rails. Drawings courtesy of Liza Prunuske 

(1987).
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Perhaps you successfully redirected water off the trail or 

gully alignment before building the checkdam. But if you are 

engineering your installation to handle the continued flow of 

water, three more components are needed for each checkdam—a spillway, an apron just below the dam that serves to 

dissipate energy, and a filter behind the dam to prevent soil 

loss while allowing water to continue to flow. 

The spillway is a depression in the center of each 

checkdam to keep water from eating out the banks. Use table 

3–7 to determine the size for each spillway. If your checkdam 

is constructed of wood, make sure the plank or log is still 4 

inches (about 100 millimeters) high at the spillway. Otherwise, the plank or log may break. A rock checkdam should 

have a dip in the center to function as a spillway.

A more vertical and less beefy rock checkdam may be adequate if water flows have 

been redirected elsewhere. One of the authors had good success with this approach at 

White Pass in the Glacier Peak Wilderness 

of Washington. 

A series of several rock walls were built in 

an eroded trail that was being closed and restored. A drain dip above the site had directed water off the trail. 

Soil and vegetation salvaged from a short 

relocated trail was placed between the 

checkdams. The vegetation quickly became 

reestablished. 

Five years later, the only real evidence of the 

project was the lowest checkdam (figure 3–

56), which was serving as a small rock retaining wall.

A Rock Checkdam That Worked

Figure 3–56—Five years later, the only real evidence of the project was the 

lowest checkdam.
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Area in acres Depth in inches of a Depth in inches of an Depth in inches of a Depth in inches of a 

 of gully 12-in- (310-mm-) 18-in- (460-mm-) 24-in- (610-mm-) 36-in- (910-mm-)

 watershed wide spillway wide spillway wide spillway wide spillway

 (hectares) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)

 1 (25.4) 6 (152.4) 4 (101.6) 3 (76.2) 3 (76.2)

 2 (50.8) 9 (228.6) 7 (177.8) 5 (127.0) 4 (101.6)

 3 (76.2) 12 (304.8) 8 (203.2) 7 (177.8) 5 (127.0)

 4 (101.6) -- 10 (254.0) 8 (203.2) 6 (152.4)

 5 (127.0) -- 12 (304.8) 10 (254.0) 7 (177.8)

Table 3–7—Spillway width and depth for checkdams (from Prunuske 1987).

Apron Installation—While the spillway directs the flow 

of water down the center of the gully, the apron protects the 

gully and checkdam from the force of the falling water, 

(figure 3–57). Aprons generally are constructed of rock, but a 

live fascine (a bundle of live woody stems that will sprout) 

also could be anchored in the gully. The use of live fascines 

is explained in the bioengineering section. A filter is laid 

below the rock apron using techniques described for riprap. 

Rock is secured across the gully bottom in a low-angle wedge 

against the downstream side of the checkdam for at least 2 

feet (610 millimeters) below the checkdam. If the waterflow 

is expected to be high velocity, wooden pegs, live stakes, or 

pieces of 3⁄4-inch (about 19-millimeter) rebar are pounded 

into the gully bed to pin the lowest course of rock in place.

Filter Behind the Dam—Unless you anticipate low 

volumes of water or a large amount of leaf litter is likely to 

wash downstream, the final step before backfilling is to 

install a filter upstream from the checkdam. This measure is 

to prevent soil from washing through any cracks in the dam. 

A 6-inch (about 150-millimeter) layer of organic leaf litter 

can form the filter. Or you can install filter fabric. If you use 

fabric, it should be laid out loosely so that it won’t pull out 

with the force of the water. The upstream side of the fabric is 

secured to the gully bed and banks by digging a trench, 

anchoring the fabric with 6-inch (about 150-millimeter) 

staples, then refilling the trench. The 6-inch (about 150-

millimeter) staples also secure the loose fabric on the remainder of the bottom and sides. Refer to figure 3–55a or 3–55b 

for an installation diagram.

Checkdam Placement—In long gullies, checkdams are 

placed in a stairstep fashion. Ideally, the top of the downhill 

dam is as high as the bottom of the next dam upslope. This 

standard may not be feasible on steeper slopes. Maintain a 

3:1 slope between checkdams, if necessary. 

Figure 3–57—A profile of checkdams with aprons, also called rock energy 

dissipators. Drawing courtesy of Liza Prunuske (1987).
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Sometimes it is necessary to segment siltbars or checkdams. For instance, if a site has lots of submerged rock, 

making it difficult to dig a continuous trench, it may be 

necessary to toe a siltbar into the rock, and then continue on 

the other side (figures 3–58a and 58b). Use pegs to secure the 

siltbar near the rock. A mallet or small sledge hammer is the 

best tool for driving pegs (figures 3–59a and 59b). You may 

need to use a small block of wood on top of the peg to avoid 

splitting it while pounding.

Figures 3–58a and 58b—This trail was as wide as a road at Snow Lake in 

the Alpine Lakes Wilderness, WA. A huge mantle of soil had been lost, 

making it infeasible to return the swale to its original contour. Instead, a 

series of smaller siltbars, comprised of rocks, logs, and split rails, were 

installed (top) wherever they could be toed in successfully. Topsoil was 

added behind each checkdam and seedlings grown in a greenhouse were 

planted. Ten years later (bottom), the erosion had stabilized and vegetation 

was thriving.

Figures 3–59a and 59b—Stout pegs are shaped with an ax or hatchet (top) 

and pounded into place with a sledge hammer (bottom). (This photo was 

digitally altered.)
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Once all dams have been installed, fill material can be 

added. If possible, avoid walking on undamaged vegetation. 

If reconstructing a soil profile as described in the soils 

section, add the fill material in the correct order, saving the 

organic layer for last. If you will be adding rock in the 

bottom of the trench, be sure to mix in finer materials, such 

as gravel and soil, to prevent water from washing out the fill 

material. Assume that the fill material will settle some. If 

your goal is to completely refill an eroded site, keep adding 

fill until the checkdams or siltbars are no longer visible. 

Rather than smoothing out fill, leave rough mounds and 

a rough soil surface with small depressions, called pitting, to 

help control erosion and help plants become established. The 

pits help catch water, improving seedling survival. In 

addition, the pits provide some protection from wind and sun. 

3.4.8c Crimping

Crimping, also called spiking, incorporates straw or 

native hay into the soil surface. Crimping helps reduce 

erosion by slowing and deflecting water. In situations where 

log or rock checkdams would be inappropriate because of a 

lack of materials or their unnatural appearance, crimping 

may be a good option. Crimping also improves water 

infiltration.

In wilderness, native hay harvested onsite might be an 

option for material to crimp into the soil. Tall grasses, 

sedges, or fibrous forbs could be harvested with a scythe. If 

this is not an option, clean straw, certified weed free or 

purchased from a known reliable grower, could be used. If 

available, rice straw is an excellent choice for dry land 

projects because the water weeds associated with rice culture 

will not survive on dry land. Rice grown in the Central 

Valley of California is used extensively for arid land restoration projects.

3.4.9 Bioengineering Applications

Bioengineering offers promise for sites on streambanks, 

lakeshores, or other wet areas. A bioengineered structure not 

only will stabilize erosion, but will simultaneously provide 

living plant material, helping to return the site to a stable, 

ecologically productive state (figure 3–60). Bioengineering 

can reduce the need to build structures such as rock gabions, 

riprap, or terraces that are unattractive and make it difficult 

to establish vegetation. This guide will provide a few basic 

bioengineering techniques and concepts that apply to small 

remote sites. If your project includes extensive or complex 

riparian habitat, refer to A Soil Bioengineering Guide for 

Streambank and Lakeshore Stabilization (Eubanks and 

Meadows 2002), which explains in detail how to plan and 

implement riparian projects.

Figure 3–60—A live post, installed where there is adequate soil moisture, 

will root and sprout to become a tree or shrub (Eubanks and Meadows 

2002). 
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Chapter 3: The Art and Science of Restoration

Bioengineering applies many of the principles of 

restoration discussed elsewhere in this guide, such as how to 

assess slope stability, how to choose and handle plant species, 

and how to work with soil. A few considerations more 

specific to successful bioengineering applications are 

outlined here (Potash and Aubry 1997).

Remember to have a clear understanding of the situation 

you are treating in wilderness. Bioengineering generally is 

used to address slope and bank failures, often due to human 

disturbances such as impoundments. Bioengineering applications can be integrated into the construction of trail crib 

walls to strengthen the trail. Wilderness restoration projects 

rarely seek to restore a natural slope failure unless private 

property values are at risk. 

Geology, Soils, and Hydrology

The hydrologist, geologist, or geomorphologist on your 

team should help with the site assessment and project design. 

Geologic history, types of sediment deposits, evidence of past 

slides, and soil type and depth are taken into consideration. 

Excess water needs to be drained or diverted away from 

the project. Drainage patterns are noted and the possibilities 

for redirecting the flow of water are assessed. 

Backfill material must allow for free drainage; coarsegrained granular material is best. It should have enough fines 

and organic material to support the selected plant species. 

However, the system’s design also must take structural 

strength into account. 

A bioengineering treatment will fail unless the cause of 

the damage has been addressed. For example, a steep 

undercut or a slumping bank requires earthwork to remove 

the slope overhang and round the slope for stability. With 

bank erosion, the toe of the slope is often compromised. 

Treatment methods must anchor the toe of the structure with 

rock, root wads, or rolled mat logs.

Vegetation Used for Bioengineering

Limit the removal of existing vegetation at the project 

site. Tree and shrubby plant species used for bioengineering 

are selected for their ability to resprout from cuttings, 

develop strong root systems, and survive in a riparian 

environment with floods, slides, and erosion. Selecting plants 

with a variety of root structures will help stabilize slopes (see 

section 3.10.2, Plant Selection for Restoration Projects). 

Table 3–8 lists a number of plant species well suited to 

bioengineering applications in the Western United States, 

based on the criteria that they root readily.

Generally, the plant materials used to build structures 

are gathered as cuttings from local sources (see section 

3.10.1, Genetic Considerations for Restoration Projects). 

Take advantage of any opportunities to salvage plant material 

from nearby projects, such as trail relocations. Cuttings are 

best collected in the fall at the onset of plant dormancy, in the 

winter as long as the ground remains unfrozen, or in the early 

spring before dormancy is broken. Refer to the section on 

plant propagation techniques for proper handling of cuttings. 

Additional plants, such as sedges or forbs, may be incorporated into plantings. Often, these plantings are grown ahead 

of time in a greenhouse. The use of transplanted wildlings or 

direct seeding also may be incorporated into plantings.

Ideally, the project will be implemented during the fall, 

winter, or spring when the plant material can be collected 

fresh in its dormant stage. If this timing is not feasible, it may 

be necessary to use rooted cuttings, raising project costs.
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3.4.9a Selecting and Installing 

Bioengineered Structures

The structures included in this section are just a small 

sample of those that are available. These structures were 

chosen for their appropriateness and ease of application in the 

wilderness setting. Their descriptions were excerpted from A 

Soil Bioengineering Guide for Streambank and Lakeshore 

Stabilization (Eubanks and Meadows 2002). That report 

 Scientific name Common name Root structure

Acer circinatum Vine maple Fibrous, rooting at nodes

Baccharis glutinosa Seepwillow Deep and wide spreading, fibrous

Baccharis pilularis Coyote brush Fibrous

Baccharis salicifolia Water wally Deep and wide spreading, fibrous

Baccharis viminea Mulefat baccharis Fibrous

Cephalanthus occidentalis Button bush 

Cornus sericea ssp. sericea Redosier dogwood Shallow

Lonicera involucrata Black twinberry Fibrous and shallow

Physocarpus capitatus Pacific ninebark Shallow, lateral

Populus angustifolia Narrowleaf cottonwood Shallow

Populus balsamifera Balsam popular Deep, fibrous

Populus deltoides Eastern cottonwood Shallow, fibrous, suckering

Populus fremontii Fremont dogwood Shallow, fibrous

Populus trichocarpa Black cottonwood Deep and wide spreading, fibrous

Rosa gymnocarpa Baldhip rose 

Rosa nutkana Nootka rose 

Rubus idaeus ssp. strigosus Red raspberry Fibrous

Rubus spectabilis Salmonberry Fibrous

Salix ssp. Willow species 

Sambucus cerulea ssp. mexicana Mexican elder

Sambucus racemosa Red elderberry 

Spirea douglasii Douglas spirea Fibrous, suckering

Symphoricarpos albus Snowberry Shallow, fibrous, freely suckering

Viburnum lentago Nannyberry 

Table 3–8—Riparian plant species of the Western United States that are effective in bioengineering applications (Eubanks and Meadows 2002).

describes 24 structures that can be used alone or in combinations to address a wide variety of impacts. Refer to their 

report if your project involves a complex situation. The 

information excerpted in this guide is for treating small 

problems. The final structure included in this section, the 

woven checkdam, is from Groundwork: A Handbook for 

Erosion Control in Northern Coastal California (1987), by 

Liza Prunuske.
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Chapter 3: The Art and Science of Restoration

2.5–4'

2 by 4 lumber Saw a 2 by 4 diagonally to 

produce two dead stout stakes.

Figure 3–61—Dead stout stakes, cut from 2 by 4s (about 50 by 100 

millimeters), are used in many soil bioengineering techniques to anchor 

branches or erosion control blankets, and to anchor erosion control 

blanket logs to the bank. (Eubanks and Meadows 2002).

Loppers (to cut plant stems)

Hand pruners (to trim branches)

Pruning saws (to cut live posts)

Untreated twine (to tie cuttings into bundles)

Burlap bags moistened and lined with wet leaves or 

mulch (to protect cuttings)

Grub hoe (to dig trenches or reshape slopes)

McLeod rake (to grub, reshape, or rake)

Shovel (to dig holes and salvage plants)

Small sledgehammer or mallet (to drive stakes)

Small blocks of wood (to protect the top of live stakes 

when they are being pounded)

36-inch (about 910-millimeter) pieces of rebar (to drive 

pilot holes)

Chisel-tipped pry bar (to open a pilot hole in softer 

soils)

Dead stout stakes (to secure structures, figure 3–61 and 

table 3–9)

Crosscut saw or chain saw (to construct live cribwall)

Spikes (to secure cribwall members)

Erosion-control blankets, such as coconut-fiber matting 

(to build structures or cover loose slopes)

Come-along and chokers (to manipulate large logs)

Log carriers (to transport smaller logs)

Seed spreader (to distribute native seed)

Tools and Supplies for Installing 

Bioengineered Structures

Table 3–9—Recommended lengths of stakes.

Stake length

 Soil type Feet Meters

 Clay 2.5 0.76

 Silt 3.0 0.91

 Sand 4.0 1.22

 Loam 2.5 0.76
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Chapter 3: The Art and Science of Restoration

Figure 3–62—Live stakes create a living root mat (Eubanks and Meadows 2002). OHW stands for ordinary high water. 

Live Stakes

Live stakes (figure 3–62) create a living root mat that 

stabilizes the soil by reinforcing it and extracting excess 

moisture. Most willow species develop roots rapidly and 

begin drying out excessively wet banks soon after the 

willows have been planted. Live, vegetative cuttings that can 

be rooted are inserted or tamped into the ground. If a live 

stake is prepared, handled, and placed correctly, it will root 

and grow.

Applications for Live Stakes

Use stakes in the wetted zone of banks or where precipitation is likely to keep the soil moist during growing seasons.

Live stakes can:

• Be used where site conditions are uncomplicated, construction time is limited, and an 

inexpensive method of stabilization is needed.

• Repair small earth slips and slumps that get wet 

frequently.
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Chapter 3: The Art and Science of Restoration

• Enhance the performance of geotextile fabric 

by serving as pegs to hold the fabric down.

• Enhance conditions for natural colonization of 

vegetation from the surrounding plant community.

• Produce streamside habitat.

• Be used with other bioengineering techniques, 

such as live fascines (long bundles of branch 

cuttings). 

Materials for Live Stakes

The stakes generally are 1 to 2 inches (about 25 to 51 

millimeters) in diameter and 2 to 3 feet (610 to 910 millimeters) long. The specific site requirements and available 

sources of cuttings will determine the sizes.

• Remove the side branches, leaving the bark 

intact.

• Cut the basal ends at an angle or a point so they 

can be inserted into the soil easily. The top 

should be cut square.

• Install materials the same day that they are 

prepared.

• Place stakes in locations that are appropriate for 

the particular species. For example, along many 

western streams, tree-type willow species are 

placed on the inside curves of point bars where 

they are likely to be inundated, while shrubtype willow species are planted on the outside 

curves of point bars where they are not likely to 

be inundated as long.

Installing Live Stakes

• Insert stakes with the buds up.

• Install live stakes 2 to 3 feet (610 to 910 

millimeters) apart, using triangular spacing. 

The density of the installation will range from 

two to four stakes per square yard. Site variations may require slightly different spacing. The 

spacing pattern should allow for a fluctuating 

water level. The installation may be started at 

any point on the slope face. 

• Install four-fifths of the length of the live stake 

into the ground and firmly pack the soil around 

the stake after installation.

• Remove and replace any stakes that split during 

installation.

• In firm soil, use an iron bar to make a pilot hole 

(Hoag and others 2001).

• Dig in live stakes unless the soil is fine and 

loose. Tamped-in stakes are likely to split or 

have their bark damaged by hammering or by 

the hard, rocky soils they’re driven into. 

• Install the live stake at an angle slightly 

downstream.

• Tamp the stake into the ground with a deadblow hammer (head is filled with shot or sand).

• Install geotextile fabric (optional) on slopes subject 

to erosion. Install the stakes through the fabric.

• Plant stakes on banks that will be moist during 

the growing season or install longer stakes that 

will reach the water level during the dry season.

Live stakes do not increase soil stability until they begin 

rooting. Over time, they provide excellent soil reinforcement. 

To reduce the possibility that a bank might fail before the 

roots establish themselves, cover installations with a layer of 

long straw mulch topped with jute mesh or, in more critical 

areas, a geotextile fabric.

Live Posts

Live posts (figure 3–63) form a permeable revetment 

(retaining wall). They reduce stream velocities, allowing 

sediment to be deposited in the treated area. Their roots help 

to stabilize the bank. Dormant posts are made of large 

cuttings installed in streambanks in square or triangular 

patterns (see figure 3–60). Posts at spacings of about 4 feet 

(1.2 meters) also can provide some benefits by deflecting 

higher streamflows and trapping sediment, even if the posts 

do not root successfully. 
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Chapter 3: The Art and Science of Restoration

Figure 3–63—Live posts reduce stream velocities, allowing sediment to be deposited (Eubanks and Meadows 2002). OHW stands for ordinary 

high water.

Applications for Live Posts

Live posts:

• Are well-suited to smaller streams that do not 

have a lot of gravel. If high flows and ice are a 

problem, posts can be cut low to the ground.

• Can be used with other soil bioengineering 

techniques.

• Can be installed by a variety of methods, 

including using a waterjet stinger (Hoag and 

others 2001) to form planting holes or by 

driving the posts directly with machinemounted rams. Place a metal cap on top of the 

post when it is being pounded into the ground.
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Figure 3–65—This cutaway view shows branches laid into trenches that 

contour the slope (Eubanks and Meadows 2002). OHW stands for ordinary 

high water.

Figure 3–64—With brush layering, live branches are inserted into trenches 

roughly perpendicular to the slope. Normally, dormant branches are used. 

They are shown here with leaves so it is clear how the branches are oriented (Eubanks and Meadows 2002).

Effectiveness of Live Posts

Live posts:

• Quickly reestablish riparian vegetation.

• Enhance conditions for colonization by native 

species.

• Repair themselves. For example, posts damaged 

by beavers often develop multiple stems. 

Materials for Live Posts

Live posts can be from 7 to 20 feet (2 to 6 meters) long 

and from 3 to 6 inches (about 76 to 152 millimeters) in 

diameter. Avoid overharvesting posts from one plant or one 

area. Select a plant species that will root readily and that is 

appropriate to the site conditions. Willow and poplar posts 

have been successful.

Installing Live Posts

• Taper the bottom end of the post so it will be 

easier to insert into the ground.

• Trim off all the side branches and the apical 

(top) bud.

• Dip the top end of the post into a mixture of 

equal parts of water and white latex paint. The 

paint helps mark the end that goes up and helps 

retain moisture in the post after it has been 

installed.

Brush Layering

Brush layering is the technique of laying cuttings on 

horizontal benches that follow the contour of an existing or 

filled bank (slope). Brush layers provide shallow stability for 

slopes.

The cuttings are oriented more or less perpendicular to 

the slope face as shown in figures 3–64, 3–65, and 3–66. The 

portion of the brush that protrudes from the slope face helps 

slow runoff and reduce surface erosion. When brush layering 

is used on a fill slope, it is similar to the use of vegetated 

geogrids without the geotextile fabric.

Brush layering does not work on the outside of bends 

and may direct current between the brush layers, washing out 

the soil there.
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• Traps debris on the slope.

• Aids infiltration on dry sites.

• Adjusts the site’s microclimate, aiding seed 

germination and natural regeneration. 

• Can be used to treat a gully (figure 3–67).

Figure 3–66—Brush layering can be used to repair an alcove where the 

bank has washed away (Eubanks and Meadows 2002). 

Applications for Brush Layering and 

Their Effectiveness

Brush layering:

• Breaks up the slope into a series of shorter 

slopes separated by rows of brush layers.

• Dries excessively wet sites.

• Works where the toe of the slope is not disturbed.

• Works on a slump and as a patch. 

• Reinforces the soil with the unrooted branch 

stems.

• Reinforces the soil as roots develop, adding 

significant resistance to prevent the soil from 

sliding or experiencing shear displacement.

Figure 3–67—A gully can be treated with brush layering. Drawings courtesy of Lisa Lewis (Lewis and Ogg 1996).

Installing Brush Layering

Brush layering can be installed on an existing or filled 

slope. On an existing slope, a bench is cut 2 to 3 feet (610 to 

910 millimeters) deep and angled slightly down into the 

slope. On a fillslope, brush layers are laid into the bank as it 

is filled.
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Live Cribwalls

A live cribwall is used to rebuild a bank that is nearly 

vertical (figure 3–68). The cribwall consists of a boxlike 

interlocking arrangement of untreated log or timber members. The structure is filled with rock at the bottom and with 

soil beginning at the ordinary high-water mark or water level 

when the stream is bankfull. Layers of live branch cuttings 

root inside the crib structure and extend into the slope. Once 

the live cuttings root and become established, vegetation 

gradually takes over the structural functions of the wood 

members. Live cribwalls should be tilted back if the system is 

built on an evenly sloped surface.

Applications for Live Cribwalls

Live cribwalls are:

• Appropriate at the base of a slope where a low 

wall may be required to stabilize the toe of the 

slope and to reduce its steepness.

• Appropriate above and below the water level 

where stable streambeds exist.

• Useful where space is limited and a more 

vertical structure is required.

• Useful in maintaining a natural streambank 

appearance.

• Useful for controlling bank erosion on fastflowing streams.

Effectiveness of Live Cribwalls

Live cribwalls are:

• Complex and expensive.

• Effective on the outside bends of streams where 

currents are strong.

• Effective in locations where an eroding bank 

may eventually form a split channel. 

Figure 3–68—Installing live crib walls (Eubanks and Meadows 2002). OHW stands for ordinary high water.
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Chapter 3: The Art and Science of Restoration

• An excellent way of providing habitat.

• A way of providing long-term stability and 

immediate protection from erosion.

Live Materials for Cribwalls

Live branch cuttings should be from 0.5 to 2.5 inches (13 

to 64 millimeters) in diameter and long enough to reach the 

back of the wooden crib structure.

Inert Materials for Cribwalls

• Logs or untreated timbers should range from 4 

to 6 inches (100 to 150 millimeters) in diameter. 

Lengths will vary with the size of the crib 

structure.

• Large nails or reinforcement bars are required 

to tie the logs or timbers together. 

• Fill rock should be 6 inches (150 millimeters) in 

diameter.

Installing Live Cribwalls

• Excavate the base of the streambank from 2 to 

3 feet (610 to 910 millimeters) below the 

existing streambed, creating a stable foundation 

from 5 to 6 feet (1.5 to 1.8 meters) wide.

• Excavate the back of the stable foundation 

closest to the slope from 6 to 12 inches (150 to 

310 millimeters) lower than the front of the 

foundation to make the structure more stable.

• Place the first course of logs or timbers at the 

front and back of the excavated foundation, 

about 4 to 5 feet (1.2 to 1.5 meters) apart and 

parallel to the slope.

• Place the next course of logs or timbers at right 

angles (perpendicular to the slope) on top of the 

previous course, overhanging the front and back 

of the previous course by 3 to 6 inches (about 

80 to 150 millimeters). Each course of the live 

cribwall is placed in the same manner and 

secured to the preceding course with nails or 

reinforcement bars.

• Place rock fill in the openings in the bottom of 

the crib structure until it reaches the existing 

elevation of the streambed. In some cases, rocks 

need to be placed in front of the structure for 

added toe support, especially in outside stream 

meanders. A log revetment may be an alternative to a rock toe.

• Place the first layer of cuttings on top of the 

rock material at the base-flow water level. 

Change the rock fill to soil fill at this point. 

Ensure that the basal ends of some of the 

cuttings contact undisturbed soil at the back of 

the cribwall.

• Place live branch cuttings at each course with 

their buds oriented toward the stream. Place the 

basal ends of the live branch cuttings so that 

they reach undisturbed soil at the back of the 

cribwall with the growing tips protruding 

slightly past the front of the cribwall. Cover the 

cuttings with soil and compact the soil. Wet 

each soil layer.

• Use an engineering analysis to determine the 

appropriate dimensions. The live cribwall 

structure, including the section below the 

streambed, should not be more than 7 feet high 

(about 2 meters).

• Do not make a single constructed unit any 

longer than 20 feet (about 6 meters).

Live Fascines or Wattles

A fascine is a long bundle of branch cuttings bound 

together to form a cylindrical structure. Live fascines (figures 

3–69a and 69b) help control surface erosion. Roots from 

sprouted fascines help stabilize the bank. Fascines should be 

placed in a shallow contour trench on a dry slope and at an 

angle on a wet slope to reduce erosion and shallow sliding.
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Figure 3–69b—The fascines are long bundles of branch cuttings. Drawing courtesy of Lisa Lewis (Lewis and Ogg 1996).

Figure 3–69a—Installing live fascines (Eubanks and Meadows 2002). OHW stands for ordinary high water.
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Applications for Live Fascines

• Install fascines above the ordinary high-water 

(OHW) mark or the water level when the stream 

is bankfull, except along small drainage areas 

(less than 2,000 acres, or about 809 hectares).

• Install fascines between the high- and low-water 

marks on the bank in arid climates.

Effectiveness of Fascines

Fascines:

• Trap and hold soil on a streambank using small 

dam-like structures to create a series of short 

slopes.

• Protect slopes from shallow slides up to 1 or 2 

feet (300 to 610 millimeters) deep.

• Require soil moisture or regular precipitation 

during the growing season.

• Cause minimal site disturbances when properly 

installed.

• Offer immediate protection from surface erosion.

• Enhance conditions for colonization of native 

vegetation by stabilizing the surface and 

creating a microclimate conductive to plant 

growth.

• Serve to facilitate drainage when installed at an 

angle.

Live Materials for Live Fascines

Cuttings must be from species (such as young willows or 

shrub dogwoods) that root easily and have long, straight 

branches.

• Tie cuttings that are 1⁄2 to 11⁄2 inches (13 to 38 

millimeters) in diameter together to form live 

fascine bundles that are 5 to 10 feet (1.5 to 3.1 

meters) long or longer, depending on site 

conditions and handling limitations.

• Stagger the cuttings in the bundle so that the 

tops are evenly distributed throughout the 

length of the live fascine. The completed 

bundles should be 6 to 8 inches (about 150 to 

200 millimeters) in diameter.

• Ensure that the live stakes anchoring the fascine 

are at least 21⁄2 feet (760 millimeters) long.

• Table 3–10 has spacing recommendations for 

live fascines.

Inert Materials for Live Fascines

• Use untreated twine to tie the fascines.

• Use dead stakes. Make stout, dead stakes from 

1⁄2- to 4-foot- (0.15- to 1.22-meter-) long, sound, 

untreated, 2- by 4-inch- (50- by 100-millimeter-) 

lumber. Cut each board diagonally across the 4-

inch (100-millimeter) face to make two stakes. 

Use only sound lumber. Discard any stakes that 

shatter when they are installed.

Installing Live Fascines

• Prepare the live fascine bundle and live stakes 

immediately before installation. If possible, 

have a fascine-tying team, a digging team, and 

a fascine-laying team. Team members can do 

double duty; all members must know their roles 

ahead of time.

• Jam the ends of fascines together, for longer 

fascines, before placing them into the trench.

* Not recommended alone.

Table 3–10—Spacing for live fascines.

Soils

Slope steepness Fill Erosive Nonerosive

 ft (m) ft (m) ft (m)

Flatter than 3:1 3 to 5 5 to 7 3 to 5 

 (0.9 to 1.5) (1.5 to 2.1) (0.9 to 1.5) 

Steeper than 3:1 3* 3 to 5 Not 

 (0.9) (0.9 to 1.5) recommended
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• Begin at the base of the slope, marking contours 

before digging.

• Excavate a trench on the contour about 10 

inches (about 250 millimeters) wide and 10 

inches (about 250 millimeters) deep.

• Excavate trenches up the slope at 3- to 5-foot 

(0.9- to 1.5-meter) intervals. Where possible, 

place one or two rows of fascines over the top of 

the slope to break up sheet runoff.

Erosion-Control Blanket Logs

Make your own logs out of erosion-control blankets. 

These logs can reinforce a streambank without much site 

disturbance. Each log is 1 to 2 feet (310 to 610 millimeters) in 

diameter and made out of erosion-control blankets or jute, 

straw, and lengths of branch cuttings (figure 3–70). The logs 

are placed along streambanks to armor them. They can be 

from a few feet long up to 100 feet (31 meters) long. 

Applications for Erosion-Control Blanket Logs

• Make logs in the field (figure 3–71) to meet 

needs on the site.

• Apply logs at the ordinary high-water mark or 

the water level when the stream is bankfull.

• Stack logs to cover more of the bank; on smaller 

streams a single string of logs may suffice.

• String logs together along the banks, overlapping logs and molding them to the curvature of 

the streambank.

• Plant logs with rooted stock, sedges, and other 

plants between the logs and the bank.

Figure 3–70—Live fascines rolled into erosion-control blankets can be 

used as “logs” to stabilize erosion along streambanks (Eubanks and Meadows 2002).

Figure 3–71—Erosion-control blanket logs are prepared by rolling out the 

erosion-control blanket, adding a layer of loose straw, and rolling a live 

fascine into the blanket. 
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Effectiveness of Erosion-Control Blanket Logs

Erosion-control blanket logs:

• Armor the toe of the bank effectively while 

plants take root.

• Protect slopes from shallow slides or from being 

undermined, while trapping sediment that encourages plant growth within and behind the log.

• Retain moisture in the log, which aids vegetative growth.

• Provide an inexpensive method for stabilizing 

banks.

Live Materials for Erosion-Control Blanket Logs

• Collect straight branch cuttings, 0.5 to 1 inch 

(13 to 25 millimeters) in diameter and from 4 to 

7 feet (1.2 to 2.1 meters) long, from species that 

root easily from cuttings (such as willow, 

dogwood, and cottonwood).

• Use live stakes.

Inert Materials for Erosion-Control Blanket Logs

Inert materials that will be needed to install erosioncontrol blanket logs include:

• Straw.

• Untreated twine to tie the logs as they are made. 

• Cable and duckbill anchors.

• 5⁄

16-inch (8-millimeter) cable and cable clips. 

• Coconut and jute mat—sold by the square foot 

in rolls 8 feet (2.4 meters) wide and up to 1,000 

feet (304 meters) long. Mesh with openings of 

3⁄

8 to 1⁄2 inch (10 to 13 millimeters) has been 

used successfully. 

Use stout, dead stakes to secure the log. Make stout, 

dead stakes from sound, untreated, 2- by 4-inch (50- by 100-

millimeter) lumber that is 2 1⁄

2 to 4 feet (about 0.8 to 1.2 

meters) long. Cut each stake diagonally across the 4-inch 

(100-millimeter) face to make two stakes. Use only new, 

sound lumber. Discard any stakes that shatter when they are 

being installed.

Installing Erosion-Control Blanket Logs

• Cut the mat to the length required for each 

segment plus 2 feet (610 millimeters). The mat 

will be 8 feet (2.4 meters) wide.

• Lay the mat flat and cover it with a layer of 

straw, leaving 1 foot (310 millimeters) of mat at 

each end of the 8-foot (2.4-meter) edge uncovered. 

• Place the cuttings lengthwise along one long 

edge, three to four stems together. 

• Fold the empty edges inward, along the 8-foot 

(2.4-meter) border, onto the straw.

• Roll up the mat, starting at the edge opposite 

the cuttings.

• Tie the roll in several places to secure its shape. 

Use twine or loose coconut strands from the 

matting as ties.

• Place the log in position on the streambank at 

the average water level with the cuttings against 

the bank. 

• Start at the downstream end of a section of logs. 

Place the first log and overlap it with the next 

one by 11⁄

2 feet (460 millimeters). Overlap the 

logs so that the new log is on the stream side of 

the original log. One log about 70 to 100 feet 

(21 to 31 meters) long is stronger than several 

shorter logs.

• Secure the log with cable spaced every 2 to 21⁄2 

feet (610 to 760 millimeters). Wrap the cable 

around the log and secure the cable by driving a 

duckbill into the bank. Be sure the anchor is in 

firm soil.

• Drive live stakes through the log to help anchor 

it and to add more plant material.

• Use stout, dead stakes, if desired, to anchor the 

log in placid settings.

• Key in the upstream and downstream ends.
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Trench Packs

Trench packs act to break the force of moving water and 

to trap sediment. They are deciduous branch cuttings placed 

vertically in trenches or holes (figure 3–72). Plant cuttings 

should be selected from the same zone in which they will be 

planted, such as at the stream’s edge, on the bank, or on the 

floodplain.

Applications for Trench Packs

• Install trench packs at the ordinary high-water 

mark or the level of the water when the stream 

is bankfull to stabilize the toe of slopes and to 

provide good fish habitat.

• Use trench packs on lakeshores to reduce 

erosion caused by wind and waves.

• Use trench packs in gullies to catch sediment.

Figure 3–72—Installing trench packs (Eubanks and Meadows 2002). OHW stands for ordinary high water.
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Chapter 3: The Art and Science of Restoration

Figure 3–73—Installing woven checkdams. Drawing courtesy of Susan 

Pinkerton (Prunuske 1987). 

Effectiveness of Trench Packs

Trench packs:

• Trap sediment.

• Reduce the velocity of wind and water.

• Provide a good barrier for rooted stock.

• Dry excessively wet sites through evapotranspiration (pumping water through the roots to the 

leaves and into the air).

• Reinforce soil with unrooted branch cuttings. 

Deep roots help keep the soil from sliding and 

help keep the bank from sloughing.

• Enhance conditions for colonization of native 

vegetation by creating a stable surface and a 

microclimate conducive to plant growth.

Live Materials for Trench Packs

Use live deciduous material about 1 to 11⁄2 inches (25 to 

38 millimeters) in diameter, known for its good rooting structure. Leave side branches attached. Mix different species, if 

appropriate.

Use cuttings that are long enough to reach the water level 

during the dry season.

For fall planting, branches should extend 2 to 3 feet (610 

to 910 millimeters) above the ground to provide immediate 

bank protection. The following spring, trim the branches 

back to two buds above the ground, stimulating root growth.

For spring planting, branches should not extend more 

than 12 inches (305 millimeters) above the ground and 

branches should not have more than two buds.

Inert Materials for Trench Packs

• Augment the pack with dead material, such as 

conifer branches, if live plants will not provide 

enough structural stability before they root.

• Plant branches 3 to 4 feet (0.91 to 1.22 meters) 

deep if the planting is subjected to moving, 

erosive water. In other situations, at least onehalf the length of the cutting should be in the 

ground.

Installing Trench Packs

• Dig a hole or trench 12 to 24 inches (305 to 610 

millimeters) wide to the water level of the 

stream or lake during the dry season. Although 

the trench can be of any length, the ends of the 

trench must be tied into something solid or 

keyed into the bank.

Woven Checkdams

Woven checkdams are constructed of woody stem 

material that will sprout and form a live structure (figure 3–

73). The ends of each stem are toed into the channel bottom 

and banks (Prunuske 1987).
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Applications for Woven Checkdams

Checkdams: 

• Allow water to move through the checkdam.

• Are used for gullies where storm flows have 

been diverted.

• Are used for gullies where the channel is cut 

deeper than needed for extreme storm flows.

Effectiveness of Woven Checkdams

Checkdams: 

• Trap sediment.

• Slow water and wind.

• Enhance conditions for colonization of native 

vegetation by creating a stable surface and a 

microclimate conducive to plant growth.

Live Materials for Woven Checkdams

• Use live, dormant deciduous material known for 

its good rooting structure. 

• Install materials the same day that they are 

prepared.

• Vertical stakes should be at least 3 inches (76 

millimeters) in diameter (larger for a tall dam), 

and 21⁄2 times longer than the desired height of 

the checkdam. Use cuttings long enough to 

reach the water level during the dry season. Cut 

the basal ends at an angle or point so they can 

be inserted into the soil easily. The top should 

be cut square.

• Horizontal cuttings should be at least 1⁄4 inch (6 

millimeters) in diameter and 12 inches (305 

millimeters) longer than the width of gully 

being repaired.

Installing Woven Checkdams

• Excavate a key 6 to 8 inches (150 to 200 millimeters) deep into the sides of the gully.

• Strip the vertical stakes of all their side branches.

• Drive vertical stakes into the gully bottom with 

60 to 80 percent of each stake anchored underground.

• Weave horizontal cuttings between the vertical 

stakes, inserting 6 inches (150 millimeters) of 

the horizontal stakes at either end into the key.

• Fill the key with compacted soil after the stakes 

have been woven.

• Because water will flow through the dam, 

structures to dissipate energy are not needed. 

Add an apron if substantial flow is anticipated.

3.5 Using Soil Binders

Soil binders, also called tackifiers, aggregate the top 

layer of the soil to reduce dust and prevent surface erosion. 

The slurry used in soil binders is made from wood products, 

plaster, petroleum, or other materials. Seed can be mixed into 

the slurry for hydroseeding. Soil binders commonly are used 

on raw road cutbanks and fill slopes after construction 

projects. They are applied with large motorized sprayers. Soil 

binders typically would not be included in a wilderness or 

backcountry project, because the projects are smaller and 

motorized equipment may not be allowed.

Binders are applied after a project’s earthwork is 

complete. Binders sometimes inhibit water infiltration and 

prevent seeds on the surface from becoming established, 

because they dry up. In such cases, binders could interfere 

with restoration goals (Belnap and Furman 1997). The use of 

soil binders may merit further research as a way of addressing challenging situations.
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Iceberg

Iceberg

Figure 3–74—Icebergs (deeply buried rocks) are an effective tool for 

discouraging overnight use of closed campsites. In this example from the 

Desolation Wilderness, CA, crews artfully selected and placed two rocks 

that blend well with natural patterns, but make the site undesirable for 

camping.

3.6 Using Icebergs

Site preparation includes installing icebergs where they 

are appropriate. Icebergs are large natural objects found at 

your project site, such as rocks or logs, that are buried with 

about one-third of the mass aboveground and at least twothirds belowground. Arrange icebergs so they appear to be 

natural (figure 3–74). 

Icebergs are installed for several reasons—to deter users 

from camping in a restoration site, to shrink a campsite, and 

to provide microsites where vegetation can become established. Logs (figure 3–75) provide habitat for fauna and fungi. 

Although it is more difficult to make artificial snags look 

natural, trees can be buried upright (figure 3–76) to deter use 

on a site. 

It is tempting to install icebergs that have sharp points so 

visitors won’t sit on them. Doing so is counterproductive 

unless the iceberg blends in with the surrounding rock and is 

sunk deeply into the ground. Industrious visitors will simply 

grab hold of the iceberg and yank it out.

Figure 3–75—This punky log looks like it has been at this site in the Desolation Wilderness, CA, forever. My, but that restoration crew is clever!

Figure 3–76—Restoration crews at Olympic National Park, WA, are clever, 

too— the stump in the center of the photo looks like it grew here, but it 

was installed to discourage campers from using this site.

Moving large rocks to make icebergs can be a challenge. 

The U.S. Department of the Interior National Park Service 

moves rock from nearby talus slopes with helicopters (figures 

3–77a and 77b). Primitive methods include using a grip hoist 

or making litters to support the rock so workers are able to 

walk in an upright position while sharing the load (figure 3–

78).
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Figures 3–77a and 77b—At Olympic National Park, WA, helicopters (top) 

have carried talus to harden campsites or close restoration sites (bottom). 

The National Park Service sometimes uses helicopters as the minimum 

tool when managing wilderness.

Figure 3–78—Litters can be improvised to move rock. Grip hoists can be 

used to drag larger rocks, but doing so would damage vegetation. 

Icebergs also can be used to attract use. In places you 

want people to use, a large rock with a flat surface is like a 

piece of furniture (figure 3–79). Lest providing such furniture 

offends your wilderness sensibilities, consider this: the rock 

provides a hardened place for people to sit, set up their camp 

kitchen, or lean their packs. If the rock is within a hardened 

site, this tactic helps concentrate impacts in the impacted 

area. Otherwise, campers are drawn to other nearby rocks or 

trees that will serve the same function, widening the zone of 

impacts.

Figure 3–79—Rock added as “Flintstone furniture” helps confine use 

within the impacted perimeter of designated campsites. Flat rocks can 

serve as a kitchen, a place to sit, or a place to lean backpacks.
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3.7 Site Delineation

Visitors to public lands often are oblivious to the ease 

with which vegetation can be damaged. Visitors may walk, 

sit, camp, and tie up their animals on fragile, vegetated areas. 

Visitors can and will take the shortest or most interesting 

route possible, even when it means leaving hardened surfaces 

that could resist trampling. An important method for subtly—

or not so subtly—channeling use is site delineation (Scott 

1998). Barriers are installed during site preparation because 

installation requires disturbing the area.

3.7.1 Barriers

You can delineate where you would like to keep users 

out (an exclosure). For instance, the rail fence in figure 3–80 

is intended to keep visitors from using a restoration site. Or 

you can delineate where you would like to keep visitors in 

(an enclosure), such as when you define the edges of a 

campsite or trail (figure 3–81). 

The size of the barrier and the materials it is made from 

are intended to match the awareness level of users. Remember minimum requirement principles, because barriers may 

not always seem like a light-handed technique in wilderness. 

In locations with informed users, plantings may be the 

barriers—tree seedlings could block a path, for instance. 

Low-profile barriers, such as a row of rocks that lines trails 

or small-diameter logs (figures 3–82a and 82b) pegged into 

Figure 3–80—Barriers can help keep visitors from using a restoration site. 

This rail fence is near a road pullout at Natural Bridges National Monument, UT. 

Figure 3–81—Rows of rock keep users on the Pacific Crest Trail in the 

John Muir Wilderness, Sequoia-Kings Canyon National Park, CA.

Figure 3–82a and 82b—These low-profile log barriers (top) delineate a trail 

through a closed restoration site. The barriers also serve as silt dams for 

backfilling the restoration sites. Log carriers (bottom) placed underneath 

the log are useful when transporting log barriers.
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place along a trail, are slightly more obtrusive, but will keep 

visitors out of your restoration sites in some areas. With 

enough attention, these barriers can be designed so they are 

not obtrusive (figure 3–83).

Figure 3–83—The rocks and log used to block this social trail in the 

Desolation Wilderness, CA, blend in so well that the average user may not 

notice them.

You may determine that hefty fence-like barriers are 

needed for your visitors. Ruth Scott, a veteran restoration 

practitioner at Olympic National Park, has learned through 

experience that large logs or rocks often are needed to corral 

users. 

3.7.2 String Fences

String fences are commonly used to delineate restoration 

sites. String fences are inexpensive, easy to transport, and 

easy to install. Their height can be adjusted easily by 

changing the length of the stakes. Unfortunately, string 

fences are a high-maintenance item, easily collapsed by snow 

or unknown dark forces. In addition, string fences have a less 

natural appearance than native materials. String fences are 

certainly not a long-term solution for site management. 

However, they are a good short-term fix to funnel use in areas 

where the vegetation will soon take over or when other 

options are not practical.

Figure 3–84—The scene of the crime. String fences can discourage 

visitors from using restoration matting as a seat cushion.

One weekend day, while on patrol at Snow Lake in 

the Alpine Lakes Wilderness, I stepped within earshot of one of our recently closed and treated restoration sites. The site was covered with jute matting 

(figure 3–84) that had plugs of native vegetation 

poking through. A string fence, installed to block the 

site from use, had fallen into disrepair. Two people 

had plunked themselves down in the middle of the 

site to enjoy their picnic lunch. Just as I felt my ire 

rising and I was searching for words of diplomacy, I 

heard the woman in the group say, in a loud shrill 

voice, “Isn’t it nice that they put down a mat so that 

we have a nice clean place to sit?” 

—Lisa Therrell

A Restorationist’s Tale
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If you use a string fence, (figures 3–85a, 85b, and 85c), it 

is best to construct it from parachute cord or heavier cord. 

Stakes need to be made from 1- by 2-inch (25- by 51-

millimeter) lath or bigger material to withstand snow and 

marauders. Small Lexan or Rite-in-the-Rain paper “Restoration Site” signs are available that can be attached to the cord 

with wire (see chapter 5, Tools of the Trade and Other 

Resources, for a source of signs).

3.8 Blending Restoration 

Projects Into 

Wilderness

Some readers may be mortified after reading a discussion of recontouring sites and installing barriers and Flintstone furniture. These techniques seem quite manipulative 

and too structured for many wilderness settings. The challenge is to determine when these techniques really are the 

minimum tool, then designing the project so it blends with 

local landscape features as much as possible. 

Figure 3–85a—While string fences can rope off large expanses or block a 

trail, they require perpetual maintenance.

Figure 3–85b—Small Lexan or Rite-in-the-Rain paper “Restoration Site” 

signs are available that can be attached to the cord with wire.

Figure 3–85c—Specially marked stakes are more durable. 
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3.9 Common Wilderness 

Campsite and Trail 

Problems

Parallel Trails

When parallel trails are not deeply eroded, the unneeded 

trails usually can be obliterated by using plantings, rocks, 

and logs to deter continued use (figure 3–86). The “real” trail 

is left open and improved to correct any problems that may 

have led to the formation of parallel trails. Usually, the 

problem was that the trail was muddy when wet or was too 

rough or narrow to invite continued use.

Digging up and moving surviving vegetation is not 

completely desirable. Do so only if the result seems more 

desirable than leaving the visual lines and erosion channels 

of the parallel trail trenches. 

Human use might be directed onto a relocated trail, 

which contours the slope at a sustainable grade. Alternatively, 

rock or log steps that serve as siltdams could be installed to 

allow the trail to be improved at its original location (figures 

3–87a and 87b). If your trail is used by stock or bicyclists, 

Figure 3–86—If a parallel trail is not deeply eroded, it can be blocked with 

rocks or logs and planted to repair the damage. This trail is in the Eagle 

Cap Wilderness, OR.

With a large enough budget, restorationists could install 

lots of checkdams and backfill parallel trails with imported 

fill, returning them to the original slope contour.

Many Forest Service projects don’t have the funding to 

allow such approaches, and the agency is less likely to use a 

helicopter to support a wilderness restoration project. A 

compromise solution is to create a broad swale by digging up 

and rearranging the raised ridges of vegetation separating 

each parallel trail. 

Figures 3–87a and 3–87b—Several steep, parallel trails (top) plunged 

down an embankment at Snow Lake in the Alpine Lakes Wilderness, WA. 

One trail was hardened by installing rock steps. Other trails (bottom) were 

closed and restored.
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make sure that each step is longer than the length of a horse 

or bicycle, and short enough that a chain sprocket will not 

hang up.

Deeply Eroded Trails

Deeply eroded trails are difficult to erase without 

adequate fill and substantial labor. The permanent scar of the 

old trail—often partially filled with rock or wood chunks to 

slow the movement of water and trap silt—is evidence of 

many trail relocation projects. 

Ideally, checkdams will be installed in the old trail and 

backfilled at ground level. If surface erosion is being directed 

toward the trail, it may be possible to trap additional sediment behind checkdams.

In forested or brushy areas, a compromise solution 

would be to stabilize the trail with lower angle checkdams 

and backfill, then to design the vegetative treatment to 

include some taller plants that will break up the visual effect 

of the trench. If the trail includes large step-downs caused by 

headcutting, the slope angle will need to be laid back. If the 

project location supports riparian vegetation, a bioengineering treatment—such as the trench pack—might help. If the 

trail cannot be treated successfully, give serious consideration to hardening the trail.

Trails That Contour

Sometimes a trail that contours is slated for restoration. 

If the trail has had little or no erosion, pull the berm or fill at 

the outer edge of the trail back into the tread as much as 

possible. If the trail is more deeply eroded, determine 

whether it is more effective to pull the berm in—exposing a 

large raw area but reestablishing the contour—or to use a 

series of checkdams and backfill. If the tread remains 

incised, be sure to include drain dips or waterbars as you 

would for a system trail. Controlling ongoing erosion by 

directing water off the trail will be important to the project’s 

success.

Excavated Campsites

Some campsites have an excavated cutbank where the 

site was carved into the hillside. If the fill is still available on 

the downhill edge of the site, it can be moved back into the 

cut. Logs or rock can be arranged to stabilize the new 

contour. Without treatment, many sites will continue to erode 

back into the slope because of rodent activity or wind action.

Eroded Campsites

A site on a slope might continue to erode from water, 

wind, human use, or even animal activity. Checkdams or 

siltbars can be installed to stabilize the slope in shallow 

benches and fan out running water (figure 3–88) to slow it 

down. Be sure to evaluate whether the water should be 

directed away from the uphill side of the site. For example, a 

well-placed drain on the trail accessing the site may prevent 

water from coursing through the site. This same approach 

can be used to stabilize a campsite you wish to keep open for 

use, leaving large enough flat areas to serve as tent pads. As 

with an excavated campsite, if erosion is continuing to eat 

back into a slope, design a way to stabilize the erosion, such 

as laying rock or organic debris against the eroding cut.

Figure 3–88—Rocks and logs used as low-angle siltbars stabilize the tent 

space on this campsite at Lake Mary in the Alpine Lakes Wilderness, WA.
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3.10 Plant Selection, 

Collection, and 

Propagation 

Techniques

This portion of the guide lays out the factors to consider 

when you are selecting the plant species to treat restoration 

sites, the manner in which you collect the plant material, and 

the propagation methods you might employ. The botanist or 

plant ecologist (figures 3–89a and 89b) on your team will 

help you through this process. This guide focuses on the 

Figure 3–89a—You will appreciate the help of the botanist or plant ecologist on your team when you need to identify and select appropriate plant 

species for a restoration treatment. 

Figure 3–89b—“Dang, these sedge flowers have small plant parts!” Drawings 

courtesy of the University of Washington Press (Hitchcock and Cronquist 

1976).

Carex nigricans
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Figure 3–90—Rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus spp.) in Mesa Verde National 

Park, CO.

information needed to do work successfully onsite, as well as 

the knowledge needed to coordinate with a professional 

nursery. Appendix B, Propagation and Establishment 

Requirements for Selected Plant Species, summarizes 

additional species-specific information.

3.10.1 Genetic Considerations for 

Restoration Projects

The design of a restoration project should consider the 

genetic implications of selecting, moving, and propagating 

plant materials. Plant movement guidelines define the area 

over which plant materials, such as seed or cuttings, can be 

collected relative to the project location to assure restoration 

success and maintain the genetic integrity of the local plant 

population. In addition, plant propagation techniques can 

result in an unintentional selection against a portion of the 

total genetic material (certain genotypes) represented in the 

plant material collected for propagation. This section 

explains these concepts and offers suggestions for minimizing changes to the genetic structure of the area being 

restored.

Selecting plant material appropriately increases the probability that the plants will survive, grow to maturity, and 

reproduce with new individuals suited to the local environment. Increasingly, even projects in highly modified environments, such as highway corridors, are using locally adapted 

native plants (Smith 1994).

Most plants are precisely adapted to their immediate 

environment. Many species that are widespread are grouped 

into ecotypes, each of which is adapted to a specifically 

defined ecological situation within one or more subareas of 

the species’ range. Subpopulations are usually continuous, 

but maintain their integrity through ecologically specified 

selection pressures, despite gene flow from the other neighboring “ecological” races (Potash and Aubry 1997). For 

example, western shrub species (figure 3–90) show strong 

ecotypic variation in morphology, growth rate, flowering 

times, cold hardiness, germination patterns, and so on 

(Meyer and Monsen 1992). 

Nonlocal stock, especially of native species, can introduce different maladapted genotypes (the total genetic information contained in the plant) into the gene pool of the local 

plant population. Changes can occur in a number of traits, including plant size and shape, growth rate, seed production, 

and survival. These changes could be temporary or permanent. Too little is known about possible changes in most plant 

species to predict the outcome. The degree to which these 

changes occur depends on the difference between any two 

subareas, such as alpine, subalpine, or lower elevation environments (Guinon 1992; Potash and Aubry 1997).

In wilderness or other remote sites, there is also an 

ethical imperative to maintain the genetic integrity of the 

local plant community. The goal for restorationists should be 

to use locally adapted plant materials that will not change the 

genetic composition of the plant community.

Maintaining genetic integrity is an important planning 

challenge, because specific scientific parameters that could 

be used to define a seed collection zone are not known for 

most plant species. Conifer species are an exception. The 

Forest Service has been refining a seed zone concept for 

conifers since the 1950s. Professional opinions range widely 

regarding just how far other species of plants should be 

moved. For example, some projects have moved plants over 

hundreds of miles based on ecotype (Redente 1993; Smith 
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1994). Other projects collected plant materials from within a 

few feet of the actual site to be treated. 

Some agencies have incorporated plant movement 

guidelines into policy or procedures. Using these policies and 

working with a geneticist is an important starting point in 

deciding species-specific plant movement guidelines. In 

wilderness or other relatively natural settings, err toward 

preventing unwanted genetic movement, rather than going 

farther afield to collect plant materials.

3.10.1a Determining a Local Collection Area

Lacking better information, a local collection area is 

defined as the combined distance that pollen would be likely 

to travel plus the distance that seeds would be dispersed. The 

following considerations will help determine the radius of 

genetic isolation (Albright 1994; Millar 1992). 

The life history of a plant affects genetic diversity. Plants 

that are wind-pollinated, such as conifers (figure 3–91), 

alders, cottonwoods, and graminoids (grasses, rushes, and 

sedges) cross-pollinate over much wider geographic areas 

than plants that are cross-pollinated by insects. For example, 

corn pollen generally travels up to a quarter mile (0.4 kilometer), and can travel much farther, depending on wind patterns. 

Materials from wind-pollinated species can be collected 

from a larger area without affecting genetic diversity. This is 

not the case for materials of plants that self-pollinate or that 

reproduce vegetatively. 

The seed-dispersal mechanism, which is generally easy 

to identify, also has significant bearing on genetic movement. 

Seed that becomes airborne or that is dispersed by animals 

(figure 3–92) is likely to travel farther than seed that falls to 

the ground below the plant or that is transported short distances by ants or rodents. For example, the seed of willows, 

aspen, poplar, and fireweed can be dispersed for at least 1 

mile (1.6 kilometers) by the wind. The heavier seed of paper 

birch, alder, and spruce can be dispersed up to a quarter mile 

(0.4 kilometer, Densmore and Vander Meer 1998).

In some cases, changes in a plant’s morphology (physical 

appearance) based on its location can be observed readily. 

While it is important to collect materials from a variety of 

Figure 3–91—The windblown pollen of conifers such as subalpine fir 

(Abies lasiocarpa, above) distributes genetic material far from the parent 

plant. Drawings courtesy of the University of Washington Press (Hitchcock and Cronquist 1976).

Abies lasiocarpa
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individuals, if morphological changes are based on identifiable ecological or geographic differences, plants morphologically unlike those at the restoration site should be considered 

genetically separate and should not be collected. 

Ecological barriers may restrict genetic movement. 

Identify localized breaks in geology, topography, climate, 

vegetation type, or other ecological extremes. For example, 

genetic information is more likely to remain in a basin (figure 

3–93) than to migrate across ridges. Limit plant collection to 

an area with the same environmental characteristics as the 

project area. The more diverse the local habitat of a plant, the 

greater the local genetic variation (Linhart 1995). 

Figure 3–92—The hooked and sticky seed pods of trail plant (Adenocaulon 

bicolor) travel long distances while stuck to the fur of mammals, distributing genetic material farther than the seed of species that may be blown a 

short distance or that fall to the ground near the plant. Drawings courtesy 

of the University of Washington Press (Hitchcock and Cronquist 1976).

Figure 3–93—Seed or pollen is more likely to remain within a basin than 

to cross ridges.

3.10.1b Preventing Unintentional Selection

Even if collection distances are carefully determined and 

followed, the genetic structure of plants can be changed when 

they are collected for propagation. For instance, too few 

plants could be collected to assure some genetic diversity, or 

the plants that were collected could be too closely related. In 

such situations, propagated plants would run the risk of 

inbreeding depression and subsequent population decline 

(Guinon 1992). 

Plant materials should be gathered from throughout the 

collection area. The collector should be familiar with the 

Adenocaulon bicolor
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Collect from every microhabitat represented at the 

project site. Donor plants should not be selected for uniformity or other characteristics such as heartiness; rather, 

collections should be from individuals that exhibit an array of 

size, growth form, vigor, and so forth. A trait that may appear 

to be undesirable could ultimately be the trait that enables a 

plant to survive in a slightly altered environment. If too few 

plants are available in the collection area, collections should 

be made at other sites by matching donor and project site 

characteristics as closely as possible (Guinon 1992).

The type of plant material collected also will affect the 

genetic outcome. Seed, which is the product of crosspollination, is much more diverse genetically than cuttings or 

plant tissue. Genetic integrity also is maintained by collecting from the wild local population, rather than from offspring 

grown in a nursery or produced through seed-increase 

programs that may cause a genetic shift (Meyer and Monsen 

1992).

Timing of collection also can be a factor in maintaining 

genetic variation. Ripening times of seed can vary on the 

same plant, with each seed lot having different characteristics. When this is the case, seed should be collected at several 

different times (Meyer and Monsen 1992).

Seed handling and germination procedures affect 

survival rates, selecting for and against certain traits. Avoid 

overcleaning seed, which removes smaller seed that may 

differ genetically from seed of average size. Ensure that seed 

is cured and stored properly (more on this in the section on 

handling seed). The best insurance against unintentional 

selection is to use presowing treatments that break dormancy 

completely in every viable seed and then to assure the 

survival of the delicate seedlings. When thinning, do not 

routinely remove the smaller plants; leave plants with a 

variety of sizes and other traits (Meyer and Monsen 1992). 

Ideally, every plant should be saved and used.

Finally, it is important to document where plant materials were collected. This will be considered later when 

evaluating monitoring results. An example of a collection 

documentation sheet is included in appendix E, Forms. Figure 3–94—When collecting seed and other plant materials, consider how 

far genetic material would be likely to travel naturally, and emulate that 

pattern. Here, seed is being collected in the Alpine Lakes Wilderness, WA.

pollination method of each species, in order to surmise how 

far to go to gather individuals likely to be unrelated. Small 

annuals may be unrelated if they are 5 to 11 yards (4.6 to 10 

meters) from each other. Forest trees may need to be 110 to 

220 yards (101 to 201 meters) away to be unrelated (Linhart 

1995). If seed or cuttings are collected from a variety of 

individuals, a minimum of 30 to 50 parent plants are needed 

to help preserve all the genetic options available to the 

population in the project area. If mortality is anticipated at 

any stage of the propagation process, collect from more 

donor plants (Potash and Aubry 1997). An equal amount of 

seed (figure 3–94) or cuttings should be gathered from each 

plant; overcollecting from heavy seed producers can cause a 

genetic shift (Meyer and Monsen 1992). 
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In practice, wilderness restoration practitioners exercise 

caution in limiting the distances they go to collect plant 

material. Mount Rainier National Park collects most of its 

plant material within 200 feet (61 meters) of the project site 

(Rochefort 2002). The Wenatchee River Ranger District of 

the Wenatchee National Forest collects from within the same 

lake basin, up to half a mile (0.8 kilometer) away at the most 

and no more than 200 feet (61 meters) in elevation above or 

below the site to be treated. Care is taken to collect from 

throughout the basin to avoid limiting the gene pool too much 

and to avoid overharvesting individual stands of plants. 

Successive collections are taken when possible, and each 

plant material batch is combined with others of the same 

species to avoid any genetic bias when propagating or 

planting.

3.10.1c Additional Information on Genetic 

Considerations

For more information on genetic considerations for 

restoration projects, refer to the Mt. Baker-Snoqualmie 

National Forest Native Plant Notebook (Potash and Aubry 

1997), Genetic Considerations (Meyer and Monsen 1992), 

and Promoting Gene Conservation Through Seed and Plant 

Procurement (Guinon 1992).

3.10.1d Nonnative Plants, Agronomic 

Varieties, or Native Cultivars

Thinking about the use of nonnative plants or agronomic 

varieties for restoration projects has been evolving. Agronomic varieties and native cultivars have been developed 

from native plants selected for certain desirable traits, such as 

forage value, drought hardiness, tolerance of alkalinity, or 

increased seed production. Some grass species have had 

many agronomic varieties developed from a single species, 

with each variety specially suited to a specific environment. 

Agronomic varieties, as the name suggests, are literally 

farmed, grown in commercial fields to provide a relatively 

abundant, inexpensive source of seed. These varieties, as well 

as nonnative plant species, have been used extensively at a 

landscape scale for many decades, usually to reclaim mines 

or overgrazed range, or to stabilize slopes after wildland fires 

(Aubry and others 2005; Monsen 1975; Owen, no date).

The decision to use nonnative plants, agronomic varieties, native cultivars, or even nonlocal native stock usually is 

based on economy, because these plants are available readily 

at a lower cost per unit—usually per pound (half a kilogram) 

of pure live seed per container—than the cost of propagating 

local native stock. Some have argued that the lower cost of 

nonnative plants is false economy because the purchase cost 

The following example is the summary of a policy developed by a geneticist for a national forest in western Washington based on local ecosystems (Potash and Aubry 1997). 

This policy is a good illustration of applying the principles 

described in this section.

Summary of Guidelines for Native Plant Collection to Ensure Genetic Diversity and Adaptation to Planting Environment

• Collect from 30 to 50 unrelated plants.

• Collect an equal number of seeds or cuttings 

from each plant.

• For upland tree species, collect seed and 

cuttings within (predetermined) seed zones 

and 500-foot (152-meter) bands of elevation 

or not more than 250 feet (76 meters) above 

and below the project site.

• For shrubs, forbs, grasses, and riparian tree 

species, collect seeds and cuttings within 

watersheds and 500-foot (152-meter) bands 

of elevation or not more than 250 feet (76 

meters) above and below the project site.

Native Plant Collection Guidelines for the 

Mt. Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest
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does not include the cost to the ecosystems involved (Dalpiaz 

1994; Kratz and others 1994; Owen, no date). A number of 

the most aggressive pest plants in North America were 

introduced to reclaim erosion or improve forage, including 

kudzu, purple loosestrife, reed canarygrass (figure 3–95), 

African lovegrass, tamarisk, and Scotchbroom. 

Figure 3–95—Reed canarygrass (Phalaris arundinacea) is a native plant 

in North America. It has been bred as an agronomic variety and used extensively for pasture improvement and streambank stabilization. Because it 

has underground tillers, reed canarygrass can spread quickly and become 

invasive, displacing local native plant communities.

To quote a briefing paper from the Rocky Mountain 

Region of the USDA Forest Service, “We do not know the 

impacts of exotic plants on animals, insects, and the soil 

microflora and microfauna” (Kratz and others 1994). 

According to Berger (1993), the introduction of nonindigenous species may disrupt native ecosystems either through 

effects on competition or predation, through the introduction 

of disease vectors, or by affecting mutualistic relationships, 

such as when insect and plant invaders drastically alter 

community structure by displacing native plants. The 

growing body of literature on this topic suggests the following conclusions:

1. Selecting nonlocal native plant material or 

nonlocal native cultivars is potentially the most 

destructive course of action because cross 

pollination and outcrossing are likely to occur, 

“polluting” the gene pool of the local native 

plant community (Kratz and others 1994). 

Selecting nonnatives that are closely related to 

local natives also is a poor choice because of 

the possibility of hybridization.

2. Nonnative species, especially agronomic 

varieties, often will be vigorous for several 

years before declining in numbers (Brown and 

Johnston 1979). A number of studies have 

shown that the introduced species will prevent 

the initial establishment of native plants 

(Amaranthus and others 1993; Schoennagel 

1997). In addition, some introduced species, 

depending on growing conditions, are persistent 

and can outcompete native plant communities. 

For example, red fescue (Festuca rubra) was 

selected for use at Mt. Rainier National Park 

based on the prediction that it would not be 

persistent and would allow natives to invade. 

The fescue was used extensively for erosion 

control before it was discovered that it was 

reproducing both vegetatively and from seed 

and was too invasive to allow natural succession 

(Hingston 1982). 

3. For projects where nonlocal natives are not 

available in sufficient quantity and some other 

plant material must be selected, a sterile, 

nonpersistent, and noninvasive species would be 

the best choice (Keigley 1988; Kratz and others 

1994). In this approach, the introduced species 

often is used as a cover crop to improve soil 

conditions, allowing natives to invade. Restoration research scientist Jayne Belnap advocates 

the use of a cover crop to maintain soil microbial populations on a disturbed site when 
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planting with native stock needs to be delayed. 

Sterile hybrids can help stabilize slopes, 

especially when natives may be slow to establish extensive root systems (Belnap and Furman 

1997). This approach will force the planner to 

do some careful consulting with geneticists, 

plant ecologists, or other restoration practitioners to determine the species and seeding rates 

that might meet these criteria for the project 

location.

The use of annual ryegrass (Lomium multiflorum) as a 

cover crop to implement approach number 3 has worked in 

some cases and failed in others. In Rocky Mountain National 

Park, annual rye was used successfully as a nonpersistent, 

noninvasive cover crop that allowed future transplants of containerized natives onto the disturbed site. The annual rye also 

improved soil moisture retention, available nitrogen, and 

slope stability (Keigley 1988). However, when annual rye was 

seeded after a wildland fire in a sugar pine (Pinus lambertiana) forest type in southern Oregon, the native species 

cover and richness were reduced, with possible long-term 

negative effects on slope stability, productivity, and reestablishment of conifer seedlings (Amaranthus and others 1993). 

For small projects, such as those addressed by this guide, 

it would be uncommon to consider using anything other than 

nonlocal native plants. Larger projects have the potential for 

even greater ecosystem disturbance when they resort to using 

nonnative plant materials. The alternative, which involves 

planning ahead, is to develop adequate sources of appropriate 

native plant material over time. For large-scale projects, this 

would start with defining ecotypes for species of interest, and 

starting large-scale propagation programs such as a seedincrease program to develop an adequate supply of seed for 

project needs. 

Decisions on using nonnative or nonlocal native plant 

stocks depend on the project’s goals. If the goal is to allow 

for the eventual establishment of a native plant community 

that approximates the vegetative mosaic before disturbance, 

local native plant stock should be used. If the goal is merely 

to revegetate an area for other human benefits, it may be 

appropriate to consider using nonnative plants. In designated 

wilderness, where land managers are legally mandated to 

manage for “untrammeled” landscapes, the latter approach 

conflicts with the philosophy of the Wilderness Act of 1964, 

and in some cases, runs counter to agency policy.

3.10.2 Plant Selection for 

Restoration Projects

The process of selecting plants for a restoration project is 

essentially a ecological and horticultural feasibility study that 

begins by selecting a reference site, as described at the start 

of this chapter. Often, the plant community that is desired to 

meet long-term goals for the area is not within immediate 

reach because of any number of limiting factors, including 

environmental conditions, the degree of disturbance at the 

site, continuing patterns of destructive use, difficulties in 

propagation, and budgetary constraints.

The very first consideration is whether natural revegetation might be possible as the minimum tool. This concept 

was described more fully in chapter 2. Natural revegetation 

may be possible, for example, if the soil has a known 

seedbank, if other live plant material could revegetate the 

site, or if the environment is lush and recovers quickly. 

Sometimes plants are not the dominant feature of the 

landscape. The appearance of restoration can be accomplished by other means, such as recontouring and replacing 

missing features (rock, for instance). Vegetation can be 

allowed to recover naturally. This approach can be successful 

in environments such as deserts or alpine fellfields (rocky 

habitats with a cover of low plants on exposed alpine summits and ridges).
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Figure 3–96—Mount Belford (elevation 14,197 feet, 4,327 meters) is 

one of more than 50 Fourteeners in Colorado. The trail is recovering 

naturally after being closed.

The Leadville Ranger District of the San Isabel National 

Forest developed an interesting partnership for managing 

scrambling routes on the Colorado Fourteeners (peaks 

higher than 14,000 feet [4.27 kilometers]). Despite being 

in a “trailless” zone, many of these peaks were scored by 

steep, eroding parallel trails. Volunteers organized by 

the Colorado Fourteeners Initiative (http://www.14ers.

org), are establishing one stable trail to each peak. The 

remaining routes are being obliterated and allowed to 

revegetate naturally (figure 3–96). Wilderness rangers 

have observed limited establishment of native seedlings 

on some of these routes after use has been eliminated.

If your project team decides that natural revegetation is 

infeasible, a vegetative prescription must be developed. 

The botanist or ecologist will help you determine the 

plants that could serve as an appropriate mix for 

restoration. You also should review the scientific 

literature and consult with practitioners who have 

worked with the same plant species or in similar 

environments. The outcome will be the selection of plant 

species, treatment methods, and propagation methods 

“most likely to succeed” in reaching project goals. This 

section lays out one approach for determining the plants 

that will be most successful.

Consider carefully planned experimentation (otherwise 

known as trial and error) to cut losses and learn more 

about successful treatments that can be used in future 

projects.

Wilderness Restoration and the Colorado Fourteeners
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3.10.2a Using the Reference Sites To 

Develop Plant Prescriptions

The vegetative characteristics of the reference site should 

be compared to those of your restoration site. Attributes to 

compare include the species represented, their relative 

abundance, distribution patterns, and age classes. Observe 

the stand structure; note the mix and spatial distribution of 

trees, shrubs, grasses, forbs, lichens, and mosses (figure 3–

97). Note the growth forms of the various species present, 

paying special attention to species that appear to spread 

underground or establish freely from seed. If the site being 

treated is not homogenous, observe the relationship between 

changes in vegetative characteristics and subtle changes in 

site characteristics, such as full sun versus partial shade, or 

changes in slope or aspect. If the reference site itself has been 

disturbed and revegetated, examine how the successional 

transition occurred.

The plant communities found on your reference sites 

serve as a pharmacopeia, from which you can select appropriate plant species for restoration. Conceptually, the process 

goes like this: you want to replace the dominant species 

found on your disturbed-but-revegetated reference site and 

introduce at least some of the dominant species found on 

your undisturbed reference site. Those dominant species may 

be problematic for restoration because of limiting factors or 

challenges in working with the plants themselves. In that 

case, you will identify the early- to mid-seral species that 

lend themselves to propagation and outplanting, even if they 

are not dominant. You also will think about how to restore 

the stand structure so that the site supports an appropriate 

mix of growth forms and mimics a natural appearance, while 

addressing any additional limiting factors and design 

concerns. 

The following four steps will help you translate the plant 

community found on the reference site into a vegetative 

prescription for your restoration site.

1. Investigate the feasibility of propagating 

dominant species found on the disturbedbut-revegetated reference sites—There are a 

couple of ways to identify dominant species. 

Look at species dominance on the reference 

sites you have chosen—which species are 

represented in the greatest numbers? Also look 

at the plant association type—a vegetative 

classification scheme that categorizes dominant 

overstory and understory species. These two 

methods serve as a check-and-balance system 

for species selection. The reference site will 

show you which plants are really there, but the 

plant association type will help you see the site 

in terms of the broader landscape.

Some dominant species may pose challenges 

for propagation and restoration. While it is 

worthwhile to include propagation of these 

species in your prescription, you may not be 

able to rely on their reestablishment. In general, 

Figure 3–97—Learn to recognize vegetative patterns that form separate 

plant communities. Even within a meadow, the vegetation type will change 

based on factors such as slope, aspect, soil depth, and soil moisture. This 

meadow is in the San Juan National Forest, CO.
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upland shrub species are more challenging to 

reestablish than graminoids (grasses, sedges, 

and rushes) and forbs.

2. Investigate the feasibility of propagating 

early- to mid-seral species found on the 

disturbed-but-revegetated reference site—

The theory of vegetative succession is that 

early-seral species (lichens, mosses, graminoids, and some herbaceous plants) develop site 

conditions allowing mid-seral species (herbaceous species and some shrubs) to invade, 

which further develop site conditions allowing 

late-seral species (some shrub species and trees) 

to invade. This is a grossly oversimplified 

textbook example of Type I Succession (Smith 

1980). In reality, your project environment 

could have trees or shrubs that behave as earlysuccessional species. For instance, bitterbrush 

(Purshia tridentata), a shrub, can establish 

itself on loose, bare soils. Your reference site 

has been chosen because, after considering soil 

conditions and other limiting factors, you 

gauged that you could reestablish this vegetative 

condition on your restoration site. If you can’t 

count on reestablishing some of the dominant 

species, you will want to identify appropriate 

early- and mid-seral species to add to the mix. 

A botanist or ecologist can help you identify 

successional patterns at your site. Identify the 

plants that fall into the early-, mid-, and lateseral stages of succession. For some plants, this 

may be general knowledge; if not, examine the 

project area to distinguish between disturbed 

sites with early-seral plant communities 

growing on exposed mineral soil, mid-seral 

communities growing where there is some soil 

development, and late-seral communities (often 

comprised of trees or shrubs). Look for species 

that grow both on disturbed and undisturbed 

sites; a number of practitioners have observed 

that mid-seral species hold promise for restoration, because they survive into the development 

of late-seral communities (Belnap and Furman 

1997; Chambers and others 1984; Chapin 1992). 

Grasses and sedges generally colonize disturbed soils, as do plants that spread from 

stolons or runners (figures 3–98a, 98b, 98c, and 

98d).

Figure 3–98a—Plants that spread underground often can be spotted by 

their trailing habit (plants may be in clumps or even in a line). Such plants 

are early-seral to mid-seral species that make good restoration candidates 

and may be resistant to trampling. Such species include bunchberry (Cornus canadensis).

Figure 3–98b—False lily-of-the-valley (Maianthemum dilatatum), a good 

candidate for restoration projects.
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community, it would be prudent to introduce 

some of the species of your long-term goal, 

favoring mid-seral species that help develop 

conditions that might eventually support lateseral species.

4. Identify the growth forms desired as an 

outcome of restoration (trees, shrubs, forbs, 

graminoids)—While the graminoids and forbs 

are relatively easy to reestablish, they may not 

provide the stand structure represented in your 

reference sites. If your long-term goal is to have 

a mix of species providing ground cover, 

shrubs, and trees, identify the species that will 

move you toward this goal. It may be necessary 

to propagate shrubs from cuttings if seed is not 

readily available. For example, in the subalpine 

tree clumps of the North Cascades, currants 

(Ribes) are well established in the dense shade 

of undisturbed reference sites. The currants 

rarely set fruit, making it necessary to consider 

propagating them from cuttings.

3.10.2b Additional Limiting Factors and 

Design Considerations

Plants also must be selected in light of other ongoing 

problems such as trampling, recompaction, or continuing 

erosion. It is important to identify these potential factors and 

predict the factors that will represent the most difficult 

problems. Refer to appendix A, Treatments To Manage 

Factors Limiting Restoration, for additional advice on 

selecting plant species to help address your project’s constraints. This appendix lists specific plant types and propagation methods used to address a number of extreme conditions 

that make it difficult to reestablish vegetation.

The nature of the disturbance may vary within the 

project area, requiring you to vary the species used for 

restoration. For example, the cut roadbeds may support 

different species than the fill slopes because of the differFigure 3–98c—Twinflower (Linnaea borealis), a good candidate for restoration projects.

Figure 3–98d—Five-leaved bramble (Rubus pedatus), a good candidate for 

restoration projects.

3. Investigate the feasibility of propagating 

dominant species on the reference site, 

especially mid-seral species—As described in 

chapter 1, theories of how plant succession 

takes place differ. One theory, Type III Succession, presumes that once a vegetative stand 

becomes established, it will hold its own against 

“all comers” (Smith 1980), unless the stand is 

disturbed. If we presume this theory applies to 

your reference plant community, and your longterm goal represents a late-successional 
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Chapter 3: The Art and Science of Restoration

ences in soil depth. In arid environments, grasses have deeper 

root systems than shrubs; a grassland that loses soil may 

support nothing but shrubs in the future (Belnap and Furman 

1997).

Addressing Trampling in a Vegetative Prescription

Examining current human uses may further define limits 

to restoration and guide the selection of certain plant materials and propagation methods. Would continued human use of 

the project location prevent recovery of the desired plant 

community? Activities to consider might include walking, 

camping, off-highway-vehicle use, commercial grazing, or 

recreational use of packstock. Decide which of these activities will be removed through the project design, and which 

will be compensated for by selecting certain plant materials 

or types of treatments.

In areas with continued recreation or livestock use, it 

may be important to select plants that can withstand trampling.

Addressing Visual Concerns

Selected plants need to be harmonious with landscape 

patterns and features. For example, trees or shrubs may be 

selected to hide a landscape feature, such as a gully. 

Addressing Erosion Control

Plants also may be selected for their ability to help 

control erosion. A mix of growth forms provides more 

erosion control. The two main types of roots are taproots and 

fibrous roots. Taprooted plants (such as carrots and dandelions) have a large central root with finer lateral (side) roots. 

Taproots act like an anchor to stabilize soils. Taproots also 

help break up soil compaction and provide a means for water 

to percolate deeper into the soil. Plants with fibrous roots 

(such as grasses) spread a mass of fine roots that stabilize the 

surface of the soil better than taproots. The two types of 

roots can complement each other. Trees and shrubs are more 

deeply rooted than grasses and herbaceous species. A 

combination of all these growth forms can help stabilize 

eroding sites.

Plants that root or become established quickly also help 

stabilize erosion. Refer to table 3–8 in section 3.4.9, Bioengineering Applications, for a list of riparian species that root 

readily where soil moisture is abundant. These species can be 

used to build living structures to stabilize riparian sites. 

These techniques were described in more detail in section 

3.4.9a, Selecting and Installing Bioengineered Structures.

In environments where native plants become established 

slowly, such as the subarctic, sometimes a sterile hybrid 

plant, such as rye, is used to provide roots that will stabilize 

the surface (Densmore and Vander Meer 1998). The use of 

sterile hybrids and other nonnative cultivars was discussed 

more fully in section 3.10.1d, Nonnative Plants, Agronomic 

Varieties, or Native Cultivars.

Plants that can withstand trampling generally:

• Are low-growing rather than erect

• Are tufted

• Are armed with thorns, prickles, or spines

• Have leaves in a cluster at the base of the stem 

(basal rosette)

• Have stems that are flexible rather than brittle or 

rigid

• Have small, thick leaves

• Can grow from the base of the plant as well as 

the tips of the stems

• Have flexible leaves that can fold under pressure

• Are perennials that can regrow from buds 

beneath the soil’s surface where they are 

protected from trampling

• Can reproduce vegetatively from suckers, 

stolons, rhizomes, or coring, as well as sexually 

through seeding

• Grow rapidly

• Can reproduce despite trampling

Characteristics of Plants

That Can Withstand Some Trampling 

(Hingston 1982)
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Adding Nitrogen-Fixing Plants, If Appropriate

Many restoration projects benefit from the use of native 

nitrogen-fixing plants (figure 3–99). These plants have a 

symbiotic relationship with bacteria that convert atmospheric 

nitrogen into a form that can be used by plants. The bacteria 

live in easily observed nodules found on the roots of the host 

plant. Nitrogen fixation is common in many species in the 

pea family (Fabaceae), as well as some other species. If 

plants that fix nitrogen are in the project area, they are likely 

to be included in the mix for propagation. If so, it will be 

necessary to inoculate the disturbed soil with bacteria (see 

section 3.2.5c, Soil Bacteria).

Figure 3–99—Plants in the pea family (such as this lupine growing in 

subalpine meadows in the Cascades, above) cohabitate with Rhizobium, a 

bacteria that lives in root nodules (below). The Rhizobium bacteria convert 

atmospheric nitrogen into a form plants can use, improving soil fertility.

3.10.3 Determining Propagation 

Methods for Your Site and 

Species

The costs and success rates of different methods of 

propagation vary dramatically. Helpful information can be 

found in a variety of sources. The USDA Natural Resources 

• Alnus

• Casuarina

• Ceanothus (figure 3–100)

• Cercocarpus

• Colletia

• Comptonia

• Coriaria

• Discaria

• Dryas

• Eleagnus

• Hippophae

• Luetkea

• Myrica

• Purshia

• Rubus

• Shepherdia

Genera That Include Some NitrogenFixing Species

(Barbour and others 1987; Hingston 1982)

Figure 3–100—Many species of ceanothus, found throughout the drier 

regions of the Western United States, fix atmospheric nitrogen. Mahala 

mat (Ceanothus prostratus), which has striking blue flowers, ranges 

from the Sierras and western Nevada north to southern Washington. 

Drawings courtesy of the University of Washington Press (Hitchcock 

and Cronquist 1976).

Ceanothus prostratus
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Conservation Service has developed a comprehensive 

national plants database that is on the Web at http://plants.

usda.gov/. Additional helpful Web sites are listed in chapter 

5. The propagation requirements of many species can be 

found in the scientific literature and in books on propagating 

native plants. Some recommended references include:

• Growing California Native Plants (Schmidt 1980)

• Propagation of Pacific Northwest Native Plants

(Rose and others 1998)

• Seeds of Woody Plants in North America (Young 

and Young 1992)

• Native Plant Propagation Techniques for National Parks (Link 1993)

• A Native Hawaiian Garden: How to Grow and 

Care for Island Plants (Culliney and Koebele 

1999)

• Grass, Grass-like, Forb, Legume, and Woody 

Species for the Intermountain West (Ogle and 

others 2003)

Subject-area experts often are happy to share what they 

have learned; seek the advice of other restorationists, native 

plant growers, or the technical support staff at the USDA 

Natural Resources Conservation Service Plant Material 

Centers. 

Appendix A, Treatments To Manage Factors Limiting 

Restoration, lists a variety of potential treatments, including 

plant types and propagation methods. Appendix B, Propagation and Establishment Requirements for Selected Plant 

Species, contains species-specific information on propagation 

methods and plant establishment. The next section describes 

in more detail the field techniques for onsite propagation and 

for collecting plant materials for offsite propagation.

If successful, onsite seeding with local native plants is 

the least expensive method of propagation and tends to do the 

best job of providing genetic diversity. In many environments, including arid lands and in the subalpine zone, onsite 

seeding has not been very successful. Transplanting wildlings (wild plants removed from one area and transplanted to 

another) or other methods of onsite vegetative propagation 

can be fairly economical, especially if volunteer labor is 

available. However, these methods tend to harm the collection areas. Projects that disturb areas nearby may provide an 

opportunity to transplant materials. Not all species transplant 

well. Large plants and taprooted plants are especially 

challenging to transplant.

3.10.3a Seed-Increase Programs

Offsite propagation methods, such as seed-increase 

programs (also called a grow-out) or nursery-grown planting 

stock, are more expensive than seeding with local native 

plants or transplanting. In many cases, offsite propagation is 

the only viable option. Seed-increase programs are useful if a 

large amount of seed is needed. A relatively small amount of 

seed (such as several pounds or a kilogram or two) is grown 

as a seed crop on a relatively small plot (for instance, 1 acre 

or 0.4 hectare) by a farmer or nursery (figure 3–101). This 

approach is especially useful when planning for rehabilitation 

of roads, slope stabilization following wildland fires, and so 

on. 

Seed-increase programs require 2 to 5 years to produce 

an adequate seed crop. Typically, the seed from the first crop 

is sown to produce a larger second crop, increasing the 

volume of seed. The cost of the seed produced goes down 

each year, but each successive crop runs an increased risk of 

genetic shift, because the growing conditions will favor 

Figure 3–101—If a large quantity of seed is needed for restoration, consider a seed-increase program. A relatively small amount of seed is grown 

in an agricultural setting, such as at the Forest Service’s J. Herbert Stone 

Nursery in Central Point, OR, and harvested to provide more seed. 
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plants that respond well to agriculture. 

Genetic shift can be minimized by mimicking natural 

growing conditions as closely as possible and by having 

successive harvests of ripe seed. The USDA Forest Service’s 

Pacific Northwest Region has a native plants program that is 

using seed-increase programs on a number of forests.

3.10.3b Propagation Methods and Stock 

Types

For nursery-grown plants, it is important to identify the 

propagation method and stock type. Propagation methods 

commonly in use for native plant production include growing 

from seed, various types of cuttings, divisions, layering, or 

tissue propagation.

The stock type is a combination of the length of time a 

plant is grown in a nursery before being outplanted and the 

method of growth (bareroot or different sizes of containers). 

Outplanting is when a plant is taken from the nursery to be 

planted elsewhere. Determining the appropriate stock type by 

species is a very important step in the planning phase. For 

each species, the appropriate stock type will depend on the 

project goals as well as known or inferred information on 

species propagation success and plant establishment once 

stock has been outplanted (refer to appendix B, Propagation 

and Establishment Requirements for Selected Plant Species, 

for species-specific information). 

Consult with professional growers or other practitioners 

to help determine the best stock type. In some cases, selecting several stock types may enable the practitioner to hedge 

against losses or to provide an array of plant sizes mimicking 

the natural condition at the project location. The stock types 

are listed below in relative order of expense (Potash and 

Aubry 1997):

1–0 Ship: A bareroot seedling grown for one growing 

season in a nursery bed. Many species perform well in 

outplanting, including many riparian species and shrubs. 

Most species are started from seed, although some can be 

grown from cuttings.

Plug: A containerized seedling typically grown for one 

growing season. Outplanting performance is similar to 1–0 

ship. Seedlings can be propagated from seed or cuttings. 

Cuttings are much more expensive. The containers come in 

many sizes, depending on the size of seedling that is needed. 

Generally, the bigger the container size, the better the 

seedling will perform. This stock type is good for rocky soils 

where it is difficult to excavate a hole for a large root system. 

Because the plant is in a rooting medium, there is more 

flexibility in the timing of outplanting than with bareroot 

stock.

2–0: A bareroot seedling grown for two growing seasons 

in a nursery bed, producing a bigger seedling than 1–0 ship 

or plug stock types. A conifer seedling grown as a 2–0 

generally does better than plug and 1–0 ship seedlings on 

harsh, dry sites.

1–1: A bareroot seedling that is transplanted to a nursery 

growing bed after one growing season. It is grown for a 

second year and then lifted as a bareroot plant for outplanting. Generally, these seedlings have a thick stem and a very 

massive, fibrous root system. On highly productive sites, 

these seedlings grow very quickly, staying above competing 

vegetation. Because of their exceptional growth potential, 

they often are used in hot, dry areas or in areas where 

animals damage seedlings.

Plug–1: A bareroot seedling grown as a plug the first 

season and them transplanted to a nursery bed for another 

year. The performance and uses of a plug–1 seedling are 

similar to those of a 1–1 seedling.

2–1: A bareroot seedling grown for two seasons in a 

nursery bed and transplanted into a nursery bed for another 

year. This stock type can be used for species that are very 

slow growing. For faster growing species, the shoot-to-root 

ratio can be high, which means that the root system may not 

support the shoot, causing poor performance when the 

seedlings are outplanted.

3–0: A bareroot seedling grown for three seasons in a 

nursery bed. This stock type is used for slow-growing 

species.

Large containers: A seedling that usually is grown for 

more than one growing season in a 1- to 4-gallon (3.8- to 15-

liter) or larger pot. Because of their large size, seedlings of 
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Chapter 3: The Art and Science of Restoration

this stock type appear established when planted and can 

withstand some of the abuses that are common in heavily 

used recreational sites. 

Container Sizes

In the wet forests of western Washington, plants destined 

for restoration in wilderness are generally propagated in 2-

inch (50-millimeter) pots (figure 3–102). Plants that need 

more than one growing season before being outplanted may 

be transferred to larger pots. 

For drier sites, long planting tubes such as the 8-inch 

(200-millimeter) or longer super cell, will make it possible to 

outplant seedlings with a deeper root system. Most native 

Figure 3–102—Wilderness restorationist Greg Shannon transfers sedge 

seedlings started in flats to 2-inch (50-millimeter) pots where they will 

grow for 3 more months before planting. The 2-inch (50-millimeter) pots 

provide a plug that is large enough to be planted in areas with dependable 

precipitation.

Figure 3–103—Methow Natives (Winthrop, WA) and many other native 

plant nurseries use long tubes for growing plant stock with deeper root 

systems. This approach works well when establishing plants on drier sites 

and in areas where irrigation is a problem.

plant nurseries use this approach (figure 3–103).

The restoration staff at Joshua Tree National Park in 

California uses a 36-inch (914-millimeter) “tall” pot and an 

18-inch (457-millimeter) “half tall” made from 8-inch- (200-

millimeter-) diameter PVC pipe with a removable mesh 

bottom (figures 3–104a and 104b). Creosote bushes or other 

shrubs grown in these pots for 6 months or so can be 

transplanted easily into machine-augered planting holes. 

Their root systems are deep enough to reach the available soil 

moisture. Plants grown in large containers such as these are 

the most expensive, but sometimes stock from large containers is the minimum tool necessary to assure outplanting 

success.
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Chapter 3: The Art and Science of Restoration

Figures 3–104a and 104b—To establish native vegetation on the exceedingly dry Mojave Desert, the staff at Joshua Tree National Park, CA, 

developed 36-inch (914-millimeter) “tall” containers and 18-inch (457-millimeter) “half talls” (top). The mesh bottom is removed before the containers are planted (bottom). The container is removed by lifting it from the 

planting hole. 

3.10.3c Noxious Weeds and Other 

Nonnative Invaders

Unfortunately, noxious weeds have thoroughly invaded 

some remote backcountry and wilderness areas. You could 

unknowingly identify a weedy species (figure 3–105) as 

having potential for revegetation. The botanist on your team 

will help you avoid this mistake. Weedy species have great 

potential—that’s why they’re a problem.

Figure 3–105—Although oxeye daisy (Chrysanthemum leucanthemum) is 

prolific and easily established (even pretty), you wouldn’t want to inadvertently select this noxious weed to restore your restoration site. One of the 

authors has been pulling oxeye daisy seedlings in her garden for 15 years 

and still hasn’t depleted the seedbank. Drawings courtesy of the University 

of Washington Press (Hitchcock and Cronquist 1976).

Chrysanthemum leucanthemum
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3.10.4 Concluding Thoughts on 

Plant Selection

Selecting plant species involves careful consideration of 

project goals, site capability, and methods to ameliorate 

adverse conditions. Very few projects fully succeed in 

replacing all elements of the predisturbance plant community—its species composition, structure, and function. It is 

easy to become discouraged, because deep down we all 

recognize the importance and desirability of restoring the 

predisturbance community. A careful planning process, such 

as the one described in this chapter, will help you make the 

best call possible, given site conditions, technological 

capabilities, and the project budget.

3.10.5 A Comparison of 

Propagation Methods

Growing plants from seed is the only form of propagation that results in sexual reproduction with a wide array of 

genotypes represented in the propagated plants. The vegetative forms of propagation produce clones of the donor plant, 

limiting the genetic diversity of the restored plant community. However, some species are not easy to grow from seed. 

In such cases, vegetative propagation techniques become the 

solution for providing adequate and affordable plant materials. Tables 3–11 and 3–12 summarize the pros and cons of 

various onsite and offsite propagation methods.

 Onsite propagation method Advantages Disadvantages

All methods, if successful, are less 

expensive than offsite propagation and 

generally eliminate the time required to 

propagate plants. 

If successful, this method is relatively 

inexpensive.

For small areas, onsite seeding can be 

accomplished without special equipment.

Most seeds would not require special 

treatment to break dormancy.

Treatment can be done without delay 

while plants are growing in a nursery.

The genetic diversity of the plant community is maintained.

Plant materials for propagation often are limited.

Success can be limited in many environments.

Germination rates are low in many environments, 

such as in arid lands and in the subalpine zone. 

Seeds sown on arid lands could be dormant for 

years before rainfall is adequate to induce germination.

Seed production and viability can vary tremendously from year to year. Seed may have to be 

collected several years in advance.

It can take many years for seedling plants to mature and establish stand structures similar to the 

target plant community.

Rodents, birds, or insects can eat the seeds.

Common to all methods of onsite 

propagation.

Onsite seeding—Native seeds are 

collected and sown directly onto the 

area to be restored.

Table 3–11—The advantages and disadvantages of different onsite propagation methods.
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Chapter 3: The Art and Science of Restoration

 Onsite propagation method Advantages Disadvantages

If successful, this method is relatively 

inexpensive.

Treatment can be done without the 

delay of growing plants in a nursery.

Onsite rooting of cuttings works well 

with bioengineering methods of slope 

stabilization.

Larger plants are more visible at the 

restoration site and could deter use.

If successful, this method is relatively 

inexpensive.

Treatment can be done without the 

delay of growing plants in a nursery.

Works well on trails that have shrubs 

growing alongside the trail.

Ground-disturbing projects that are 

occurring nearby, such as trail or 

road construction, can be a source of 

transplants.

Local plants are adapted to the area.

This technique produces results immediately with more mature plants. 

Larger plants are more visible at restoration site and could help deter use 

while the site is recovering.

Onsite rooting of cuttings—A limited 

number of species will root when the 

cuttings are planted directly in moist 

soil on the area to be restored.

Onsite divisions—Species with 

fibrous root systems, rhizomes, or 

stolons can be dug up, broken apart 

at the roots into multiple plants, and 

transplanted. Sprigging is a variation 

where small plant parts are scattered 

across the site and raked or tilled into 

the soil without planting each part 

individually.

Onsite layering—The attached branch 

or shoot of a parent plant is rooted.

Transplanting wildlings—Native 

local plants are dug up and transplanted.

Table 3–11 continued

This technique requires that the soil be moist 

long enough for the seedling to develop an adequate root system; generally limited to riparian 

areas.

Success is limited to genera and species that 

root readily, such as willow (Salix spp.), some 

dogwoods (Cornus spp.), cottonwood and poplar 

(Populus spp.), some alder (Alnus spp.), some 

elderberry (Sambucus spp.), and honeysuckle 

(Lonicera spp.).

Plant material for cuttings may be limited.

New plants are a clone of the parent plant, limiting genetic diversity.

This technique is more labor intensive than seeding.

Plant material to be broken apart may be limited.

New plants are a clone of the parent plant, limiting diversity.

Onsite divisions require more labor than seeding.

Onsite divisions can damage undisturbed areas 

where material is collected. Holes need to be 

filled after transplants are dug up.

Success is limited to species that layer or root 

readily. 

Onsite layering generally is useful only where 

appropriate shrubs, trees, or vines are growing 

alongside the site being treated.

The new plants are a clone of the parent plant, 

limiting diversity.

Not all wildlings will transplant well, especially 

large plants, plants with taproots, or plants with 

very specific requirements for establishment.

Unless transplants are salvaged, transplanting 

damages the undisturbed area where the transplants are collected.

Salvage operations often require holding plant 

materials until they can be replanted. This increases the labor required and can complicate 

the logistics.
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Chapter 3: The Art and Science of Restoration

Table 3–12—The advantages and disadvantages of different offsite propagation methods.

 Offsite propagation method Advantages Disadvantages

For many environments, offsite propagation 

allows for much more rapid stabilization of 

the site and establishment of plants at the site.

Offsite propagation is the best way to 

propagate plants that are difficult to establish 

with onsite techniques.

Offsite propagation prevents damage to the 

collection site caused by overcollection of 

materials that are needed for most onsite 

propagation techniques.

Offsite propagation can produce better 

germination and survival rates than onsite 

seeding. 

The diversity of the plant community is 

generally maintained.

Offsite rooting of cuttings is a good method 

when seed is unavailable or difficult to work 

with.

A wide variety of species will root from 

cuttings.

Many species grow faster from cuttings.

Offsite divisions is a good method when seed 

is unavailable or difficult to work with.

Divisions can be made over and over in 

a nursery until it is time to outplant the 

seedlings.

Common to all methods of offsite 

propagation. Nursery stock types 

range from bareroot plants, to 

small containers or plugs, and to 

larger containers. The preferred 

stock type is based on predicted 

survival requirements and project 

goals.

Offsite seedlings—Native seeds 

are collected and sown into 

nursery beds, flats, or containers.

Offsite rooting of cuttings—A 

portion of the plant, usually 

the stem, is cut off and rooted. 

Different species respond to 

different types of cuttings.

Offsite divisions—Species with 

fibrous root systems, rhizomes, 

or stolons can be dug up, broken 

apart at the roots into multiple 

plants, and then transplanted.

All offsite propagation techniques require 

varying amounts of facilities, equipment, 

staff expertise, and daily care, raising 

costs considerably above those for onsite 

treatments. The time needed to propagate 

species may range from 6 months to several 

years.

Pathogens or other nonnative insect or plant 

species may be introduced.

Transportation of plants to roadless project 

locations increases the cost and adds 

logistical difficulties. 

Plants may need to be held at the nursery 

until they can be outplanted. This increases 

logistical difficulties and the possibility that 

plants may not survive.

Animals are most likely to eat fertilized 

nursery-grown stock once it’s outplanted.

Seed production and viability can vary 

tremendously from year to year. It may be 

necessary to collect seed several years in 

advance.

Offsite germination and growing conditions 

may select for or against certain traits, 

changing the genetics of propagated plants.

New plants are a clone of the parent plant, 

limiting diversity.

The new plant is a clone of the parent plant, 

limiting diversity.
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Chapter 3: The Art and Science of Restoration

 Offsite propagation method Advantages Disadvantages

Seed-increase programs are the only way to 

multiply a small amount of seed into a large 

amount. This technique is best used when a 

large quantity of seed is needed.

Seed can be used as soon as it is produced, or 

stored until it is needed for fire rehabilitation 

or mine reclamation.

Tissue propagation is generally used with 

species that are difficult to propagate or with 

rare plants with limited vegetative material 

available for propagation.

The plant’s genetic makeup can shift based 

on growing conditions, harvest timing and 

methods, and seed-cleaning techniques.

It is difficult not to introduce weed seed.

This technique is very expensive.

New plants are a clone of the parent plant, 

limiting diversity.

Seed-increase programs—Native 

seed is collected onsite and 

grown offsite to produce a seed 

crop.

Tissue propagation—Plants are 

propagated from very small 

pieces of plant material, such as 

the growing tips of shoots.

Project planning should include consultation with others 

having experience with the same species or in similar 

environments. Even slight changes in environmental conditions can change the outcome of a treatment.

If plants are propagated offsite, they will need to be 

slowly hardened off before outplanting. Hardening off is the 

process of weaning plants off the optimal growing conditions 

provided in the nursery so they will survive once they are 

planted in the wild. Hardening off usually involves reducing 

water and shade, increasing or decreasing ambient temperatures, and reducing fertilization. Many species are top pruned 

or even root pruned several weeks before outplanting to 

increase the root-to-shoot ratio. The hardening-off process 

usually occurs at the nursery, although sometimes restorationists are required to take care of this crucial step themselves (figure 3–106). In some cases, the plants are hardened 

off at the restoration site.

Bareroot stock is hardened off to induce dormancy. 

Plants are held in a cool, dark, moist environment until they 

are transplanted. If USDA Forest Service tree coolers are 

available, they are ideal for storing bareroot stock. Figure 3–106—Before plants used in restoration are outplanted, they are 

hardened off, gradually increasing their exposure to the conditions they 

will experience after they have been planted in the wild. As can be seen on 

these sunlit sedge flats, their foliage was cut back to increase the root-toshoot ratio, increasing the chance that they would survive. These plants 

were stored behind the Leavenworth Ranger Station in Washington for 3 

months before outplanting.

Table 3–12 continued
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3.10.6 Plant Collection Principles

The genetic principles for collecting plant material 

outlined earlier in this guide should be followed, including 

adhering to local or agency genetic policies. In the absence of 

such a policy, the following guidelines are conservative 

enough to preserve the genetic integrity of plants in wilderness or other wildland project locations, while assuring 

adequate representation of an array of genotypes to establish 

a genetically diverse population.

Plant materials, such as seed, cuttings, or wildlings 

should be collected from throughout the entire plant collection zone, taking equal amounts from at least 30 to 50 

unrelated individuals (figure 3–107). The plant collection 

zone can extend 250 vertical feet (about 76 meters) above and 

below the project location. Start collections at the upper 

elevation limit to assure that some of cold-adapted individuals are included. Ideally, in wilderness, plant material should 

come from the same subbasin. If plant material is scarce, 

collecting plant material within the same watershed is 

considered acceptable. 

Figure 3–107—Wilderness restorationist Greg Shannon collects cuttings 

from heather for propagation. All cuttings taken from an individual plant 

will be a clone of that plant, making it important not to collect too many 

cuttings from one plant.

individuals on the most ideal sites). Parent plants that are 

diseased or that have insect infestations should be avoided. If 

the site to be treated is unusually harsh, seek out propagules 

from plants found on sites that are just as harsh. To avoid 

genetic bias, avoid overharvesting stands that are unusually 

lush. 

Nursery propagation methods are not described in detail 

in this guide. Many books and publications on propagation 

techniques and the propagation of native plants are listed in 

the references. The interest and commitment to using native 

plants is rising within agencies, which means that restorationists are more likely to have professional support to help them 

select propagation methods and develop sources of locally 

adapted native species.

If plants are going to be propagated offsite, consult with 

the grower. Questions to ask the grower include how to 

collect and prepare plant material, how much to collect, and 

how to ship the material to avoid injuring it. In addition, the 

plants may need to be stored or held over until the next 

growing season before outplanting. For an additional cost, 

some growers can do so. Others may not wish to.

If nursery-grown stock is to be inoculated with soil 

organisms, the plant collector will probably collect inoculum 

at the same time that the plant materials are collected. 

3.10.7 Preventing Further Damage to 

the Project Area

Once the planting begins, take care to avoid further 

damage to the project location, including the freshly prepared 

site and the vegetation surrounding it. Have a plan in place 

for work crews to follow, including how crews will travel in 

and around the work site. Select a staging area, preferably 

one that has already been impacted, or one in a resilient 

location. If the work crew is to camp, select a campsite that 

can withstand the impact of their stay. If the area receives 

recreational use, the campsite should be isolated from public 

view. Crews should be taught low-impact practices before 

they begin their work.

Propagules should be collected from plants that differ in 

appearance and are found in different microhabitats, if 

possible (rather than only from the most robust-looking 
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Once the planting bed has been prepared, minimize soil 

compaction caused by foot traffic or machinery. It often helps 

to identify a travel corridor in the site being treated, perhaps 

even laying out stepping stones. Indoor-outdoor carpet, 

scrim, or worn out foam sleeping pads, make good walkways 

to protect meadow vegetation from excess trampling. Ladders 

have been used to access steep, eroding banks to avoid 

walking up and down the slope.

3.10.8 Working With Seed

Seed crops can vary widely from year to year, with some 

species going for years with no seed or fruit (in which case a 

different propagation method may need to be chosen). 

Because of this variation, it may be necessary to collect and 

store seed for several years to have an adequate supply for a 

restoration project.

3.10.8a Seed Collection

The seed of many plant species ripens and drops quickly. 

With some species, it is not uncommon to leave the project 

area for a few days and come back to find that all the seed 

has completely dropped. If seed collection is important, the 

ripening seed must be monitored carefully. Characteristics to 

look for include: capsules beginning to open, pods beginning 

to darken, seed that is swelling and becoming hard instead of 

pulpy when squeezed, seed that drops from the plant when 

disturbed, grass heads that are beginning to cure, fleshy fruits 

that are ripening, and so forth (figures 3–108a and 108b). 

Some fruits explode to disperse seeds. These fruits should be 

harvested when the pod is nearly ripe, before the pod 

explodes. Pods or capsules can be stored in paper bags so 

seeds will not be lost when the capsules explode. Collect 

cones when they have turned from green to brown, but before 

they have opened.

Figures 3–108a and 108b—Partridgefoot seed (top) is collected by District 

Ranger Becki Heath, a dedicated wilderness line officer (bottom). Partridgefoot (Leutkea pectinata) seed is easy to collect by leaning the stems 

into the opening of a bag and tapping the stems gently. Seed is ripe when 

the flower stalks begin to turn reddish brown and the capsules open. 

Additional Information on

Plant Propagation

For additional information on plant propagation, consult 

Plant Propagation: Principles and Practices (Hartmann 

and others 1990) and Plant Propagation (Browse 1979).
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Seed collection should occur throughout the ripening 

period, to assure genetic diversity. With some species, 

collection can begin during the latter part of the “soft dough” 

stage, which can be recognized by squeezing the seed 

between the thumb and forefinger and squeezing out the 

contents. In the “hard dough” stage, the seed cannot be 

squeezed open and is generally too hard to bite open.

The ripening period for a particular species may not be 

consistent from year to year. In mountainous environments, 

the initiation of flowering often is based on temperature, 

which can vary from one year to another, sometimes delaying 

flowering for weeks. Seed will mature earlier or later 

depending on the initiation of flowering. In desert environments, flowering often follows rain, with seed production 

close behind.

Do not deplete an area of more than 50 percent of its 

seed. This generally is not a problem, because most collectors drop seed when collecting it or don’t harvest entire 

stands. Be careful not to contaminate native seed by inadvertently collecting weed seed. Seed collected throughout the 

plant collection zone at a given site or sites can be combined 

by species into a seed lot (figure 3–109).

Most projects in wilderness areas and remote sites are 

relatively small, allowing seed to be collected by hand. A 

number of simple comb-like tools can be fabricated to make 

the collection go faster. For small collections, collectors can 

use small paper bags to hold the seed. For larger collections, 

collectors can wear fruit picking bags, carry plastic pails, 

carry metal trays like baking pans, or use similar devices. It 

is rarely feasible to use machinery when harvesting native 

seed from the wild (Young and Young 1986). 

The following techniques have proven successful for 

harvesting seed by hand:

Cutting—Use scissors or a sickle to remove seed heads. 

When using a sickle, gather the stems with seed heads in one 

hand, and cut the stems as close below the heads as possible. 

Wear leather gloves to protect your hands. This technique 

works well with herbaceous plants and grasses.

Stripping—To strip seed, pinch fingers and pull them 

over the seed head, allowing the seed to drop into a container. This approach works with graminoids, forbs, and some 

shrubs when the seed is ready to fall from the plant. Gloves 

will protect your fingers.

Beating and Shaking—Plant stems can be held and 

shaken over a tray or tarp or beaten by hand or with a paddle. 

For large collections, tarps are less efficient because of the 

time needed to spread them out. It is faster to hold a metal 

tray under the branch or stem.

Pruning—When other methods are not successful, seed 

can be removed from tall shrubs or trees by pruning limbs 

bearing seed.

3.10.8b Initial Processing of Seed

Seed will mold and rot quickly if it is not cured properly. 

Collectors should spread the seed out to dry for about a 

month in a warm (not hot) location. Seed that is small will 

dry in less time. Small quantities of seed can remain in 

brown paper bags while drying. The mass of seed should be 

pushed to the edges of the bag to maximize air circulation. If 

seed is cured outdoors, it must be protected from animals 

that eat seed and from excess heat, precipitation, and frost. 

Figure 3–109—Seed collected throughout the plant collection zone at a 

given site or sites can be combined by species. This combination is a seed 

lot that will be documented on a seed collection form. 
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Dry cones by spreading them out in a single layer on 

racks in a warm place with good air circulation. Turn the 

cones every few days to prevent them from molding. Cones 

will open in a few weeks or so (Sound Native Plants 1994).

Seed processing and cleaning is a rather involved 

science. Professional growers use a wide array of equipment 

to separate the seed from the plant material and to clean the 

seed. Professional growers can help, particularly with seed 

that is difficult to clean, but their services add to the cost. For 

many species, field practitioners can do part or all of the 

cleaning themselves, being careful to retain as much of the 

viable seed as possible to preserve genetic diversity. 

Seed processing and cleaning needs to be more thorough 

if seedlings are to be grown in a nursery or resown with 

machinery. But even if the seeds will be sown onsite, excess 

plant matter mixed in with the seed can cause the seed to 

deteriorate and increase the time needed for the seed to break 

dormancy. For instance, the awns on the seed of some species 

of grass have a chemical inhibitor that maintains seed 

dormancy.

3.10.8c Hand-Processing Seed

Rub the plant parts to free the seed from its covering. 

The plant material can be rubbed on a wire screen (figure 3–

110) or between blocks of wood or bricks. Plant material can 

be put inside a bag or a rubber tire tube and kneaded underfoot to abrade it. One restorationist suggests placing a bag 

with seed and several pairs of shoes in a dryer and tumbling 

them with no heat. You may want to be careful whose dryer 

you pick for this method! 

Chaff can be separated from heavier seed by blowing the 

seed with a fan while it is being rolled down a screen or 

poured between two containers. An alternative method is to 

put plant parts in a tub and run a string-type weed eater in 

the tub to separate the plant materials from the seed. Most 

seed will work its way to the bottom of the tub. 

Seeds can be extracted from fleshy fruits by crushing the 

fruit on a screen with a rolling pin, or by running it through a 

fruit press (figure 3–111). An alternative method is to 

macerate the fruit by adding about 50 percent water by 

volume and running the material through a blender that has 

its blades taped to reduce damage to the seed. The blender’s 

blade can be replaced with strips of rubber, which will reduce 

the seed that is damaged. Allow the resulting slurry to sit 

until the pulp has separated from the seed; this may take a 

few minutes to a few days. Fleshy fruits that have dried out 

can be run through a grain mill with a coarse setting.

Figure 3–110—Plant material can be rubbed on a wire screen to remove 

the seed.

Figure 3–111—Seed can be extracted from fleshy fruits by crushing the 

fruit on a screen, by macerating the fruit with water in a blender, or by 

running dried fruit through a grain mill with a coarse setting. This photo 

shows black twinberry (Lonicera involucrata).
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Some seed, such as those from cones, pods, or open seed 

heads, can be placed in bags and trod underfoot. Tree 

nurseries have more thorough methods for removing seed 

from cones. Any wings on the seed need to be removed 

before the seed is sown.

The seed of most species requires a period of afterripening, ranging from one to several months when the embryo 

matures inside the seed. With some species, afterripening 

takes place inside the fruit. This adaptation prevents seed 

from germinating prematurely during inhospitable growing 

conditions, such as during the winter or the extreme heat of 

summer.

If plants are to be grown professionally, seed should be 

shipped as soon as it has been cured to prevent seed mortality. Ship early in the work week to avoid weekend delays.

3.10.8d Seed Storage

Practitioners may choose to store small quantities of 

seed, particularly if the seed will be used for onsite seeding. 

Seed can be destroyed by insects, fungi, or ice crystals 

during storage. For most seed, proper drying coupled with 

storage in a cold, dry environment will maximize seed 

viability (figure 3–112).

Young and Young (1986) suggest that moisture and 

temperature influence seed deterioration in the following 

way; first, each 1-percent reduction in seed moisture doubles 

the life of the seeds, and secondly, each 10-degree-Fahrenheit 

(6-degree-Celsius) reduction in seed temperature doubles the 

life of the seeds. If stored seed has more than 14-percent 

water content, ice crystals can form and destroy the embryo. 

Water content of less than 5 percent also seems to damage 

the seed.

If mold or insects are anticipated to be a problem, the 

surface of the seed can be sterilized with a 10-minute soak in 

a solution of two parts bleach to three parts water, or of 3-

percent hydrogen peroxide. Follow the soaking with a 

thorough rinse in water. These treatments are toxic to some 

plant species and should be used only if they are needed 

(Bainbridge and others 1995). A sprinkling of diatomaceous 

earth also will protect stored seed from damage by insects.

The maximum temperature for drying seed is 90 to 100 

degrees Fahrenheit (32 to 38 degrees Celsius). Seed must be 

dried in an area with low relative humidity, because the idea 

is to draw moisture out of the seed rather than into it. Seed 

needs to be dried quickly, but if it is dried too rapidly, the 

surface of the seed can be damaged by cracking. 

Small lots of seed are stored at below freezing temperatures in sealed jars, such as canning jars. Indicator desiccants, such as colored silica packets, should be placed in each 

jar to absorb moisture. When the silica changes color, it is 

replaced with a new packet. The old packet can be renewed 

by heating it in an oven to drive off the moisture.

For larger seed lots, seed can be stored in moisture-proof 

containers, such as metal boxes with a gasket on the lid. 

Properly dried seeds can keep for several years when stored 

this way. Professional seed-processing facilities have moisture-proof storage rooms with storage conditions that are 

close to ideal.

3.10.8e Seed Testing

Pure live seed per pound is a measure of viability and 

purity, determined by a seed testing lab. Most wilderness 

projects probably don’t need to test seed viability. Testing 

Figure 3–112—Once seed has been air dried thoroughly, the greenhouse 

staff at Joshua Tree National Park, CA, stores seed lots in a freezer.
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may not be necessary for species that have reliable seed 

viability. Without high-quality seed, all the time, money, and 

effort of preparing a site could be wasted. If professional or 

commercial services are involved in collecting seed, seedincrease programs, or growing seed offsite, the percentage of 

pure live seed should be determined. Knowing the pure live 

seed per pound also is important if seed mixes are being 

developed. 

Pure live seed per pound is determined by sending about 

500 seeds of a species to a seed lab for testing. Several 

methods are used to determine viability. Tetrazolium 

staining, used to determine whether the dormant seed 

embryo is respiring (still alive), is one of the more reliable 

tests for larger seeds. Tetrazolium staining also has the 

benefit of offering quick results for seeds that might need 

longer to break dormancy. Tetrazolium staining generally is 

not feasible with small seed (the size of grains of salt or 

sand). Instead, a weighted replicate germination test is used 

(Vankus 2004).

Each State has a seed testing program geared toward 

supporting the agricultural industry. Not all seed labs are 

equally proficient in testing native seed (Vankus 1997). To 

identify a reliable lab, consult with native growers or largescale restoration practitioners.

3.10.8f Breaking Dormancy

Most seeds have adaptations that allow them to remain 

dormant until growing conditions are favorable for seedlings 

to become established. Seed dormancy can be caused by a 

thick seed coat, chemical inhibitors, or a combination of 

both. Breaking dormancy is critical to professional nurseries, 

which know a great deal about the requirements of many 

species. The practitioner needs to be aware of these basic 

concepts, especially in regard to preparing seed and timing 

onsite seeding. The methods for breaking dormancy for a 

number of selected species are identified in appendix B, 

Propagation and Establishment Requirements for Selected 

Plant Species.

In nature, plants with thick seed coats often are broken 

down when birds crack the seed or partially digest it. Seed 

may be abraded when wind tumbles it across rocks or when it 

is scorched by fire. If seed with a thick seed coat is sown 

without pretreatment, germination rates will be lower and 

germination will take longer. 

Scarification is used to break dormancy in plants with 

thick seed coats. Depending on the species, the seed coat can 

be cracked with a rolling pin, clipped with snips, nicked with 

a knife, abraded with sandpaper between blocks of wood, 

soaked in hot water or sulfuric acid, or leached in running 

water (figures 3–113a, 113b, and 113c). Care must be taken to 

avoid damaging the tiny embryo. Sulfuric acid treatment 

should be done professionally, because the acid is dangerous, 

timing is critical, and a neutralizer is needed. Seed can be 

leached in water by putting seed in a cloth or mesh bag and 

allowing water to run through the seed lot for the correct 

period of time, often 48 hours. An easy way to run water 

through the seed lot is to put the bag of seeds inside the tank 

of a toilet that is used frequently.

Figure 3–113a—The seed of creosote bush (Larrea tridentata) needs to 

be leached with water to wash away chemical inhibitors stored in its thick 

seed coat. (Hickman 1993).
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Plants with chemical inhibitors that maintain dormancy 

usually require cold-moist stratification. In nature, this 

usually happens during the fall and winter, when soil 

temperatures are consistently cool and moist soil is against 

the seed. For the practitioner planning to sow seed onsite, a 

fall sowing provides the best chance that the seed will break 

dormancy over the winter, although during some years the 

conditions may not allow the seed to do so. The period of 

Figure 3–113b—Creosote seed is laid on wet, paper-lined trays to germinate. Germinants are carefully picked up with tweezers and planted in pots 

at Joshua Tree National Park, CA. (Hickman 1993).

Figure 3–113c—Did you know that creosote bush is one of the world’s 

oldest living plants? Some creosote bush clones are 10,000 years old (Hickman 1993).

time needed to break dormancy varies tremendously by 

species. 

Professional growers induce cold-moist stratification by 

packing seed in a moist medium, such as peat moss, and 

storing the seed in a refrigerator for a set period of time. Or 

seed can be soaked in a net bag, which is placed inside a 

plastic bag and hung inside a cooler.

After dormancy has been broken, the seed begins to 

germinate. To germinate, a seed must imbibe water, which 

induces chemical changes that allow metabolism to increase. 

When the embryo grows, it pushes the seed open and begins 

to root in the soil, a process called seedling emergence if the 

tiny plants survive germination. Germination requirements, 

which include the amount of moisture, warmth or cold, and 

darkness or light, vary by species. The germination requirements of a particular species will influence the practitioner’s 

choice of cultural methods.

3.10.8g Onsite Seeding Techniques

Onsite seeding is a common restoration treatment. 

Seeding success varies, depending on the environment, 

weather conditions, species, and the degree of site disturbance. If successful, direct seeding is the least expensive 

method of restoring native vegetation and it assures genetic 

diversity.

Species generally respond most favorably if the seed is 

covered with soil, increasing the moisture available to 

Additional Information on Seed 

Collection, Processing and Storage

Two good references are Collecting, Processing, and Germinating Seeds of Wildland Plants (Young and Young 

1986) and Native Seed Collection Guide for Ecosystem 

Restoration (Huber and Brooks 1993)
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support the emerging seedling. Seed can be broadcast on the 

soil surface and covered with soil, or seed can be placed 

directly into the soil. Most subarctic species require light for 

germination, an exception to the rule of covering seed with 

soil.

Projects in wilderness or at remote sites probably will be 

seeded by hand sowing (figure 3–114) or with a hand-held 

seed spreader, such as a Cyclone seed spreader. Larger 

projects outside wilderness can use equipment to broadcast 

seed quickly. Helicopters can broadcast seed over huge 

landscapes. They work well on steep or broken terrain. 

Machines called drillers drill small holes to a specified depth 

in the ground, drop in seed, and tamp the ground, producing 

uniform rows of seedlings. Hydroseeding mixes seed with 

Figure 3–114—A Parmesan cheese shaker will help assure that small 

seed is distributed evenly. If you add the seed to fine, dry sand and put the 

mixture in the shaker, the seed will go farther than if you spread it with 

your fingers. 

water and sprays the mixture over the area to be treated. 

Hydroseeding can be very effective in temperate areas, but is 

not very successful on arid lands. It also requires motorized 

equipment, making it unsuitable in wilderness areas. Other 

types of equipment, such as centrifugal broadcasters (also 

called end-gate seeders), cast the seed 20 to 40 feet (6 to 12 

meters) and use a harrow or a chain pulled behind the seeder 

to cover the seed with soil.

Some benefits achieved with machinery also can be emulated on small sites by using handtools. For example, imprinting creates microbasins across the surface of the site that 

catch water, retain mulch, and provide some protection from 

wind. Pitting creates even smaller pits about 20 inches (510 

millimeters) apart and 2 to 3 inches (51 to 76 millimeters) 

deep with seed planted inside each pit (Belnap and Furman 

1997). 

Literature relating to mine reclamation, road obliteration, and other landscape-scale restoration applications 

describe the use of mechanized techniques for seeding. They 

will not be discussed further in this guide.

Once seed has been sown on the seedbed, you can lightly 

rake it into the soil or work it in with your fingertips. A thin 

layer of topsoil or compost can be added. If the soil is loose, 

the ground can be tamped lightly to make sure that seed 

contacts the soil. In sandy soil, seed needs to be planted a 

little deeper. A general rule of thumb is to plant seed one and 

a half to two times deeper than the seed diameter. For many 

environments, mulch will provide additional protection to 

emerging seedlings discussed fully in section 3.12, Plant 

Protection and Establishment. Some species require a 

mineral soil seedbed for establishment; practitioners at 

Denali National Park in Alaska have found this to be true 

with subarctic species (Densmore and Vander Meer 1998).

If animals are likely to eat too much of the seed, a 

variety of techniques can be considered to address the 

problem. In the Southwest, ants are major collectors of seeds. 

Cracked wheat can be spread before seeding to satiate the ant 

population (Bainbridge and others 1995). Raking seed into 

the soil or covering the soil with mulch will help discourage 

birds and rodents.
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Figures 3–115a and 115b—Warmth and moisture benefits newly 

seeded sedges (top). Jute netting (blue strips, bottom) helps protect 

seeded areas at a restoration site in North Cascades National Park, 

WA. Drawings courtesy of the University of Washington Press 

(Hitchcock and Cronquist 1976).

Raising the Soil Temperature To Induce Germination at Subalpine Sites

Seed is sown onto a prepared seedbed in the fall and 

mulched with an erosion-control blanket (figures 3–115a 

and 115b). When the snow has melted the following season, 

clear plastic sheeting is anchored over the seeded area. 

Visqueen (polyethylene sheeting) warms the soil and retains 

moisture, which is especially helpful when working with 

sedges (Carex spp.).

The sheeting is removed before the soil gets warm enough 

to kill the tiny seedlings. According to backcountry district 

ranger and restorationist Bill Lester, the technique of using 

Visqueen to enhance seedling emergence was discovered 

by accident in North Cascades National Park, WA. When 

a crew left the backcountry for their days off, they accidentally left a piece of Visqueen lying over some bare soil. 

When they returned, they noticed that the soil under the 

sheeting was covered with tiny green seedlings. 

The optimal soil temperature is 85 degrees Fahrenheit (30 

degrees Celsius). A soil thermometer is used to monitor 

soil temperature. Frequent monitoring is necessary to 

prevent the temperature from getting too high or the bed 

must be irrigated as the soil dries. Perforated landscape 

plastic has the advantage of ventilating heat better, which 

could reduce the frequency of monitoring. The sheeting is 

removed once seedlings emerge, or it could remain longer 

if temperatures remain cool (Weisberg 1993). 

This is basically the same setup that is used in solarization 

to kill weed seeds (described previously in the soils section). 

The difference is in that soil temperature is maintained 

at about 85 degrees Fahrenheit (30 degrees Celsius), the 

optimal temperature for seedling emergence. Solarization 

allows soil temperatures to reach temperatures of 180 

degrees Fahrenheit (82 degrees Celsius), which kills most 

germinating plants (Bainbridge 1990).

Carex spectabilis
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3.10.8h Seeding Rates

There is virtually no way to correlate the desired ratio of 

established plants with a seed-mix formula because of the 

array of variables: seed viability, time and conditions needed 

to break dormancy and induce germination, animals that eat 

seed, soil moisture, seedling survival, and so on. Seeding 

rates that are too low will not provide enough seedlings for 

erosion control or competition to keep out nonnative species, 

while too many seedlings may outcompete one another for 

limited water and nutrients. The ratio between various life 

forms (graminoids, forbs, shrubs, and trees) affects the 

establishment ratio, but the correlation is not direct. For 

example, on the sagebrush steppe, grasses tend to outcompete 

forbs, so a mix lower in grass seed may be needed unless the 

desired outcome is for grasses to dominate (Doerr and others 

1983). In the same way, the ratio of species in a seed mix 

cannot be correlated directly to species establishment. 

Seeding rates often take years of site-specific experience to 

develop. 

Redente (1993) suggests that broadcast seeding techniques require twice as much seed as techniques based on 

drilling, but that the result more closely mimics natural 

processes.

Seeding rates vary by the environment, species, and the 

viability of the seed. Seeding rates usually are expressed as 

seeds per square foot or pounds per acre. The USDA Natural 

Resources Conservation Service recommends 20 pure live 

seeds per square foot for favorable planting conditions. That 

rate may need to be increased two to four fold, based on 

factors such as weed competition, steep slopes, low soil 

moisture or nutrients, or highly disturbed soils (Redente 

1993). Arid land restorationist Dr. David Bainbridge (Bainbridge and others 1995) recommends 100 to 500 seeds per 

yard (meter) for arid lands such as the Mojave Desert of 

southern California. Restorationists sow at least 133 seeds 

per square foot (0.09 square meter) in Mount Rainier 

National Park in Washington (Rochefort 1990).

Redente offers the following broadcast seeding rates for 

forbs and graminoids, based on annual precipitation (table 3–

13). The rate needs to be higher for shrubs.

Table 3–13—Broadcast seeding rates for forbs and graminoids (Rendente 

1993). A square foot is 0.09 square meter.

 Annual precipitation Pure live seeds

 inches (millimeters) per square foot 

 6 to 18 (152 to 457) 40 to 60 

 19 to 30 (483 to 762) 60 to 80 

 More than 30 (762) 80 to 120 

3.10.9 Working With Cuttings

When it is difficult or impossible to propagate plants 

from seed, cuttings are a common method of propagation. 

Depending on the species, cuttings can be taken from 

different parts of the plant: buds, stems, leaves, or roots. 

Determine which type of cutting is appropriate for a given 

species; several types of stem cuttings are the most common 

when propagating native plants.

Cuttings are usually rooted at a nursery, although a few 

genera and species lend themselves to rooting directly in 

moist soil at the project site. Often, these species are used to 

create bioengineering structures designed to stabilize slopes. 

Methods for bioengineering are described in section 3.4.9, 

Bioengineering Applications.

Pounds/acre x 1.12 = kilograms/hectare

Kilograms/hectare x 0.892 = pounds/acre

Kilograms/hectare x 0.10 = grams/square meter

Pounds/acre x 0.000367 = ounces/square foot

Pounds/acre x 0.00330 = ounces/square yard

20 pounds/acre = 100 square feet seeded with 0.05 pounds of seed

Seed and Fertilizer

Rate Conversion Factors
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Chapter 3: The Art and Science of Restoration

3.10.9a Collecting and Handling Cuttings

The plant collection guidelines described at the beginning of this section are used to identify and tag parent or 

donor plants. This must be done while leaves are on the stem 

to assure accurate species identification. Some plants, such as 

willows, have separate male and female plants. It is important to collect cuttings from plants of each gender to establish 

a population that can reproduce.

Collect two to four times as many cuttings as the desired 

established population. Mortality of 50 percent is not 

uncommon during the rooting phase. Another 50 percent of 

the cuttings may be lost to mortality when the cuttings are 

outplanted. Cuttings are grouped in bundles, often 25 or 50 

cuttings per bundle, to keep track of the total. Bundles should 

be labeled with the correct plant collection information.

Cuttings can deteriorate rapidly. They must be kept 

moist, cool, and out of the sun. After the cuttings have been 

taken out of the field, they should be stored at 34 to 38 

degrees Fahrenheit (1 to 3 degrees Celsius). Take care that 

they do not freeze. Cuttings should be rooted as soon as 

possible, but some species can be stored for up to several 

weeks. If cuttings are going to be shipped to a professional 

grower, ship them early in the week to make sure they arrive 

before the weekend.

To cut the stem cleanly, use sharp scissor-type, handpruning shears. Anvil-type shears will crush the stem. Cut 

the stems at a 45-degree angle to increase the rooting surface. 

Recut the upper end of the stem at a 90-degree angle so the 

upper end can be distinguished from the lower end (figure 3–

116).

Cut off side shoots. Save those that are large enough to 

plant. It is best to collect cuttings in the morning while the 

stems are fully turgid. Depending on their size, the cuttings 

can be placed in small wet plastic bags, wet burlap bags 

inside a plastic bag, or in triple-layer paper bags. To avoid 

harming a donor plant, do not remove more than 30 percent 

of the branches from any one plant.

3.10.9b Semihardwood Stem Cuttings

Semihardwood cuttings are taken in late summer or early 

fall from the partially matured growth of woody plants. Stems 

are ready if they snap rather than crush when they are bent.

3.10.9.c Hardwood Cuttings

Hardwood cuttings are taken when the plant is dormant 

in the late fall or winter. Cuttings should not be taken after 

the buds have begun to swell in late winter. Deciduous plants 

enter dormancy when the leaves have dropped. Cuttings 

Figure 3–116—Cut stems with bypass pruning clippers at a 45-degree angle to increase the rooting surface. Recut the upper end of the stem at a 90-

degree angle so that the upper end can be distinguished from the lower. This photo was digitally altered.
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should include the terminal bud (figure 3–117), and be 6 to 24 

inches (152 to 610 millimeters) long and 3⁄

8 inch (9.5 

millimeters) in diameter. Include at least two nodes, with the 

bottom cut being just below a node. Thick, young stems root 

best because they have carbohydrate reserves. (Huber and 

Brooks 1993; Weisberg 1993).

3.10.9e Root Cuttings

This technique is possible for some species with roots or 

rhizomes that produce stem buds. Donor plants need to be 

prepared by closely root pruning them and pruning back the 

foliage before the growing season (see section 3.10.12, 

Transplanting Wildlings, for this technique). Vigorous new 

roots that can produce stem buds will form quickly during 

the growing season. The new portion of the root is the part 

closest to the crown. Cut the root away at a 90-degree angle 

(so the upward end remains recognizable), then cut off the 

thin end with a sloping cut. Remove fibrous lateral roots. The 

number of plants from each root can be maximized using the 

following rule of thumb:

• If planting the cuttings directly into the ground, 

cut the root in 4-inch (100-millimeter) segments.

• If propagating the cuttings in a cold frame or 

cold greenhouse, cut the root in 2-inch (50-

millimeter) segments.

• If planting the cuttings in a heated greenhouse, 

cut the root in 1-inch (25-millimeter) segments. 

Root cuttings are subject to fungal rot. Dust them with 

sulfur or Captan, an antifungicidal powder. Use 1 teaspoon of 

Captan for every 100 inches (2.54 meters) of root. Place the 

roots and powder in a plastic bag and shake. Plant the 

segments with the crown end up. The crown has the perpendicular cut. It is best to take root cuttings during the dormant 

season. 

Root cuttings have the potential for onsite propagation. 

Try replanting 4-inch (100-millimeter) or longer root 

segments immediately while the soil is moist. Do not water 

the cuttings until shoots appear (Browse 1979). Sprigging is 

an onsite technique that uses machinery to closely crop 

vegetation back to the crown before lifting the root systems 

from the ground. The sprigs are spread over the restoration 

site, covered with soil, and lightly tamped. This technique 

works with grass and shrub species that sprout from their 

roots or are rhizomatous (Redente 1993).

Figure 3–117—Determining the age of a branch. Drawing courtesy of 

Carol Aubry (Potash and Aubry 1997).

3.10.9d Softwood and Herbaceous Cuttings

These cuttings are taken in spring or early summer from 

the rapidly growing tip of plants. This type of cutting is 

subject to wilting.
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3.10.9f Leaf Cuttings

A few native plants have the ability to produce plantlets 

on leaves that have just expanded to their full size. Bulb 

scaling is a form of leaf cutting in which a scale from a bulb 

is peeled off and planted separately. This method of propagation is tricky. The most common failure is that the leaf rots 

before it can root. Cuttings need to be processed before the 

leaves wilt or desiccate.

3.10.9g Leaf-Bud Cuttings

This type of stem cutting can be taken from anywhere 

on the stem. It is an undamaged mature leaf with a very short 

piece of stem that has a leaf bud in the axil where the stem 

and leaf join (figure 3–118). The upper portion of the stem is 

cut away at an angle just above the bud (Browse 1979).

3.10.10 Divisions

Divisions are taken from plants where the fibrous root 

mass or crown lends itself to being split into more than one 

plant. Each division has both roots and shoots. Divisions can 

be made easily with strawberries or plugs of grass (figure 3–

119). Divisions can be done over and over at a nursery, 

greatly increasing the amount of plant material gained from a 

donor plant. Divisions also can be used as an onsite propagation technique. The donor plant is dug from the ground 

carefully and split with hands or a knife into more than one 

plant, with each division being replanted. According to 

Krystyna Urbanska, a Swiss alpine restorationist, alpine 

grasses can be divided into single tillers, maximizing plant 

material (Urbanska 1986).

Figure 3–118—Taking a leaf bud cutting. Drawing courtesy of the Washington State University Extension Office (Propagating Herbaceous Plants 

From Cuttings, Pacific Northwest Extension Publications 2001).

Figure 3–119—Some plants, such as strawberries, are divided easily at the 

roots.

3.10.11 Layering

In layering, a new plant is rooted while it is still attached 

to the donor plant. A number of plants reproduce naturally by 

layering, which is to some degree an adaptation to short 

growing seasons where a seed crop may not be a reliable way 

to reproduce. Native plants that layer naturally include 

juniper, subalpine fir, heather, blackberry, and willow. 

This method has more potential for propagation onsite 

than offsite, because a mature plant donor would need to be 

grown or established in a nursery. Layering works well to 

restore closed trails if shrubs are growing alongside the trail. 
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3.10.11a Simple Layering

With this method, a new plant is rooted from a single 

branch by burying the branch about 1 foot (about 300 

millimeters) back from the tip. This should be done at the 

beginning of or during the growing season, so roots will 

begin to form immediately. Prevent the soil from drying too 

much while the branch is rooting. The newly rooted plant can 

be cut away from the donor plant at the end of the growing 

season or during the following spring if the plant was layered 

during the midseason. Check for roots before cutting the new 

plant away from the donor. Because the branches are still 

attached to the donors, your survival rate may look impressive, but it won’t be if roots have not formed. 

The first technique for simple layering is to dig a 6-inch- 

(150-millimeter-) deep hole at the correct spacing away from 

the donor plant, ideally in the site to be restored. The branch 

is bent into a “U” shape over the hole, about 1 foot (about 

300 millimeters) back from the tip (figure 3–120). Leaves are 

removed from the portion of the branch to be buried. Rooting 

is stimulated by partially breaking the branch, abrading the 

bark with a pocket knife, or by twisting or girdling the shoot 

between the “U” and the donor plant. If necessary, the stem 

can be anchored to the bottom of the hole with a peg or rock. 

Figure 3–120—These drawings show simple layering. Drawings courtesy 

of Jenny Tempest (Hanbey 1992). The plant’s stem is abraded or girdled to 

stimulate root production before the stem is pinned underground.

Firmly pack the hole with soil. You may want to stake the 

branch to keep it upright.

The second technique for simple layering is used on 

plants with branches that are low. The branch is covered with 

3 to 4 inches (76 to 101 millimeters) of soil, 12 inches (about 

300 millimeters) back from the tip (Weisberg 1993). Once 

roots have formed, the stem from the parent plant can be cut 

and the new plant can be moved.

3.10.11b Mound Layering

The concept behind mound layering is to root many new 

plants from the same shrub (figure 3–121) by forcing each 

branch to develop roots. This technique works well with 

shorter shrubs or stiffly branched plants. The shrub does not 

need to be immediately adjacent to the restoration site. 

Mound layering is begun just before the growing season 

begins, and plants are cut from the donor in the spring or 

following fall.

Figure 3–121—Heather can be propagated with mound layering (Weisberg 

1993). This technique holds promise for a species that is challenging to 

propagate.

Select a mature shrub and prune each branch back to 3 

inches (76 millimeters). Once new shoots are 3 to 4 inches 

(76 to 101 millimeters) long, soil is mounded over the crown 

of the plant (similar to hilling potatoes), leaving 2 inches (50 

millimeters) of shoot tips above the soil. With species that 
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are more difficult to root, the entire crown is covered with 

soil 1⁄2 inch (13 millimeters) above the branch tips as soon as 

the branches are pruned. Continue to mound soil several 

times throughout the growing season to a total depth of 8 to 

10 inches (200 to 250 millimeters), leave several inches of 

the growing tip above the soil. The soil must be well drained 

and kept moist.

If the new plants are cut away in the fall, the donor plant 

should be protected with soil for the winter. The same donor 

plant can be used for several years in a row (Weisberg 1993).

3.10.11c Tip Layering

Tip layering works with a few species, such as blackberries. The concept of tip layering is that the attached shoot tip 

is buried upside down in the ground, where the terminal bud 

will turn to push right-side up through the soil.

The growing tip of the side shoots are cut back early in 

the growing season. By the middle of the growing season, 

new shoots with small, curled tips will have formed. These 

tips are bent to the ground, and buried firmly, tip down in a 

4- to 6-inch- (100- to 150-millimeter-) deep hole. The soil 

must be kept moist until fall, by which time a well-developed 

root system should have formed. At this point, the new plant 

can be cut 6 to 8 inches (150 to 200 millimeters) above the 

soil, separating it from the donor plant. The new plant can be 

transplanted immediately or during the following spring.

3.10.12 Transplanting Wildlings

A wildling is an indigenous plant growing in its native 

habitat. You may also hear wilderness folk referring to 

wildlings as transplants or plugs. This guide avoids calling 

wildlings plugs because we also transplant greenhouse-grown 

plugs. 

Some species can be transplanted successfully as 

wildlings. This procedure should be used only if adequate 

plant material exists and care is taken not to cause too much 

damage to the collection site. If plants can be salvaged from 

a ground-disturbing project nearby, transplanting wildlings 

can be relatively inexpensive and effective, especially if 

volunteer labor is available. 

Transplanting wildlings tends to provide vertical relief to 

a site more quickly than other methods, and there is no risk 

of introducing nonnative organisms such as weeds, insects, or 

pathogens. In some environments wildlings establish and 

spread quickly. Plants that spread underground or with 

stolons perform exceptionally well. However, on dry, 

compacted sites, the rate of spread can be slow to nonexistent. Taprooted plants do not transplant well; most are 

difficult to transplant as wildlings and require special care so 

that as much root is left on the transplants as possible (figure 

3–122). Some taprooted plants are best propagated offsite, 

where they can be grown in tall pots. Plants having long, 

brittle, horizontal roots, such as heather or vine maple, also 

are difficult to transplant. Such plants probably should only 

be transplanted if they are being salvaged and the plants will 

be destroyed anyway.

Figure 3–122—Be sure to have pruning clippers or a root saw handy if you 

salvage wild plants that have taproots. Drawing courtesy of Jenny Tempest 

(Hanbey 1992).

Wildlings should be transplanted in their new location as 

quickly as possible. Some delay may be unavoidable if 

restoration follows a salvage operation. Dig the holes at the 

restoration site before digging out the transplants. Holes need 

to be refilled after transplants are removed.
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Larger plants, such as small trees, tend to be difficult to 

transplant successfully. Their root-to-shoot ratio is not high 

enough to allow them to survive transplant shock. Large 

plants can be prepared for transplanting by root pruning, a 

common technique in the nursery and landscape industry that 

increases the root mass dramatically. A sharp shovel is 

inserted into the ground, making a vertical cut through the 

roots all the way around the outer perimeter of the plant’s 

foliage, known as the drip line (figure 3–123). 

survival rates be higher after root pruning, but the tree will 

be easier to lift for transplanting as well. Root-pruned plants 

need to be tagged to facilitate relocation.

Wildlings should be transplanted in the spring or fall, or 

better, when the plant is fully dormant. Otherwise, transplant 

shock is likely.

If possible, wildlings are watered the day before they are 

lifted from the collection site. Transplanting should take 

place during the morning or on a cloudy, cool day while the 

plant is fully turgid. The digging technique is similar to root 

pruning. The shovel cuts are made into the soil around the 

plant with the blade as nearly perpendicular to the surface of 

the ground as possible. It is important to have a good ball of 

soil around the wildling’s roots, and to dig out as much of the 

root system as possible. 

Pay attention to root morphology. On well-developed 

soils or on arid lands, roots will grow down more than out. 

On shallow soils or on areas with permafrost, roots will 

spread out, making it necessary to dig up a much larger area 

around the plant. In general, larger plugs have a better chance 

of survival than small plugs. For relatively small plants, such 

as graminoids or forbs, a good rule of thumb would be to 

have the plug about as wide as a scoop shovel, and about 8 

inches (200 millimeters) deep. Experimenting with various 

plug sizes is a worthy endeavor. If all plugs survived, smaller 

plugs would allow more transplants.

Some shrub and tree species transplant more successfully if their north-to-south orientation is maintained. Mark 

the orientation in some way, such as by hanging a flag from 

the north side of the plant.

Use the shovel and your hands to lift the root ball gently 

out of the hole, keeping the root ball together. Hand pruners 

can be used to cut away woody roots that do not come free 

with the shovel. The root ball can be transferred into a 5-

gallon (19-liter) bucket, a wheelbarrow, or plastic or burlap 

bags for transport to the restoration site. If wildlings are dug 

from sandy soil, the soil will fall away from the roots. Use 

buckets of water, wet rags, or jelly roll material to protect the 

roots until the wildling can be transplanted. Denali National 

Park uses heavy equipment to salvage large, shallow pieces 

Figure 3–123—Roots are pruned two or more times to stimulate root 

production before transplanting. The roots are pruned by sinking a shovel 

blade vertically into the soil around the drip line of the plant that will be 

transplanted. Drawing courtesy of Jenny Tempest (Hanbey 1992).

A tree spade is the tool of choice, because it has a 

relatively flat blade. A scoop shovel can work if care is taken 

to keep the blade perpendicular to the plant. Root pruning 

needs to begin early in the growing season of the year the 

tree will be transplanted, or even the year before, with several 

cuts made throughout the growing season. Not only will 
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of sod (up to the size of a bucket on a front-end loader). If the 

use of machinery is not an option, smaller pieces of sod can 

be cut and moved by several people (Densmore and Vander 

Meer 1998).

3.11 Transplanting, 

Protecting, and 

Establishing Native 

Plantings

Proper transport and transplanting procedures are 

critical to the survival of transplants. In addition, all plants 

must be given adequate water, mulch, shade, protection from 

animals that might eat them, and so forth.

3.11.1 Timing of Transplanting

The timing of transplanting will vary depending on the 

species, the environment, and the ability to provide initial 

care, such as irrigation, for transplants. In general, transplants need time to become established before being subjected to potentially lethal environmental extremes. In most 

environments, transplanting takes place during the spring or 

fall while the plants are dormant, just emerging from 

dormancy, or preparing for dormancy. Transplanting in 

winter is possible in environments where the ground is not 

snow covered or frozen. Although transplanting during the 

summer should not be ruled out completely, doing so risks 

subjecting plants to drying winds, too much heat, and 

inadequate moisture. The roots of some species grow only 

when they have adequate soil moisture. 

For arid lands, most practitioners advocate fall or early 

winter plantings (figure 3–124). Desert plants have warm- or 

cool-season growth patterns. Cool-season species are best 

planted in the fall, while warm-season species, such as 

blackbrush (Coleogyne ramosissima), may transplant better 

with a spring planting. Planting in hot deserts is often done 

Figure 3–124—For arid sites, fall or early winter plantings are the most 

likely to be successful. 

during winter (Belnap and Furman 1997). According to some 

practitioners, timing is not as critical as one might expect. 

Midsummer plantings of mesquite (Prosopsis glandulosa) 

have had high survival rates, but other species such as palo 

verde (Cercidium floridum), were more sensitive to drying 

wind and high heat (Bainbridge and others 1992).

In subalpine environments, transplanting generally 

occurs in September and into October (figure 3–125) when 

soils are moist (minimizing the need for additional watering 

after planting) and plants are slowing their metabolism before 

Figure 3–125—In subalpine areas, planting is done in September and 

October just before the winter snowfall.
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entering a dormant phase. It is possible to transplant just after 

the snow has receded in the early summer, or by late August, 

but the survival rate of plantings will be lower. Irrigation is 

likely to be needed throughout the remainder of the growing 

season.

And finally, plants should be transplanted before they 

seed. Otherwise, seed will be churned in too deeply or fragile 

seedlings will be damaged.

3.11.2 Transporting Nursery-Grown 

Plants to the Project Location

Nursery-grown plants may have their foliage or roots 

desiccated, their foliage crushed, or their stems broken when 

they are transported to the restoration site. The method of 

transport also can have an impact on the physical landscape 

or soil. For example, using a helicopter to transport plants 

quickly and with no disturbance to soil and vegetation may 

be a good option, but this practice conflicts with wilderness 

values. Even though mules or llamas (figure 3–126) may 

cause noticeable soil disturbance when they are used to 

transport plants to a fragile location, this disturbance may be 

less than the disturbance caused by the feet of the many 

workers needed to accomplish the same task.

Plants should not be brought into the project area before 

transplanting is scheduled. This is especially important in 

arid environments, where shade and water are scarce. In a 

more temperate environment, plants can be held over for 

short periods by storing them in the shade and watering them 

as needed.

A number of methods have been developed for packing 

and transporting plants. It is critical to protect plants from 

exposure to air, heat, cold, or sunlight. Containerized plants 

should be watered before being transported. If weight is an 

issue, plants may be transported for a brief time with 

partially moist soil. Weed seedlings or moss growing on the 

potting medium should be removed before transport. If heat 

is a concern, some ventilation needs to be provided, while the 

plants also need to be protected from wind. Light-colored 

canvas tarps work better than plastic tarps because the 

canvas allows for some ventilation, reducing the risk of 

overheating. 

3.11.2a Jelly Rolls for Protecting Bareroot 

Stock

When bareroot seedlings are lifted out of their growing 

medium, they can be dipped in a slurry of water and vermiculite and placed on damp fabric. The fabric is rolled as more 

plants are added. The rolls are placed in plastic bags and kept 

cool (39 degrees Fahrenheit, 3.9 degrees Celsius) in a 

controlled environment or by placing them on ice. Dry ice 

should not be used, because it is too cold and is toxic to 

plants. In addition to keeping roots moist, jelly rolls reduce 

the weight of the materials needed to transport seedlings and 

the space required to do so. For example, 98 plants in a sandfilled rack of supercells weigh about 50 pounds (22.7 kilograms), compared to 30 pounds (13.6 kilograms) for an ice 

chest holding 300 plants in jelly rolls packed on ice (Bainbridge and others 1992). Plants can be rolled in wet burlap, 

but reusable toweling works best for jelly rolls. For additional 

information on jelly rolls and reusable toweling, refer to 

Reusable Toweling for Wrapping Tree Seedlings, available at 

http://www.fs.fed.us/t-d/pubs/htmlpubs/htm05242323/ 

(Username: t-d Password: t-d).

Figure 3–126—Llamas or mules work well for transporting plant materials 

to most work sites. It’s best to get the packstock in and out quickly so the 

animals don’t damage your project site.
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3.11.2b Moving Plants In Containers

Plants that are in containers need to be placed in a 

relatively rigid device with enough packing material between 

pots or flats to prevent them from being damaged by jostling 

during transport. If packstock are used to carry the plants, 

plan for “rodeos”—try to pack the plants so they will not be 

damaged if loads are thrown topsy-turvy. Containers help 

protect the roots from desiccation during transport and make 

it easier to hold and move plants at the project location. 

Disadvantages include the larger volume of containers that 

will need to be carried in and out.

Tree-planting boxes are large, sturdy waxed-cardboard 

boxes in which the Forest Service receives shipments of tree 

seedlings. These boxes, usually discarded after planting, are 

the perfect size for stacking rectangular flats of plants in 

small containers (figure 3–127). Stacking works well for 

plants that can withstand moderate crushing, such as graminoids, or plants with rhizomes or stolons. Small spacers can 

be added across the corners of the flats to reduce crushing. 

The boxes fit one to a side in canvas panniers or manties for 

transport on packstock and can be flattened for packing out.

For plants that cannot withstand the abuse of being 

stacked, find shallow boxes that will hold one layer of 

containers. Many office supply stores or shipping businesses 

sell a variety of boxes and are likely to have some that meet 

your needs. Racks can be devised for transporting plants in 

cells.

3.11.2c Moving Container-Grown Plants 

Without the Container

In general, it is best to move the plant in its container 

because the container will protect fragile roots. Some 

species, such as grasses and sedges, have well-developed root 

systems that can withstand the abuse of being removed from 

pots for transport. The soil around the plants should be moist 

to protect roots from desiccation.

Package plants by removing them from their pot and 

placing them in layers in large plastic bags lining larger 

containers, such as 5-gallon (19-liter) buckets (figure 3–128), 

boxes, or stock panniers. A sheet of newspaper between each 

layer of plants may help keep the seedlings separated. 

Figure 3–127—Discarded Forest Service tree-planting boxes are the 

perfect size for loading flats of plants. Spacers can be used between flats 

to prevent crushing delicate species. Packing material can be added to 

take up excess room. These boxes fit in panniers, so they can be used with 

packstock.

Figure 3–128—Sturdy plants, such as sedges, can be removed from their 

pots and transported directly in buckets or boxes to save space.
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3.11.2d Protecting Fragile Foliage

Plants with fragile stems, such as lupine, are difficult to 

transport. The fragility may influence the type of transport; 

packstock may not be appropriate. Cylinders can be made 

around the plants. For instance, each plant could be rolled 

securely in newspaper and packed so they remain upright. 

Use enough packing material to keep the plants from 

shifting.

3.11.2e Moving Plants With Helicopters or 

Other Vehicles

Plants can be packaged for planting using any of the 

methods described above. During transport, the plants need 

protection from wind. A canvas tarp can be used to cover 

loads that would be exposed otherwise.

3.11.2f Handling Plants After They Arrive at 

the Project Location

Upon arrival, plants should be watered and stored in the 

shade. If no shade if available, a shelter can be constructed 

from a canvas tarp or shade cloth. Most subalpine species can 

be placed in shallow water for short-term storage, such as in a 

pond, a shallow pool or a creek, or even in toddler wading 

pools set up in the shade. Branches or leaves that were 

damaged during transport should be cut back.

3.11.3 Transplanting Techniques

The same method is used for planting wildlings as for 

nursery stock. Good transplanting technique will improve the 

survival rates significantly. Common mistakes include 

planting seedlings too shallow, too deep, or too loosely; 

orienting wildlings incorrectly; damaging roots by exposing 

them to air; or failing to place root stems properly. With 

transplanting, the quality of the work needs to be monitored 

and supervised carefully. Quality—not production rate— 

should be given first priority.

Ideally, the spacing of plants is specified. For a natural 

appearance, plantings should be grouped in irregular 

patterns. The planters should observe the natural distribution 

and spacing of each species and try to emulate that pattern. 

When plants are not available at the correct ratios for such a 

pattern, planters must use their best judgment to mimic the 

native stand. If seedlings are planted too densely, they may 

need to be thinned or moved as they mature. It may be wise 

to plant a few more seedlings than desired to compensate for 

mortality.

Ideally, seedlings should be planted on a cool, cloudy 

day or while the restoration site is in shade. Experience will 

determine how important these recommendations are for 

your project. Water the seedlings before planting them. Dig 

the planting holes before exposing the seedlings’ roots to the 

air. Planting holes should not be allowed to stand empty for 

too long, because the exposed soil will dry out rapidly. When 

possible, planters should take advantage of microsites, such 

as rocks, logs, or depressions, to give the seedlings a bit more 

protection from sun or wind (figure 3–129).

Figure 3–129—Planting seedlings against a log or rock helps protect them 

and provides them additional water. This photo was digitally altered.

A variety of tools, including shovels, hoedads, and 

dibbles, can be used to dig planting holes. For small containerized stock, small hand-held pick hoes (figure 3–130) are the 

most efficient planting tools. In areas where soils are deeply 

compacted, a rock bar or soil auger may be needed to dig 
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planting holes. Power augers may be the minimum tool for 

digging holes on especially difficult soils, such as caliche. In 

clayey soils, augers may leave a smooth glaze on the soil that 

is difficult for roots to penetrate; this glaze can be prevented 

by using specialized auger attachments.

Figure 3–130—Trowels are not the tool of choice for planting. A hand-held 

pick hoe (shown) or plow share works well for planting smaller plants. A 

shovel is needed when planting larger plants.

The planting hole is dug about one-third larger than the 

root system of the transplant. The soil should be loose on the 

sides and bottom of the hole. Water the planting hole with 

enough water to saturate the soil. Trim damaged roots off 

transplants, and gently tease roots apart if containerized 

plants are rootbound.

When placing the plant in the hole, maintain the natural 

alignment of the roots. Be sure that the roots are not doubled 

back. Taprooted plants, such as tree seedlings, will die if 

their roots are doubled back because the root system cannot 

correct its orientation to reach water in the deeper soil layers. 

If transplants have fibrous root systems, it sometimes helps to 

build a mound in the bottom of the hole and spread the roots 

out around this mound. 

The crown of the plant should be at or slightly below 

ground level; some species will die if the crown of the plant 

is buried. A slight depression will catch water and afford a 

measure of protection from the elements. Another way of 

catching water is to build up a rim of soil around the transplant. The hole is backfilled, tamping the soil firmly without 

crushing plant material, and watered layer by layer (figure 3–

131). Make sure to spread roots in the hole. Finally, planters 

should use the weight of their forearms or feet to snug soil 

down, removing air pockets from the soil around the transplant’s roots. 

Figure 3–131—Once a transplant is placed in a hole, soil is packed firmly 

around it to eliminate large air spaces. Gently stepping around the transplant helps snug it in. A shallow depression around the transplant will help 

retain water.

Tamping also helps prevent frost heave. Shallow plugs of 

sod may need to be anchored with pegs so they maintain firm 

soil contact. At Denali National Park, restorationists use Ushaped pins made from rebar to anchor shallow-rooted trees. 

The pins help keep the trees from toppling over (Densmore 

and Vander Meer 1998).

The quality of the transplanting job can be monitored by 

tugging gently at each seedling. If a plant pulls loose, it needs 

to be replanted more securely. The planters should monitor 

their own work, and a supervisor should conduct spot checks 

for quality control. 
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Figures 3–132a and 132b—Roots can be kept moist when seedlings are 

grown and planted in PVC pots with removable screen bottoms. Once the 

pot and seedling have been planted (top), the pot can be removed (bottom), 

as shown here at Joshua Tree National Park, CA. 

When planting seedlings among living roots, plant 

between the roots as much as possible. In some cases, such as 

with huckleberry, roots resprout once growing conditions are 

favorable. Ruth Scott has found the opposite to be true at 

Olympic National Park; sites where root systems were 

minimally disturbed during planting were slow to recover. 

Better overall results were obtained by thoroughly scarifying 

the soil before replanting (Scott 2002).

Plants have tiny root hairs that are destroyed almost 

immediately when they are exposed to air. These root hairs 

represent a large percentage of the total surface area of the 

root system. It is crucial to avoid exposing the root hairs to 

the air. At Joshua Tree National Park in the Southwest, the 

tall pots used to grow seedlings with long roots have a screen 

on the bottom. When the seedling is planted, the screen is 

removed and the entire plant—including the pot—is lowered 

into the planting hole. While a stout dowel is used to push the 

plant down, the pot is removed slowly as soil and water are 

added into the hole around the roots. Holes drilled near the 

rim of the pots allow hay hooks to be used to lift the pot 

away from the plant. This technique protects the delicate root 

systems (figures 3–132a and 132b).

Transplants should be watered as soon as they have been 

planted. Wildlings should be pruned back by one-half to onethird of their original size if the plant’s morphology allows 

pruning. If transplant shock is anticipated, an antidesiccant 

spray can be applied to the foliage. Mount Rainier and Denali 

National Parks water their transplants with Vitamin B1 to 

prevent transplant shock (Densmore and Vander Meer 1998; 

Rochefort 1990). Vitamin B1 is available from nursery 

suppliers or garden supply stores.

If soils at the restoration site are altered significantly, the 

site could be inoculated with mycorrhizal fungi or nodules 

containing nitrogen-fixing bacteria by spreading a thin layer 

of inoculum in the planting hole. The methods for doing so 

are described in section 3.2.5b, Inoculating Plants With 

Mycorrhizal Fungi.

Consider situating some plantings against rocks or logs. 

The rock provides additional protection and additional water, 

especially if a long, sloped surface directs water to the plant. 

Some irrigation devices, such as deep pipes or clay pots, 

are installed as part of the planting process. Mulch, shade 

cards, signs, and devices to reduce wildlife damage generally 

are installed immediately after planting. These techniques 

are described in section 3.12, Plant Protection and Establishment.
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3.11.4 Salvaged Materials

Ideally, transplants should be planted as quickly as 

possible. Plants can be held for a short period of time in the 

shade or shallow water (figures 3–133a and 133b).

Sometimes, salvaged materials cannot be planted quickly 

because they need to be removed long before the area is 

ready. The plants may have to be held for an extended period. 

In general, holding beds, similar to a garden, are used 

for the salvaged plants. Plants are provided with irrigation 

and shade, as needed. You may need to prune back the 

crowns of the plants to improve the root-to-shoot ratio. If you 

plan to salvage plants, check with local restorationists to 

learn the methods that work best for your species. Plants may 

require additional protection, such as a thick layer of mulch 

or sawdust, if they are held over winter.

Figures 3–133a and 133b—For a short time, salvaged plant materials can 

be stored in shallow water (top) or in the shade (bottom).

• Protect plants during transport and at the 

work site.

• Select a staging area with resilient vegetation where supplies can be stored and 

workers can take breaks.

• Dig and water planting holes.

• Expose the seedlings’ roots to air only when 

they are ready to be planted.

• Inoculate seedlings with mycorrhizal fungi 

or nitrogen-fixing bacteria, if needed.

• Orient wildlings correctly (the side of the 

wildling that faced north before transplanting should face north afterward).

• Position the seedlings’ roots naturally when 

filling the hole.

• Gently tamp in layers of soil around the 

roots to remove air pockets.

• Water each layer of soil, and water again 

when done planting.

• Check that each small transplant is planted 

securely by gently tugging it upward; 

replant, if necessary.

• As appropriate, protect the plant with mulch, 

devices to reduce wildlife damage, shade 

cards, or signs. 

• Clean up the work area daily to minimize 

damage.

Transplanting Checklist
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3.12 Plant Protection and 

Establishment

This section explains additional cultural techniques for 

protecting and establishing vegetation. These techniques, 

including mulching, irrigation, and devices to protect plants 

from wildlife damage, often are critical to the success of 

restoration projects.

3.12.1 Mulching

Mulch is material placed on the soil surface or around 

transplants to prevent erosion and to protect plants from heat, 

cold, and drought. Mulch includes loose materials such as 

straw, native hay, rock, or wood chips and products made into 

mats from a variety of materials (figure 3–134). Mulches 

must be installed securely in close contact with the soil to 

work well. Vertical mulches are installed upright to cast 

shade and to protect plants from the wind.

3.12.1a Advantages and Disadvantages of 

Mulching

The advantages of mulching include:

• Reducing erosion substantially by deflecting the 

impact of raindrops, reducing the velocity of 

moving water, and serving as miniature 

checkdams to hold soil in place.

• Increasing soil moisture by reducing evaporation and increasing water infiltration.

• Protecting germinants and plants from too 

much heat in the summer by reducing soil 

temperatures.

• Protecting plants from frost heave and needle 

ice in the fall by maintaining warmer soil 

temperatures.

• Providing some organic material for soil 

building.

• Protecting plants from wind.

• Preventing soil from crusting and recompacting.

• Improving soil structure, allowing soil microorganisms to recolonize.

• Protecting plants from solar radiation.

• Preventing weed establishment if the layer of 

mulch is thick (but also preventing native seed 

from germinating).

• Preventing birds from eating seed.

• Trapping seed on the site.

• Demonstrating to visitors that “Something is 

happening here.”

Because of these benefits, mulching can increase 

germination rates, seedling survival, and plant growth. For 

example, Mount Rainier National Park compared germination and establishment of native species in the subalpine zone 

using a variety of mulches. Their findings (table 3–14) show 

the relative benefits of using mulch.

Figure 3–134—When it’s time to roll out the carpet (the erosion-control 

blanket in this case), there is a great sense of satisfaction, nigh unto gaiety. 

The hard work to prepare and plant a site is almost done!
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In some cases, mulching makes no difference in success. 

Mulch may actually be detrimental, depending on the type of 

mulch. Mulching also increases the project’s cost.

The disadvantages of mulch include:

• Keeping some soils too cool in spring, such as 

those in alpine fellfields. Thinner mulch or a 

darker mulch will help raise spring soil temperatures.

• Inducing premature germination without adequate 

water to support the germinant. Covering seeds 

with soil will prevent this problem.

• Decreasing establishment of some species. For 

example, in a native bunchgrass community, a 50-

percent cover of native grass mulch suppressed 

seedling establishment (Belnap and Sharpe 1995).

• Increasing susceptibility to fire, because some 

mulch materials, such as jute and straw, are highly 

flammable (a spray application of monoammonium phosphate fertilizer will serve as a fire 

retardant).

• Creating cover that allows rodents and insects to 

eat seed without being exposed to predators.

• Reducing soil nitrogen levels because of decomposition if organic mulch materials are mixed in 

with the soil.

• Increasing weed problems, because straw mulch 

can have both grain seed and other weed seed 

mixed in. Even certified weed-free straw can have 

a small percentage of noxious weed seed and any 

Table 3–14—Seeding success after 1 year, comparing different mulch 

materials in the subalpine zone at Mount Rainier National Park (Rochefort 

1990).

 Seedlings 

 per square yard

 Mulch (per square meter)

 Straw blanket 451 (377)

 Curlex 292 (244)

 Rollite 258 (216)

 Native sedge 87 (73)

 No mulch 48 (40)

amount of other weed seed. Rice straw is a good 

alternative because rice will not grow on dry soil, 

nor will the aquatic weeds associated with rice 

grow on dry soil.

• Preventing moisture from reaching the soil in 

areas with very light rainfall.

• Preventing native seed that drops on top of mulch 

mats from establishing when it germinates.

• Persisting in some environments because mulches 

can degrade slowly in certain conditions.

• Trapping animals in the net that covers some 

mulches.

• Slowing seed germination and seedling growth in 

the subarctic.

3.12.1b Selecting a Mulch

Mulch should be selected to mimic the structure and 

function provided by the natural litter layer. For example, a 

meadow normally would have dead leaf material that serves 

as a mulch. That material not only would regulate soil 

temperature and soil moisture, but would add nutrients to the 

soil as it decomposes. A straw or natural fiber mulch would 

mimic this condition. In a desert or alpine fellfield with little 

leaf litter, rock tends to serve as mulch.

The type of mulch selected and the application rate will 

depend on conditions at the site, such as slope, erodibility, 

soil temperatures, moisture, wind, the potential for weed 

infestations, and the potential that wild animals might cause 

damage. Cost will be a factor, but because of the laborintensive nature of work at roadless locations, the cost of 

mulch is often insignificant. As with the other aspects of 

project planning, it is a good idea to consult with other 

practitioners who have worked in similar environments or 

with the same species of plants to learn the mulches that are 

the most effective. Be open to experimentation; studies of 

mulching in similar environments have yielded seemingly 

contradictory results. 
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3.12.1c Comparison of Different Types of 

Mulch

Mulches used at remote roadless sites are composed of 

native materials or of materials that will degrade naturally. 

They can be installed without motorized tools. A number of 

nondegradable mulch materials are used extensively in 

reclamation projects outside wilderness, but because of their 

long-lasting unnatural appearance and because they are less 

effective in controlling erosion, these materials will not be 

discussed (Harding 1990; Theisen 1992). Hydromulching, 

which requires a truck-mounted sprayer system, also will not 

be covered here, but is a common mulch used for road 

projects along roads in temperate areas.

Native Hay or Leaf Litter

When an area has enough grass and forbs, native hay can 

be cut with a sickle (figure 3–135) or a scythe or raked up 

with a thatching rake. Native hay provides an additional 

source of seed. Leaf litter can be collected from adjacent 

areas, taking care to not collect too much in one area. 

Because native hay shrinks as it dries, it takes a lot of hay to 

provide an adequate mulch layer. Native hay or leaf litter will 

wash or blow away unless it is crimped into the soil with a 

shovel, or anchored with a tackifier, photodegradable nylon 

net, or jute. Collecting native hay or leaf litter takes a lot of 

time, so plan for increased labor.

Native Rock

Although it may seem improbable, rock can make an 

excellent mulch with a natural appearance. If the project site 

would have been rocky before disturbance, consider using 

rock as a mulch and to improve the area’s appearance (figure 

3–136). Rock will provide sheltered microhabitats where 

Figure 3–135—Native hay can be collected with a sickle or scythe. Here, 

coauthor Lisa Therrell is harvesting native hay in Chelan County, WA. Figure 3–136—Rock snugged up to these alpine cushion plants provides 

effective mulch at St. Mary’s Peak in the Selway-Bitterroot Wilderness, 

MT.
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plants can reestablish. Larger rocks provide shade and may 

funnel rainfall to plants. Some projects have used gravel up 

to an inch thick as imported mulch. This technique is 

especially important in arid lands (Bainbridge and Virginia 

1990) and in sparsely vegetated alpine environments, such as 

fellfields (Rochefort 1990). Rock also can be incorporated 

with other mulches. If you are collecting local rock, avoid 

overcollecting from any one spot. If you are importing 

gravel, make sure that the source is free of weed seed or have 

the gravel cleaned before using it (monitor the site for weeds 

after planting).

Straw

Loose straw is the most common mulch used on largescale restoration projects because it is effective, inexpensive, 

and easy to apply with machinery. The longer the stem, the 

more effective straw is as mulch. Seedling establishment has 

been high on many projects that used straw mulch. On slopes 

or windy areas, straw must be crimped into the soil or 

anchored in the same ways as native hay. Straw decomposes 

within 1 to 3 years. It may not be the best choice for a site 

that needs long-term protection.

Usually, about 2 tons of straw is applied per acre (0.09 

metric ton per hectare), providing about 66- to 100-percent 

cover that is about 2 inches (50 millimeters) deep. Applications vary from 1 to 8 tons per acre (0.45 to 3.56 metric tons 

per hectare) when straw is crimped into the soil (refer to 

section 3.4.8c, Crimping). For seedlings to germinate and 

become established, soil needs to show through the straw. A 

heavier application of straw will help suppress weeds and 

keep the soil cooler. If the introduction of weedy species is a 

concern, rice straw is best. It is a byproduct of rice grown in 

California.

Bark or Wood Chips

Bark or wood chips work well as mulch on arid lands 

where the high carbon-to-nitrogen ratio (expressed as carbon:

nitrogen) minimizes undesirable nutrient inputs into the soil 

(Bainbridge and others 1995). On projects that require higher 

fertility, the carbon:nitrogen ratio of bark or wood chips 

could be a problem. Richard Miller, Forest Service soil 

scientist, suggests that for a 1- to 2-inch- (25- to 50-millimeter-) thick layer of wood mulch, 50 to 100 pounds (23 to 45 

kilograms) of nitrogen fertilizer should be applied. If the 

nitrogen is in the form of urea, twice that amount would need 

to be applied during rainy weather to prevent losses to 

volatilization (Potash and Aubry 1997). Wood chips may 

blow away or be washed downhill by surface water.

Jute Netting

Jute is made from a heavy hemp fiber woven into an 

open net (figures 3–137a and 137b). Jute is easy to apply and 

is less expensive than erosion-control blankets. Jute only 

Figures 3–137a and 137b—Ten years of exposure to sun and weather in the 

subalpine zone of Washington has not decomposed this jute netting (top). 

Jute (bottom) is no longer used in such settings.
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dry sites, such as exposed ridges. The unnaturally bright 

color of the wood shavings can be alarming when the blanket 

is first unfurled, but the blanket turns gray after a season or 

two of sun, rain, and snow. In subalpine environments, the 

wood fibers last just a few years; a second application may be 

needed to continue protecting the site. 

provides moderate erosion control, so it is less effective in 

areas with runoff. Because of its open weave, it does not 

provide the benefits of mulch, but it does allow natural 

seeding to occur. Jute is highly flammable.

Erosion-Control Blankets

Erosion-control blankets are generally a layer of straw, 

wood shavings, coconut fiber, or paper stitched through to 

hold the mulch in place, or sandwiched between layers of net, 

before being compressed into a roll. Some product lines 

combine mulch materials, such as straw, with wood shavings. 

Except for the straw products, erosion-control blankets 

should protect plants without adding weed seed to the site. 

Erosion-control blankets are the most expensive type of 

mulch, but their cost may be insignificant, given the total 

project costs at some wilderness and remote sites. Numerous 

companies make the erosion-control blankets described 

below. See chapter 5, Tools of the Trade and Other Resources, for a detailed comparison of various biodegradable 

erosion-control blankets, as well as sources where they can 

be purchased.

The advantage of erosion-control blankets over loose 

mulch materials is that the blankets can be anchored easily to 

prevent them from blowing or washing away. Blankets are 

installed according to the manufacturer’s instructions, 

overlapping their edges by about 4 inches (100 millimeters), 

and using metal pins to hold the matting down. Rocks or 

limbs also can be used to help anchor the blanket and break 

up the blanket’s unnatural appearance. If blankets are not 

installed properly, they can injure seedlings. A chain saw can 

be used to cut a roll into narrower widths. For example, 

sometimes half the width of a 4-foot (1.2-meter) roll is just 

right for mulching a closed trail. 

Types of Erosion-Control Blankets

Excelsior Blankets—Excelsior blankets (figures 3–138a 

and 138b) made from aspen shavings have been used 

extensively on subalpine restoration projects. Excelsior 

blankets hold in soil moisture and have been advocated for 

Figure 3–138a and 138b—Erosion-control blankets made of excelsior 

(aspen shavings) are alarmingly bright when they are first rolled out (top). 

After 1 year, they begin turning gray (bottom).

Coconut-Fiber Mats—Coconut-fiber mats (figures 3–

139a and 139b) have a natural-appearing brown color and 

have been used successfully in a number of environments. At 

Denali National Park, coconut mats are lifted gently as soon 

as the dicotyledon species, such as legumes, have germinated. The mat is reused (Densmore and Vander Meer 1998).
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Rollite—Rollite, a brown paper mulch, has been used 

successfully on alpine sites. Its dark color absorbs radiant 

heat. Because the blanket is thin, the soil beneath it can 

warm. The stitching on this product does not readily decompose. This product no longer appears to be on the market, but 

it is mentioned here to acknowledge the value of a thin paper 

product for alpine sites.

Single Portable Mats—Single portable mats have been 

developed for tree seedlings. These mats could benefit 

seedlings on a site that does not need erosion-control 

measures. Black plastic mats suppress vegetative competition, 

but other biodegradable mats have been developed as well 

(Windell and Haywood 1996).

Vertical Mulch

Vertical mulch is upright mulch, placed southwest of the 

plant to block the most intense sunlight or in another location 

to block the prevailing wind. Vertical mulch also provides a 

place for seed to lodge, funnels rainfall toward its base, and 

offers protection from trampling or from grazing wildlife 

(Bainbridge 1996). Vertical mulch can be rock, dead branches, logs, or tufts of straw. Even salvaged plants that die when 

they have been transplanted continue to serve as vertical 

mulch (Patterson 1997). Shade cards could be considered a 

form of vertical mulch.

Figures 3–139a and 139b—Coconut Man sports a wig showing off the dark 

brown color of a freshly unfurled coconut fiber erosion-control blanket 

(top). At this subalpine site, the coconut matting had begun deteriorating 

(bottom) 4 years later. 
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3.12.2 Irrigation

Some projects will not require additional irrigation after 

seeds have been sown or seedlings have been transplanted. 

The need for irrigation can be determined based on projects 

that have been successful, or unsuccessful, with the same 

plant species in similar environments. Many projects water 

plantings periodically during the dry portions of the first 

growing season to help seedlings become better established. 

Most practitioners advocate tapering off watering as soon as root 

systems are established so plants adjust to their environment. 

If irrigation is not feasible, plant species may be selected 

based on their drought hardiness. Landscape-scale reclamation treatments, such as mine reclamation or reforestation, 

eliminate the need for supplemental water by planting 

inoculated locally-adapted species with an adequate root-toshoot ratio, planting them correctly, and planting them at the 

proper time. Moisture-retention techniques such as imprinting, pitting, mulching, and the use of tree shelters or shade 

cards may be employed. Overplanting to allow for some 

mortality may be less expensive than establishing a regular 

watering program (Burke 1998). 

Irrigation assures maximum initial survival of plantings, 

extends the planting season, allows less drought-tolerant 

species to be planted, and promotes germination of seeds 

(Redente 1993). 

The disadvantages of supplemental irrigation include the 

added labor and expense, the possibility that plants will be 

killed by overwatering, and the possibility that plants will 

grow shallow roots that may not allow the plants to survive 

when watering ends (Redente 1993). Surface watering may 

cause weed seed to germinate, and the weeds may outcompete native plants. In addition, surface irrigation may favor 

some species, such as grass, that outcompete other desired 

species, such as shrubs.

In the Mojave Desert, just 2 percent or less of the plants 

that did not receive supplemental irrigation have survived 

(Bainbridge and others 1992). Clary and Slayback (1984), on 

the other hand, determined that irrigation did not increase the 

survival of most Mojave Desert shrub species if they were 

planted during the late winter or early spring. Practitioners 

working in the sagebrush steppe have demonstrated that 

supplemental irrigation increased initial establishment and 

plant growth, but that after 4 years there was no difference 

between plants on irrigated plots and unirrigated plots (Doerr 

and others 1983). Some practitioners working in subalpine 

environments advocate watering plantings every few days 

during the dry portion of the growing season (Campbell and 

Scotter 1975; Hanbey 1992; Hingston 1982). Arid land 

restorationist Edith Allen (1993) suggests watering no more 

than would occur during a wet year.

Polypropylene nets can be manufactured with varying 

amounts of ultraviolet light inhibitors, allowing them 

to decompose at differing rates. Nets generally break 

down within 1 to 5 years. More time is needed for 

decomposition of the little pieces of polypropylene 

where the cells join. Pieces remaining on the soil are 

decomposed by soil micro-organisms that convert 

them to carbon dioxide and water. A number of 

projects have reported problems with birds, snakes, 

or rodents getting tangled in the nets and dying. In 

other areas, this has not been a problem. If animals 

frequent the project location, this type of net should 

be avoided or removed after it has served its purpose. 

Some practitioners remove the net by the second year, 

after snow and rain have compressed the mulch and 

made it more stable. Before buying a product with 

stitching or a net, ask whether the net will degrade. 

In some cases, the net will be permanent.

A Note About

Photodegradable Nets
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Figure 3–140b—These plants are benefiting from watering at Lake Mary in 

the Alpine Lakes Wilderness, WA.

If you do water plants, provide enough water to reach the 

deepest portion of the root zone, stimulating the root system 

to grow deeper rather than stimulating it to produce roots 

close to the soil surface. Deep watering can be achieved by 

repeated waterings or by leaving a drip system going for a 

longer period of time. For plants with deep root systems, the 

deep pipe method may be appropriate to deliver water 

straight to the lower portion of the roots.

3.12.2a Water Delivery Systems

Many techniques have been devised for catching water, 

moving it to restoration sites, and administering it to plants. 

Practitioners who apply a little ingenuity will probably think 

up a few more ways.

Hand Watering With Watering Cans

Watering cans are probably the most common tool for 

watering plants on remote sites. Watering cans can be filled 

in lakes or streams or in larger containers of water. David 

Bainbridge advocates using French watering cans because the 

long arching handle on this type of watering can is easy to 

balance (figures 3–140a and 140b). Usually, water is applied 

directly to the base of plants, taking care not to flood the rim 

of the planting depression. Clay Pots

In arid regions of Africa, unglazed, low-fire clay pots, 

such as terra cotta pots, are placed in the ground beside 

plantings with their rims near ground level. Water in the pots 

will seep slowly through the porous clay. Pots are refilled 

every 2 to 4 weeks, a time-consuming process. The drain 

hole in the bottom of the pot is plugged with silicone. A 

ceramic saucer or aluminum pie tin is placed upside down on 

the pot (as a lid) and weighted with a rock. Perforations in the 

lid will allow rainwater into the pot. The lid prevents 

evaporation and keeps animals from drinking the water or 

from drowning. 

This method has met with success in arid environments. 

It works well in sandy, gravelly, or saline soils. The clay pot 

also helps filter saline water. After several years, the porosity 

of the pot decreases, but the porosity can be restored by 

reheating the pot.

Figure 3–140a—These watering cans have the “French” handle design— a 

long arching handle that balances nicely and prevents back strain.
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Catchment Basins

This method lends itself to areas that require earth 

moving as part of site preparation. Large dish shapes, 30 feet 

(9 meters) in diameter or larger, are sculpted into the soil. 

These basins will prevent water from running downslope.

Deep Pipes

With this method, a long pipe 1 to 2 inches (25 to 50 

millimeters) in diameter is driven into the ground beside the 

planting hole. Holes drilled in the side of the pipe next to the 

plant allow water to seep into the soil. This method is best for 

plants with deep root systems and requires much less water 

than other systems; 1 quart (0.95 liter) of water applied using 

this technique is equivalent to several gallons (about 12 liters) 

applied at the surface. In addition, plants often can tolerate 

saline water applied using this technique that they could not 

tolerate if the water was applied with surface watering. 

Pipes can be 1 to 4 feet (0.3 to 1.22 meters) long, 

depending on how deep the plant’s root system will grow. 

Perforations need to begin near the level of the transplant’s 

lower roots and be spaced to the bottom of the pipe. PVC 

pipes last well, but may be difficult to remove if roots grow 

into the pipe through the holes. Thick paper tubes won’t have 

to be removed, but may degrade too quickly. Pipes have a lid 

on top to keep out animals and debris. A lid made from 

screen will allow water to be poured through the lid. Pipes 

can be filled from a watering can that has its sprinkler head 

removed, or from an emitter sprinkling system.

Drip and Sprinkler Systems

Drip and sprinkler systems are installed with a network 

of hoses that deliver water to the site. Smaller hoses are 

placed at the base of individual plants or connect to sprinkler 

emitters that water a portion of the area. These systems may 

not be well suited for restoration projects because they 

require frequent maintenance:

• Sprinkler heads clog easily even when they have 

a good filter. 

• Animals chew on the tubing.

• Ultraviolet light breaks down the plastics. 

Unless the water is directed into deep pipes or allowed to 

run for long periods, it tends to stay near the surface, 

producing shallow-rooted plants. On arid land projects, 

sprinkler systems should be avoided because rapid evaporation will leave salts that are toxic to plants on the soil’s 

surface.

Nursery and garden supply businesses carry irrigation 

supplies. The gravity-fed water systems used for firefighting 

can be modified to provide water for irrigation. Doing so 

involves a gravity sock placed in a creek or a porta-tank 

upslope that is connected to a sprinkler system or a series of 

hoses and a nozzle. These systems clog with sediment 

frequently, requiring regular maintenance.

Tree Shelters and Plant Collars

Tree shelters and plant collars are made of pipe, peat, 

waxed cardboard, or plastic. They are set into the ground 

during planting and protect plants from direct sun, grazing 

animals, trampling, and sand blast. Water can be poured 

directly into the shelter or collar. Arid land restorationist 

Jayne Belnap suggests watering at the rate of 1 quart (0.95 

liter) every 2 to 3 weeks (Belnap and Furman 1997).

3.12.2b Obtaining Water

Irrigation water has to come from somewhere. This can 

be a problem at roadless restoration sites that do not have 

surface water nearby. Water can be flown or packed in to 

remote sites, but the possible expense, resource damage, and 

wilderness philosophy argue against this option.

Options for storing water include food-grade barrels 

retrofitted with a spigot and timer, or porta-tanks.

3.12.2c Superabosorbent Polymers

Some practitioners, especially in arid environments, have 

experimented by adding superabosorbent polymers (used in 

disposable diapers) to the soil when planting. The polymers 

absorb many times their weight in water, increasing the 

amount of water retained in the soil. Unfortunately, the 

polymers may limit root growth by holding water rather than 
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Chapter 3: The Art and Science of Restoration

releasing it to the plant (Bainbridge and others 1995). This 

method is worthy of further experimentation.

3.12.3 Preventing Animals From 

Damaging Plants

At some locations, animals that munch on vegetation or 

bark can quickly destroy the chances for restoration success. 

At other locations, animals are not much of a problem. 

Consult with local practitioners to determine whether plants 

need to be protected from animals and to learn of strategies 

that have been successful. The methods described below have 

been used with varying degrees of success.

3.12.3a Protective Coverings

Wire cages, tree tubes (figure 3–141), row covers, and 

tree wraps can protect a plant until it becomes established. 

Wire cages can be made from chicken wire. Tree tubes are 

available through forestry supply catalogs, and row covers 

and tree wraps are available through nursery supply catalogs.

3.12.3b Reduced Fertilization and Irrigation

Animals are attracted to the additional nitrogen in the 

tissues of fertilized plants. Cutting back on fertilization 

before outplanting will help, as will refraining from additional fertilization once seedlings have been planted. Animals also are attracted to well-watered plants. Reduce or stop 

additional irrigation once seedlings have been outplanted.

3.12.3c Animal Repellants

Bitter or hot animal repellants can be sprayed on foliage. 

Repellants need to be applied before animals discover the 

plants. Repellants will wash away during rain storms. A 

systemic repellant is available that can be added to the soil 

during propagation. This repellant will remain in the foliage 

for up to 5 years after treatment. 

3.12.4 Signs

For most situations, signs will be needed to keep visitors 

from using your restoration site. Signs can be made of wood, 

Lexan, or Carsonite, a composite made from glass-fiber 

reinforced polymers. Match the type of sign (figures 3–142a, 

142b, 142c, 142d, and 142e) to the setting and the type of 

user. 

Even though we would like to think of signs as temporary, they probably will be needed over the long term unless 

the type of use has changed. Some people just won’t get it 

(even with the sign). A good option for wilderness is a 

standard routed oak sign mounted on a short post or a tree. 

Use wording such as “Closed for Restoration.” Refer to 

chapter 5, Tools of the Trade and Other Resources, for 

information on ordering Lexan signs.

Figure 3–141—Protective coverings, such as this tree tube, are one way to 

prevent wildlife from eating seedlings.
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Figure 3–142a—Routed oak signs provide a good long-term, low-maintenance way of signing closed areas.

Figure 3–142b—Small signs can be attached to posts or string fences to 

close an area.

Figure 3–142c—A wooden stake stamped with a boot print with a red slash 

across it also can be used.

Figure 3–142d—A map of the area being restored and an explanation of the 

project can help establish support for the closure.

Figure 3–142e—A message and photos on the bulletin board at a trailhead 

are another way of helping visitors understand how they can help protect 

restoration sites and the wilderness setting. 

In addition to signs at the restoration site, consider 

whether you need a poster at the trailhead or another location 

where visitors first enter the project area. The small information sign shown in figure 3–142d was left at the project area 

for several years to give plants in the restoration sites a 

chance to become established and to help campers find the 

designated campsites. The larger sign board (figure 3–142e) 

has been installed for many years and has undergone many 

revisions to help the public understand the information.
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3.12.5 Regulations

Regulations are covered in detail in chapter 2, Planning 

for Restoration of Small Sites in Wilderness. At a minimum, 

a special order is recommended to prohibit entry into 

restoration sites. Rather than writing an order specifically for 

your project location, see if this prohibition can be in an 

order that applies to the wilderness or forest. Forest Service 

and Bureau of Land Management employees can obtain a 

good example of such an order from the Mt. Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest’s Web site on their internal computer 

networks at http://fsweb.f5.r6.fs.fed.us/orders/multi-forest/. 

The four national forests of the Washington Cascade Range 

have a shared order that prohibits entering a signed restoration site.

3.13 Documentation, 

Monitoring, and 

Adaptive Management

Monitoring project success is easy to overlook in 

restoration plans, but should be part of any restoration 

project, even at the planning stage. This is especially true 

given the highly variable and often experimental nature of 

restoration. Slight differences in site microclimate, soil 

chemistry, timing of field work, or perhaps even passing 

weather conditions can cause radically different results, even 

when nearly identical methods are used. 

Monitoring may detect problems while there is still time 

to correct them and will provide a long-term record of results 

that others can refer to. Depending on the need and your 

budget, monitoring might be fairly simple (figure 3–143) or 

quite detailed. Monitoring might be qualitative, quantitative, 

or both.

In this section, we will explore different levels of 

monitoring performed by the Forest Service on restoration 

projects. We will consider factors involved in designing a 

monitoring program. Finally, we will review a simple 

monitoring protocol and suggest resources for selecting and 

designing more complex monitoring protocols. Sample 

monitoring forms are included in appendix E, Forms.

3.13.1 Adaptive Management

The goal of monitoring is to gain the understanding 

needed for a better job of management. Monitoring may 

result in midcourse corrections (figures 3–144a and 144b) to 

prevent further deterioration or to improve restoration 

success. If users continue to enter a restoration site for 

example, barriers or signs may need to be improved, or 

enforcement of regulations may need to be increased. 

Monitoring may show that excess water running through a 

Figure 3–143—Good documentation of restoration treatments is critical 

during monitoring. Intern Alexis Bachrach was able to satisfy the requirements for her college senior project by serving on a restoration crew and 

preparing the project documentation.
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3.13.2 Determining Levels of 

Monitoring

Anyone developing a monitoring plan or procedure for 

restoration projects should have a clear idea of the levels of 

monitoring that are needed and the degree to which they 

should be emphasized. If plans for the project were based on 

little or no field experience, validation monitoring may be a 

high priority. Likewise, if work is being done under contract 

or by volunteer crews, implementation monitoring may be an 

area of concern. A high level of effectiveness monitoring 

should be included in any restoration project. Because most 

Figures 3–144a and 144b—This restoration site, first planted in 1980, started as a bare, compacted, and eroded slope. The site was treated with soil 

scarification, wildling plugs of partridgefoot (Leutkea pectinata), and jute 

netting. In the late 1980s, the site was reworked by scarifying soil between 

the plugs, adding rock for microhabitat and erosion control, and adding a 

layer of excelsior erosion control blanket. By 1993, when this photo (top) 

was taken, the partridgefoot was spreading. The erosion-control blanket 

prevented about 2 inches (50 millimeters) of additional soil loss (bottom). 

site needs to be addressed. A failed planting may require 

another planting using a different approach or under different 

conditions. The key to adaptive management is taking new 

information, quickly devising a more successful strategy, and 

implementing it.

The Forest Service’s Land and Resource Management 

Planning Handbook (FSH 1909.12) defines three levels of 

monitoring, each with slightly different objectives.

Validation Monitoring

Validation monitoring determines whether the initial data 

and assumptions used in development of the plan are correct. It examines the validity of standards and guidelines 

that drive prescriptions or activities.

Implementation Monitoring

Implementation monitoring determines whether plans, 

prescriptions, projects, and activities are implemented as 

designed. It examines the quality of the field work application of the project plan.

Effectiveness Monitoring

Effectiveness monitoring determines whether plans, prescriptions, projects, and activities are effective in meeting 

their objectives. It compares the work accomplished to the 

project’s short- and long-term objectives.

Defining Validation, Implementation, and 

Effectiveness Monitoring
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restoration projects won’t be completed for many years, 

effectiveness monitoring allows procedures to be adjusted to 

fit site-specific conditions. Effectiveness monitoring is an 

integral part of implementing the project activities.

Determining the Need for Validation Monitoring

Validation monitoring should be included to the extent 

that the project can be used to validate the standards and 

guidelines that have driven the project. The monitoring 

should include a sound accounting of the project’s scheduling, materials, and so forth, as well as an accounting of any 

significant difficulties or constraints that arose. This might 

involve simply taking notes or preparing a narrative summary of the project’s progress, or it may involve a more 

formal analysis.

Validation monitoring is especially important if the 

restoration project is responsive to a land-management plan 

or other decisions that were based on an environmental 

impact statement. In cases where a project cannot reasonably 

achieve objectives set forth in a land-management plan, 

validation monitoring may dictate further NEPA analysis, 

such as a forest plan amendment. Monitoring may provide 

the feedback needed to correct policy or regulations.

Determining the Need for Implementation 

Monitoring

Implementation monitoring will depend on the amount 

of detail used in planning the project, as well as the degree of 

flexibility built into the plan. This kind of monitoring 

requires that the project plan include fairly detailed specifications, especially for structural work such as constructing 

checkdams, backfilling eroded areas, installing erosioncontrol netting, and so forth. In essence, implementation 

monitoring can be seen mainly as inspection to ensure the 

quality of work. The inspection should be used to ensure that 

the end product meets objectives, not merely to show how 

and where the project fell short. 

Particularly when working with volunteers, Forest 

Service crews, or other groups without a formal contract, 

implementation monitoring can be used to adjust specifications during implementation of the project. Doing so is 

especially important when workloads prove greater than 

anticipated, weather prevents work from being accomplished, 

or other problems arise. In general, the greater the scope and 

complexity of the project, the greater the importance of 

implementation monitoring. 

Determining the Need for Effectiveness Monitoring

Typically, monitoring restoration sites entails monitoring 

the condition of site vegetation. The methods of monitoring 

or the indicators selected will vary with the type of vegetation involved and the techniques used to reestablish natural 

vegetation, as well as with the overall goals and objectives of 

the project.

The scale of the project will determine to some extent 

the kinds of monitoring techniques that should be employed. 

For smaller projects, it may be feasible to take detailed data 

on every plant on the site; for larger projects, permanent plots 

or random sampling techniques may be preferable. 

The species of plants involved may dictate certain 

methods of monitoring. For example, different monitoring 

strategies might be employed when working with trees rather 

than grasses. With grasses, percent cover may be an excellent 

indicator of success, while with trees, height may be a better 

indicator. When direct seeding is used, a good indicator of 

success might be the number of stems per square foot or 

square meter. Percent survival would be a better indicator of 

success when planting plugs (figure 3–145).

Some possible indicators commonly used by ecologists 

include: total percent cover, percent cover by species; plant 

height; number of stems per given area, stem diameter, stem 

or plant size class, and survival rates for plugs or seedlings. 

Some indicators are more qualitative in nature, such as lists 

of species composition or classification of plant vigor. 

Although quantitative measures are more commonly used in 

monitoring, qualitative measures, such as vigor classification, 

can be very important. Standard vigor classification schemes 

can indicate whether plants are able to produce viable seed, 
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an indicator that a site may be on its way to becoming selfmaintaining. 

Factors such as ongoing erosion, effectiveness of erosioncontrol structures, and effectiveness of barriers should be 

monitored. An effectiveness monitoring protocol also should 

consider whether use has been displaced, and if so, what the 

impacts of the displaced use might be. Use may shift locally, 

to other nearby locations, or to areas farther away. 

Other Monitoring Design Considerations

In some cases, information such as percent cover by 

species may not be important. A project may aim simply to 

eliminate human use and allow natural recovery. In that case, 

the percent screening between the work site and a passing 

trail may be the best indicator of success. On the other hand, 

if a project aims at true ecological restoration, technical 

factors, such as soil bulk density or litter depth, may be better 

indicators of success. 

In projects that do not aim for full restoration in the 

short term, monitoring may be best designed with incremental objectives in mind. For instance, rebuilding soils or soil 

structure may be a more attainable goal than reestablishment 

of natural vegetation. In such projects, monitoring the depth 

of trail erosion (or the level of deposition behind checkdams) 

might be indicators of success. In other cases, qualitative 

measures could be used as indicators of success—perhaps 

simply monitoring public compliance with “Keep Off” signs, 

or monitoring the reappearance of fire rings or litter.

Some projects may focus on eradicating weed species or 

altering vegetative composition. The percentages of different 

species growing on the site, or the mere presence of certain 

species, may serve as the best basis for monitoring. Projects 

that transport plant material or soil into the wilderness should 

always include some monitoring for the accidental introduction of nonnative species.

In any case, the project’s goals and objectives should 

determine the levels and methods of monitoring used. 

Although many projects will focus on effectiveness monitoring, some combination of implementation, effectiveness, and 

validation monitoring is desirable. 

3.13.3 Establishing Monitoring 

Procedures for a Project

Solicit interdisciplinary input when establishing procedures for monitoring (figure 3–146). For validation monitoring, consult trail maintenance and design specialists, wilderness specialists, hydrologists, engineers, botanists, recreation 

planners, NEPA specialists, or others with technical backgrounds.

Figure 3–145—Tracking percent survival is easier if the site broken into 

smaller units, such as the area between checkdams. This project was at 

Lake Mary in the Alpine Lakes Wilderness, WA.
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For effectiveness monitoring, consult resource specialists 

with direct working knowledge of the site and the project’s 

physical and social objectives, such as botanists, ecologists, 

wilderness rangers, soil scientists, range conservationists, and 

others with similar expertise. Workers with hands-on field 

expertise need to be involved, because effectiveness monitoring tends to be the most detailed and take the most time of 

the three types of monitoring. 

3.13.4 Incorporating Monitoring Into 

a Project

Project monitoring will help determine whether the site 

restoration goals have been met.

Planning Phase

A critical aspect of monitoring is the need for feedback 

to be provided in sufficient detail and in a timely fashion. 

Validation monitoring may begin during a project’s initial 

planning stages. If a project’s costs or its logistical problems 

begin to seem unreasonable, it may be necessary to reexamine standards and guidelines that mandate the proposed 

action. As a project progresses and implementation and 

effectiveness monitoring are taking place, validation monitoring should be used to ensure that policy matches reality. 

Validation monitoring can contribute to policy change at high 

levels that can save large amounts of work time and funds.

Implementation Phase

While validation monitoring may continue throughout 

the project’s life, implementation monitoring becomes key 

during all phases with on-the-ground work. Implementation 

monitoring should guide daily work schedules, ensuring 

high-quality results. Implementation monitoring must be 

ongoing with a short response time, enabling crews to adjust 

their work methods and allowing project leaders or contract 

administrators to make corrections to schedules or specifications as needed. Remember that the goal of implementation 

monitoring should be to ensure that objectives are met, not to 

analyze why they were not.

Implementation monitoring includes documentation of 

the work accomplished: location of restoration sites, stabilization treatments, soil treatments, planting treatments, plant 

protection measures, signs, and so forth. Photopoints should 

be established that document conditions before work began, 

and after the treatment is in place. These photopoints will 

continue to be used as part of effectiveness monitoring. 

As part of implementation monitoring, consider having 

crews keep a daily journal of work activities and other useful 

observations. For example, if crews keep track of how much 

time they spend on each component of their work, the records 

will help you judge the accuracy of your original budget 

estimates. Consider incorporating additional information in 

the journal. This information might include daily encounters 

with visitors, campsite occupancy data, or even wildlife 

sightings. A well-kept field journal can help answer questions 

years after a project has been completed (see figure 3–143).

Followup and Maintenance Phase

Effectiveness monitoring may begin while the project is 

being implemented. However, the most important factor 

when incorporating effectiveness monitoring is to think long 

term (figures 3–147a, 147b, 147c, and 147d). Restoration often 

Figure 3–146—Three separate attempts have failed to restore this wilderness campsite. Monitoring can help us learn from our failures as well as 

our successes. 
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spans many years or decades. A project that appears to be an 

immediate success or failure may not be over the long term. 

Effectiveness monitoring may be done annually, on a 3-year 

rotation, or over even longer intervals. Annual monitoring 

may be appropriate during the early years of a project, but 

monitoring may be scaled back during later years. In all 

cases, effectiveness monitoring should be done in a fashion 

that allows managers to respond to problems with project 

design and to improving or deteriorating conditions. 

This series of photographs documents 8 years of 

progress during restoration of one of the two trails accessing 

Lake Mary in the Alpine Lakes Wilderness, WA. The 

restoration crew installed rock steps on the open portion of 

this trail that is used only by hikers. The other half of the 

trail was restored using checkdams, fill, greenhouse-grown 

transplants, and an excelsior erosion-control blanket.

Figure 3–147a—A high school student had the pleasure of planting the 

plants he grew for his senior project.

Figure 3–147b—The erosion-control blanket is the most obvious sign of 

restoration in this 1995 photo.

Figure 3–147c—Conditions were still good in 1997. Two rock steps had 

come loose and needed fixing or replacement. Plants were surviving and 

erosion was largely stabilized. A second application of erosion-control 

blanket would be beneficial.

Figure 3–147d—By 2002, the rock steps really needed some help. The 

vegetation continued to mature and fill in. Other plants seeded themselves 

from the nearby meadow and had become established.
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Monitoring Methodologies

Monitoring methodologies range from taking simple 

qualitative observations to more complex quantitative 

measurements. Design your methods based on the questions 

you need to answer and the resources available to accomplish 

the work. It helps to break restoration sites into smaller units 

for documentation and monitoring. For example, you might 

keep track of the number of plantings between each checkdam, with the checkdam serving as a reference point. 

Appendix E, Forms, contains sample forms you can modify 

when designing your own approach. 

A simple approach is to notice and document obvious 

factors that contribute to the project’s success and trends that 

point toward recovery or failure. Most wilderness restoration 

projects are so small that the entire site can be evaluated. 

Sample questions might include:

• Is water flowing around or through the site as 

planned?

• Are erosion-control measures working?

• How many transplants have survived?

• What seeded species have become established?

• Which species have volunteered?

• What is the overall vigor of each species? Are 

the plants stunted? Discolored? Flowering? 

Fruiting? Spreading? Is an additional treatment 

needed to improve plant health?

• Are plants being disturbed by animal activities 

such as herbivory? Do such problems need to be 

mitigated with an additional treatment?

• Are sites being disturbed by human activities? 

Does this disturbance need to be addressed 

through further engineering, education, or 

enforcement?

• Are signs and barriers still in place?

• Does the site include any introduced plant 

species (weed them out!) or diseased transplants?

• What are the changes in species composition? 

• What is the percent ground cover? Canopy 

cover?

• Are plants at the prescribed stocking levels? Do 

you need to plan for additional plantings?

Some projects might require more detailed methods of 

monitoring. Techniques that have been used to measure 

species composition and percent cover include line-intercept 

transects, radial transects, and quadrats (Potash and Aubry 

1997; Redente 1993; Rochefort 1990). Projects outside 

wilderness might use engineered structures to measure active 

erosion. Some projects may track individual plantings. Larger 

projects will require a sampling procedure (figure 3–148) 

rather than a complete census. An ecologist and statistician 

can help you design appropriate protocols.

Figure 3–148—Wilderness research scientist David Cole, coauthor of this 

guide, goes to extraordinary lengths to prevent further impact to vegetation while counting plants during a study in the Eagle Cap Wilderness, OR.
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Recording and Reporting Monitoring Results

When designing the monitoring for a restoration project, 

include concrete steps that will be taken to manage and 

report on the data collected through the monitoring process. 

Think ahead to consider how monitoring results may be a 

catalyst for changes in policy, ongoing management of your 

project area, or the design of future projects.

Information related to validation monitoring should be 

passed along to appropriate decisionmakers or planning staff. 

Any significant discrepancies found through validation 

monitoring could be included in annual forest plan monitoring reports or similar reports that will bring these situations 

to the attention of others. 

Information pertaining to implementation monitoring 

needs to be acted on promptly. Problems should be identified 

and explained to contractors or work crews, noted in work 

logs or inspection reports, and dealt with in a manner that 

will ensure situations are corrected before further loss of 

productivity or project quality. It is important to document 

the findings of implementation monitoring properly, but it is 

perhaps more important to relay those findings in a timely 

manner to persons responsible for implementing the work. 

Data collected during effectiveness monitoring may be 

the most difficult to analyze, requiring technical skills and a 

long-term vision of how project objectives will be met. 

Because data collection will be ongoing in most cases, it may 

be wise to develop a database (or at least a good filing 

system) for data that will accumulate over several years. The 

data should be summarized periodically and used in planning 

maintenance of this project or similar projects. Summaries of 

this kind of data will be especially useful to those developing 

budgets and work plans or to resource specialists involved in 

restoration. Consider making this data more widely available 

to researchers and practitioners of restoration. Refer to 

appendix D, Case Studies, for an example of a monitoring 

report.

Monitoring Summary

A key element to any restoration project is developing a 

monitoring process. Monitoring should be thought of in 

terms of the three types: validation, implementation, and 

effectiveness monitoring. The monitoring process should be 

tailored to the objectives and scope of the project, as well as 

to the ecological and vegetative components of the site. 

Technical help from specialists should be used to develop 

specific procedures for each project. If the true benefits of 

monitoring are to be realized, data from monitoring must be 

analyzed, summarized, and reported to appropriate personnel.

Two standard texts explaining vegetative sampling procedures may help:

• Aims and Methods of Vegetation Ecology 

by Meuller-Dombois and Ellenberg (2003) 

is the classic text on selecting and implementing an appropriate vegetation sampling 

technique based on your analysis goals. 

Fortunately, this text was recently brought 

back into print.

• Statistical Ecology: A Primer on Methods 

and Computing by Ludwig and Reynolds 

(1988) is a good companion to the previous 

text that will help explain the statistical 

basis for applications of ecological sampling. 

The Bureau of Land Management has an 

excellent free publication, Sampling 

Vegetation Attributes by Coulloudon and 

others (1999), that can be ordered hard copy 

or downloaded from http://www.blm.gov/

nstc/library/techref.htm.

Designing and Analyzing Vegetative 

Sampling Procedures
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3.14 Project Maintenance

Plans for restoration projects should include time and 

money for maintenance. Identifying funding can be tricky, 

because a restoration project may have a special project 

funding source that ends once the initial work has been 

completed. 

Based on either formal or informal observations and 

monitoring, you will determine whether your treatments are 

likely to succeed. If the desired plant species are thriving, 

soils are stable, and the signs and visitors are in the proper 

places, you can jump for joy and walk away. But some of 

your treatments may need additional work to address ongoing 

erosion, lack of plant vigor, or ongoing impacts from human 

use. 

Because of high turnover among seasonal staff, new 

employees may take over a long-term maintenance program. 

It is important to document the site-specific maintenance 

tasks in an action plan, including any specific concerns and 

where signs need to go. Otherwise, your new wilderness 

rangers will visit your project area and be unable to spot 

details that need attention.

3.14.1 Site Management

Site maintenance might require ongoing treatments (such 

as irrigating and mulching plantings, or amending the soil), 

repairs, or even modifications to the treatment. 

3.14.1a Irrigation

Plantings may need several years of watering before 

deep root systems become established. Unless plantings are 

watered by hand, irrigation systems will need regular 

inspection to fix leaky, broken, or malfunctioning components. An irrigation log should be kept to document the 

amount and frequency of watering. 

The Respect the River program on the Okanogan and 

Wenatchee National Forests has a unique approach to getting 

this job done—restoration sites have a small sign inviting 

forest visitors to help out with watering! This approach seems 

to be working and helps visitors become part of the solution 

(figure 3–149).

Figure 3–149—Visitors can help with watering if they are encouraged to 

do so.

3.14.1b Mulching

Depending on the material, mulch loses its effectiveness 

after a few years. Unless plantings have become fairly well 

established by then, a new layer of mulch may have to be 

added to preserve soil moisture and to provide protection 

from the elements. 

3.14.1c Soil Amendments

If plantings look stunted or discolored, this may be a 

sign of a nutrient imbalance. A feeding of nitrogen may be 

needed because nitrogen disappears rapidly from the soil. 

Until the site has an adequate supply of litter, native nitrogen 

sources may be lacking. See section 3.2.3c, Amending 

Altered or Depleted Soils, to determine an approach that is 

appropriate for your site.
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3.14.1d Stabilizing Erosion

Ongoing erosion damage could take many forms, 

requiring different solutions. Running water may be causing 

further damage to a restoration site, or perhaps your attempts 

to move water away from your site have created a new 

problem somewhere nearby. Maintenance work might include 

directing water away from a site, spreading water out more 

effectively across a site, repairing malfunctioning erosioncontrol structures such as siltbars or checkdams, adding 

structures to slow water and collect silt, or adding mulch.

3.14.1e Wildlife Damage

Structures put in place to prevent animals from eating 

plants may need to be repositioned or replaced. Nutrient-rich 

plantings can be attractive to animals. Ants can march away 

with all your seed. Section 3.12, Plant Protection and 

Establishment, offers suggestions for managing these 

problems.

3.14.1f Frost Heave

Some plantings may be forced out of the ground by frost. 

If the plants are still alive, they will need to be reset. Set 

plants back into a shallow depression and firmly compress 

the soil around each plant. Additional mulch also may be 

applied to prevent frost heave.

3.14.1g Interplanting or Replanting

Additional plantings may be necessary if goals for the 

desired abundance and species diversity have not been met. 

But this problem may be an indicator that Mother Nature has 

different ideas of what is feasible than you do. Before 

replanting, work with your team to figure out what went 

wrong and how it might be corrected. The Limiting Factors

chart in appendix A, Treatments To Manage Factors Limiting 

Restoration, will help you think through such problems. 

Here are some examples. Perhaps the reference community is not appropriate for your site—a plant species only 

found in open meadows may not survive in shade (The author 

speaks from experience!). Perhaps you were trying to move 

toward the reference condition too quickly and need to start 

with early successional species. Perhaps the plant stock type 

was not well suited to your site. The list goes on and on. If a 

planting has failed to perform, do your best to figure out why, 

devise a new strategy, and replant. 

It may be that adding additional species would help meet 

the reference community’s plant structure. Try direct sowing 

seed onto your site during the same period when seed would 

fall to the ground naturally, or use other onsite propagation 

techniques. You may need to collect additional plant material 

for propagation offsite.

3.14.1h Exotic Species

Be sure to have a botanist or someone else who can 

recognize wayward plant species visit your site. Weed out 

any exotic species! Record their loathsome presence in your 

monitoring logs, and try to determine how they got into the 

wilderness. Chances are the invaders stowed away with plant 

materials or soil brought in from offsite. Or you may have 

released dormant seed from the soil’s seed bank when you 

loosened and watered the soil. 

One helpful tool is a weed finder—a little field guide 

with colored photos of potential weed species for your site 

(figure 3–150). Include photos of plants at different life 

stages—seedlings, plants in flower, and plants in fruit. This 

guide might include any nonnative plant species found 

Figure 3–150—Site monitoring and maintenance require careful attention 

to spot introduced plant species. An area-specific weed finder depicting 

nonnative species that may have been stowaways on plant stock or other 

materials will help members of your crew.
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growing near where your plant materials were propagated 

and stored. It should also include any weed species known to 

be in that portion of the backcountry or at the trailhead. This 

weed finder will be a tremendous asset to anyone who checks 

the site but lacks botanical expertise.

3.14.2 People Management

Managing continuing recreation use of the area is 

another part of the maintenance battle. Your goal is to 

concentrate the use where you want it and to keep the use off 

of your fragile restoration site.

3.14.2a Signs

Signs need to be maintained until they are no longer 

needed. Just one group tying stock up in your restoration site 

might undo thousands of dollars of backbreaking work in two 

quick hours—the voice of experience again. If your project is 

in a remote area, but not in wilderness, it may be helpful to 

lay in a small stash of extra signs there, or to have visiting 

personnel carry extra signs so problems can be remedied 

when they are spotted.

At some point, use patterns at a project site may have 

established themselves so that the signs are no longer needed. 

For example, it is more important to keep signs at the site 

when plantings are small than after they have become 

established. If you take signs down, monitor your success 

fairly soon to determine whether they may need to be 

replaced.

3.14.2b Barriers

It may be necessary to maintain or add barriers to keep 

folks where you want them. Some barriers may get rearranged or carted off. Perhaps they just weren’t big enough in 

the first place.

3.14.2c Replacing Structures That Fail

Structures installed to check erosion, or to harden 

campsites or trails, can fail. It may be necessary to reposition 

or replace some of your work.

3.14.2d Maintaining Social Trails

Part of your planning effort was to figure out which 

social trails to keep. Provide these trails with enough 

maintenance to keep use on the trails, and off fragile 

vegetation. This may mean providing drainage, cutting brush, 

cutting fallen logs (figure 3–151), or maintaining barriers. 

Figure 3–151—The restored trail to the left was recovering quite well until 

the heavily limbed subalpine fir fell across the main social trail to the 

right. Because the fallen tree was on a social trail, it wasn’t included in the 

maintenance contract in the Alpine Lakes Wilderness, WA. Wilderness 

personnel removed limbs with a pruning saw, hoping to redirect use onto 

the proper trail. 

3.14.2e New Impacts Caused by Displaced 

Use

Preventive maintenance should be done quickly if 

impacts shift to other locations. For example, users may 

decide to start new campsites, or walk across vegetated areas, 

forming new trails. It may be necessary to implement a 

variety of strategies to absorb the change appropriately, or to 

stop the damaging practice. 
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3.14.3 Scheduling Maintenance

In general, maintenance needs to be more intensive 

during the first few years after a project while problems are 

being addressed and new plantings are gaining a toehold. 

Afterward, maintenance may become more periodic. Keep in 

mind that even something as simple as a missing sign can 

have great consequences.

It is important to visit restoration sites when runoff is at 

its peak to assess erosion problems. If the public frequents 

the area during snowmelt, it is important to assess potential 

problems then. It also is a good idea to check restoration sites 

during peak-use periods when crowding can lead to problems. If ongoing irrigation is critical to the project’s success, 

the site needs to be visited during droughty times of the year. 

3.14.4 Concluding Thoughts on 

Maintenance

Restoration work requires long-term maintenance. While 

the intensity of maintenance tapers off with time, most 

projects require upkeep for many years, if not decades. 

Remember to leave good tracks for those who follow in your 

footsteps, and have fun and stay humble in your role as 

wilderness guardian.

Figure 3–152—Use was shifted off this fragile meadow onto a 

hardened surface by laying a row of rock to block the trail and building cairns on the alternate route. About 30 years later, vegetation 

has grown in between the rocks, but the rocks themselves create an 

unnatural appearance. About half the rocks were removed and the resulting divots were filled with soil to protect exposed roots. Someday, 

perhaps the remaining rocks can be removed from this restored trail at 

the Enchantment Lakes in the Alpine Lakes Wilderness, WA.

Sometimes, creating an unnatural appearance can help stabilize or close a restoration site (figure 3–152). Signs may 

need to be heavy handed at first to gain user compliance, but 

signs don’t need to be on every closed area once vegetation 

discourages use. Perhaps a facility, such as a hitchrack, was 

provided to concentrate impacts but use patterns or improved 

user choices had made it unnecessary. Consider when it may 

be appropriate to peel back some of the obvious signs of the 

restoration work so your efforts become “substantially unnoticeable,” meeting the intent of the Wilderness Act of 1964.

Reassessing the Minimum Tool
224

Chapter 3: The Art and Science of Restoration

Chapter 4
Chapter 4: Restoration Program Development and Support

225

Figure 4–1—Two teenage volunteers on a Student Conservation Association high school work crew pause while hauling fill. 

E

Restoration Program Development and Support

Even with volunteer assistance, restoration programs 

require a big commitment of our corporate energy 

and funding. This section discusses ideas that will 

help you build your program. Most Forest Service wilderness 

restorationists do not have a consistent program, but lurch 

from project to project as funding or other opportunities present themselves.

4.1 Funding, Workforce, 

and Partnerships

There is no magic funding source for wilderness 

restoration projects—roll up your sleeves and figure out your 

best options. Networking with other wilderness restorationists will help you see how they plan their budget and workforce. Let your allies know what you are seeking; you may 

gain ideas from other specialists or citizen advocacy groups. 

Learn by doing—keep good records of your costs, including 

the hidden costs such as your staff time, to refine future 

project planning. 

4.1.1 Funding

If you are lucky, you are planning a restoration project 

that already has some funding. It’s more likely that you will 

need to seek out sources of funding and leverage your limited 

budget with volunteer labor (figure 4–1). Small projects can 

be accomplished with your existing workforce using appropriated dollars to cover a few material costs. Obtaining 

additional funding can be discouraging—the Forest Service 

has no readily available pot of funds for wilderness projects. 

Many units seek outside funding sources, such as grants for 

their projects.

4.1.1a Forest Service Sources of Funding

Recreation—If the impacts you are treating are related 

to recreation, the recreation budget is an appropriate funding 

source.

Recreation Fee Dollars—The national recreation fee 

programs may allow funds to be used for restoration projects. 

If your local fee program’s business plan allows for restoration, you may be able to lobby for some funding.

Capital Investment Program (CIP)—Wilderness 

restoration projects can be submitted to the CIP program. 

There is no telling what year (or decade) your project will 
Chapter 4: Restoration Program Development and Support

226

rise to the surface for funding. But this is a nice funding 

source when it comes through, because the funding is in 

place for several years.

Soil and Water—If the impacts at your project location 

are contributing sediment to streams with native species of 

fish, approach your fish biologist or hydrologist about tapping 

into soil and water funds.

Knutson-Vandenberg (KV) Act Funding—Outside 

wilderness, a restoration project may be part of the mitigation 

from a timber sale, such as restoring a logging landing back 

to a trailhead. Include this mitigation in the timber sale 

decision and make sure it is included in the KV plan. Be 

forewarned that “nonessential” KV items often remain 

unfunded.

4.1.1b Other Funding Sources

Federal agencies are not eligible to compete for many 

grants, but you may be able to partner with a not-for-profit 

organization, such as a native plant society, to help acquire 

funds. Some States have grant programs that fund a variety 

of improvement or restoration projects on public lands. If you 

apply for grants, develop your proposal to give you as much 

latitude as needed. For example, if you only include labor and 

materials in your grant, you may not be able to fund important aspects of your program, such as planning, transportation, and equipment. Your local library may have information 

on sources of grants for restoration projects.

4.1.2 Budgeting

Project planning is the first cost incurred in a restoration 

project and can be the most difficult to fund. It may be 

possible to attract the help of kind-hearted specialists pining 

for a wilderness trip.

In general, the project implementation budget is developed based on materials, equipment, and labor. You may also 

want to budget for training. Materials include items such as 

plant materials, erosion-control materials, soil amendments, 

and signs. Equipment will include any tools, camping 

supplies, and items needed for transporting materials or 

workers. 

For projects outside wilderness, labor costs are often 

relatively low because of the efficiency of motorized equipment and large machinery. In wilderness, labor costs are 

much higher, but can be offset with volunteer labor. Don’t be 

surprised when a task takes far longer than envisioned. For 

example, if your crew is using buckets to collect soil for fill, 

it may take up to a week to collect enough soil to restore one 

site or closed trail.

The following box lists potential budget items. While 

this list is not exhaustive, it will help you think of a variety of 

costs. Keep in mind that it is far more efficient to overprepare 

than to be underprepared. Having a thorough site assessment 

and restoration plan will make the budgeting process fairly 

easy. Planning also helps to set priorities for each component 

of the project so that the most important portions of the 

project are finished first, an important factor if funds run 

short and the project cannot be completed.
Chapter 4: Restoration Program Development and Support

227

• 2- by 2-inch (50- by 50-

 millimeter) stakes

• Barriers

• Devices to prevent animals

 from eating seed or

 seedlings

• Erosion-control blankets

• Fertilizer

• Irrigation devices

• Jelly-roll fabric

• Parachute cord

• Plant tubes

• Rooting hormone

• Shade cards

• Signs

• Shade cloth

• Transplant shock

 fluid (Upstart)

• Wire staples (for

 securing erosion

 control blankets) 

This summary is based on Belnap and Furman (1997) and 

St. John (1995).

Planning Phase

• Collecting and analyzing wilderness inventory or 

monitoring data.

• Site assessment (personnel wages and per diem, soil 

samples, species lists, mapping).

• Developing a proposed action and site prescriptions.

• NEPA analysis and consultation with other agencies.

• Developing a budget and procuring funding.

• Recruiting labor.

• Training.

Implementation Phase 

Transportation costs: May include stock, vehicles, 

helicopters.

Labor costs: May include volunteer stipends and housing.

Plant material collection: The main cost is travel time. It 

may be necessary to make several trips at the proper time for 

each of the species being collected.

Plant propagation: First-year plants may cost 55 cents to 

$2. Larger plants will cost considerably more. Additional costs 

may include delivery, seed cleaning, seed testing, seed storage, 

and plant holding costs. Mt. Rainier National Park estimates the full 

cost of propagation to be $4 per plant.

Items To Consider Including in a Restoration Project Budget

Crew training: This could vary from on-the-job training to 

sending crew members to restoration workshops or having them 

visit successful restoration projects.

Monitoring and Maintenance 

Provide regular monitoring and maintenance for several 

years after implementation and at less frequent intervals 

afterward. Also provide public contact and enforcement.

Ongoing maintenance supplies: signs, erosion-control 

materials, tools, and possibly fertilizer (until an organic soil layer 

is reestablished).

Site stabilization and preparation: Retaining devices such as logs 

or rocks, fill material, topsoil, soil amendments, and plastic sheeting.

Camping equipment: Any additional gear that will be needed, 

plus replacement for items that will become unusable because of wear 

and tear. Crews that are out for a long time will want larger tents, 

perhaps a screened tent, and a means of storing food away from critters. 

In colder, wetter climes, a portable heater, such as a propane heater, will 

help to dry out wet gear from day to day. Wet weather is a strong 

possibility when planting during the rainy season.

Site protection and plant establishment:

• Buckets

• Come-alongs

• Gardening

 forks

• Gloves

• Hand pruners

• Hardhats

• Kneepads or

 kneeling pads

• Safety glasses

• Saws

• Shovels

• Sickles

• Sledge hammers

• Soil

 thermometers

• Tree spades

• U-bar diggers

Tools

• Log carriers

• Loppers

• Mallets

• McLeods

• Pick hoes or

 trowels

• Picks

• Rebar

• Rock bars
Chapter 4: Restoration Program Development and Support

228

4.1.3 Workforce

If you do not have a restoration program in place already, 

it will take a little extra effort to develop your workforce. 

Skill development begins during the planning phase—take 

the time to educate your team if they haven’t already been 

involved with restoration projects. Team members will 

benefit from reading this guide and other literature relevant 

to your habitats and plants, by listening to talks by other 

successful restorationists, and by attending a restoration 

course. You might consider inviting restorationists to provide 

training or present a case study for your team and work 

crews.

Don’t just assume that the trail crew or wilderness crew 

will make a good restoration crew, although they certainly 

will have good skills to contribute. It helps if your restoration 

crew has lots of perseverance. The work goes slowly and is 

hard on the back and knees (figure 4–2) because of all the 

bending and kneeling. The crew needs an eye for detail, precision, and thoroughness in tasks such as installing erosioncontrol features, identifying plant species, and transplanting 

plants. The crewleader needs to have good technical skills, be 

good at quality control, and work well with people. Crewmembers with a background in gardening, landscaping, or 

working with plants are good choices. Folks more interested 

in moving through a project quickly are not good choices. 

Even motivated workers may need a pep talk to get through 

the more monotonous or uncomfortable parts of a project.

Give the crewleader time to become prepared. Perhaps 

the crewleader was involved in the planning and already has 

ownership in the project. Consider sending the crewleader to 

a restoration training course at the Arthur Carhart National 

Wilderness Training Center in Missoula, MT. Other ways to 

increase a crewleader’s skills include reading publications 

such as this guide, attending other restoration workshops 

(check with the Society for Ecological Restoration), and 

visiting other units with successful restoration programs. 

Take a reconnaissance trip to the restoration site with your 

crewleader so the leader clearly understands each aspect of 

the project. 

Once the crew is onboard, provide them with on-the-job 

training. Show them pictures of the various steps of the 

restoration process, and explain the principles involved in 

each step. Be sure to include any other expectations you may 

have for the project, such as practicing Leave No Trace

principles, preventing further damage to the project site, 

working a split shift to beat the heat, or any other concerns. If 

your work crew is small, consider recruiting a larger group 

during the first few days to help move heavier items (logs and 

rocks) and to create a sense of momentum. Unless your 

project area is close to a trailhead, consider having the crew 

work long hitches to maximize the hours they spend working 

Figure 4–2—All restoration projects include lots of uncomfortable bending 

and endlessly monotonous tasks—choose your crew carefully.
Chapter 4: Restoration Program Development and Support

229

on the project relative to the time spent in travel. If you aren’t 

supervising the project yourself, be sure to at least visit while 

the work is underway for the sake of the crew’s morale and to 

allow you to make any midcourse corrections that may be 

needed.

4.1.4 Partnerships

Lots of folks care about wilderness and restoration of 

damaged wild places. Project dollars can be maximized and 

public good will can be enhanced by building partnerships. 

This section specifically discusses the role of volunteer 

partnerships. The next section discusses the use of professional services.

Volunteer relationships can be developed for any aspect 

of a project—from monitoring and planning, to growing 

plants, to project implementation and maintenance. Depending on the skill level of the volunteers, you will need to invest 

a considerable amount of mentoring, training, coordination, 

supervision, and quality control when working with them. 

Responsible, motivated, mature individuals are almost a 

prerequisite for restoration projects; avoid using the 1-day 

volunteer Scout or school group as your planting crew unless 

they already have a lot of ownership in the success of your 

project. 

There are many ways to recruit volunteers. Tap into 

organizations in your area that enjoy service projects. 

Examples might include hiking clubs, the Back Country 

Horsemen, environmental clubs or organizations, and native 

plant societies. Many college students need internships. 

Interns could help during the various phases of a restoration 

project (figure 4–3). Also consider recruiting graduate 

students who need a thesis project. Build relationships with 

teachers or professors who might be a source of interns or 

graduate students. 

Be creative and develop any natural alliances. For 

example, one of the wilderness rangers in the SelwayBitterroot Wilderness is a retired school teacher from Iowa. 

She developed a partnership where teachers from Iowa 

receive continuing education credits for helping with wilderness restoration projects. The following section lists several 

national organizations that act as clearinghouses for volunteers.

Volunteers need care and tending. Be sure they receive 

the rewarding experiences they are seeking. When recruiting 

volunteers, let them know how important their contribution 

will be to wilderness management. Provide for their basic 

needs by providing assistance with transportation, housing, 

and gear. Offer a stipend if you can. 

Treat volunteers with the same respect you would a paid 

crew and be clear on relationships, including who is in charge 

Figure 4–3—Students fulfilling internships can be motivated restoration 

workers. If they volunteer, do your best to defray their expenses.
Chapter 4: Restoration Program Development and Support

230

of a project. Handle differences of opinion or morale issues 

with good cheer. While volunteers are working on the 

project, arrange for site visits from dignitaries, such as the 

district ranger. If an assignment takes longer than 5 days, 

include free days for volunteers to take time off and explore 

or relax. Counsel students regarding career ladders and 

career options; offer to write letters of reference. Recognize 

the crew’s accomplishments with nonmonetary awards, an 

end-of-project social event, and followup correspondence or 

pictures. 

4.1.5 National Sources for Recruiting 

Wilderness Volunteers

Costs were based on 2003 price schedules.

American Hiking Society (AHS) Volunteer Vacations

1422 Fenwick Lane

Silver Spring, MD 20910

Phone: 800–972–8608

Web site: http://www.americanhiking.org

E-mail: shearn@AmericanHiking.org

Types of volunteer offerings: 1- or 2-week trips with an 

emphasis on trail work and shelter maintenance. This might 

work well for a trail relocation project where restoration of 

the old trail is part of the project design.

Agency expectations and costs: Free to the agency. The 

agency provides at least partial supervision (directing work) 

and transportation from the airport, as well as group cooking 

supplies, tools, safety equipment, two-way radios, and firstaid supplies. An AHS crewleader can be requested to take 

care of logistics such as menu planning, grocery shopping, 

and camp management.

Cost to volunteers: $80 for members and $100 for 

nonmembers, plus transportation costs.

Earthwatch Institute

3 Clock Tower Place

Suite 100, Box 75

Maynard, MA 01754

Phone: 800–776–0188

Web site: http://www.earthwatch.org

E-mail: info@earthwatch.org

Types of volunteer offerings: Trips are to conduct 

meaningful field research projects. Volunteer fees help fund 

the research. This program is designed to assist researchers 

who have less access to funding.

Agency expectations and costs: The agency provides a 

salary for principal research personnel. The agency provides 

food, lodging, and onsite transportation. 

Cost to volunteers: Varies by project, ranging from 

$700 to $2,500. For example, an average 2-week trip costs 

$1,800. Food and accommodations are included in the cost.

Elderhostel

11 Avenue de Lafayette

Boston, MA 02111–1746

Phone: 800–454–5768

Web site: http://www.elderhostel.org

E-mail: registration@elderhostel.org

Types of volunteer offerings: While most of their trips 

are for educational purposes, Elderhostel does offer service 

trips (and backpacking trips). 

Agency expectations and costs: The agency provides 

supervision and tools.

Cost to volunteers: Costs vary, but $115 per day appears 

to be an average. Limited scholarships are available.

Sierra Club Volunteer Vacations

85 Second St. 2d Floor

San Francisco, CA 94105

Phone: 415–977–5500

Web site: http://www.sierraclub.org

E-mail: national.outings@sierraclub.org

Types of volunteer offerings: Service trips run from 7 

to 10 days and help with tasks, such as restoration, trail work, 

cleanup, and noxious weed control. The group will have a 

cook and a leader who handles logistics. Recreation days are 

part of each trip.

Agency expectations and costs: Free to the agency, 

although if funding is adequate, a stipend for volunteers is 
Chapter 4: Restoration Program Development and Support

231

Figure 4–4—An impromptu team-building exercise for a Student Conservation Association high school work crew.

appreciated. The agency directs the work, provides tools, and 

provides support to pack food, tools, and gear (participants 

carry their own personal gear). 

Cost to volunteers: Varies by project, ranging from $375 

to $500, plus transportation. Food is included in the cost.

Student Conservation Association (SCA)

689 River Rd.

P.O. Box 550

Charlestown, NH 03603–0550

Phone: 603–543–1700

Web site: http://www.thesca.org

E-mail: rauger@thesca.org

Types of volunteer offerings: Three basic program 

offerings have a variety of options with a variety of costs.

• SCA Conservation Internships—College 

students and other adults can volunteer for 12 

weeks, 6 months, or 2 years to perform most 

types of resource management work, including 

wilderness restoration.

Agency expectations and costs: A 12-week internship 

costs the agency about $2,400. This cost varies, depending 

on transportation, uniform needs, and other incidental costs. 

The agency provides housing, training, supervision, gear, 

tools, and so forth.

Cost to volunteers: Volunteers receive a stipend of $50 

per week for food and incidentals from the SCA and reimbursement of transportation and uniform costs. Students who 

complete their program may be eligible for an Americorps 

education grant.

• SCA Diversity Internships—This program is 

similar to the conservation internships, but 

actively recruits persons of color and women. A 

12-week internship costs the agency about 

$3,175.

• SCA Conservation Crews—A high school work 

crew (figure 4–4) of six to eight students is 

supervised by two paid highly trained crewleaders. They live at the project site for 21 to 30 

days, including a recreational trip (usually a 

backpacking trip) at the end of their study.

Agency expectations and costs: Costs vary, based on 

the crew size and the length of the assignment. For example, 

a two-leader, six-person crew costs $17,615 for 30 days. The 

agency provides assistance with transportation from the 

airport, a place to camp the first night, transportation of gear 

to and from work locations, tools, two-way radios, a food 

resupply, and periodic contact to coordinate with leaders, 

bring in mail, and interact with participants.

Cost to volunteers: Transportation (financial aid is 

available).

Wilderness Volunteers

P.O. Box 22292

Flagstaff, AZ 86002–2292

Phone: 928–556–0038

Web site: http://www.wildernessvolunteers.org

E-mail: info@wildernessvolunteers.org

Types of volunteer offerings: Generally, week-long 

trips with a focus on wilderness work, including restoration 

projects.
Chapter 4: Restoration Program Development and Support

232

Figure 4–5—Forest Service nurseries have been producing a variety of 

native plant species in response to increasing demand.

The agency expectations and costs: No cost to the 

agency. The agency directs the work and provides the tools.

Cost to volunteers: Varies by trip, about $200 for a 7- to 

10-day trip, plus transportation. 

4.1.6 Using Professional Services

A variety of professional services are available to help 

you accomplish your restoration project goals. This section 

discusses potential resources beyond those of your team, 

including additional Forest Service expertise, skilled help 

available from other agencies or organizations, and contractors.

4.1.7 Learning From Others

Network to find out who has experience with restoration 

projects in environments similar to your own. If you can, find 

out the types of restoration prescriptions that work for them 

and the methods they use to propagate plants and plant them 

successfully. Visit their projects. Potential contacts include 

other Forest Service wilderness managers, employees of 

other agencies, such as the National Park Service or Bureau 

of Land Management, university professors, and research 

scientists. You may wish to consult with agency specialists 

who are not assigned to your team, such as a geneticist or fire 

rehabilitation specialist.

Contact managers of restoration projects in similar 

environments where native species may have been used to 

restore lands at ski areas, road projects, or visitor centers. 

Contractors and consultants are a potential source of information, but be sensitive in pressing for their trade secrets!

The Society for Ecological Restoration can steer you to 

members who live in your area. Your local native plant 

society can put you in touch with restorationists. A local 

native plant gardener could provide beneficial information. 

A list of helpful organizations, along with their Web sites, is 

included in chapter 5, Tools of the Trade and Other Resources.

4.2 Options for Growing 

Plants

Very few Forest Service units have direct access to a 

greenhouse facility for propagating native plants. Fortunately, 

you have a number of options for working with professional 

growers. Don’t be surprised if growers have not worked 

directly with your selected plant species—many wilderness 

areas are in environments very different from those with 

which they are familiar. Your grower may be learning by trial 

and error.

Supply the grower with any known propagation methods 

for your species. Explain your goals for genetic diversity, 

including any specific practice you prefer, such as not 

overcleaning seed, using all plants produced (without 

selecting just the superior plants), seed storage, and careful 

greenhouse management.

4.2.1 Forest Service Nurseries

Forest Service nurseries (figure 4–5) are diversifying 

their programs to include propagation of plant species other 

than trees. Discuss your project needs in advance because 

your project will not be the equivalent of a tree-planting 
Chapter 4: Restoration Program Development and Support

233

operation. For example, dormant bareroot stock seedlings are 

planted in the spring, so Forest Service nurseries might want 

to deliver your plants at this time. Most subalpine or alpine 

restoration projects are more likely to be successful if they 

are completed in the fall right before the seasonal rain and 

snows.

4.2.2 Plant Material Centers

The Natural Resources Conservation Service has plant 

material centers located regionally. These centers are staffed 

by professionals who grow a wide array of native plants for 

restoration and reclamation projects. Their mission is to 

produce protocols for large-scale production. Normally, they 

do not grow plants for small applications, but in some 

locations they have been working with national parks to 

provide plants. Talk to other agency restorationists in your 

area to see if they have worked successfully with the plant 

material centers.

4.2.3 Other Agency Nurseries

Sometimes, other agencies have greenhouses (figure 4–

6) and are happy to help grow plants. If you have a national 

park near your unit, see if it has a greenhouse. If it does, you 

may benefit not only from use of the greenhouse, but from 

networking with other restoration professionals.

4.2.4 Contract Growers

Fortunately for restorationists, native plant nurseries are 

on the rise. Check to see if one is near you. Local nurseries 

may already have experience in working with your selected 

species. Often, a local grower is willing to experiment with 

propagating a small batch of plants at no charge to develop a 

successful propagation protocol. A restoration project may be 

the beginning of a long-term working relationship.

4.2.5 School Horticulture Programs

Many high schools (figure 4–7) and colleges have 

horticulture programs. They might consider becoming 

partners on your project at a cost savings to you. You may 

Figure 4–6—Many national parks, such as North Cascades National Park, 

WA, have greenhouses with plant propagation staff. Park employees are a terrific source of expertise and sometimes are able to help out other agencies.

Figure 4–7—After spending the better part of the school year propagating 

many flats of plants for 1 hour a day, this high school student was able to 

take part in the planting at Lake Mary in the Alpine Lakes Wilderness, WA.
Chapter 4: Restoration Program Development and Support

234

only need to pay the cost of materials. Or the plants may cost 

slightly less than those grown commercially. Make sure an 

experienced teacher is supervising the project and that your 

goals for management of the plants are clear. Crop failures 

may be more likely when plants are grown in an instructional 

setting because of the lack of adult skills and conflicts with 

band field trips, spring break, and so forth. You might not end 

up with all the species and the genetic diversity that you 

planned for in your planting design. An advantage of this 

option is that it can create a wonderful learning opportunity 

for students.

4.2.6 Working With Contractors

Working with contractors can be an excellent means to 

accomplish all or part of a wilderness restoration project. 

Many contract restorationists can bring a wealth of expertise 

to your project. 

This section will cover some general principles of 

contracting (Potash and Aubry 1997; St. John 1995). Check 

with your contracting officer or other units that use restoration contractors to obtain a sample contract so that you don’t 

have to write one from scratch. 

To find reliable contractors, check with sources, such as 

the Society for Ecological Restoration, local or regional 

native plant nurseries, your native plant society, other units 

with restoration projects, and your botanist. You can contract 

all or part of the project: project planning and design, seed 

and plant material collection, plant propagation, project 

implementation and outplanting, site maintenance, and 

monitoring. For instance, wilderness programs might 

contract for plant propagation, using a mix of project crews 

and volunteer labor to implement the project.

4.2.7 General Principles for 

Successful Contracting

Acquaint yourself with agency contracting guidelines. 

Each agency has strict procedures that must be followed, 

Figure 4–8—Most contractors are accustomed to accomplishing their work 

with dozers, rippers, imprinters, tractors with drills, and water tenders. 

including the method of contracting (depending on the 

amount to be awarded), cutoff dates for submitting requests, 

and lists of interested contractors that must be notified of bid 

solicitations.

Work with your contracting office to make definitions, 

bid items, and other clauses as specific as possible. If items 

are vague, contractors automatically inflate their bids, raising 

project costs. In addition, bid-item contracts usually will 

generate lower bids than lump-sum contracts because the 

contractor will get paid for each component successfully 

completed. If your project is in wilderness or a remote 

setting, be clear about the difficulty of access and potential 

limitations on the types of tools, such as motorized tools or 

wheelbarrows. Most professional restorationists do not deal 

with small hand projects; they are accustomed to using large 

pieces of machinery (figure 4–8) to treat many acres.

Develop standards for weed control, pathogen and insect 

control, watering, and signs. Provide a format or forms for 

project documentation.

Address the things that might go wrong. Provide 

contingencies for propagation losses, late plant deliveries, bad 

seed lots, and natural disasters. Plan for ways to handle 
Chapter 4: Restoration Program Development and Support

235

excess plant materials that may be propagated—perhaps you 

will opt to buy up an agreed amount of plants and allow the 

contractor to sell the rest.

Develop your own cost estimates for each bid item. 

Reject the low bid if it is unrealistically low to deliver the 

desired result. 

Include qualifications for contractors and their personnel 

to assure project success; qualifications may require previous 

experience in working with your plant species and in your 

environment. You may consider preparing a small contract, 

such as a procurement contract (for less than $2,500), to help 

a local contractor develop skills in working with your plant 

species and in your environment.

Performance standards need to be developed to measure 

success for each bid item. Put yourself in the contractor’s 

shoes—you want your project to succeed, but if your standards are too stringent, you will drive your costs up or create 

an adverse situation for contract administration. Do your 

homework—ask other units what type of success can be 

expected during various stages of your project. For example, 

if a plant species is difficult to work with, you cannot expect 

a high rate of survival once seedlings are outplanted.

Sometimes the contract includes remedial measures. For 

example, if monitoring performed up to 2 years later reveals 

certain deficiencies in project installation, a contractor can be 

required to fix it. This can include replanting. If you forced 

the contractor to follow poor techniques, the failure may not 

be the contractor’s fault.

Build checkpoints into your contract to assure that work 

is progressing as planned. Careful oversight by an inspector 

will prevent shoddy work. Adjustments can be negotiated 

along the way if needed, especially if difficulties arise in 

working with certain plants. Payments should be made at 

specified checkpoints, with a portion of the payment saved 

until the end to assure quality work.

Once a contract is awarded, you will have a prework 

meeting. If the contractor will be working in the field, be sure 

to express your expectations for the practice of Leave No 

Trace principles, adherence to wilderness regulations, and 

campsite locations. Contractors may think they are exempt 

from pertinent regulations such as restrictions on bringing 

dogs into the area, having an oversize group, living on public 

land, or having a campfire. Be sure to discuss any exceptions 

to regulations in advance and work out potential problems.
Chapter 4: Restoration Program Development and Support

236

Chapter 5
Chapter 5: Tools of the Trade and Other Resources

237

Figures 5–1a and 1b—Restoration workers (top) in the Eagle Cap Wilderness, OR, with the tools and supplies (bottom) they packed into the wilderness.

N

Tools of the Trade and Other Resources

No matter what the job, proper tools will make it 

easier. Restoration in wilderness settings requires a 

number of specialized tools (figures 5–1a and 5–

1b). This chapter includes information about sources of tools 

that can make your job easier.

5.1 Software

• Biodraw—Autocad drawings for bioengineering techniques. Geared toward large-scale 

applications rather than smaller applications 

used in wilderness and backcountry. Useful for 

creating technical drawings for contracts. Also 

includes best management practices and color 

photos of installations.

• Erosiondraw—Similar to Biodraw, but focuses 

on stabilization techniques that do not rely on 

living material. Geared toward large-scale 

applications such as road cutbanks. 

Salix Applied Earthcare

225 Locust St., Suite 203

Redding, CA 96001

Phone: 800–403–0474

Web site: http://www.biodraw.com/

• Flora ID Northwest—This software is an 

electronic dichotomous key. Choose between 

Statewide keys, a Pacific Northwest key, and a 

Great Plains key.

XIDServices, Inc.

P.O. Box 272

Pullman, WA 99163

Phone: 800–872–2943

Web site: http://www.xidservices.com

5.2 Government Web Sites

• Aldo Leopold Wilderness Research Institute—Wilderness research, including restoration of small disturbed sites. Web site: http://

www.leopold.wilderness.net

• Arthur Carhart National Wilderness 

Training Center—Offers courses and other 

tools for wilderness management. Web site: 

http://www.carhart.wilderness.net
Chapter 5: Tools of the Trade and Other Resources

238

• Colorado Natural Areas Program—Download the Native Plant Revegetation Guide for 

Colorado. Web site: http://parks.state.co.us/

cnap/revegetation_guide/reveg_index.html

• Conservation Plant Materials Centers—

These centers, a service of the Natural Resources Conservation Service, develop protocols for 

large-scale production of native species for 

conservation. In recent years, they have worked 

with the National Park Service to produce plant 

materials for restoration projects. The specialists who respond to inquiries are very helpful. 

Web site: http://www.plant-materials.nrcs.

usda.gov/ (Select site map for a list of the 

centers.)

• Fire Effects Information System—Among its 

various features, this database allows a speciesspecific search. Web site: http://www.fs.fed.us/

database/feis/

• National Plants Database—Helpful Web site 

that includes plant life histories (native species 

and introduced weeds), species distribution 

maps, and the most current scientific names as 

well as previous scientific names. Web site: 

http://plants.usda.gov/

• Soil Quality Institute—This Natural Resources 

Conservation Service Web site has helpful 

publications for assessing and managing 

rangeland soils available online. Web site: 

http://soils.usda.gov/sqi/

• University of Montana Invader Database—

Noxious weed database for a five-State area. 

Web site: http://invader.dbs.umt.edu/

5.3 Organizational Web 

Sites

• Erosion Control—Back issues of journal 

articles are available online. Web site: http://

www.forester.net/ec.html

• Native Plant Journal—Excellent online 

database with plant propagation protocols. The 

journal features various native plant species. 

Web site: http://www.nativeplantnetwork.org/

• Native Plant Societies—Many of these Web 

sites have links to additional resources. Consider joining your State’s native plant society to 

learn about native plant communities.

 Arizona—http://www.aznps.org/ (this site has 

links to all States)

 California—http://www.cnps.org/

 Colorado—http://www.conps.org/conps.html

 Idaho—http://www.idahonativeplants.org/

 default.aspx

 Montana—http://www.umt.edu/mnps/

 New Mexico—http://npsnm.unm.edu/

 Nevada—http://heritage.nv.gov/nnps.htm

 Oregon—http://www.npsoregon.org/

 Utah—http://www.unps.org/

 Washington—http://www.wnps.org/

 Wyoming—http://www.rmh.uwyo.edu/wnps.

html

• Natural Areas Association—Publishes the 

Natural Areas Journal, which includes many 

articles on restoration. Web site: http://www.

naturalarea.org/

• Society for Ecological Restoration (SER)—

This Web site has lots of useful information 

including the Primer of Ecological Restoration. 

SER publishes two restoration journals, hosts 

conferences both internationally and regionally, 

and is working with Island Press Books to 

produce a series of books on ecological 

restoration. Web site: http://www.ser.org/
Chapter 5: Tools of the Trade and Other Resources

239

5.4 Restoration Tools and 

Products

For a more complete listing of potential restoration tools 

and supplies see Items To Consider Including in a Restoration Project Budget in section 4.1.2, Budgeting. Most tools 

and products mentioned in this guide are available through 

forestry, agriculture, greenhouse, or gardening supply 

distributors. Several mail-order suppliers are listed below, but 

you may find a supplier in your area who can help you save 

on shipping costs.

• Forestry Suppliers, Inc.

P.O. Box 8397

205 West Rankin St.

Jackson, MS 39284-8397

Phone: 800–752–8460 (customer service); 800–

430–5566 (technical support)

Web site: http://www.forestry-suppliers.com/

• IFM (Integrated Fertility Management, an 

organic growing supplier)

1422 N. Miller St., No. 8

Wenatchee, WA 98801

Phone: 800–332–3179

Web site: http://www.agecology.com/

• Steuber Distributing Co. (greenhouse and 

nursery wholesaler)

P.O. Box 100

Snohomish, WA 98291–0100

Phone: 800–426–8815 (continental U.S.)

Web site: http://www.steuberdistributing.com/

5.4.1 Pick Hoes or Miniature 

Plowshares

Fine garden supply companies are the most likely 

sources for these tools. Pick hoes (see figure 3–130) are the 

best tools for planting small greenhouse transplants. Unlike 

trowels, they use the power of the arm and shoulder, not just 

the hand, and keep the wrist in a more neutral position.

• E-Z Digger Oriental Garden Tool (Item 52604)

Lehman’s 

One Lehman Circle

P.O. Box 321

Kidron, OH 44636

Phone: 888–438–5346

Web site: http://www.lehmans.com/

• Long-Handled Ho-Mi Digger (Item CB103)

Lee Valley Tools, Ltd.

P.O. Box 1780

Ogdensburg, NY 13669–6780

Phone: 800–871–8158

Web site: http://www.leevalley.com/

• Hoematic Pick and Digger (Item 627050)

Aubuchon Hardware

95 Aubuchon Dr.

Westminster, MA 01473

Phone: 800–431–2712

Web site: http://aubuchonhardware.com/

• Pick & Hoe (Item G-2107)

Hidatool, Inc.

1333 San Pablo Ave.

Berkeley, CA 94702

Phone: 800–443–5512 or 510–524–3700

Web site: http://www.hidatool.com/

5.4.2 U-Bar Diggers

This tool (see figure 3–27) breaks up compaction to a 

depth of a foot (300 millimeters) or more. It will even pierce 

a hard plow-pan layer, but doesn’t work well when compaction is at the soil surface. Push the tool’s prongs in the soil, 

step onto the crosspiece, then use the handles to rock the tool 

back and forth gently (see section 2.3a, Scarification). This 

tool saves much backbreaking work that would otherwise 

require a pick or shovel. If you use stock to transport a U-bar 

digger, cover the tool’s sharp tines with a homemade scabbard (figure 5–2). 
Chapter 5: Tools of the Trade and Other Resources

240

5.4.4 Systemic Repellants

A repellant treatment lasts for about 3 months after 

planting. There are formulations for deer and rodents 

(gophers and mice). The repellant is expensive, but not as 

expensive as replacing plantings.

• Repellex 

Repellex Seedling Protection Systems

1888 Bobblett St.

Blaine, WA 98230

Phone: 877–737–3548

Web site: http://www.repellex.com

5.4.5 Restoration Signs

This Polydura 19 sign (see figure 3–142b) can be 

attached to a stake or hung from cord to close restoration 

sites. 

• Restoration Sign (Item P1479)

J.L. Darling Corp.

2614 Pacific Hwy. East

Tacoma, WA 98424

Phone: 253–922–5000

Web site: http://www.riteintherain.com/

5.4.6 Erosion-Control Blankets

A variety of erosion-control blankets are on the market. 

Each company will probably refer you to a regional distributor. Prices vary by area. The products included here are all 

degradable—a desirable attribute for wilderness and backcountry applications. Nettings are photodegradable over a 

period of years; the knots of the net are the last to degrade 

and can remain for many years. Small animals can become 

entangled in any netting product. With many products, the 

netting is loose and can be removed when the product is 

installed. Nondegradable geotextile products are also on the 

market. They may be needed to stabilize the soil in extreme 

situations. Straw and excelsior products are very bright when 

first installed, but they turn gray in a season or two. Compare 

• U-Bar Digger (Item LB101)

Lee Valley Tools, Ltd.

P.O. Box 1780

Ogdensburg, NY 13669–6780

Phone: 800–871–8158

Web site: http://www.leevalley.com/

5.4.3 Balanced Watering Cans

The French watering can refers to a handle design that 

arches all the way from the base of the watering can up to the 

top front near the spout (see figure 3–140a). This design is 

easier on the back and arms because it allows the user to 

balance the can easily as it is tilted back and forth. Workers 

can carry full watering cans in pairs to balance the weight on 

both sides of their body. If you find this style of watering can 

at your local garden store, buy a supply, as they are hard to 

find in lightweight plastic. 

• French Blue Watering Can (Item 06-341)

Gardener’s Supply Co.

28 Intervale Rd.

Burlington, VT 05401

Phone: 888–833–1412

Web site: http://www.gardeners.com/

Figures 5–2—When transporting a U-bar digger using stock, cover the 

tool’s sharp tines with a homemade scabbard.
Chapter 5: Tools of the Trade and Other Resources

241

figures 3–138a and 138b (new Curlex and Curlex after one 

winter) with figure 3–147d (Curlex years after installation).

American Excelsior Co.

850 Ave. H East

Arlington, TX 76011

Phone: 800–777–7645

Web site: http://www.curlex.com

Product: Curlex I

Width Length Area covered Weight Cost per roll

 ft (m) ft (m) sq ft (sq m) lb (kg) (dollars)

 8 (2.4) 101.25 (30.8) 810 (75.25) 66 (30) 40

Description: Aspen wood shavings with photodegradable plastic mesh (see figure 3–147b). Natural-colored netting 

on one side of the blanket. Available with white photodegradable netting that decomposes in 30 to 60 days.

Advantages: Easy to install, promotes seedling survival, 

decomposes in 2 to 5 years. Proven to work well in subalpine 

environments. Netting can be removed.

Disadvantages: Another blanket application may be 

needed every 3 to 4 years if the site has not stabilized 

adequately.

Product: Curlex III

 Width Length Area covered Weight Cost per roll

 ft (m) ft (m) sq ft (sq m) lb (kg) (dollars)

8 (2.4) 67.5 (20.6) 540 (50.2) 75 (34) 54

Description: Aspen wood shavings with black heavyduty plastic netting on both sides. Available with biodegradable woven jute thread.

Advantages: Effective on steep slopes and areas with 

high-velocity runoff.

Disadvantages: Netting is visible and lasts for many 

years. 

Product: Curlex NetFree

 Width Length Area covered Weight Cost per roll

 ft (m) ft (m) sq ft (sq m) lb (kg) (dollars)

8 (2.4) 90 (27.4) 720 (67) 58 (26) 44

Description: Aspen wood shavings with 100-percent 

biodegradable stitching.

Advantages: Protects seeds, enhances germination, and 

hastens revegetation. No netting to ensnare animals. Attaches 

to soil surface with biodegradable plastic staples.

Disadvantages: Too new to evaluate. 

Contech Construction Products, Inc.

9025 Centre Pointe Drive, Suite 400

West Chester, OH 45069

Phone: 800–338–1122

Web site: http://www.contech-cpi.com

Product: C-Jute

 Width Length Area covered Weight Cost per roll

 ft (m) ft (m) sq ft (sq m) lb (kg) (dollars)

12.5 (3.8) 432 (132) 5,400 (502) 90 (41) 300

Description: Lightweight biodegradable green synthetic 

jute.

Advantages: Holds seed and soil in place. Allows 

unobstructed growth of woody material. Degrades in 12 

months.

Disadvantages: Doesn’t control erosion as well as 

denser products. Breaks down too quickly to be useful for 

many restoration projects. Highly flammable.
Chapter 5: Tools of the Trade and Other Resources

242

Product: SFB1

 Width Length Area covered Weight Cost per roll

 ft (m) ft (m) sq ft (sq m) lb (kg) (dollars)

7.5 (2.3) 120 (37) 900 (84) 40 (18) 50

Description: Straw blanket with yellow netting on one 

side.

Advantages: Protects slopes as steep as 3:1. Degrades in 

12 months.

Disadvantages: Some risk of importing weed seed.

Product: SFB2

 Width Length Area covered Weight Cost per roll

 ft (m) ft (m) sq ft (sq m) lb (kg) (dollars)

 7.5 (2.3) 120 (37) 900 (84) 40 (18) 60

Description: Straw blanket with yellow netting on both 

sides.

Advantages: Good for slopes as steep as 3:1. Degrades 

in 18 months.

Disadvantages: Some risk of importing weed seed.

Product: SCFB2 

 Width Length Area covered Weight Cost per roll

 ft (m) ft (m) sq ft (sq m) lb (kg) (dollars)

7.5 (2.3) 120 (37) 900 (84) 40 (18) 65

Description: Straw/coconut blend blanket.

Advantages: Good for slopes as steep as 2:1. Degrades 

in 24 months.

Disadvantages: Some risk of importing weed seed.

Product: CFB2

 Width Length Area covered Weight Cost per roll

 ft (m) ft (m) sq ft (sq m) lb (kg) (dollars)

 7.5 (2.3) 120 (37) 900 (84) 46 (21) 110

Description: 100-percent coconut blanket with tan 

biodegradable netting.

Advantages: Good for slopes as steep as 2:1 and for 

protecting channels. Degrades in 48 months. 

Disadvantages: Does not work as well as excelsior 

products for retaining moisture and preventing soil recompaction in subalpine settings.

Erosion-Control Systems

9015 Energy Lane

North Port, AL 35476

Phone: 205–373–8900

Product: ProGuard-SS

 Width Length Area covered Weight Cost per roll

 ft (m) ft (m) sq ft (sq m) lb (kg) (dollars)

 8 (2.4) 112 (34) 900 (84) 55 (25) 25

Description: Agricultural straw with photodegradable 

plastic netting on one side, sewn on 2-inch (51-millimeter) 

centers. 

Advantages: Lightweight, encourages growth for 6 to 8 

months. Available in custom widths.

Disadvantages: May decompose too quickly. Some risk 

of introducing weed seed. The 8-foot-wide rolls would have 

to be cut in half before they could be packed by stock.

Product: Proguard-DS

 Width Length Area covered Weight Cost per roll

 ft (m) ft (m) sq ft (sq m) lb (kg) (dollars)

 8 (2.4) 112 (34) 900 (84) 60 (27) 28

Description: Agricultural straw with photodegradable 

plastic netting on both sides, sewn on 2-inch (51-millimeter) 

centers. 

Advantages: Encourages growth for 6 to 8 months in 

areas with medium runoff and on slopes from 2:1 to 3:1. 

Available in custom widths.

Disadvantages: May decompose too quickly. Some risk 

of introducing weed seed. The 8-foot-wide rolls would have 

to be cut in half before they could be packed by stock.
Chapter 5: Tools of the Trade and Other Resources

243

Product: Everhold XL1 (Excelsior blanket)

 Width Length Area covered Weight Cost per roll

 ft (m) ft (m) sq ft (sq m) lb (kg) (dollars)

 8 (2.4) 112 (34) 900 (84) 85 (39) 35

Description: Excelsior fiber mat covered with photodegradable plastic netting, sewn on 2-inch (51-millimeter) 

centers.

Advantages: Provides erosion maintenance for 6 to 12 

months. Promotes seedling survival. May be easier to install 

than Curlex.

Disadvantages: The 8-foot-wide rolls would have to be 

cut in half before they could be packed by stock.

Product: Everhold XL3 (High-impact excelsior 

blanket)

 Width Length Area covered Weight Cost per roll

 ft (m) ft (m) sq ft (sq m) lb (kg) (dollars)

 8 (2.4) 112 (34) 900 (84) 120 (54) 45

Description: Wood excelsior with photodegradable 

plastic netting, sewn on both sides.

Advantages: Erosion control for 12 to 24 months. Good 

for areas with high erosion potential.

Disadvantages: Heavy. The 8-foot-wide rolls would 

have to be cut in half before they could be packed by stock.

Product: DuraGuard C1 (Coconut blanket)

 Width Length Area covered Weight Cost per roll

 ft (m) ft (m) sq ft (sq m) lb (kg) (dollars)

 8 (2.4) 112 (34) 900 (84) 95 (43) 62

Description: Durable coconut fibers encased in heavyweight UV-stabilized nets on both sides.

Advantages: Erosion control for up to 3 years. Good for 

slopes as steep as 1:1 and areas with high runoff. Dark brown 

color blends in faster on dark soils (see figure 3–139a). Other 

products need a couple years to weather before blending in. 

Easy to install.

Disadvantages: Doesn’t work as well as excelsior 

products for retaining soil moisture and preventing soil 

recompaction in subalpine settings. The 8-foot-wide rolls 

would have to be cut in half before they could be packed by 

stock.

Product: DuraBlend SC1 (Straw/coconut blanket)

 Width Length Area covered Weight Cost per roll

 ft (m) ft (m) sq ft (sq m) lb (kg) (dollars)

 8 (2.4) 112 (34) 900 (84) 65 (29) 54 

Description: Straw and coconut fibers that will degrade 

more slowly, sewn with photodegradable plastic netting on 

both sides.

Advantages: Erosion control for up to 3 years. Good for 

slopes as steep as 2:1 and areas with medium runoff.

Disadvantages: Some risk of importing weed seed. The 

8-foot-wide rolls would have to be cut in half before they 

could be packed by stock.

North American Green

14649 Hwy. 41 North

Evansville, IN 47725

Phone: 800–772–2040

Web site: http://www.nagreen.com

Product: DS150 (Straw blanket)

 Width Length Area covered Weight Cost per roll

 ft (m) ft (m) sq ft (sq m) lb (kg) (dollars)

 6.7 (2) 108 (33) 720 (67) 40 (18) 50

Description: Straw fiber blanket with photodegradable 

netting on both sides.

Advantages: Erosion control for up to 2 months. 

Lightweight. Stitched every 1 1/2 inches (38 millimeters). 

Disadvantages: Netting may decompose too quickly. 

Some risk of importing weed seed.
Chapter 5: Tools of the Trade and Other Resources

244

Product: S150 (Straw blanket)

 Width Length Area covered Weight Cost per roll

 ft (m) ft (m) sq ft (sq m) lb (kg) (dollars)

 6.7 (2) 108 (33) 720 (67) 40 (18) 50

Description: Straw blanket with photodegradable 

netting on both sides. 

Advantages: Erosion control for up to 12 months on 2:1 

to 3:1 slopes and in areas with drainage channels carrying 

moderate flows.

Disadvantages: Decomposes rapidly. Some risk of 

importing weed seed.

Product: S75 (Straw blanket)

S75BN 100-percent biodegradable natural netting

 Width Length Area covered Weight Cost per roll

 ft (m) ft (m) sq ft (sq m) lb (kg) (dollars)

 6.7 (2) 108 (33) 720 (67) 40 (18) 40

Description: Straw blanket with photodegradable 

netting on one side.

Advantages: Erosion control for up to 12 months. 

Promotes seedling survival on 3:1 to 4:1 slopes.

Disadvantages: Some risk of importing weed seed.

Product: SC150 (Straw/coconut blanket)

 Width Length Area covered Weight Cost per roll

 ft (m) ft (m) sq ft (sq m) lb (kg) (dollars)

 6.7 (2) 108 (33) 720 (67) 44 (20) 70

Description: 70-percent straw/30-percent coconut fiber 

blanket with netting on both sides.

Advantages: Erosion control for up to 24 months. 

Provides long-term erosion control and allows vegetation to 

become established on slopes as steep as 1:1 and in areas 

with drainage channels carrying moderate flows.

Disadvantages: Some risk of importing weed seed.

Product: C125BN (Coconut blanket)

 Width Length Area covered Weight Cost per roll

 ft (m) ft (m) sq ft (sq m) lb (kg) (dollars)

 6.7 (2) 108 (33) 720 (67) 52 (24) 70

Description: 100-percent coconut fiber blanket with 

biodegradable natural netting on both sides.

Advantages: Erosion control for up to 24 months. 

Provides long-term erosion control and allows vegetation to 

become established on slopes steeper than 1:1 and in areas 

with drainage channels carrying high flows.

Disadvantages: Does not work as well as excelsior 

products for retaining soil moisture and preventing recompaction in subalpine settings.

Mirafi Construction Products 

365 South Holland Dr.

Pendergrass, GA 30567

Phone: 706–693–2226

Web Site: http://www.mirafi.com

Product: Miramat TM8 blanket

 Width Length Area covered Weight Cost per roll

 ft (m) ft (m) sq ft (sq m) lb (kg) (dollars)

12 (3.7) 100 (30) 1,197 (111) 100 (45) Call for estimate

Description: An ultraviolet-stabilized polypropylene 

rolled mat created for revegetation and to reinforce turf.

Advantages: Highly porous, very flexible. Enhances 

vegetative growth.

Disadvantages: Heavy, takes a long time to degrade. 

Would need to be cut before it could be packed by stock.

Propex Fabrics, Inc.

6025 Lee Hwy.

Chattanooga, TN 37421

Phone: 800–445–7732

Web site: http://www.geotextile.com
Chapter 5: Tools of the Trade and Other Resources

245

Product: Landlok SuperGro

 Width Length Area covered Weight Cost per roll

 ft (m) ft (m) sq ft (sq m) lb (kg) (dollars)

 7.5 (2.2) 1,200 (366) 9,000 (836) 44 (20) 450

Description: Flexible, scrim composite blanket of 

polypropylene fibers reinforced with polypropylene netting. 

Good for slopes up to 1.5:1 and for areas with heavy rainfall.

Advantages: Lightweight, conforms to the surface of the 

ground, and promotes absorption of water by the soil. Fibers 

mimic root structure. Applying water on the product’s 

surface helps it adhere to the soil.

Disadvantages: Netting degrades in about 2 months, 

which may be too soon for some restoration sites.

Product: Landlok S2

 Width Length Area covered Weight Cost per roll

 ft (m) ft (m) sq ft (sq m) lb (kg) (dollars)

 8 (2.45) 112.5 (34.3) 900 (84) 53 (24) Call for estimate

Description: Wheat straw blanket with photodegradable 

netting on both sides, stitched on 2-inch (51-millimeter) 

centers.

Advantages: Degrades in 12 months.

Disadvantages: Some risk of importing weed seed. The 

stitched netting cannot be removed.

Product: Landlok C2

 Width Length Area covered Weight Cost per roll

 ft (m) ft (m) sq ft (sq m) lb (kg) (dollars)

 8 (2.45) 112.5 (34.3) 900 (84) 55 (25) Call for estimate

Description: 100-percent coconut fiber blanket with 

photodegradable netting on both sides, stitched on 2-inch (51-

millimeter) centers.

Advantages: Degrades in 36 months.

Disadvantages: Does not work as well as excelsior 

products for retaining soil moisture and preventing soil 

recompaction in subalpine settings. The stitched netting 

cannot be removed.

Product: Landlok S1

 Width Length Area covered Weight Cost per roll

 ft (m) ft (m) sq ft (sq m) lb (kg) (dollars)

 8 (2.45) 112.5 (34.3) 900 (84) 53 (24) Call for estimate

Description: 100-percent wheat straw with photodegradable netting on one side, stitched on 2-inch (51-millimeter) 

centers.

Advantages: Degrades in 12 months.

Disadvantages: Some risk of importing weed seed. The 

stitched netting cannot be removed.

Product: Landlok CS2

 Width Length Area covered Weight Cost per roll

 ft (m) ft (m) sq ft (sq m) lb (kg) (dollars)

 8 (2.45) 112.5 (34.3) 900 (84) 55 (25) Call for estimate

Description: 70-percent wheat straw/30-percent coconut 

fiber. The top netting is UV-stabilized polypropylene. The 

bottom netting is photodegradable polypropylene. Mesh 

openings are 3/8 by 3/8 inch (9.5 by 9.5 millimeters).

Advantages: Degrades in 24 months.

Disadvantages: Some risk of importing weed seed.
Chapter 5: Tools of the Trade and Other Resources

246

References
References

247

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National Park Service, Rocky Mountain National Park. 66 p.

Vachowski, Brian. 1995. Gravel bags for packstock. 

Tech. Rep. 9523–2840–MTDC. Missoula, MT: U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Missoula Technology and 

Development Center. 10 p.

Vankus, V. 1997. The tetrazolium estimated viability 

test for seeds of native plants. In: Landis, T.D.; Thompson, 

J.R., tech. coords. National proceedings, Forest and Conservation Nursery Associations. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW–GTR–

419. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest 

Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station: 57–62.

Vankus, V. 2004. Personal communication. Dry Branch, 

GA: U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, National 

Tree Seed Laboratory. 

Wagar, J. Alan. 1965. Cultural treatment of vegetation 

on recreation sites. Proceedings of the Society of American 

Foresters. 61: 37–39.

Walker, S. 2002. Selway-Bitterroot Wilderness restoration case study. Speech presented at: Subalpine, small-site 

restoration in wilderness training course; 2002 November 

18–22, Eatonville, WA. Missoula, MT: Arthur Carhart 

National Wilderness Training Center.

Weisberg, S. 1993. Revegetation handbook. Unpublished report. U.S. Department of the Interior National Park 

Service, Pacific Northwest Region. 

Whitney, N.; Zabowski, D. 2004. Total soil nitrogen in 

the coarse fraction and at depth. Soil Science Society of 

America Journal. 68: 612–619.
References

255

Windell, Keith; Haywood, J.D. 1996. Mulch mat 

materials for improved tree establishment. Tech. Rep. 9624–

2811–MTDC. Missoula, MT: U.S. Department of Agriculture 

Forest Service, Missoula Technology and Development 

Center. 124 p.

Young, J.A.; Young, Cheryl G. 1986. Collecting, 

processing, and germinating seeds of wildland plants. 

Portland, OR: Timber Press. 236 p.

Young, J.A.; Young, Cheryl G. 1992. Seeds of woody 

plants in North America. Portland, OR: Dioscoridies Press. 407 p.

Zabinski, C.; Cole, D. 2000. Understanding the factors 

that limit restoration success on a recreation-impacted 

subalpine site. In: Cole, David N.; McCool, Stephen F.; 

Borrie, William T.; O’Loughlin, Jennifer, comps. 2000. 

Wilderness Science in a Time of Change Conference. volume 

5: Wilderness ecosystems, threats, and management; 1999 

May 23–27; Missoula, MT. Proceedings RMRS–P–15–VOL–

5. Ogden, UT; U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest 

Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 216–221.

Photo courtesy of the Steve Slocomb.
References

256

Appendixes
Appendix A—Treatments To Manage Factors Limiting Restoration

257

Appendix A—Treatments To Manage 

Factors Limiting Restoration

Potential treatments Potential plant types or

 Limiting factor to compensate propagation methods

Add mulch.

Install vertical mulch.

Install shade cards.

Add mulch.

Use perforated plastic landscape film to 

induce germination or protect seedlings.

Install vertical mulch.

Install shade cards.

Spray antidesiccant on foliage.

Pit and imprint the soil.

Install wire cages.

Install tree tubes.

Use repellants.

Install row cover.

Wrap the stems.

Limit watering.

Spread cracked wheat before seeding.

Add mulch.

Tamp soil firmly around plants when planting.

Pit and imprint the soil.

Extreme heat

Extreme cold

Wind or sand blast

Herbivory

Granivory

Frost heave or needle ice

Favor species with adaptations to survive 

heat, such as thick or waxy cuticles, light 

surfaces, etc.

Make sure transplants have a high root-toshoot ratio.

Use 1-1 or plug-1 stock.

Favor species with adaptations to survive 

cold, such as thick or waxy cuticles.

Transplant wildlings.

Transplant greenhouse-grown plants that are 

past the tender seedling stage.

Favor species with adaptations to survive 

cold, such as thick or waxy cuticles.

Transplant wildlings.

Transplant greenhouse-grown plants that are 

past the tender seedling stage.

Favor plants that are poisonous, have spines, 

or are not palatable.

Cut back on fertilizing before outplanting 

greenhouse stock.

Make sure transplants have a high root-toshoot ratio.

Use 1-1 or plug-1 stock.
Appendix A—Treatments To Manage Factors Limiting Restoration

258

Use plastic film to enhance germination and 

seedling growth.

Sow seed at the onset of the rainy season.

Ensure firm seed-to-soil contact.

Reduce compaction with scarification.

Pit and imprint the soil.

Avoid working the soil when it is excessively 

wet or dry.

Water when planting.

Water by hand or install an irrigation system.

Use buried clay-pot irrigation.

Increase organic material in the soil or use 

other soil amendments.

Inoculate the soil with micro-organisms.

Add mulch.

See Increased Soil Compaction below.

Manage physical crust formation after 

vegetation is reintroduced.

Irrigate seeded areas.

Install shade cards.

Install vertical mulch.

Pit and imprint the soil.

Short growing season

Lack of soil moisture

Poor water infiltration

Lack of precipitation for 

germination or seedling 

establishment

Sun intolerance

Transplant wildlings.

Transplant greenhouse-grown stock.

Favor species with adaptations to survive 

drought, such as those with thick or waxy 

cuticles, spines, reflective or hairy surfaces, 

high root-to-shoot ratios, or the ability to 

drop leaves when stressed.

Transplant greenhouse-grown stock raised in 

deep containers.

See Increased Soil Compaction below.

Transplant wildlings.

Reseed if necessary.

Transplant greenhouse-grown stock.

Select plants that are growing in full sun.

Plant in cooler or cloudier times of year.

Harden off before planting.

Potential treatments Potential plant types or

 Limiting factor to compensate propagation methods
Appendix A—Treatments To Manage Factors Limiting Restoration

259

Rebuild soil from onsite sources.

Import topsoil.

Inoculate with mycorrhizae.

Import compost or other soil amendments.

Add local organic matter.

Inoculate with mycorrhizae.

Import compost, other soil amendments, or 

use fertilizer to correct nutrient and pH levels.

Rebuild soil from onsite sources.

Import topsoil.

Inoculate soil when transplanting nursery 

stock or after seedlings have emerged.

Scarify to compacted depth.

Increase soil organic matter.

Inoculate with mycorrhizae.

Reintroduce large soil organisms.

Avoid recompaction by:

• Minimizing repeated walking or 

equipment use

• Adding mulch

Allow for cycles of wetting and drying.

Loss of soil layers

Inadequate soil nutrients

Loss of soil micro-organisms

Increased soil compaction

Use B-1 fertilizer to reduce transplant shock. 

Prune back plants by one-third.

Favor species found growing on sites with 

similar disturbances.

Favor species with a high root-to-shoot ratio.

Favor species that are nitrogen fixers.

Inoculate greenhouse soil.

Favor species found growing on similar 

disturbances.

Increase plant cover.

Favor species with a variety of root forms 

(fibrous roots, taproots, spreading roots).

Favor plants with lots of root biomass.

Avoid plants with dense root mats.

Potential treatments Potential plant types or

 Limiting factor to compensate propagation methods
Appendix A—Treatments To Manage Factors Limiting Restoration

260

Increase organic matter and break up crust.

Add topsoil from the site.

Import topsoil.

Inoculate with mycorrhizae.

Encourage biological crust formation where 

appropriate.

Add mulch.

Add topsoil from the site.

Import topsoil.

Inoculate with mycorrhizae.

Correct with soil amendments.

Improve drainage.

Apply gypsum and flush with water.

Improve drainage.

Recontour.

Install drainage structures.

Avoid use when wet.

Prevent further damage to biological soil 

crusts.

Add organic matter.

Increase surface residue and roughness.

Stabilize with:

• Checkdams or siltdams

• Soil binders

• Erosion control blankets

• Bioengineering structures

Inoculate with mycorrhizae.

Physical crust formation

(Prevents water infiltration and 

seedling establishment)

Change in soil pH

(Soil toxicity)

Excess sodium

Altered slope or drainage

Continuing erosion

Favor species found growing on sites with 

similar disturbances.

Favor species adapted to altered conditions.

Favor species that will provide cover rapidly.

Favor species with a variety of root forms 

(fibrous roots, taproots, spreading roots).

Favor species that lend themselves to 

propagation with bioengineering techniques.

Potential treatments Potential plant types or

 Limiting factor to compensate propagation methods
Appendix A—Treatments To Manage Factors Limiting Restoration

261

Reestablish or emulate natural processes.

Minimize fertilization, especially with 

nitrogen.

Minimize irrigation.

Solarize the soil.

Control weeds.

Inoculate with mycorrhizae.

Add mulch.

Reduce or remove use with:

• Physical barriers

• Information and education

• Regulation and enforcement

Suppression of natural 

disturbance

Weed competition

Continued damaging use

Favor species that do not depend on 

disturbance for survival.

Select species that will shade weeds.

Select a variety of species to fill in all niches 

(for instance, shrubs, graminoids, and forbs).

Transplant larger plants of species that will 

deter use, such as larger shrubs, plants with 

spines or thorns, or poisonous plants.

Favor species that are resistant to damage.

Potential treatments Potential plant types or

 Limiting factor to compensate propagation methods

References

Bainbridge, D.A.; Raymond, F.; Williams, A.C.; [and others]. 1995. A beginner’s guide to desert restoration. Denver, 

CO: U.S. Department of the Interior National Park Service, Denver Service Center.

Bainbridge, D.A; Virginia, R.A. 1990. Restoration in the Sonoran Desert of California: a progress report on the 

development of techniques for restoration in this challenging ecosystem. Restoration and Management Notes. (8)7: 3–14.

Belnap, J.; Furman, C. 1997. Revegetation workbook: guidelines for implementing revegetation projects. Unpublished 

report. Moab, UT: U.S. Department of the Interior National Park Service, Canyonlands National Park. 82 p.

Belnap, J.; Sharpe, S. 1995. Reestablishing cold-desert grasslands: a seeding experiment in Canyonlands National 

Park, Utah. In: Roundy, Bruce A.; McArthur, E. Durant; Haley, Jennifer S.; Mann, David K., comps. 1995. Proceedings: 

wildland shrub and arid land restoration symposium; 1993 October 19–21; Las Vegas, NV. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT–GTR–315. 

Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station: 46–51.
Appendix A—Treatments To Manage Factors Limiting Restoration

262

Brady, N.; Weil, R. 2002. The nature and properties of soils. 13th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. 960 p.

Doerr, T.B.; Redente, E.F.; Sievers, T.E. 1983. Effect of cultural practices on seeded plant communities on intensively 

disturbed soils. Journal of Range Management. 36(4): 423–428.

Hingston, S.G. 1982. Revegetation of subalpine backcountry campgrounds: principles and guidelines. Resource Management Report Series KR–3. Alberta, Canada: Alberta Recreation and Parks, Kananaskis Region.

Redente, E.F. 1993. Revegetation and reclamation training workshop. Denver, CO: U.S. Department of the Interior 

National Park Service, Denver Service Center. 34 p.

Rochefort, R.M. 1990. Mount Rainier National Park restoration handbook. Ashford Woods, WA: U.S. Department of 

the Interior National Park Service, Mount Rainier National Park.

U.S. Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service, Soil Quality Institute. 2001a. Guidelines 

for soil quality assessment in conservation planning. 42 p. Available at: http://soils.usda.gov/sqi. 

U.S. Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service, Soil Quality Institute. 2001b. Rangeland 

soil quality—physical and biological crusts. 2 p. Available at: http://soils.usda.gov/sqi. 
Appendix B—Propagation and Establishment of Requirements for Selected Plant Species

263

T

Appendix B—Propagation and Establishment of 

Requirements for Selected Plant Species

Key to Propagation Methods

1. Seed

 a. Cold moist stratification: the number of days

 required for stratification follows (for

 example, 1a: 60)

 b. Scarification

 c. Water leaching

 d. Treatment with sulfuric acid 

 e. No treatment needed

 f. Warm/cold stratification (days required for

 warm/cold stratification; for example, 1f: 45/140)

 g. Other

2. Semihardwood stem cuttings

3. Hardwood stem cuttings (firm stems after leaves have

 dropped)

4. Softwood or herbaceous cuttings

5. Root cuttings

6. Leaf cuttings

7. Leaf bud cuttings

8. Divisions

9. Simple layering

10. Mound layering

11. Trench layering

12. Tip layering

13. Seed-increase program

The information displayed for each plant species was 

gleaned from just a few sources. Additional information is available for these plant species, but this chart 

should provide a starting point. In the Propagation Method

column, numbers in bold text indicate the method of 

propagation that the literature suggested would be the most 

successful. In the References column, authors in bold text 

indicate works with more complete descriptions.
Appendix B—Propagation and Establishment of Requirements for Selected Plant Species

264

Scientific name Propagation 

Common name method References Remarks

1a: 14–28

1a: 15–30

1, 2

1

1

1

1a: 120–240

or 1f: 30–60 warm/

30–90 cold 

1f: 180 warm/180 cold

1a: 40–80, 8

Abies spp.

Abies grandis

 Grand fir

Abies lasiocarpa

 Subalpine fir

Abronia latifolia

 Yellow sand verbena

Abronia umbellata

 Pink sand verbena

Abronia villosa

 Desert sand verbena

Acer circinatum

 Vine maple

Acer glabrum

 Rocky Mountain maple

Acer macrophyllum

 Bigleaf maple

Germinates in or on melting snowbanks in the 

wild.

The seed is fragile and requires afterripening in 

the cone. Do not extract it immediately. Stratify 

and sow the seed 0.2 inch (5 millimeters) deep 

during the spring.

Direct sow the seed during the fall on sandy 

soil in full sun. Expect spotty germination. 

Seedlings do not tolerate disturbance.

Direct sow the seeds during the fall. Protect the 

seedlings from moles and rabbits until they have 

become established.

Annual species. Direct sow the seed on sandy 

soil during the fall or early spring.

Collect the seed when it is green, from August to 

October. Stratify the seed immediately or plant 

the seed on the site. Start the seed during the 

spring. It takes 3 to 4 months to grow. Bareroot 

and containerized stock also have been planted 

successfully.

Apply seed directly on the site. Expect 25- 

percent germination.

Seed decays rapidly. Collect seed late in the fall 

before the rains. Stratify the seed before sowing 

it at 34 to 41 degrees Fahrenheit (1 to 5 degrees 

Celsius). Sow during February or early March or 

plant directly during the fall.

Young and Young 1986

Rose and others 1998

Weisberg 1993

Schmidt 1980

Schmidt 1980

Schmidt 1980

Potash and Aubry 1997

Landis and Simonich 1983

Link 1993

Rose and others 1998

Link 1993

Rose and others 1998

Weisberg 1993

Rose and others 1998
Appendix B—Propagation and Establishment of Requirements for Selected Plant Species

265

Scientific name Propagation 

Common name method References Remarks

1, 8 (spring)

8

1, 1a

8

1d

1d

8, spores

1e

1e

1

Achillea millefolium

 Western yarrow

Achlys triphylla

 Vanilla leaf

Actaea rubra

 Baneberry

Adenocaulon bicolor

 Trail plant

Adenostoma fasciculatum

 Chamise

Adenostoma sparsifolium

 Red shank

Adiantum spp.

Maidenhair fern

Aesculus californica

California buckeye

Agave utahensis

Century plant

Agoseris glauca

Seed ripens between August 1 and October 

31. Cut off the seed heads. Plant seed directly 

during the fall or late April, or plant 1.6-inch 

(40-millimeter) rhizome fragments. Lift 

divisions during the early spring and divide 

them into small groups of rosettes. Cut back the 

leaves and plant them.

Remove the seed from pulpy fruit. Add peat or 

wood humus to the soil before sowing the seed. 

If germination is poor, cold stratification may 

help.

The hard seedcoat requires acid treatment.

An alternative is to sow seed in soil in flats and 

burn pine needles on the surface.

Treat seed in sulfuric acid for 15 minutes.

Schmidt (1980) includes the complete protocol 

for propagating ferns from spores.

Direct seed during the fall.

Grow seedlings in deep-ridged containers with 

well-drained medium. Fertilize seedlings with 

each watering.

Potash and Aubry 1997

Rose and others 1998

Young and Young 1986

Weisberg 1993

Schmidt 1980

Weisberg 1993

Young and Young 1992

Young and Young 1986

Schmidt 1980

Harris and Leiser 1979

Link 1993

Weisberg 1993
Appendix B—Propagation and Establishment of Requirements for Selected Plant Species

266

Scientific name Propagation 

Common name method References Remarks

1e, 13

1e

1e

1a: 60

1a 

1a: 180

1

1a: 180, 1e, 4

1e, 4

Agropyron macrourum

Agropyron spicatum

 Bluebunch wheatgrass

Agrostis scabra

Rough bentgrass

Ailanthus altissima

 Tree of heaven

Allium spp.

Alnus spp.

Alnus crispa

Alnus incana

 Thinleaf alder

Alnus rubra

 Red alder

Collect seed during the fall. Remove awns with 

a hammer mill. Sow a minimum of 100 to 160 

seeds per square acre during the fall.

Seed ripens from July 15 to August 15. Collect 

seed for a seed-increase program. Broadcast the 

seed and rake it into the soil.

Thoroughly clean the seed. Sow the seed when it 

is fresh or chill the seed before planting.

This alder fixes nitrogen. Inoculate its seedlings 

with a solution made from root nodules.

Collect fruit during the fall when the bracts 

start to separate. Fresh seed will not stratify. 

Dried seed stratifies at 41 degrees Fahrenheit (5 

degrees Celsius). Sow during the spring.

This alder fixes nitrogen. The seed ripens from 

September 1 to October 15. Seed from the upper 

one-third of the tree is more likely to be viable. 

The seed is ripe when the strobile (a fruiting 

structure characterized by rows of overlapping 

scales) twists easily and its scales part. Start 

seed during the spring or sow onsite during the 

fall. Seed needs light to germinate. Plants are 

more likely to become established when they are 

planted in mineral soil, watered, and supplied 

with fertilizer that is low in nitrogen and high in 

phosphorus. 

Densmore and others 1990

Young and Young 1986

Rose and others 1998

Link 1993

Young and Young 1986

Young and Young 1986

Young and Young 1986

Hartmann and others 1990

Densmore and others 1990

Rose and others 1998

Potash and Aubry 1997

Rose and others 1998
Appendix B—Propagation and Establishment of Requirements for Selected Plant Species

267

Scientific name Propagation 

Common name method References Remarks

1a: 30–90, 4

1e or 1a: 112–168, 5, 8

1a: 60

4

1e

1e

1e

1e

1e, 8 (spring or fall)

1a, 2

Alnus sinuata

 Sitka alder

Amelanchier alnifolia

 Saskatoon serviceberry

Amelanchier utahensis

 Utah serviceberry

Amorpha californica

 California false indigo

Amorpha canescens

Amorpha fruticosa

Amorpha nana

Anaphalis margaritacea

 Pearly-everlasting

Andromeda polifolia

 Bog rosemary

This alder fixes nitrogen. See Alnus rubra for 

instructions on handling seed. Inoculate the 

planting medium with root nodules.

Collect seed during the late summer. Macerate 

fruit with water. The seed has a tendency to 

develop fungal mold. Plant the seed during the 

winter or stratify the seed at 34 to 43 degrees 

Fahrenheit (1 to 6 degrees Celsius) and plant it in 

sandy soil during the spring. Take root cuttings 

from December to February. Cut segments of 

fleshy roots 2 inches (50 millimeters) long. The 

cut should be horizontal at the end closest to the 

root crown and slanted at the end farthest from 

the crown. For reproduction by division, divide 

plants during the early spring.

Seed ripens between April 1 and August 31.

Clean seed by macerating fruit and washing the 

pulp over screens. Dry the pulp, then rub the 

seed through the screens.

Soaking seed in hot water for 10 minutes may 

improve germination.

Seed ripens between July 1 and October 31 

when the flower’s center is dark brown. Collect 

the entire seed head. The pappus (hairs or 

bristles attached to an achene) can remain on the 

seed. Sow seed under a thin layer of soil during 

the spring. For reproduction by division, replant 

the divided plants during the spring or fall.

The seed needs prechilling. Winter cuttings can 

be rooted easily.

Potash and Aubry 1997

Rose and others 1998

Rose and others 1998

Link 1993

Young and Young 1992

Young and Young 1992

Young and Young 1992

Young and Young 1992

Potash and Aubry 1997

Rose and others 1998

Young and Young 1992
Appendix B—Propagation and Establishment of Requirements for Selected Plant Species

268

Scientific name Propagation 

Common name method References Remarks

1a: 14

1a: 14

1e

1e

1a: 30–90

1

8

1e

1e

1e

1

Andropogon gerardii

 Bluestem

Andropogon hallii

Andropogon virginicus

 Broomsedge bluestem

Anemone multifida

 Cutleaf anemone

Anemone occidentalis

 Western pasqueflower

Antennaria alpina

 Alpine pussytoes

Antennaria corymbosa

 Pussytoes

Antennaria microphylla

 Littleleaf pussytoes

Antennaria neglecta

 Field pussytoes

Aquilegia formosa

 Red columbine

Arabis spp.

 Rock cress

The seed needs light and potassium nitrate 

(KNO3)to germinate.

The seed needs light and potassium nitrate 

(KNO3)to germinate.

The seed is very difficult to collect and clean 

because the very small seed is encased in hairy 

appendages and the leaf sheath.

Direct seed.

The seed ripens between August 1 and 31.

Dry the seed in an oven to break off the long,

plumose tails. During greenhouse trials, 

seedlings emerged, but did not survive.

When plants that had been divided were planted 

above the crown, they died back.

The seed ripens between June 15 and July 15. 

Seed production is low. Use cone-tainers or 

direct seed.

The seed ripens between June 15 and July 10. 

Seed production is low. Use cone-tainers or 

direct seed.

The seed ripens between June 1 and August 

15. Start seed during the spring or fall in conetainers or use direct seeding. Seed needs to be 

chilled for 3 days before planting or it will not 

germinate.

Seed requires light and potassium nitrate 

(KNO3)to germinate.

Young and Young 1986

Young and Young 1986

Link 1993

Link 1993

Link 1993

Weisberg 1993

Link 1993

Link 1993

Link 1993

Link 1993

Rose and others 1998

Young and Young 1986

Young and Young 1986
Appendix B—Propagation and Establishment of Requirements for Selected Plant Species

269

Scientific name Propagation 

Common name method References Remarks

1a, 1b

1a: 30–90, 4, 9

1d, 1f: 60–120/60–90

Cuttings

2

1a, 1b, 1d, 3, 4

1a: 90, 1b, 4

1d or 1d then f:

60 warm/60 cold

2, 5

1a, 1b, 9

Aralia spp.

 Ginseng

Arbutus menziesii

 Pacific madrone

Arctostaphylos spp.

 Manzanita

Arctostaphylos columbiana

 Bristly manzanita

Arctostaphylos nevadensis

 Pinemat manzanita

Arctostaphylos patula

 Greenleaf manzanita

Arctostaphylos uva-ursi

Kinnikinnick

Arctostaphylos viscida

 Whiteleaf manzanita

May need a period of afterripening and 

scarification, followed by prechilling.

Collect berries from October to December. 

Macerate the berries and separate the seed by 

drying or flotation. Stratify at 36 to 41 degrees 

Fahrenheit (2 to 5 degrees Celsius) or stratify 

naturally outdoors over winter.

Scarify the seed in sulfuric acid for 3 to 6 hours. 

Use warm/cold stratification.

Use cuttings from 1- or 2-year-old wood.

Seed is difficult to germinate.

Seed ripens from July to September. Macerate 

the fruit and separate the seed using floatation. 

Scarify the seed in hot water and stratify 

the seed at 39 degrees Fahrenheit (4 degrees 

Celsius) in moist sand. Seed can be sown in 

coarse soil during the early summer. Keep the 

seedbed mulched over the winter. Take cuttings 

from stems with five to six nodes of the current 

year’s growth. 

The fruit is ripe when it is red or pink, usually 

from June 1 to October 15. Collect stem 

cuttings 2 to 6 inches (50 to 150 millimeters) 

long during the fall. Collect 3- to 5-inch (75- to 

150-millimeter) root cuttings during the fall. 

Separate the seed by flotation or by grinding 

when the seed is dry. Establish seedlings on 

well-drained sandy or gravelly soils.

Plant seed during the late summer. Seed needs 

heat and mechanical or chemical scarification. 

Stratify the seed over the winter.

Young and Young 1992

Rose and others 1998

Young and Young 1992

Landis and Simonich 1983

Young and Young 1992

Weisberg 1993

Link 1993

Rose and others 1998

Rose and others 1998

Potash and Aubry 1997

Rose and others 1998

Rose and others 1998
Appendix B—Propagation and Establishment of Requirements for Selected Plant Species

270

1e

1e

8

1

1

1e

1a: 60

1a: 10, 1d

1a: 14, 1d

1

1a: 0–10, 3

1, 8 (spring)

Aristidia longiseta

Aristidia purpurea

 Triple-awned grass

Arnica spp.

Arnica frigida

Arnica latifolia

 Mountain arnica

Arnica sororia

 Twin arnica

Artemesia arbuscula

 Low sagebrush

Artemesia frigida

 Fringed sagebrush

Artemesia ludoviciana

 Sagewort

Artemesia tilesii

Artemesia tridentata

 Big sagebrush

Aruncus sylvester

 Goatsbeard

Seed ripens between July 15 and 31. Seed 

production is low. Plant in cone-tainers.

Seed ripens between October 1 and December 

31. Sow in rows and transplant to pots or direct 

sow the seed under 1⁄4 inch (6 millimeters) of 

soil and cover with light mulch.

Seed ripens during the fall. Direct sow the seed 

on top of the soil if the soil is moist. Fringed 

sagebrush is easy to propagate.

Seed ripens between July 15 and October 15. 

Grow in containers or direct seed. Sagewort is 

easy to grow.

Seed ripens between November 5 and January 

15. Start seedlings during the spring, summer, or 

fall. Seed takes 2 to 3 months to grow.

Seed ripens between July 1 and November 30. 

Shake the seed loose or strip the heads.

Sow seed during the fall when the soil is moist.

Young and Young 1986

Young and Young 1986

Weisberg 1993

Densmore and others 1990

Weisberg 1993

Link 1993

Link 1993

Young and Young 1992

Link 1993

Link 1993

Densmore and others 1990

Landis and Simonich 1983

Rose and others 1998

Potash and Aubry 1997

Scientific name Propagation 

Common name method References Remarks
Appendix B—Propagation and Establishment of Requirements for Selected Plant Species

271

1, 5, 8

1, 5, 8

1

1, 5

1

1e

1e

1a: 7

1

Asarum caudatum

 Wild ginger

Asarum hartwegii

 Marble-leaf ginger

Asclepias cordifolia

 Purple milkweed

Asclepias speciosa

 Butterfly weed

Aster alpigenus

 Alpine aster

Aster foliaceus

 Leafybract aster

Aster glaudoces

 Blueleaf aster

Aster integrifolius

 Thickstem aster

Aster ledophyllus

 Cascade aster

Mature seed is difficult to collect, but the plant 

readily seeds itself. For divisions, divide the 

plant during the early spring or fall when it 

is dormant. Plant the rhizomes 0.4 inch (10 

millimeters) deep with the tip reaching the soil 

level. Keep the soil moist by mulching. Take 

cuttings during the summer; start them in sand 

for planting during the fall.

Same as Asarum caudatum.

Requires sun and porous soil.

Spreads rapidly underground. Butterfly weed is 

a host plant for the monarch butterfly.

The seed ripens between June 1 and September 

15. Rub the seed to remove fuzz. Dry the seed 

quickly. Use mothballs to control insects.

Seed ripens between August 1 and September 

30. Rub the seed to remove fuzz.

Seed ripens between August 15 and September 

15. Rub the seed to remove fuzz. Dry the seed 

quickly. Use mothballs to control insects. 

Grow in cone-tainers. Direct seed by broadcast 

seeding and raking.

Weisberg 1993

Rose and others 1998

Schmidt 1980

Schmidt 1980

Schmidt 1980

Weisberg 1993

Young and Young 1986

Link 1993

Weisberg 1993

Link 1993

Link 1993

Weisberg 1993

Scientific name Propagation 

Common name method References Remarks
Appendix B—Propagation and Establishment of Requirements for Selected Plant Species

272

1e

1e

1

1b

1e

1b or 1d

1a

1a: 30–50

2

2

1e

1e

1

Aster leevis

 Smooth aster

Aster modestus

 Modest aster

Aster sibericus

Astragalus spp.

Astragalus antiselli

Astragalus eucosmus

Atriplex spp.

 Saltbush

Atriplex canescens

 Fourwing saltbush

Atriplex confertifolia

Atriplex cuneata

Atriplex lentiformis

 Quail bush

Baccharis pilularis

 Coyote bush

Baileya spp.

 Desert marigold

Seed ripens between August 15 and September 

30. Direct seed by broadcast seeding and raking.

Dry the seed quickly. Use mothballs to control 

insects. Grow in cone-tainers.

Inoculate seedlings with a solution of root 

nodules.

Direct seed.

Seed ripens between October 20 and March 1. 

Store seed in the open. Start plants during the 

spring, summer, or fall. Seeds take 3 to 4 

months to grow. 

Direct seed during the late winter or spring.

Direct seed during the fall.

Seed requires light for germination.

Link 1993

Link 1993

Densmore and others 1990

Young and Young 1986

Young and Young 1986

Densmore and others 1990

Young and Young 1992

Landis and Simonich 1983

Landis and Simonich 1983

Landis and Simonich 1983

Harris and Leiser 1979

Harris and Leiser 1979

Young and Young 1992

Young and Young 1986

Scientific name Propagation 

Common name method References Remarks
Appendix B—Propagation and Establishment of Requirements for Selected Plant Species

273

1a: 56–84, 8

1e

1a: 14–48, 1e, 2, 8, 9, 

10 (summer)

1a: 45–150

3, 4, 5, 7 (summer or 

fall)

1e

1e

1e, 4

Balsamorhiza sagittata

 Arrowleaf balsamroot

Beloperone californica

 Chaparosa

Berberis spp.

(See also Mahonia spp.)

Berberis fremontii

(See Mahonia fremontii)

Berberis nervosa

 Oregon grape

(See also Mahonia 

nervosa)

Betula glandulosa

Betula occidentalis

 Water birch

Betula papyrifera

 Paper birch

Seed ripens by mid-June. Harvest seed by 

hand. Clean seed by drying, fanning, and

macerating. Stratify seed at 25 degrees 

Fahrenheit (–4 degrees Celsius). Broadcast seed 

when sowing and cover the seeds. Fall or winter 

sowing is recommended. Plants can be salvaged 

by transplanting root crowns.

Separate the seed from the fruit by flotation. 

Remove all pulp from the seed. Stratify seed 

at 40 degrees Fahrenheit (4 degrees Celsius) or 

direct sow the seed during the fall. Root cuttings 

under mist. Application of 2,000 to 8,000 parts 

per million IBA (indole-3-butyric acid) aids 

rooting for some species.

Seed ripens between August 1 and September 

30. Process the seed immediately by flotation or 

by rubbing the fruit on a screen. Store the seed 

above freezing without drying. Start seed during 

the spring. With cuttings, take no more than 5 

percent of the donor plant.

Needs light to germinate best.

Collect strobiles (a fruiting structure 

characterized by rows of overlapping scales) 

while they are still green and spreading and 

dry them during the late summer. Sow the seed 

during the fall. Seedlings require shade for 2 to 

3 months during their first summer.

Collect seed from September to November. Pick 

strobiles while they are still green.

Unstratified seed germinates better than 

stratified seed. Sow seed during the late summer 

and fall. For cuttings, the timing is critical—

Rose and others 1998

Young and Young 1992

Hartmann and others 1990

Young and Young 1992

Browse 1979

Potash and Aubry 1997

Young and Young 1992

Rose and others 1998

Rose and others 1998

Scientific name Propagation 

Common name method References Remarks
Appendix B—Propagation and Establishment of Requirements for Selected Plant Species

274

1e

1e

1e

1e

1e

1e

1a: 42

1, 8

1e

1e

Bouteloua breviseta

 Chino grama

Bouteloua curtipendula

Bouteloua hirsuta

 Hairy grama

Brickellia californica

 Brickle brush

Bromus carinatus

Mountain brome

Bromus vulgaris

 Columbia brome

Buchloe dactyloides

 Buffalo grass

Calamagrostis breweri

 Shorthair reedgrass

Calamagrostis canadensis

 Bluejoint reedgrass

Calamagrostis rubescens

 Pinegrass

shoots should be active with the base of the 

cutting just becoming firm. Nodal cuttings from 

6 to 8 inches (150 to 200 millimeters) long are 

best. Plant cuttings during warm, dry conditions 

with good air and moisture.

Seed ripens during November. Seed is difficult 

to collect because of the short period that it is 

available, its tendency to shatter, and its low 

viability. 

Seed ripens during November. Seed is easy to 

collect, but has low viability.

Seed ripens between June 1 and August 31. 

Avoid plants with smut. Direct seed. Can be 

used in a seed-increase program.

Seed ripens between July 1 and August 31. 

Avoid plants with smut. Direct seed. Can be 

used in a seed-increase program

Seed requires light and potassium nitrate 

(KNO3) during germination.

Start divisions in January. Use vitamin B1.

Don’t cover the root crown with soil. 

Seed ripens during the spring. Plant seed 3⁄4 to 1 

inch (20 to 25 millimeters) deep. Plant in moist 

to saturated soil with no standing water.

Diurnal fluctuating temperatures are needed:

16 hours at 68 degrees Fahrenheit (20 degrees 

Celsius) and 8 hours at 86 degrees Fahrenheit 

Link 1993

Young and Young 1986

Link 1993

Young and Young 1992

Link 1993

Young and Young 1986

Link 1993

Young and Young 1986

Link 1993

Link 1993

Young and Young 1986

Rose and others 1998

Scientific name Propagation 

Common name method References Remarks
Appendix B—Propagation and Establishment of Requirements for Selected Plant Species

275

1e, 4

1e

8

1

1e

1e, 8

1

1e

1a: 60

1, 8

Callicarpa spp.

 Beauty bush

Callicarpa americana

 American beautyberry

Caltha asarifolia

 Marshmarigold

Caltha biflora

White marshmarigold

Calycanthus occidentalis

 Western spice bush

Carex exserta

 Shorthair sedge

Carex illota

Small-headed sedge

Carex mertensii

 Mertens sedge

Carex microptera

 Smallwing sedge

Carex nigricans

 Black alpine sedge

(30 degrees Celsius). Needs adequate moisture 

and light.

Take cuttings from June to September. Treat 

with 1,000 parts per million IBA (indole3-butyric acid) talc. Expect 50-percent 

germination when planting seed in trays. 

Seedlings should be transplanted to containers.

Same as Callicarpa spp.

Direct seed during the fall.

Start divisions during January. Use vitamin B1. 

Don’t cover the root crown with soil. 

Seed ripens between August 1 and September 1.

Soak seed for 60 days in water at 33 to 45 

degrees Fahrenheit (0.5 to 7 degrees Celsius) 

in the dark. Plant seed in moist soil that is not 

submerged in water.

Seed ripens between August 15 and September 

30. Ripe seed comes off easily in the fingers. 

Store seed in the cold for several months to 

Young and Young 1992

Link 1993

Young and Young 1992

Link 1993

Weisberg 1993

Weisberg 1993

Harris and Leiser 1979

Link 1993

Weisberg 1993

Link 1993

Link 1993

Potash and Aubry 1997

Scientific name Propagation 

Common name method References Remarks
Appendix B—Propagation and Establishment of Requirements for Selected Plant Species

276

1e

1

1

1, 8

1

1

1a: 60

1e, 4

1a: 30–150

1d

Carex obnupta

 Slough sedge

Carex paschystachya

 Thick-headed sedge

Carex phaecephala

 Dunhead sedge

Carex rossii

 Ross sedge

Carex rostrata

 Beaked sedge

Carex spectabilis

 Showy sedge

Carex utriculata

 Sedge

Carpenteria californica

 Bush anenome

Carya aquatica

 Water hickory

Cassia armata

 Armed senna

stratify. After direct seeding during early 

summer, use plastic sheeting on the soil to force 

germination.

Sow seed during the fall. Slough sedge needs 

very wet soil.

Seed ripens between July 30 and August 30. 

Seed can be planted during the fall without 

removing the hull.

Start divisions during January. Use vitamin B1.

Harvest achenes during August or September. 

Sow seed into moist soil during the fall.

Same as Carex microptera. 

Collect seed between July and October. Bush 

anemone suckers freely and can be propagated 

easily by cuttings.

Direct seed during the fall. Soak seeds before 

planting in the spring.

Link 1993

Link 1993

Weisberg 1993

Link 1993

Rose and others 1998

Weisberg 1993

Link 1993

Young and Young 1992

Link 1993

Young and Young 1986

Scientific name Propagation 

Common name method References Remarks
Appendix B—Propagation and Establishment of Requirements for Selected Plant Species

277

1, 2, 9, 10

1e

1

1a: 28–84

1, 8

1c

1e

1a: 90, 1e

1c

1: 90, 1e

1e

Cassiope mertensiana

 White mountain heather

Castanopsis chrysophylla

 Golden chinkapin

Castilleja spp.

 Indian paintbrush

Castilleja miniata

 Common red paintbrush

Cathestecum erectum

False grama

Ceanothus arboreus

 Feltleaf ceanothus

Ceanothus cordulatus

Ceanothus crassifolius

Ceanothus cuneatus

 Buck brush

Ceanothus diversifolius

Ceanothus fendleri

Seed ripens between September 1 and the first 

snowfall. See appendix C for more detailed 

information.

Seed has 53-percent germination. Expect 

problems with seedling survival. Poor results 

with cuttings.

Stratify the seed at temperatures between 34 and 

41 degrees Fahrenheit (1 and 5 degrees Celsius). 

Seed germinates at 70 degrees Fahrenheit (21 

degrees Celsius), but grows slowly. Seedlings 

need a constant supply of nitrogen. Seeds 

germinate best near the roots of other plants 

they can parasitize.

Irrigate, fertilize, and cultivate seedlings.

Good stands of false grama are difficult to 

establish.

Direct seed during the fall. Soak seed in hot 

water. Ceanothus can fix nitrogen.

Same as Ceanothus arboreus.

Potash and Aubry 1997

Young and Young 1992

Link 1993

Link 1993

Young and Young 1986

Rose and others 1998

Link 1993

Harris and Leiser 1979

Young and Young 1992

Young and Young 1992

Harris and Leiser 1979

Rose and others 1998

Young and Young 1992

Young and Young 1992

Scientific name Propagation 

Common name method References Remarks
Appendix B—Propagation and Establishment of Requirements for Selected Plant Species

278

1c

1a: 90, cuttings

1a: 60

1c

1a: 90, 1e

1c

1c

1a: 90, 1e

1a: 90, 1e

1a: 90, 1d

Ceanothus foliosus

 Wavyleaf ceanothus

Ceanothus fresnensis

 Fresno mat

Ceanothus greggii

Ceanothus impressus

 Santa Barbara ceanothus

Ceanothus integerrimus

 Deerbush ceanothus

Ceanothus leucodermis

 Whitethorn

Ceanothus megacarpus

 Bigpod ceanothus

Ceanothus oliganthus

Ceanothus prostratus

 Squaw carpet

Ceanothus rigidus

Ceanothus sanguineus

 Redstem ceanothus

Same as Ceanothus arboreus.

Cuttings should be at least 6 inches (150 

millimeters) long.

Same as Ceanothus arboreus.

Plant seed directly during the fall or stratify 

the seed before planting. Deerbush ceanothus 

germinates rapidly after wildfires. This plant 

can fix nitrogen.

Same as Ceanothus arboreus.

Same as Ceanothus arboreus.

Soak seed in water at 180 degrees Fahrenheit 

(82 degrees Celsius). Cool the seed, mix it with 

sand, and place the mixture in a refrigerator. 

Once the seed swells, sow it in containers. Plants 

will be ready for outplanting in 2 years.

Viable seed will turn dark as it matures. Soak 

the seed in hot water and stratify it or soak the 

seed in acid or gibberellin for 30 minutes. Sow 

seed directly during the fall after heat treatment 

or pretreat the seed and sow it in spring.

Harris and Leiser 1979

Link 1993

Young and Young 1992

Harris and Leiser 1979

Young and Young 1992

Harris and Leiser 1979

Harris and Leiser 1979

Young and Young 1992

Rose and others 1998

Young and Young 1992

Young and Young 1992

Rose and others 1998

Young and Young 1992

Scientific name Propagation 

Common name method References Remarks
Appendix B—Propagation and Establishment of Requirements for Selected Plant Species

279

1c

1c

1a: 60–85, 4

1a: 56–84, 1e, 4, 5

1a: 84, 1e, 4

1e, 4

1e

1e

1a: 84, 1c, 1d, 1g

Ceanothus sorediatus

Jim brush

Ceanothus thyrsiflorus

Blueblossom

Ceanothus velutinus

 Snowbrush ceanothus

Celtis occidentalis

Celtis reticulata

Cephalanthus occidentalis

 Common buttonbrush

Ceratoides lanata

 Winterfat

Cercidium floridum

 Palo Verde

Cercis occidentalis

 Western redbud

Nitrogen fixer. Seed ripens from July to 

September. Soak seed in hot water and stratify 

seed before sowing it in flats during December 

or January. Seedlings are susceptible to damping 

off (dying suddenly because of fungal attacks). 

Take cuttings during the summer. Treat them 

with 0.8-percent IBA (indole-3-butyric acid) 

and plant them in a damp, sandy mixture of 

medium- to coarse-textured soils with low 

nutrient content. Apply bottom heat. Pot 

seedlings after they have rooted.

Seed requires 2 to 3 months afterripening. Plant 

during cool weather.

Scarify the seed with acid or soak the seed in 

boiling water for 1 minute or expose the seed to 

dry heat, 230 degrees Fahrenheit (110 degrees 

Celsius), for 9 minutes. Stratify the seed. Direct 

seed during the fall. Western redbud can fix 

nitrogen.

Harris and Leiser 1979

Young and Young 1992

Harris and Leiser 1979

Young and Young 1992

Hingston 1982

Rose and others 1998

Young and Young 1992

Young and Young 1992

Young and Young 1992

Young and Young 1992

Young and Young 1992

Young and Young 1986

Young and Young 1992

Harris and Leiser 1979

Scientific name Propagation 

Common name method References Remarks
Appendix B—Propagation and Establishment of Requirements for Selected Plant Species

280

1e

1a

1a: 30–90

1

1a: 28–84

1a: 90, 8

1f: 30/30

1a: 21

1a: 3

2, 8

Cercocarpus betuloides

Mountain mahogany

Cercocarpus ledifolius

 Curlleaf mountain

 mahogany

Cercocarpus montanus

 Mountain mahogany

Chaenactis douglasii

 Douglas dustymaiden

Chamaebatia foliolosa

 Bearmat

Chamaebatiaria

 millefolium

 Fernbrush

Chamaecyparis

 Port Orford cedar

Chamaecyparis 

 nootkatensis

 Alaska cedar

Chilopsis linearis

 Desert willow

Chimaphila umbellata

 Prince’s pine

Direct seed during the fall.

Seed ripens during August and September. 

Stratify seed before sowing or sow the seed into 

flats and stratify the flats. Provide drainage to 

prevent root rot.

Fruit ripens during late summer to early fall. 

Stratify the seed. Sow stratified seed during the 

spring or sow unstratified seed during the fall. 

Outplant seedlings after 1 to 2 years. Mountain 

mahogany can fix nitrogen.

Seed ripens during August.

Seed should be sown directly into growing 

containers and thinned to one plant per cell to 

increase survival.

Sow seed 1⁄2 inch (13 millimeters) deep during 

the spring. Desert willow can be propagated by 

cuttings.

Prince’s pine flowers from June to August. 

Take summer stem cuttings and root them 

in a mixture of sand and peat. Plant them in 

late spring about 6 to 8 inches (150 to 200 

Harris and Leiser 1979

Rose and others 1998

Young and Young 1992

Link 1993

Rose and others 1998

Young and Young 1992

Landis and Simonich 1983

Link 1993

Young and Young 1986

Young and Young 1992

Link 1993

Young and Young 1986

Young and Young 1992

Young and Young 1992

Rose and others 1998

Scientific name Propagation 

Common name method References Remarks
Appendix B—Propagation and Establishment of Requirements for Selected Plant Species

281

1e, 9, grafting, budding

1e

1e

1a: 0–120

1a: 0–28

1

1

1e

1a: 56–168

1

1a

Chrysolepsis chrysophylla

 Golden chinkapin

Chrysolepsis sempevirens

 Sierra chinkapin

Chrysopsis villosa

 Golden aster

Chrysothamnus 

nauseosus

 Rubber rabbitbrush

Chrysothamnus 

viscidiflorus

 Green rabbitbrush

Circium edule

 Edible thistle

Clarkia spp.

Clarkia unguiculata

Clematis spp.

Cleome spp.

 Rocky Mountain bee

 plant

Coleogyne ramosissima

 Blackbrush

millimeters) apart. Prince’s pine produces long, 

fast-growing rhizomes. Underground stems can 

be divided. 

Pick burs after they are ripe in late summer, but 

before they open. Plant the seed directly.

Sierra chinkapin has 53-percent germination. 

Expect problems with seedling survival.

Golden aster has 30-percent germination. Expect 

problems with seedling survival and poor results 

with cuttings.

Start seed during the spring or summer. 

Seedlings take 3 to 4 months to grow.

Direct sow the seed or propagate Clarkia in 

flats. Clarkia is an annual.

Propagation requirements vary by species.

Rocky Mountain bee plant is difficult to 

germinate. It needs light, potassium nitrate 

(KNO3) enrichment, and warm temperatures.

Rose and others 1998

Link 1993

Young and Young 1992

Young and Young 1986

Landis and Simonich 1983

Young and Young 1992

Weisberg 1993

Schmidt 1980

Young and Young 1986

Young and Young 1992

Young and Young 1986

Young and Young 1992

Scientific name Propagation 

Common name method References Remarks
Appendix B—Propagation and Establishment of Requirements for Selected Plant Species

282

1

1

1e

1

1

1

1

1

1, 9 (spring and 

summer)

1b, 1f: 45/140, 9

1a: 90–120, 1b, 1e, 4

Collinsia grandiflora

 Blue lips

Collinsia heterophylla

 Purple Chinese houses

Colubrina californica

 Colubrina

Coreopsis spp.

Coreopsis calliopsidea

 Leafystem coreopsis

Coreopsis douglasii

 Douglas’s coreopsis

Coreopsis stillmanii

 Stillman’s coreopsis

Coreopsis tinctoria

 Plains coreopsis

Cornus spp.

 Dogwood

Cornus canadensis

Bunchberry dogwood

Cornus nuttallii

 Pacific dogwood

Direct sow the seed during the fall or spring or 

propagate in flats. Collinsia is an annual.

Direct sow the seed during the fall or spring or 

propagate in flats. Collinsia is an annual.

Coreopsis requires light and potassium nitrate 

(KNO3) enrichment.

Direct sow the seed during November or 

December. Coreopsis prefers sunny areas and 

sandy loam. Coreopsis is an annual.

Direct sow the seed. Coreopsis is an annual.

Direct sow the seed. Coreopsis is an annual.

Seed ripens around July 1.

Separate the seed from the fruit by flotation. 

Dogwood stones can be sown without extracting 

the seed from the fruit. Sow seed immediately 

after collecting it. Some species can be started 

from cuttings.

Collect soil and duff from a native stand to 

provide mycorrhizal inoculum. Seed germinates 

best if it is sown during the fall right after it has 

been cleaned.

Sow fresh seed in fruit directly during the fall 

or macerate the fruit and separate the seed 

using floatation. Scarify stored seed for 4 hours, 

stratify seed at 37 degrees Fahrenheit (3 degrees 

Schmidt 1980

Schmidt 1980

Young and Young 1986

Young and Young 1986

Schmidt 1980

Schmidt 1980

Schmidt 1980

Link 1993

Hartmann and others 1990

Weisberg 1993

Young and Young 1986

Link 1993

Rose and others 1998

Scientific name Propagation 

Common name method References Remarks
Appendix B—Propagation and Establishment of Requirements for Selected Plant Species

283

1a: 60–90, 2, 3, 9

1a: 56–168

1e, 1f: 28/30

1a: 120–180

1a: 84–112, 1b, 9

1e

1e

1a: 21

1b, 1e

Cornus stolonifera

 Redosier dogwood

Corylus cornuta

 California hazelnut

Cowania mexicana

 Cliffrose

Crataegus columbiana

 Columbia hawthorn

Crataegus douglasii

 Douglas hawthorn

Crepis acuminata

 Hawk’s beard

Crossosoma californicum

Cupressus spp.

 Cypress

Dalea spp.

 Indigo bush

Celsius), and sow during the fall. Take cuttings 

during June or July. When transplanting, place 

transplants in a ring of native shrubs to protect 

them from the sun.

Seed ripens between July 1 and October 31.

Sow fresh seed or fruit during the fall.

Branch tips 2 to 3 inches (50 to 76 millimeters) 

long can be collected during the late summer 

and planted during late spring. Collect 2- to 

4-foot- (0.6- to 1.2-meter-) long whips of 1-yearold wood during midwinter. Outplant the whips 

during late winter or early spring. Whips can be 

planted directly in moist soil.

Plant during the fall or chill the seed before 

planting.

Seeds are not likely to germinate without treatment. 

Chilling seed for 2 weeks at 5 degrees Celsius 

produced mean optimal germination of 55 percent.

The seed must be treated in moist medium at low 

temperature before it will germinate.

Seed ripens from late July through August. 

Use flotation to separate the seed and stratify the 

seed at 41 degrees Fahrenheit (5 degrees Celsius). 

Scarify the seed in acid for up to 3 hours. Sow 

the seed during early fall.

Many species. The seed of most species needs to 

be prechilled.

The seed needs to be scarified.

Shaw 1983

Potash and Aubry 1997

Rose and others 1998

Young and Young 1992

Landis and Simonich 1983

Young and Young 1992

Young and Young 1986

Rose and others 1998

Young and Young 1986

Young and Young 1992

Young and Young 1992

Young and Young 1992

Scientific name Propagation 

Common name method References Remarks
Appendix B—Propagation and Establishment of Requirements for Selected Plant Species

284

1a: 84, 8

1

1a: 30–60

1a: 60, 4, 9

1a: 112

1

1, 1a: 112

1

Danthonia californica

 California oat grass

Danthonia compressa

 Mountain grass

Danthonia intermedia

 Timber oatgrass

Dasiphora fruticosa

 Shrubby cinquefoil

Delphinium spp.

 Larkspur

Dendromecon rigida

 Stiff bushpoppy

Deschampsia 

 atropurpurea

 Mountain hairgrass

Deschampsia caespitosa

 Tufted hairgrass

Pretreat divisions with vitamin B1. Collect

plants when they are dormant. Bring them 

into the greenhouse. In January, divide the 

plants, making sure each division has a single 

root system. Keep the plants moist at 64 to 70 

degrees Fahrenheit (18 to 21 degrees Celsius). 

After 2 weeks, move the plants to a lathhouse. If 

you are propagating from seed, soak the seed for 

1 to 3 days. Stratify the seed at 34 to 41 degrees 

Fahrenheit (1 to 5 degrees Celsius). 

Danthonia does not grow well in direct sunlight.

Plant the seed directly during the fall. 

Direct sow the seed or stratify it at 34 degrees 

Fahrenheit (1 degree Celsius). Take softwood 

cuttings in July. Dip cuttings in 1,000 parts per 

million indole-3-butyric acid (IBA) and root 

them in a mixture of peat, perlite, and sand. 

Sow the seed in moist medium at temperatures 

alternating diurnally from 41 to 72 degrees 

Fahrenheit (5 to 22 degrees Celsius).

Seed ripens from August 1 to October 31.

Start plants during late May or early June. The 

seed takes 30 days to germinate.

Keep seed for 6 weeks at 68 degrees Fahrenheit 

(20 degrees Celsius) for 16 hours and 50 degrees 

Fahrenheit (10 degrees Celsius) for 8 hours, 

then reduce the temperatures to 59 degrees 

Link 1993

Rose and others 1998

Link 1993

Weisberg 1993

Link 1993

Densmore and others 1990

Landis and Simonich 1983

Rose and others 1998

Link 1993

Young and Young 1986

Young and Young 1992

Potash and Aubry 1997

Rose and others 1998

Rose and others 1998

Scientific name Propagation 

Common name method References Remarks
Appendix B—Propagation and Establishment of Requirements for Selected Plant Species

285

1a: 48, 8

1

1e

1

1

1

1

1

1

1a

Dicentra formosa

Bleeding heart

Distichlis spicata

 Desert saltgrass

Dodecatheon clevelandii

 Shootingstar

Downingia concolor

 Fringed downingia

Downingia cuspidata

 Toothed downingia

Draba aureola

 Alpine draba

Dryas drummondii

 Yellow dryad

Dyssodia cooperi

Eastwoodia elegans

Eleocharis coloradoensis

 Spikerush

Fahrenheit (15 degrees Celsius) for 16 hours and 

41 degrees Fahrenheit (5 degrees Celsius) for 8 

hours. Sow seed during the fall or spring.

Seed ripens from August through early 

September. Sow seed fresh during late summer 

or fall. Divide rhizomes after the plant has 

flowered.

Desert saltgrass has low seed production. The 

seed germinates best with temperatures of 50 

degrees Fahrenheit (10 degrees Celsius) at night 

and temperatures of 105 degrees Fahrenheit (41 

degrees Celsius) during the day. 

Sow seed thickly directly into the soil. Provide 

ample water. Fringed downingia is an annual. 

Same as Downingia concolor.

Seed ripens from August 1 to 15. 

Seed has about 20-percent germination.

Seed has about 35-percent germination.

Seed should be stored in cold water. 

Link 1993

Rose and others 1998

Young and Young 1986

Young and Young 1986

Young and Young 1986

Schmidt 1980

Schmidt 1980

Weisberg 1993

Link 1993

Young and Young 1992

Young and Young 1992

Young and Young 1986

Scientific name Propagation 

Common name method References Remarks
Appendix B—Propagation and Establishment of Requirements for Selected Plant Species

286

1a: 14

1e

1e

1e, 13

1

1a: 30

1e

1e

1e

1e

Elymus canadensis

 Wild rye

Elymus cinereus

Elymus elymoides

 Bottlebrush squirrel tail

Elymus glaucus

 Blue wild rye

Elymus innovatus

Elymus salinus

Saline wild rye

Elymus triticoides

Encelia spp.

Ephedra californica

Ephedra nevadensis

 Gray ephedra

Seed directly during the spring or fall. Expect 

40- to 60-percent germination. 

Seed ripens from August 1 through October 31. 

Heads shatter, so collect seed during the soft- to 

hard-dough phase or as the heads turn gold. A 

nursery can produce 10 to 50 pounds of seed 

per acre (11 to 56 kilograms per hectare) during 

the first year and 250 to 600 pounds of seed per 

acre (280 to 673 kilograms per hectare) during 

the second year. Plant seed at 10 to 50 pure 

live seeds per foot (30 to 150 pure live seeds 

per meter) or 10 pounds of seeds per acre (11 

kilograms per hectare) if the seeds are drilled. 

Plant 20 pounds of seeds per acre (22 kilograms 

per hectare) if they are broadcast. Sow the seed 

during the fall and cover it lightly with soil and 

mulch.

Seed ripens from July 15 through July 30. 

Expect 30- to 70-percent germination.

Young and Young 1986

Young and Young 1986

Link 1993

Potash and Aubry 1997

Young and Young 1986

Densmore and others 1990

Link 1993

Young and Young 1986

Young and Young 1992

Young and Young 1992

Young and Young 1992

Scientific name Propagation 

Common name method References Remarks
Appendix B—Propagation and Establishment of Requirements for Selected Plant Species

287

1e

1

1, 5

1e

1

1

1

1

Ephedra viridis

 Mormon tea

Epilobium spp.

 Willowherb

Epilobium angustifolium

 Fireweed

Eremocarpus setigerus

 Doveweed

Ericameria bloomeri

 Bloomer rabbitbrush

Erigeron peregrinus

 Subalpine daisy

Eriogonum fasciculatum

 California buckwheat

Eriogonum heermannii

 Zigzag bush

Seed ripens from July 15 to September 1. Store 

seed in the open. Start seed during the spring, 

summer, or fall. Plants take 4 to 6 months to 

grow.

Seed ripens from July 15 to September 30 when 

50 percent or more of the flowering surface 

has fluffed out. Collect the seed during dry 

weather. Cut the entire flower head and store it 

upside down in paper bags to mature. Seed may 

not need to be cleaned. Sow the seed during 

the fall or spring with a seed spreader. Mix 

the seed with three parts medium vermiculite 

and one part fine peat. Root cuttings should 

be 12 to 24 inches (31 to 610 millimeters) 

long. Plant root cuttings directly, about 2 

inches (50 millimeters) deep and 4 inches (100 

millimeters) apart.

Expect germination to be 20 percent or less.

Seed ripens during August. Germination is 

epigeal (the cotyledons are photosynthetic above 

the ground). Considerable dormancy. Low 

viability. 

Landis and Simonich 1983

Shaw 1983

Young and Young 1992

Weisberg 1993

Potash and Aubry 1997

Young and Young 1986

Link 1993

Weisberg 1993

Young and Young 1986

Young and Young 1992

Young and Young 1992

Scientific name Propagation 

Common name method References Remarks
Appendix B—Propagation and Establishment of Requirements for Selected Plant Species

288

1

1a: 48–56

1e

1e

1e

1e

1

1e

1a: 84

1a: 56

1e

Eriogonum inflatum

 Desert trumpet

Eriogonum marifolium

 Wild buckwheat

Eriogonum nudum

Bare stem buckwheat

Eriogonum umbellatum

 Sulfur buckwheat

Eriophyllum 

 confertiflorum

 Golden yarrow

Eriophyllum nevinii

 Catalina silver lace

Erythronium montanum

 Avalanche lily

Eschscholzia spp.

 California poppy

Euonymus occidentalis

 Western burning bush

Euphorbia spp.

Fallugia paradoxa

 Apache plume

Establish plants from seed in a greenhouse. 

Expect 14- to 19-percent germination.

Seed ripens during July and August. Plant 

during the fall in coarse soil. Cover the seed 

with sphagnum moss. Transplant

seedlings into 3-inch (76-millimeter) pots 

during the spring.

Same as Eriogonum nudum.

Eschscholzia will self-seed abundantly.

Sow seed during the spring or during summer 

rains.

Young and Young 1992

Link 1993

Rose and others 1998

Rose and others 1998

Young and Young 1986

Young and Young 1986

Weisberg 1993

Schmidt 1980

Young and Young 1986

Young and Young 1986

Young and Young 1986

Young and Young 1992

Scientific name Propagation 

Common name method References Remarks
Appendix B—Propagation and Establishment of Requirements for Selected Plant Species

289

1a: 5

1

1

1

1a: 112

1

1, 4, 8

1, 4, 8

1, 4, 8

1f: 30–90/60–90

1a: 90, 1e

1c

Festuca spp.

Festuca altaica

Festuca idahoensis

 Idaho fescue

Festuca rubra

 Red fescue

Festuca viridula

 Green fescue

Fouquieria splendens

 Ocotillo

Fragaria spp.

 Strawberry

Fragaria vesca

 Woodland strawberry

Fragaria virginiana

 Broadpetal strawberry

Fraxinus spp.

 Ash

Fraxinus velutina

Arizona ash

Fremontodendron

 californicum

 Flannel bush

Festuca requires light and potassium nitrate 

(KNO3) enrichment.

Seed ripens from June to September. Cold 

stratify the seed before planting it in a 

greenhouse. Transplant the seedlings.

Separate the seed from the fruit by flotation. 

Germination increases after exposure to light 

and a 2- to 3-month period of cold. Cuttings can 

be taken from runners.

Same as Fragaria spp.

Same as Fragaria spp.

Direct seed during the fall or prechill the seed.

Direct seed during the fall. Soak seed in hot 

water.

Young and Young 1986

Densmore and others 1990

Weisberg 1993

Densmore and others 1990

Weisberg 1993

Link 1993

Young and Young 1986

Potash and Aubry 1997

Rose and others 1998

Rose and others 1998

Young and Young 1986

Harris and Leiser 1979

Young and Young 1992

Harris and Leiser 1979

Young and Young 1992

Scientific name Propagation 

Common name method References Remarks
Appendix B—Propagation and Establishment of Requirements for Selected Plant Species

290

1

1e

1e

1a: 30–120, 4

1a: 90

1, 2

1e, 2, 5, 8, 9

1a: 90

1a: 30–120

1e

1e

Fumariaceae

Gaillardia aristate

 Blanketflower

Galvezia speciosa

 Bush snapdragon

Garrya flavescens

 Silk tassel

Garrya fremontii

Garrya ovatifolia

 Slender wintergreen

Garrya shallon

 Salal

Garrya wrightii

Gaultheria hispidula

 Creeping snowberry

Geranium viscosissimum

 Sticky geranium

Geum triflorum

 Prairie smoke

Seed ripens from June through December. 

Macerate the fruit and use flotation to separate 

the seed. Prechill the seed before soaking it in 

100 parts per million of gibberellin.

Seed ripens from June through December.

Berries are ripe during the early fall when they 

are dark blue. Seed is difficult to germinate. 

Take cuttings between August 1 and October 31. 

Cuttings take 10 to 12 weeks to grow.

Collect seed as recommended for Garrya

ovatifolia. The seed has a low germination rate. 

Cuttings take 10 to 14 months to grow. Take 

stem cuttings that are 6 inches (150 millimeters) 

long, cutting just into the cambium. Start 

cuttings in perlite.

Seed requires light to germinate. Sow seed 

during the fall.

Direct plant the seed into containers with a 

mixture of peat and perlite.

Direct plant the seed with a mixture of grass 

and forb seed. Plant the seed in flats for 

transplanting.

Young and Young 1986

Link 1993

Young and Young 1986

Young and Young 1992

Young and Young 1992

Potash and Aubry 1997

Potash and Aubry 1997

Rose and others 1998

Young and Young 1992

Young and Young 1992

Young and Young 1992

Link 1993

Young and Young 1986

Link 1993

Scientific name Propagation 

Common name method References Remarks
Appendix B—Propagation and Establishment of Requirements for Selected Plant Species

291

1

1g

1g

1e, 4

1a: 60

1

1

1e

1a

1e

1e

Gilia spp.

Grayia brandegei

 Spineless hopsage

Grayia spinosa

 Spiny hopsage

Haplopappus parishii

 Parish goldenweed

Hedysarum alpinum

Hedysarum boreale

 Northern sweetvetch

Hedysarum sulfurescens

 Yellow sweetvetch

Helianthella uniflora

 Coneflower helianthella

Helianthus spp.

 Sunflower

Hemizonia spp.

 Tarweed

Heracleum lanatum

 Cow-parsnip

Direct sow the seed during the fall (best) or 

during the early spring.

Stratify the seed at 41 degrees Fahrenheit (5 

degrees Celsius) for 16 hours and at 50 to 86 

degrees Fahrenheit (10 to 30 degrees Celsius) for 

8 hours. 

Same as Grayia brandegei.

Inoculate the seedlings with a solution of root 

nodules.

Prechill seed for 7 to 10 days. Inoculate the 

media with native soil.

Same as Hedysarum boreale.

Direct seed.

Seed ripens during August. Collect seed by 

hand during the late summer after dark stripes 

become evident. No stratification is needed, 

but leach the seed in water for 4 hours before 

planting. Broadcast the seed during the fall.

Schmidt 1980

Young and Young 1992

Young and Young 1992

Young and Young 1992

Densmore and others 1990

Link 1993

Link 1993

Link 1993

Young and Young 1986

Young and Young 1986

Rose and others 1998

Scientific name Propagation 

Common name method References Remarks
Appendix B—Propagation and Establishment of Requirements for Selected Plant Species

292

1e

1e, 13

1e

1e, 4

1a: 90

1

1e

1a: 126, 2, 3

1a: 54–140

Heteromeles arbutifolia

 Christmas berry

Heterotheca villosa

 Hairy golden aster

Heuchera cylindrica

 Roundleaf alumroot

Hibiscus spp.

 Rose mallow

Hieraceum albiflorum

White hawkweed

Hieraceum gracile

 Slender hawkweed

Hilaria jamesii

(See Pleuraphis jamesii)

Hofmeisteria pluriseta

 Arrowleaf

Holodiscus discolor

Oceanspray

Holodiscus dumosus var.

 glabrescens

 Bush oceanspray

Direct seed during the fall.

Direct seed or grow in containers. The timing of 

seed collection is critical. Seed shatters only a 

few days after it is ready.

Some introduced species are invasive.

Collect the seed when half of the flowers are still 

in bloom to avoid confusing this species with 

noxious hawkweeds. Shake the seed into a paper 

sack or collect the entire flower heads. Sow the 

seed during the fall, or stratify the seed and sow 

it during the spring.

Seed ripens from September 1 to November 

30 when it is no longer green. It drops soon 

afterward. Look for dark brown flower heads. 

If the flower heads are grey-brown, the seed 

probably has dropped already. Shake the seed 

into a bucket. Seed viability and germination are 

low. Sow the seed during the fall.

Dry the seed well before rubbing it by hand and 

sieving it. 

Harris and Leiser 1979

Young and Young 1992

Link 1993

Link 1993

Young and Young 1992

Potash and Aubry 1997

Weisberg 1993

Young and Young 1992

Potash and Aubry 1997

Rose and others 1998

Young and Young 1992

Link 1993

Scientific name Propagation 

Common name method References Remarks
Appendix B—Propagation and Establishment of Requirements for Selected Plant Species

293

1e

1e

1e

8

1e

1a: 156, 1e

1

1, 8

1d then a: 120, 1e,

9 (summer),

cuttings of prostrate 

forms

Hordeum brachyantherum

 Meadow barley

Hymenoclea salsola

 White burrowbush

Ipomopsis aggregata

 Scarlet gilia

Iris spp.

Isomeris arborea

 Bladder-pod

Juglans californica

 hindsii

 California black walnut

Juncus mertensianus

 Merten’s rush

Juncus parryi

Parry’s rush

Juniperus spp.

 Juniper

Seed ripens during the late summer. Sow fresh 

seed during the fall at a depth of two times the 

seed height in a mixture of sand, pumice, and 

peat (1:1:1). Place the containers in a cold frame.

Fruit ripens during the summer. Plant the seed 

into flats. Keep the flats moist. Few plants were 

produced by direct seeding. Stratifying the seed 

did not improve germination. 

Direct seed during the fall.

Direct seed during the fall or prechill the seed 

and sow it during the spring.

Take divisions in January. Use Vitamin B1. 

Keep divisions in a cold frame for 7 days before 

moving them to a lathhouse. Plant divisions no 

deeper than the crown. Divisions will die if they 

are planted too deep. 

Use flotation to separate the seed from the 

fruit. Direct sow the seed during the fall. 

Take cuttings during the late fall or winter by 

stripping growing tips that are 2 to 6 inches (50 

to 150 millimeters) long from older branches, 

leaving the “heel” (a small piece of old wood). 

Use indole-3-butyric acid (IBA). The rooting 

medium should be medium-coarse sand 

or a 10:1 mixture of perlite and peat moss. 

Apply high humidity and intense light. Apply 

bottom heat of 65 degrees Fahrenheit (18 

Rose and others 1998

Young and Young 1986

Link 1993

Rose and others 1998

Weisberg 1993

Harris and Leiser 1979

Harris and Leiser 1979

Young and Young 1992

Weisberg 1993

Link 1993

Hartmann and others 1990

Weisberg 1993

Young and Young 1986

Scientific name Propagation 

Common name method References Remarks
Appendix B—Propagation and Establishment of Requirements for Selected Plant Species

294

1f: 90/90, 2, 3

1a: 30–60

1f: 30/60

1f: 60/40

9 (summer)

1

1e

1a: 20–60, 1e

1a: 21, 1e

Juniperus communis

 Mountain juniper

Juniperus occidentalis

 Western juniper

Juniperus osteosperma

 Utah juniper

Juniperus scopulorum

 Rocky Mountain juniper

Kalmia latifolia

Kochia americana

 Red molly

Koeleria cristata

 Junegrass

Larix spp.

Larix laricina

 Tamarack

degrees Celsius) for 6 weeks before raising the 

temperature to 70 to 75 degrees Fahrenheit (21 

to 24 degrees Celsius) to encourage rooting.

Sow seed during the fall or spring. Cover the 

seed with a layer of firm soil or sand.

Stratify seed at 34 to 41 degrees Fahrenheit (1 to 

5 degrees Celsius). 

Seed ripens between September 1 and December 

30. Start during the spring or summer. Plants 

take 12 to 16 months to grow.

Direct seeding is not recommended. Transplant 

seedlings to an extremely arid and saline 

alkaline environment. Will naturalize.

Seed is produced during the second year.

Treat the seed with fungicide to protect it from 

rust. Plant seed during the fall from 0.2 to 0.4 

inch (5 to 10 millimeters) deep. Cover the seed 

with sawdust. 

Most larch species germinate fairly well

without pretreating the seed.

Stratify the seed at 37 to 41 degrees Fahrenheit 

(3 to 5 degrees Celsius). 

Weisberg 1993

Rose and others 1998

Young and Young 1992

Young and Young 1992

Young and Young 1992

Landis and Simonich 1983

Shaw 1983

Young and Young 1992

Weisberg 1993

Young and Young 1992

Rose and others 1998

Young and Young 1986

Young and Young 1992

Scientific name Propagation 

Common name method References Remarks
Appendix B—Propagation and Establishment of Requirements for Selected Plant Species

295

1b

1a: 18, 1e

1b

1b

1e

1

1, 3

1

1e

1

1a: 30–60

Larix lyalli

 Subalpine larch

Larix occidentalis

 Western larch

Larrea tridentata

 Creosote bush

Lathyrus spp.

 Wild pea

Lavatera assurgentiflora

 Malva rose

Layia spp.

Ledum glandulosum

 Western Labrador tea

Lepidium fremontii

 Bush peppergrass

Lepidospartum

 squamatum

 Scalebroom

Leptarrhena pyrolifolia

 Leatherleaf saxifrage

Libocedrus decurrens

 Incense cedar

Soak the seed for 24 hours in a 3-percent 

solution of hydrogen peroxide.

Pick cones from trees when they are ripe and 

dry. Open cones with heat by putting them 

where they are exposed to the sun or in a kiln 

or heated room. Sow the seed during the fall 

or spring about 0.2 inch (5 millimeters) deep. 

Mulch.

Collect ripe fruit during the spring and early 

summer. Dehull the seed.

Treat the seed with hot water.

Requires afterripening and light. Seed 

germinates in 2 weeks.

Cuttings taken in mid-December will root well.

Very dormant seed. No germination

 procedures have been developed.

Young and Young 1986

Rose and others 1998

Young and Young 1992

Young and Young 1992

Young and Young 1986

Young and Young 1986

Young and Young 1986

Schmidt 1980

Link 1993

Young and Young 1992

Young and Young 1986

Young and Young 1986

Weisberg 1993

Young and Young 1986

Scientific name Propagation 

Common name method References Remarks
Appendix B—Propagation and Establishment of Requirements for Selected Plant Species

296

5, 8

1

1a: 60, 2, 4, 8

1b

1b

1e

1a: 60–90, 3, 4

1a: 45–60, 2, 3, 4

1b

Lilium spp.

 Lily

Linanthus spp.

Linnaea borealis

 Twinflower

Linum grandiflorum

 Flowering flax

Linum perenne lewisii

 Wild blue flax

Lithocarpus densiflorus

 Tanbark-oak

Lonicera spp.

Lonicera involucrata

 Bush honeysuckle

 (Bearberry honeysuckle)

Lotus spp.

Sow seed during the fall. Cover the seed with 

branches to prevent birds from eating the seed. 

Cuttings will grow in 8 to 10 months. Plant 

the seed during the fall. If seed will be planted 

during the spring, stratify it at 34 degrees 

Fahrenheit (1 degree Celsius).

Germinate the seed without light.

Same as Linum grandiflorum.

Direct seed during the fall.

Use flotation to separate the seed from the fruit. 

Direct sow the seed during the fall 1⁄4 inch (6 

millimeters) deep and apply mulch or incubate 

the sown seed at 20 to 30 degrees Celsius.

About 15 percent of the seed will mature to the 

seedling stage. Most species can be propagated 

from hardwood cuttings taken during the spring. 

Take leafy softwood cuttings during the summer 

and grow them under mist.

Cuttings have been very successful. Growth that 

was 1 year old and older rooted well without 

hormone treatment. If you are propagating from 

seed, sow the seed during the fall or stratify the 

seed for a long time. 

Hot-water treatment is recommended, but it will 

reduce the seed’s viability.

Young and Young 1986

Schmidt 1980

Potash and Aubry 1997

Rose and others 1998

Young and Young 1986

Young and Young 1986

Harris and Leiser 1979

Young and Young 1992

Hartmann and others 1990

Young and Young 1992

Link 1993

Rose and others 1998

Young and Young 1986

Scientific name Propagation 

Common name method References Remarks
Appendix B—Propagation and Establishment of Requirements for Selected Plant Species

297

1, 2, 8

1c

1c

1b, 1d

1

1

1b, 3

1b

1b

Luetkea pectinata

 Partridgefoot

Lupinus albifrons

 White-leaf lupine

Lupinus arboreus

Lupinus arcticus

Lupinus covillei

Lupinus elmeri

 Dwarf lupine

Lupinus latifolius

 Broadleafed lupine

Lupinus lepidus

 Prairie lupine

Lupinus sericeus

 Silky lupine

Seed ripens from August 1 to September 30.

Seed drops quickly. Flower heads can be cut 

when the fruits are red. The heads can be stored 

in open paper bags until they are ripe.

Cuttings should be larger diameter.

Soak seed in hot water. Direct seed during the 

fall. This plant fixes nitrogen.

Same as Lupinus albifrons.

Inoculate seedlings with a solution of root 

nodules. Greenhouse pathogens may infect these 

plants. 

No treatment needed for fresh seed. Scarify 

dried seed or treat the seed with hot water.

Same as Lupinus covillei.

Seed ripens from June 1 to September 31. The 

pods explode. Cut the entire flower head when 

the lower pods are grayish tan. Seed takes 

2 weeks to ripen. Sow the fresh seeds with 

no treatment. Stored seed should be abraded 

or soaked for 1 to 16 hours in boiling water. 

Inoculate with root nodules. Take cuttings from 

the side shoots of hardened stems during the 

spring.

Soaking seed in hot water may soften the seed 

coat.

Seed should be inoculated with the appropriate 

Rhizobium. Direct seeding is best for silky 

lupine, which should not be handled any more 

than necessary.

Potash and Aubry 1997

Harris and Leiser 1979

Young and Young 1992

Harris and Leiser 1979

Densmore and others 1990

Link 1993

Link 1993

Potash and Aubry 1997

Rose and others 1998

Link 1993

Link 1993

Scientific name Propagation 

Common name method References Remarks
Appendix B—Propagation and Establishment of Requirements for Selected Plant Species

298

1

1

1e

1

1

1e

1a, 1e, 8, 9, 10 

(summer)

1c then 1a: 90, 2, 4, 9

1e or 1a: 45

1a: 42, 2, 4

Luzula campestris

 Field woodrush

Luzula parviflora

 Small-flowered woodrush

Lycium andersonii

 Anderson’s wolfberry

Lysimachia ciliata

 Fringed loosestrife

Machaeranthera

Tansyaster

Madia spp.

 Tarweed

Mahonia spp.

 Oregon grape

Mahonia aquifolium

 Shining Oregon grape

Mahonia fremontii

 Desert barberry

Mahonia nervosa

 Oregon grape

Seed requires light for germination.

Tansyaster seeds germinate better after 

receiving 2 weeks cool, moist treatment.

Separate the seed from the fruit by flotation.

Seeds ripen during July and August. Macerate 

the fruit and separate the seed using flotation. 

Sow the seed immediately or stratify the seed 

and sow it during the spring. Heeled, nodal, and 

basal cuttings can be taken into the fall. Shining 

Oregon grape is susceptible to fungus, root rot, 

and mildew.

Although it is best to separate the seed from the 

fruit, entire berries can be planted. 

Macerate the fruit and separate the seed using 

flotation. Sow seed immediately into a mixture 

Weisberg 1993

Weisberg 1993

Young and Young 1992

Young and Young 1986

Young and Young 1986

Young and Young 1986

Hartmann and others 1990

Young and Young 1992

Weisberg 1993

Rose and others 1998

Hartmann and others 1990 

Link 1993

Rose and others 1998

Scientific name Propagation 

Common name method References Remarks
Appendix B—Propagation and Establishment of Requirements for Selected Plant Species

299

1f: 30 cold/60 

warm/196 cold, 4, 9

1, 5

1a, 1e

1e

1a: 80

1e

1e

8

1

Mahonia repens

 Creeping Oregon grape

Maiathemum dilatatum

 False lily-of-the-valley

Malus spp.

 Apple

Melica harfordii

 Harford’s melic

Melica spectabilis

 Onion grass

Menodora scabra

 Rough menodora

Mentzelia laevicaulis

 Blazing star

Menyanthes trifoliata

 Bog buckbean

Mertensia paniculata

of soil and sand. Stratify the seed at 39 degrees 

Fahrenheit (4 degrees Celsius) and sow it 

during the spring. For cuttings, see Mahonia 

aquifolium.

Stratify seed at 34 degrees Fahrenheit (1 degree 

Celsius) and 68 degrees Fahrenheit (20 degrees 

Celsius) or at 36 degrees Fahrenheit (2 degrees 

Celsius) for 16 weeks in gibberellin. Seed can be 

sown directly during the fall.

Berries ripen from July 15 to September 30.

Plant whole berries. Seed takes 2 years to 

germinate.

Sow untreated seed in the fall, or prechill the 

seed for planting during the spring.

Plant the seed about 0.25 to 0.4 inch (6 to 10 

millimeters) deep during the fall. Cover the 

seed with sawdust. No fungal problems were 

reported.

Seed needs to be stratified at 32 degrees 

Fahrenheit (0 degrees Celsius) for 80 days. 

Direct seed.

Rose and others 1998

Potash and Aubry 1997

Young and Young 1992

Rose and others 1998

Link 1993

Young and Young 1992

Young and Young 1986

Weisberg 1993

Densmore and others 1990

Scientific name Propagation 

Common name method References Remarks
Appendix B—Propagation and Establishment of Requirements for Selected Plant Species

300

1e

1e

1e

1a: 84, 1e

1

1a: 30–90

1a: 84

1c, 1g

1a: 60–120, 2

1e

1e

1, 4, 9

Mimulus lewisii

 Pink monkey-flower

Monardella lanceolata

 Mustang mint

Monardella macrantha

Monardella odoratissima

Myosotis alpestris

Myrica californica

 Pacific bayberry

Myrica hartwegii

 Sierra sweet bay

Nama lobbii

 Woolly nama

Oemleria cerasiformis

 Indian plum or osoberry

Oenothera hookeri

 Evening primrose

Olneya tesota

 Desert ironwood

Oplopanax horridum

 Devil’s club

No treatment necessary for fresh seed. Dry 

seed requires stratification.

Sow seed during the fall or prechill the seed.

Leach seeds under mist, then soak them in

gibberellin. Remove embryos from seed coat.

Stored seed should be scarified mildly and 

soaked for at least 24 hours before planting. 

Seed ripens from July 1 to September 31, about 

4 weeks after flowering. The seed is shed 

quickly once the bright red fruit begins fading to 

brown. Cuttings should be about 6 inches (150 

millimeters) long. Propagation is slow by all 

methods.

Weisberg 1993

Young and Young 1986

Young and Young 1986

Young and Young 1986

Young and Young 1986

Densmore and others 1990

Young and Young 1992

Young and Young 1986

Young and Young 1992

Weisberg 1993

Young and Young 1992

Young and Young 1986

Young and Young 1992

Potash and Aubry 1997

Rose and others 1998

Scientific name Propagation 

Common name method References Remarks
Appendix B—Propagation and Establishment of Requirements for Selected Plant Species

301

1d

1d

1e

1e, 8

1b, 1d

1b, 1d

1e

2, 9

1a: 84

1b

1b

Opuntia spp.

 Prickly pear

Oryzopsis hymenoides

 Indian ricegrass

Osmaronia cerasiformis

(See Oemleria 

cerasiformis)

Osmorhiza occidentalis

 Sweet anise

Oxalis oregana

 Wood sorrel

Oxytropis campestris

Oxytropis deflexa

Oxytropis splendens

 Showy locoweed

Pachystima myrsinites

 Oregon boxwood

Paeonia brownii

Panicum dichotomiflorum

Panicum obtusum

Soak the seed for 30 to 60 minutes in sulfuric 

acid.

Seed ripens during August and September.

Collect the seed by hand. Plant seed directly 

during the fall about 1⁄4 inch (6 millimeters) 

deep.

Plant seeds into flats and keep them moist.

Mature rhizomes can be divided during the 

early spring and replanted about 1⁄2 inch (13 

millimeters) deep.

Inoculate the seedlings with a solution of root 

nodules.

Same as Oxytropis campestris.

Collect cuttings from August 15 to September 

15. Rooting hormone is required. Start the 

cuttings in a mixture of perlite and vermiculite.

Scarify seed with acid.

Scarify seed with acid for 90 minutes. Enrich 

the planting medium with potassium nitrate 

(KNO3).

Young and Young 1986

Young and Young 1986

Rose and others 1998

Weisberg 1993

Rose and others 1998

Densmore and others 1990

Densmore and others 1990

Link 1993

Potash and Aubry 1997

Rose and others 1998

Young and Young 1986

Young and Young 1986

Young and Young 1986

Scientific name Propagation 

Common name method References Remarks
Appendix B—Propagation and Establishment of Requirements for Selected Plant Species

302

1a: 28–56, 2

1a: 30

1a: 30

1a: 30

1a, 5

1a: 90

1

1e, 8

Penstemon spp.

 Beardstongue

Penstemon albertinus

 Albert penstemon

Penstemon confertus

 Yellow penstemon

Penstemon lyallii

 Lyall penstemon

Penstemon procerus

 Small-flowered 

 penstemon

Pentaphylloides

 floribunda

(See Dasiphora fruticosa)

Peraphyllum

 ramosissimum

 Squaw apple

Petalonyx thurberi

Petesites frigidus

 Coltsfoot

Sow seed during the fall or stratify the seed.

Soak the seed in water for 24 hours, then freeze 

the seed for 30 days. 

Same as Penstemon albertinus.

Same as Penstemon albertinus.

Seed ripens during mid-August. Requires 

stratification at 68 degrees Fahrenheit (20 

degrees Celsius) in the light and 86 degrees 

Fahrenheit (30 degrees Celsius) in the dark. 

Sow seed 0.08 inch (2 millimeters) deep during 

March. Keep the flats at 59 degrees Fahrenheit 

(15 degrees Celsius) for transplanting outdoors 

during May. Take cuttings from nodes during 

August. Place the cuttings in sandy soil in a cold 

frame.

Good seed is difficult to collect. Germination 

increases after seed has been stored.

Seed ripens from May 15 to June 15 when the 

flower heads are opening. Shake the seed into 

a bag or collect the entire flower head. Dry the 

seed carefully. Sow the seed immediately. It 

cannot be stored.

Weisberg 1993

Link 1993

Young and Young 1986

Link 1993

Link 1993

Link 1993

Rose and others 1998

Young and Young 1992

Young and Young 1992

Weisberg 1993

Potash and Aubry 1997

Scientific name Propagation 

Common name method References Remarks
Appendix B—Propagation and Establishment of Requirements for Selected Plant Species

303

1

1e

1a

1a: 56, 4

1a: 7

2, 8

1a: 56, 2

Peucephyllum scottii

 Pigmy cedar

Phacelia hastata

 Silverleaf phacelia

Phalaris arundinacea

 Reed canarygrass

Philadelphus lewisii

 Mock orange

Phleum alpinum

 Alpine timothy

Phlox diffusa

 Phlox

Photinia arbutifolia

(See Heteromeles

arbutifolia)

Phyllodoce breweri

 Red mountain heather

Germination increases if the seed is stored.

Fall seeding is recommended.

The seed requires light to germinate. Reed 

canarygrass was native at the time of settlement, 

but is more widely distributed now as a cultivar. 

It is invasive.

Stratify the seed at 41 degrees Fahrenheit (5 

degrees Celsius) and 72 to 79 degrees Fahrenheit 

(22 to 26 degrees Celsius). Take softwood 

cuttings during June and July. Dip the cuttings 

in 1,000 parts per million indole-3-butyric acid 

(IBA) and stick them in a mixture of peat and 

perlite. Hardwood cuttings, about 8 inches (200 

millimeters) long, can be taken during the fall 

or spring. Treat the cuttings with 2,500 to 8,000 

parts per million IBA and plant them 6 inches 

(150 millimeters) deep in sandy soil. Plant the 

cuttings during the fall and apply mulch.

Collect seed during August and September.

Sow the seed during the fall or direct seed in 

April.

Plants are propagated by division in the nursery 

trade.

Keep the seed at 35 degrees Fahrenheit 

(2 degrees Celsius) for 2 months in moist 

Young and Young 1992

Link 1993

Young and Young 1986

Young and Young 1986

Rose and others 1998

Young and Young 1992

Weisberg 1993

Link 1993

Rose and others 1998

Weisberg 1993

Link 1993

Young and Young 1986

Link 1993

Scientific name Propagation 

Common name method References Remarks
Appendix B—Propagation and Establishment of Requirements for Selected Plant Species

304

1, 2

1, 3, 4

1, 3, 4, 5

1a: 21, 1e

1a: 16

1a: 16

1a: 16

1a: 30, 1e

Phyllodoce empetriformis

 Pink mountain heather

Physocarpus capitatus

 Pacific ninebark

Physocarpus malvaceus

 Mallow ninebark

Picea spp.

 Spruce

Picea breweriana

 Brewer spruce

Picea engelmannii

 Engelmann spruce

Picea pungens

 Colorado blue spruce

Picea sitchensis

 Sitka spruce

vermiculite inside a sealed plastic bag. Results 

have been poor when red mountain heather has 

been propagated from cuttings. 

Seed ripens from September 1 until the first 

snowfall. When the capsule is purplish-black, 

cut the branch tip with capsules and store it 

upside down in a paper bag. Seeds look like 

yellow dust. See additional information in 

appendix C.

Seed ripens during August and September. Sow 

seed during the fall. Hardwood cuttings root 

better than softwood cuttings. Store the cuttings 

in sawdust and stick them into sand during late 

winter or early spring.

Plant seed in containers during the fall or during 

the spring after seed has been chilled for 30 

days. Mallow ninebark also can be propagated 

from root cuttings and rhizomes. 

Do not sow Engelmann or blue spruce seed 

during the fall. Some species germinate better if 

the seed receives mild prechilling.

Light is required for seed to germinate. 

Excessive moisture reduces survival. Use 

potassium nitrate (KNO3) enrichment if the seed 

is dormant.

Store seed at a constant temperature of 68 to 77 

degrees Fahrenheit (20 to 25 degrees Celsius). 

Seed will germinate better if it has been 

stratified. Sow seed 0.2 inch (5 millimeters) 

deep during the spring. Apply mulch. More

than 8 hours of light may be beneficial.

Potash and Aubry 1997

Rose and others 1998

Young and Young 1992

Link 1993

Rose and others 1998

Young and Young 1992

Young and Young 1992

Young and Young 1992

Young and Young 1992

Rose and others 1998

Young and Young 1992

Scientific name Propagation 

Common name method References Remarks
Appendix B—Propagation and Establishment of Requirements for Selected Plant Species

305

1a: 60–252

1a: 90–120

1a: 60

1a: 20–30

1e

1a: 90

1a: 0–60

1a: 60–90

1a: 28–90

1a: 30–120

Pinus spp.

Pinus albicaulis

 Whitebark pine

Pinus attenuata

 Knobcone pine

Pinus contorta

 Lodgepole pine

Pinus coulteri

 Coulter pine

Pinus flexilis

 White pine

Pinus jeffreyi

 Jeffrey pine

Pinus lambertiana

 Sugar pine

Pinus monophylla

 Single-leaf pinyon

Pinus monticola

 Western white pine

Soak the seed in water for 1 to 2 days, then

stratify. Some species require a long 

stratification.

Collect cones when they turn dull purple to

brown. Cones takes 15 to 30 days to dry and 

open. Stratify the seed by soaking it in water for 

1 to 2 days before placing it in moist medium at 

41 degrees Fahrenheit (5 degrees Celsius). Seed 

germinates poorly, but a small cut in the seed 

coat improves germination. Sow seed during the 

late fall or early spring, planting it 1⁄2 inch (13 

millimeters) deep. 

Plant fresh seed directly or chill the seed before 

planting. 

Same as Pinus attenuata.

Direct seed during the fall.

Soak the seed for 48 hours in water. Seed 

takes 90 days to germinate at 37 to 41 degrees 

Fahrenheit (3 to 5 degrees Celsius) in a moist 

mixture of peat and sand. 

Direct seed during the fall or chill the seed 

before planting. 

Same as Pinus jeffreyi.

Seed takes 8 to 12 months to grow.

Direct seed during the fall or chill the seed 

before planting.

Young and Young 1986

Rose and others 1998

Young and Young 1992

Young and Young 1992

Harris and Leiser 1979

Link 1993

Young and Young 1992

Young and Young 1992

Young and Young 1992

Landis and Simonich 1983

Young and Young 1992

Scientific name Propagation 

Common name method References Remarks
Appendix B—Propagation and Establishment of Requirements for Selected Plant Species

306

1a: 30–40, 5, grafting

1a: 0–7

1e

1, 13

1e

1e

1a: 14

1e

1e

1, 8

8

Pinus ponderosa

 Ponderosa pine

Pinus radiata

 Monterey pine

Pleuraphis jamesii

Poa alpina

Poa fendleriana

 Mutton grass

Poa nervosa

 Wheeler bluegrass

Poa scabrella

 Pine bluegrass

Poa secunda

 Sandberg bluegrass

Polemonium occidentale

 Jacob’s Ladder

Polygonum newberryi

 Newberry’s fleece flower

Polystichum munitum

Sword fern

Cold stratify stored seed. Sow seed during the 

late fall or spring about 0.2 inch (5 millimeters) 

deep. 

Seed ripens from June to September. Prechill 

the seed before planting. Use potassium nitrate 

(KNO3) and light for good germination. Keep 

temperature at 84 degrees Fahrenheit (29 

degrees Celsius). Sow the seed in a mixture of 

peat and vermiculite (1:1). Grow for 3 months.

Seed ripens during early summer. Plant the seed 

during the fall. Stratify at 54 degrees Fahrenheit 

(12 degrees Celsius) for 16 hours and 63 degrees 

Fahrenheit (17 degrees Celsius) for 8 hours. Do 

not plant the seed deeper than 1.2 inches (30 

millimeters) in clay loam or sandy soil.

Divide sections of large root crowns with at least 

one visible bud. Seeding may be impractical due 

to limited availability of seed.

Rose and others 1998

Young and Young 1992

Young and Young 1986

Densmore and others 1990

Link 1993

Link 1993

Rose and others 1998

Rose and others 1998

Link 1993

Weisberg 1993

Link 1993

Weisberg 1993

Scientific name Propagation 

Common name method References Remarks
Appendix B—Propagation and Establishment of Requirements for Selected Plant Species

307

1, 3, 4, 5

1, 2

3, 4, 5

1, 5

1e, 2, 4

1

1

8

Populus spp.

Populus angustifolia

 Narrowleaf cottonwood

Populus deltoides

 Eastern cottonwood

Populus tremuloides

 Quaking aspen

Populus trichocarpa

 Black cottonwood

Porophyllum spp.

Potentilla arguta

 White cinquefoil

Potentilla anserina

 Cinquefoil

The seedlings are susceptible to drying, the 

washing action of rain or irrigation, and to 

damping off by fungi. A substrate that supplies 

moisture is critical for seedlings. Softwood and 

hardwood cuttings root readily. Take 12-inch 

(300-millimeter) cuttings from dormant 1-yearold wood. 

Start seed during the summer. Seedlings take 3 

to 4 months to grow.

See Populus spp.

Seed ripens from May to mid-June. Dry seed 

for 3 days at 75 degrees Fahrenheit (24 degrees 

Celsius). Sow seed on the surface of a moist 

seedbed at 59 to 77 degrees Fahrenheit (15 to 25 

degrees Celsius). Start seed during the spring 

or summer. Seedlings take 3 to 4 months to 

grow. To propagate by rooting, collect lateral 

roots when the plant is dormant during early 

spring. Roots should be 0.4 to 0.8 inch (10 to 

20 millimeters) in diameter and 1 inch (25 

millimeters) long. Root in vermiculite for 6 

weeks. 

Seed ripens from May 15 to July 15 when 

capsules begin to open. Sow seed immediately, 

or dry the seed and store it. Cuttings should be 

1 foot (310 millimeters) long or longer and from 

1⁄2 to 1 inch (13 to 25 millimeters) in diameter. 

Cuttings can be rooted in water.

Low seed viability. Storage increases viability 

slightly.

Weisberg 1993

Young and Young 1992

Landis and Simonich 1983

Young and Young 1992

Young and Young 1992

Landis and Simonich 1983

Rose and others 1998

Potash and Aubry 1997

Rose and others 1998

Young and Young 1992

Link 1993

Weisberg 1993

Scientific name Propagation 

Common name method References Remarks
Appendix B—Propagation and Establishment of Requirements for Selected Plant Species

308

1

1

1

1

1a: 90–126, 1e, 4, 9

1e

1a: 90

1a: 120–160, 4, 5

1a

1a: 30–40, 3

Potentilla anserina

 Silverweed cinquefoil

Potentilla flabellifolia

 Fan-leaf cinquefoil

Potentilla glandulosa

 Sticky cinquefoil

Potentilla gracilis

 Northwest cinquefoil

Prunus emarginata

 Bitter cherry

Prunus ilicifolia

 Holly leaf cherry

Prunus subcordata

 Klamath plum

Prunus virginiana

 Choke cherry

Pseudotsuga macrocarpa

 Bigcone Douglas-fir

Pseudotsuga menziesii

 Douglas-fir

Direct seed during the fall, early enough to 

allow the seed to afterripen in the presence 

of oxygen and moisture before the ground 

freezes. The seed can be stratified at 41 degrees 

Fahrenheit (5 degrees Celsius) in a mixture of 

sand and peat before sowing during the spring. 

Direct seed during the fall.

Same as Prunus ilicifolia.

Seedlings take 3 to 5 months to grow.

Bigcone Douglas-fir is native to coastal 

California. It is difficult to germinate.

Collect cones from August to October when they 

are brownish purple. Use heat to dry the cones 

and open them. Sow the seed during the fall and 

allow it to stratify naturally over the winter or 

Link 1993

Weisberg 1993

Link 1993

Link 1993

Young and Young 1992

Rose and others 1998

Harris and Leiser 1979

Young and Young 1992

Landis and Simonich 1983

Rose and others 1998

Young and Young 1986

Rose and others 1998

Young and Young 1992

Scientific name Propagation 

Common name method References Remarks
Appendix B—Propagation and Establishment of Requirements for Selected Plant Species

309

1e

5

1

1a: 21–28

1a: 60–90, 4, 11

1e

1a: 0–60

Psilostrophe spp.

Pteridium aquilinum

Bracken fern

Ptilagrostis kingii

 King’s ricegrass

Purshia glandulosa

 Desert bitterbrush

Purshia tridentata

 Antelope bitterbrush

Pyrus spp.

(See Malus spp.)

Quercus agrifolia

 Coast live oak

Quercus chrysolepis

stratify the seed at 32 to 39 degrees Fahrenheit 

(0 to 4 degrees Celsius). Take cuttings from 

trees 9 to 12 years old or younger. 

The seed of Psilostrophe has poor rates of 

germination. Seed stored 1 year lost all viability.

Collect rhizomes and plant them on the site 

during the fall.

Keep seed moist and maintain temperatures of 

65 to 70 degrees Fahrenheit (18 to 21 degrees 

Celsius) for germination.

Stratify seed at 32 to 41 degrees Fahrenheit (0 to 

5 degrees Celsius). 

Seed ripens from June 25 to August 15. Treat 

seed with Captan or with 3-percent hydrogen 

peroxide for 5 hours to enhance germination. 

Plant seed during the fall. Seedlings take 

4 to 8 months to grow. To propagate with 

cuttings, collect cuttings that are 4 inches (100 

millimeters) long during June. Root cuttings 

in a mixture of sand, pumice, and vermiculite. 

To propagate by layering, bend a branch into 

a small hole beside the plants, keeping the tip 

of the branch vertical and above the soil level. 

Cover with soil. This plant fixes nitrogen. 

Direct seed during the fall.

Young and Young 1992

Potash and Aubry 1997

Link 1993

Young and Young 1992

Landis and Simonich 1983

Shaw 1983

Rose and others 1998

Young and Young 1992

Harris and Leiser 1979

Young and Young 1992

Scientific name Propagation 

Common name method References Remarks
Appendix B—Propagation and Establishment of Requirements for Selected Plant Species

310

1e

1a: 30–90

1e

1

1e

1a: 30–45, 1e

1e

1e, 3, 4

1e, 3, 4

1e, 3, 4

1e, 1a: 90–115, 3, 4, 9

Quercus douglasii

 Blue oak

Quercus dumosa

 Scrub oak

Quercus durata

 Leather-leaf oak

Quercus gambelii

 Gambel oak

Quercus garryana

 Oregon white oak

Quercus kelloggii

 California black oak

Quercus lobata

 Valley oak

Rhamnus alnifolia

 Alder buckthorn

Rhamnus californica

 California buckthorn

Rhamnus crocea

 Redberry

Rhamnus purshiana

 Cascara buckthorn

Direct seed during the fall.

Direct seed during the fall.

Direct seed during the fall.

Start seed during the fall. Seedlings take 6 to 8 

months to grow.

Soak fresh acorns overnight. Plant the acorns 1⁄2 

inch (13 millimeters) deep during the fall. Fresh 

acorns germinate rapidly.

Direct seed during the fall. Plant seed 

immediately or store the seed and stratify it 

at 34 to 41 degrees Fahrenheit (1 to 5 degrees 

Celsius) before planting the seed during the 

spring.

Direct seed during the fall.

Direct seed during the fall.

Direct seed during the fall.

Direct seed during the fall.

Seed ripens from July through September. 

Pick fruit before it is fully ripe. Macerate the 

fruit and separate the seed using flotation. 

Harris and Leiser 1979

Young and Young 1992

Harris and Leiser 1979

Young and Young 1992

Harris and Leiser 1979

Landis and Simonich 1983

Rose and others 1998

Young and Young 1992

Harris and Leiser 1979

Rose and others 1998

Young and Young 1992

Harris and Leiser 1979

Young and Young 1992

Harris and Leiser 1979

Young and Young 1992

Young and Young 1992

Rose and others 1998

Young and Young 1992

Scientific name Propagation 

Common name method References Remarks
Appendix B—Propagation and Establishment of Requirements for Selected Plant Species

311

1e, 9, 11 (spring/

summer)

5, 9

1, 4, 7, 9

5

1a: 30–90, 1d

1d, 5

Rhododendron spp.

Rhododendron albiflorum

 White-flowered

 rhododendron

Rhododendron

 macrophyllum

 Pacific rhododendron

Rhus spp.

Rhus aromatica

 Fragrant sumac

Rhus glabra

 Smooth sumac

Plant seed during the fall or stratify seed at 

34 to 41 degrees Fahrenheit (1 to 5 degrees 

Celsius) before sowing it during the spring. 

Take hardwood cuttings during September and 

October. Propagate by layering during the early 

spring. 

Seed needs light to germinate.

Most rhododendrons do not require prechilling 

or scarification, but they do need light to 

germinate. 

Collect the seed as soon as the fruit loses its 

color. Mix seed with fungicide and sow on a 

mixture of peat and perlite. Cover the flat with 

glass or plastic. Or sow the seed on screened 

coarse peat, leaving the flat uncovered while 

providing bottom heat. Treat with fungicide 

weekly. The seed needs light to germinate. Take 

stem cuttings from current growth from May 

to September. Soak 1.5 to 3 inches (38 to 76 

millimeters) of the cutting in benomyl. Wound 

lower 0.4 to 0.8 inch (10 to 20 millimeters) of 

the cutting to expose the cambium. Dip the 

cutting into 0.1- to 1.6-percent indole-3-butyric 

acid (IBA). Root in a mixture of peat and perlite. 

Apply bottom heat. When the root ball is 1.2 

to 2 inches (30 to 50 millimeters) in diameter, 

transplant cuttings to a mixture of sawdust and 

peat. Move the cuttings outdoors to harden them 

during the early summer. 

Scarify the seed with acid or hot water to break 

the hard seed coat.

Pick the fruit late in the year. Soak seed in 

sulfuric acid for 1 to 3 hours. Keep seed in 

continuous light at a temperature of 68 degrees 

Weisberg 1993

Young and Young 1992

Rose and others 1998

Weisberg 1993

Rose and others 1998

Weisberg 1993

Young and Young 1992

Rose and others 1998

Young and Young 1992

Scientific name Propagation 

Common name method References Remarks
Appendix B—Propagation and Establishment of Requirements for Selected Plant Species

312

1a: 30–90, 1d

1, 2, 3, 5, 10 (spring)

1a: 84–119, 1b, 3

1a: 120, 3

1a: 120–200, 1d, 3, 9

1a

1a

1b, 5

1, 2, 3, 4, 9, 12 

Rhus trilobata

 Skunkbush sumac

Ribes spp.

Ribes cereum

 Squaw currant

Ribes erythrocarpum

 Crater Lake currant

Ribes lacustre

 Black gooseberry

Ribes montigenum

 Sierra gooseberry

Ribes viscosissimum

 Sticky currant

Robinia spp.

 Locust

Rosa spp.

 Wildrose

Fahrenheit (20 degrees Celsius) to promote 

germination. Sow the seed during the spring.

Seed ripens from June 20 to October 10. Start 

seed during the fall. Seedlings take 4 to 6 

months to grow.

Seed ripens during August. Scarify and stratify 

the seed. Take hardwood heel cuttings during 

June. Dip cuttings into 0.8-percent indole-3-

butyric acid (IBA).

Cuttings do poorly. Stratified seed produces a 

high percentage of healthy plants.

Fruit ripens during August. Extract the seed

immediately. Sow the seed during the spring 

after stratifying it at 32 degrees Fahrenheit (0 

degrees Celsius). Soaking the seed for 5 minutes 

in 2 to 10 percent sulfuric acid can improve 

germination. Sow the seed during the fall. Take 

6- to 8-inch (150- to 200-millimeter) cuttings 

from 1-year-old wood during the fall.

Cuttings do poorly.

Scarify the seed mechanically, with acid, or by 

soaking in boiling water. Plant seed 1⁄2 inch (13 

millimeters) deep and mulch lightly.

Separate the seed from the fruit by flotation.

Outplant seedlings in late spring or early 

summer.

Landis and Simonich 1983

Young and Young 1992

Weisberg 1993

Link 1993

Rose and others 1998

Link 1993

Rose and others 1998

Link 1993

Link 1993

Weisberg 1993

Young and Young 1986

Hartmann and others 1990

Weisberg 1993

Scientific name Propagation 

Common name method References Remarks
Appendix B—Propagation and Establishment of Requirements for Selected Plant Species

313

1a: 90, 1e, 2

1f, 1e

1f

1f: cold 84/168, 4, 8, 9

12 (summer)

1b, 1f: 90/90, 5, 8, 9

Rosa gymnocarpa

 Baldhip rose

Rosa nutkana

 Nootka rose

Rosa pisocarpa

 Cluster rose

Rosa woodsii

 Wood’s rose

Rubus spp.

Rubus idaeus

 Red raspberry

Pick red hips during August and September. 

Macerate the hips and use flotation to separate 

the seed. Germination is best when the seed is 

sown after cleaning. Stratify stored seed at 34 to 

37 degrees Fahrenheit (1 to 3 degrees Celsius). 

When taking cuttings, include three to four 

nodes. Use root hormone.

Seed ripens during August and September. 

Clean the seed, which requires a period of 

afterripening. If the seed is sown during the 

spring, stratify the seed warm then cold. Sow 

fresh seed during the fall into a finely milled 

mixture of peat and vermiculite.

Soak the hips in water for 5 to 7 days in a warm 

place before macerating the hips and floating 

away the pulp. During the fall, seed can be sown 

into a standard potting mixture and left outside 

over winter. Stratify the seed warm and cold if it 

will be sown during the spring. 

Sow fresh seed during the fall. If the seed will 

be sown during the spring, stratify it warm 

to cold at 39 degrees Fahrenheit (4 degrees 

Celsius). To propagate from cuttings, take 6-inch 

(150-millimeter) softwood cuttings during mid 

to late June. Wood’s rose spreads by rhizomes.

Use flotation to separate the seed. Germination 

is best when the seed is scarified and sown 

during the fall. Scarify the seed in sulfuric acid 

for 20 to 60 minutes or in a 1-percent solution of 

sodium hyperchlorite for 7 days. If the seed will 

be sown during the spring, it should be stratified 

warm at 68 to 86 degrees Fahrenheit (20 to 30 

degrees Celsius) and cold at 36 to 41 degrees 

Fahrenheit (2 to 5 degrees Celsius). Lightly 

cover the seed with soil. Take root cuttings when 

the plants are dormant.

Rose and others 1998

Young and Young 1992

Rose and others 1998

Young and Young 1992

Rose and others 1998

Landis and Simonich 1983

Rose and others 1998

Young and Young 1992

Weisberg 1993

Rose and others 1998

Young and Young 1992

Scientific name Propagation 

Common name method References Remarks
Appendix B—Propagation and Establishment of Requirements for Selected Plant Species

314

2, 5, 8

5

5

1e or 1f: 90/90

1, 2, 8

1f: 90/90, 3, 5, 8, 12

2, 5, 7, 9

1e

3, 9 (spring)

Rubus lasiococcus

 Dwarf bramble

Rubus leucodermis

Rubus nigerrimus

Rubus parviflorus

 Thimbleberry

Rubus pedatus

 Strawberry bramble

Rubus spectabilis

 Salmonberry

Rubus ursinus

Pacific blackberry

Salazaria mexicana

 Bladder sage

Salix spp.

 Willow

Fruits ripen from July 1 to September 30.

Dwarf bramble can be propagated easily from 

runners.

Seed ripens from June 1 to September 30 

when the berry is red. Process the berries 

immediately by macerating them and using 

flotation to separate the seed. Seed may not need 

treatment, but can be stratified for 90 days at 

68 to 86 degrees Fahrenheit (20 to 30 degrees 

Celsius), then for 90 days at 36 to 41 degrees 

Fahrenheit (2 to 5 degrees Celsius). A sulfuric 

acid treatment before the cool stratification may 

increase germination.

Same as Rubus lasiococcus.

Berries ripen from June 15 to September 30 

when they are orange or red. Process the berries 

and treat them as recommended for Rubus 

parviflorus. Small offshoots can be transplanted.

Hardwood cuttings will be ready for planting in 

4 months. Use liquid rooting hormone and bury 

the cuttings in damp wood shavings.

Berries ripen from June 1 to August 30 when 

they turn black. Process the berries and treat 

them as recommended for Rubus parviflorus.

One vine can be used to make a number of 

cuttings.

Willow species are difficult to tell apart.

Collect them from the appropriate habitat.

Potash and Aubry 1997

Rose and others 1998

Weisberg 1993

Weisberg 1993

Potash and Aubry 1997

Rose and others 1998

Weisberg 1993

Potash and Aubry 1997

Potash and Aubry 1997

Rose and others 1998

Young and Young 1992

Weisberg 1993

Potash and Aubry 1997

Rose and others 1998

Young and Young 1992

Weisberg 1993

Scientific name Propagation 

Common name method References Remarks
Appendix B—Propagation and Establishment of Requirements for Selected Plant Species

315

1, cuttings

1e, 2, 3, 5, 9

1e, 2, 3

3

1e, 3, 4

1e, 4, live stakes

Salix alaxensis

Salix bebbiana

 Bebb willow

Salix lasiandra

 Pacific willow

Salix orestera

 Sierra willow

Salix scouleriana

 Scouler’s willow

Salix sitchensis

 Sitka willow

It is not necessary to separate the seed from the 

capsule. Seed is viable just for a few days. Sow 

the capsules on beds, keeping them moist. To 

propagate Bebb willow from cuttings, take 12-

inch (300-millimeter) cuttings from 1-year-old 

wood during the late fall or early spring. Plant 

the cuttings in heavy damp soil.

Sow seed in flats with a mixture of sand, perlite, 

peat, and vermiculite. Take cuttings from 1- to 

4-year-old wood during the middle of the fall 

to early spring. The terminal end should be cut 

horizontally and the basal end should be cut at 

45 degrees. Apply fungicide. Cuttings can be 

planted directly on the site.

Transplant cuttings into cone cells with a 

medium of perlite, peat, vermiculite, sand, and 

Osmocote. Keep the cuttings moist with 70-

degree-Fahrenheit (21-degree-Celsius) bottom 

heat. Place the cuttings in a lathhouse for the 

entire winter.

Seed ripens from April 1 to July 30 soon after 

flowering. Sow the seed immediately, or store 

moist seed for up to 30 days. To propagate 

Scouler’s willow from cuttings, take softwood 

cuttings 1 foot (300 millimeters) long or 

hardwood cuttings 3 feet (910 millimeters) long, 

and cut them into 6-inch (150-millimeter) whips. 

This is an upland species. Cuttings should not 

be used for bioengineering applications, such as 

live stakes.

Collect and handle the seed as recommended 

for Salix scouleriana. To propagate Sitka 

willow from cuttings, take softwood cuttings 

1 foot (300 millimeters) long when the plant 

is dormant. These cuttings can be used as live 

stakes for bioengineering applications.

Densmore and others 1990

Rose and others 1998

Young and Young 1992

Rose and others 1998

Young and Young 1992

Link 1993

Potash and Aubry 1997

Rose and others 1998

Young and Young 1992

Potash and Aubry 1997

Scientific name Propagation 

Common name method References Remarks
Appendix B—Propagation and Establishment of Requirements for Selected Plant Species

316

1e

1e

1a

9 (spring)

1e

1f: 60–90/90–112, 3

1c, d, then f: 70/84

2, 3, 4

1a: 90, 1d

1

1e

Salvia leucophylla

 Purple sage

Salvia lyrata

 Lyre-leafed sage

Salvia sonomensis

 Creeping sage

Sambucus spp.

Sambucus canadensis

 Elderberry

Sambucus cerulea

 Blue elderberry

Sambucus racemosa

 Red elderberry

Sapindus drummondii

 Western soapberry

Sarcobatus vermiculatus

 Greasewood

Satureja douglasii

 Yerba Buena

Direct seed during the fall.

Broadcast seed at a rate of 3 to 4 pounds per 

acre (3.4 to 4.5 kilograms per hectare) during 

the early summer. Seed shatters easily.

Chill the seed before planting.

Seed ripens from June to September. Add some 

water before depulping the fruit in a blender. 

Plant the seed during the fall.

Collect the seed and sow it during the fall. If the 

seed can’t be planted after it is collected, stratify 

it with 8 hours of light daily. During the winter, 

take hardwood cuttings with a heel from the 

previous season’s growth. 

Berries ripen from July 1 to September 30 when 

they are red. Macerate the fruit and separate 

the seed using flotation. Provide light 8 hours 

per day for germination. Tip cuttings or sideshoot cuttings from pruned plants are the easiest 

cuttings to handle. Cuttings grow quickly. 

Outplant the cuttings early enough so they can 

become established before winter.

Scarify the seed in acid for 2 to 21⁄2 hours. 

Freshly collected seed germinates better than 

seed that has been dried.

Remove the seed from the fruit for best results.

Harris and Leiser 1979

Link 1993

Young and Young 1992

Weisberg 1993

Link 1993

Landis and Simonich 1983

Rose and others 1998

Young and Young 1992

Weisberg 1993

Potash and Aubry 1997

Rose and others 1998

Link 1993

Young and Young 1992

Young and Young 1986

Young and Young 1986

Scientific name Propagation 

Common name method References Remarks
Appendix B—Propagation and Establishment of Requirements for Selected Plant Species

317

6

1

1e

1

1e

1a: 60

1b

1a: 0–90, 5, 9

1a: 60–90, 1d

1

1

1e, 4

Saxifraga ferruginea

 Rusty saxifrage

Saxifraga tricuspidata

Schinus molle

California pepper tree

Senecio lugens

Sequoia sempervirens

 Redwood

Sequoiadendron

 giganteum

 Giant sequoia

Setaria macrostachya

 Bristly foxtail

Shepherdia argentea

 Silver buffaloberry

Shepherdia canadensis

 Russet buffaloberry

Silene spp.

Silene acaulis

Simmondsia chinensis

 Jojoba

Direct seed during the fall.

Sow seed during the spring when frost is not 

likely and soil temperatures are warm. Thin 

seedlings to 315 per 11 square feet (1 square 

meter) of seedbed. Keep seedlings in half shade.

Soak seed overnight in distilled water, then 

stratify. Sow seed during the spring.

Scarify seed in acid for 15 to 30 minutes. This 

seed requires a prolonged afterrripening.

Fruit ripens from June to August. Macerate 

the fruit and separate the seed using flotation. 

Scarify and stratify the seed. To propagate silver 

buffaloberry from cuttings, stick root cuttings 

into ordinary outside soil during February or 

March. Layer shoots during the fall.

Scarify seed with acid before stratifying it. Sow 

seed during the fall or spring. This species is 

subject to greenhouse pathogens.

The seed needs light to germinate.

Direct seed during the fall. Plant the seed 1.6 

to 2 inches (40 to 50 millimeters) deep. Take 

Weisberg 1993

Densmore and others 1990

Harris and Leiser 1979

Densmore and others 1990

Young and Young 1992

Young and Young 1992

Young and Young 1986

Landis and Simonich 1983

Rose and others 1998

Young and Young 1992

Densmore and others 1990

Young and Young 1992

Young and Young 1986

Densmore and others 1990

Harris and Leiser 1979

Scientific name Propagation 

Common name method References Remarks
Appendix B—Propagation and Establishment of Requirements for Selected Plant Species

318

1e

1, 8, rhizomes

1e, 8, 13

1

1b

1e, 2

1a: 90–140, 1e

1e, 4, 8, 9

Sitanion hystrix

 Squirreltail

Smilacina racemosa

 False Solomon’s-seal

Solidago canadensis

 Canada goldenrod

Solidago multiradiata

Sophora spp.

Sorbus scopulina

 Green mountain ash

Sorbus sitchensis

 Sitka mountain ash

Spirea betulifolia

 Birchleaf spirea

cuttings during the late spring or early summer.

The seed has double dormancy and requires

2 years to germinate. Sow during the fall in a

shady, moist area. Propagate by divisions during 

the fall or early spring.

Seed ripens from mid-August to late October. 

Broadcast the seed. Plants can be divided and 

transplanted during the fall or spring.

Scarify the seed with acid or mechanical 

scarification.

Berries ripen from August 1 to October 31 when 

they are dark red. If the berries are collected 

early, keep them in heaps for 2 months so they 

can decompose. Macerate the fruit and separate 

the seed using flotation. Seed may take 2 years 

to germinate. Sow seed during the fall or early 

winter. If seed will be sown during the spring, 

stratify it at 34 to 41 degrees Fahrenheit (1 to 5 

degrees Celsius) in moist peat. Use drills to sow 

cleaned seed. This species is difficult to start 

from cuttings.

Seeds disperse during October. Seed can be 

sown during the fall and allowed to overwinter. 

Take cuttings during mid-June. Dip the cuttings 

in 3,000-parts-per-million indole-3-butyric acid 

(IBA) talc before sticking the cuttings into sand 

in an outdoor frame and applying bottom heat.

Young and Young 1992

Young and Young 1986

Rose and others 1998

Link 1993

Densmore and others 1990

Young and Young 1992

Link 1993

Potash and Aubry 1997

Rose and others 1998

Rose and others 1998

Young and Young 1992

Scientific name Propagation 

Common name method References Remarks
Appendix B—Propagation and Establishment of Requirements for Selected Plant Species

319

1e or 1a: 30–60

2, 3, 4, 8

1e, 2

1a: 48, 2

1a: 5

1a: 5

1e

1b, 1f: 84/84

1

1a

Spirea densiflora

Subalpine spirea

Spirea douglasii

 Hardhack or Douglas

 spirea

Spirea splendens

 Alpine spirea

Sporobolus airoides

 Drop seed

Sporobolus giganteus

Stanleya spp.

 Prince’s plum

Staphylea spp.

 Bladdernut

Stephanomeria pauciflora

Stipa lemmonii

 Lemmon needlegrass

Seed ripens from September 15 to November 

15 when the capsule turns brown. Flower heads 

can be collected earlier and allowed to ripen in 

paper bags. Softwood cuttings can be taken at 

any time that the branches have leaves.

Dry seed may require 1 to 2 months of cold 

before germination. Sow 1⁄4 teaspoon (1.2 

milliliters) of seed per flat during February or 

March. Cuttings should be taken during the fall 

from softer wood. They will root in 2 to 4 weeks 

and can be transplanted immediately. Be wary 

of aphids, leaf rollers, and fire blight.

Seed ripens from the end of August through 

September. Direct seed into containers, or root 

cuttings from 1-year-old wood using a mist 

bench. Cuttings should be taken from active 

wood during the summer.

Seed requires scarification with acid.

Germination increases if the seed is stored.

Seed ripens during early June. Cold stratify 

the seed in potassium nitrate and gibberellic 

acid and plant it in 3-cubic-inch (49-cubiccentimeter) containers with a 1:1 mixture of peat 

and vermiculite. Apply a low-nitrogen fertilizer 

once a week.

Potash and Aubry 1997

Rose and others 1998

Potash and Aubry 1997

Rose and others 1998

Link 1993

Young and Young 1986

Young and Young 1986

Young and Young 1992

Young and Young 1992

Young and Young 1992

Rose and others 1998

Scientific name Propagation 

Common name method References Remarks
Appendix B—Propagation and Establishment of Requirements for Selected Plant Species

320

1e

1e

13

8

1a: 60

1f, 8, root suckers

1f: 60 days at room 

temperature/180 days 

at 5 degrees Celsius,

2, 3, 4, 5, 8

1f, 1b

Stipa nelsonii

 Columbian needlegrass

Stipa occidentalis

 Western needlegrass

Stipa richardsonii

 Richardson needlegrass

Streptopus spp.

 Twisted stalk

Styrax officinalis

 Snowdrop bush

Symphoricarpos spp.

Symphoricarpos albus

 Snowberry

Symphoricarpos

 occidentalis

 Western snowberry

Germination was higher when the seed was 

started in a lathhouse rather than a greenhouse. 

Use misters and keep temperatures between 65 

and 70 degrees Fahrenheit (18 and 21 degrees 

Celsius).

Seed ripens during late August to early

September. Sow the seed during the fall in 

media amended with peat and slow-release 

fertilizer. Direct seed about 5 to 8 seeds in each 

container. Chill the containers outside for a 

week, then put them in a greenhouse. 

Seed ripens from mid-July to mid-August.

Apply seed directly and mulch with forage

harvested when the seed heads mature. 

Use flotation to separate the seed from the fruit. 

Stratify the seed with 90 to 120 days of warm 

and moist conditions, followed by 180 days at 41 

degrees Fahrenheit (5 degrees Celsius).

Extract the seed by running berries through 

a macerator with water. Seed is difficult to 

germinate. Keep seed at room temperature for 

3 to 4 months, then at 41 degrees Fahrenheit (5 

degrees Celsius) for 4 to 6 months. This species 

develops powdery mildew.

Seed requires acid scarification for 20 to 75 

minutes. Seed should be stratified warm for 90 

to 120 days before sowing in the fall.

Link 1993

Link 1993

Link 1993

Weisberg 1993

Young and Young 1986

Hartmann and others 1990

Weisberg 1993

Potash and Aubry 1997

Rose and others 1998

Young and Young 1992

Young and Young 1992

Scientific name Propagation 

Common name method References Remarks
Appendix B—Propagation and Establishment of Requirements for Selected Plant Species

321

1a: 60–300, 8, 9

3

1e

1a: 28–52

1e, 8

1

1a: 30–40, 1e, 3, 9

6

1e

1b

Symphoricarpos

 oreophilus 

 Mountain snowberry

Taxus brevifolia

 Pacific yew

Tetracoccus hallii

Tetradymia canescens

 Horsebrush

Thalictrum spp.

Meadow rue

Thalictrum fendleri

 Fendler meadow rue

Thuja plicata

 Western red cedar

Tolmiea menziesii

 Piggyback plant

Torreya californica

 California nutmeg

Trifolium spp.

 Clover

Seed has double dormancy and may need to be 

soaked in hot water before planting. Sow stratified 

seed during the spring or unstratified seed during 

the fall. Keep the seed moist after planting.

The germination rate is about 50 percent. Seed 

can be stored for up to 2 years.

Place seed under running water for 4 hours. 

Stratify in a dilute solution of gibberellic acid on 

double layers of filter paper. Temperatures should 

be 72 degrees Fahrenheit (22 degrees Celsius) for 

8 hours (with light) and 63 degrees Fahrenheit 

(17 degrees Celsius) for 16 hours (without light).

Cones ripen during early August, turning yellow 

to brown. Dry the cones. Stratify stored seed 

at 34 to 37 degrees Fahrenheit (1 to 3 degrees 

Celsius). Sow seed during the spring, 0.2 inch (5 

millimeters) deep. Keep seedlings shaded for the 

first year.

The seed requires a long period of afterripening. 

Germination takes several months.

Ethylene or carbon dioxide enrichment is 

recommended.

Landis and Simonich 1983

Rose and others 1998

Weisberg 1993

Young and Young 1992

Young and Young 1992

Weisberg 1993

Young and Young 1986

Rose and others 1998

Weisberg 1993

Rose and others 1998

Young and Young 1992

Weisberg 1993

Young and Young 1992

Young and Young 1986

Scientific name Propagation 

Common name method References Remarks
Appendix B—Propagation and Establishment of Requirements for Selected Plant Species

322

1a

9 (spring)

1a: 21–90, 2, 9, 

grafting

1a: 90

1e, cuttings

10 (spring)

2

1, 3, 4

Trisetum spicatum

Tsuga spp.

 Hemlock

Tsuga heterophylla

 Western hemlock

Tsuga mertensiana

 Mountain hemlock

Umbellularia californica

 Myrtlewood

Vaccinium spp.

Vaccinium caespitosum

 Dwarf blueberry

Vaccinium deliciosum

 Cascade blueberry

Seed requires light to germinate.

Collect cones from the tree and air-dry them. 

Soak the seed in cold water for 24 to 26 hours. 

Stratify the seed before sowing it on the surface 

during the spring.

Do not chill the seed too long or it will be 

damaged.

Collect the fruit during the late fall. Macerate 

the fruit and separate the seed with flotation. 

Seeds loses viability rapidly. Seedlings take 

several months to emerge.

Seed ripens during the late summer to early fall. 

Macerate the fruit, then separate the seed using 

floatation. Sow seed on a bed of moist peat. 

Ideal temperatures are 65 degrees Fahrenheit (18 

degrees Celsius) during the day and 55 degrees 

Fahrenheit (13 degrees Celsius) during the 

night. Seven weeks after germination, increase 

temperatures to 68 degrees Fahrenheit (20 

degrees Celsius) during the day and 52 degrees 

Fahrenheit (14 degrees Celsius) during the night. 

To propagate Cascade blueberry from cuttings, 

take 6-inch (150-millimeter) hardwood cuttings 

during January or February from 2-year-old 

wood. Plant the cuttings horizontally about 1 

inch (25 millimeters) deep in a mixture of peat 

and sand. The cuttings will be ready to plant by 

the following winter or spring. Take 4-inch (100- 

millimeter) softwood heel cuttings as soon as 

new growth gets woody (from mid-June to July). 

Transplant cuttings to a nursery bed around the 

end of October. Outplant 1 year later.

Young and Young 1986

Weisberg 1993

Rose and others 1998

Young and Young 1992

Young and Young 1992

Young and Young 1992

Weisberg 1993

Link 1993

Young and Young 1992

Weisberg 1993

Rose and others 1998

Scientific name Propagation 

Common name method References Remarks
Appendix B—Propagation and Establishment of Requirements for Selected Plant Species

323

1e, 5

1a: 90

1, 2

1e, 2, 5

2

Vaccinium 

 membranaceum

 Mountain huckleberry

Vaccinium occidentale

 Western blueberry

Vaccinium parvifolium

Red huckleberry

Vaccinium scoparium

 Grouse whortleberry

Vaccinium uliginosum

 occidentale

 Western blueberry

Seed ripens during August. Overwinter in 

flats. Seed germinates best on moist peat at 

temperatures of 64 degrees Fahrenheit (18 

degrees Celsius) for 12 hours and 55 degrees 

Fahrenheit (13 degrees Celsius) for 12 hours. 

Seven weeks after germination, increase the 

temperatures to 68 degrees Fahrenheit (20 

degrees Celsius) and 57 degrees Fahrenheit (14 

degrees Celsius). Take 4-inch (100-millimeter) 

cuttings from rhizomes during the early spring, 

late summer, and fall. 

Use a lime-free potting mix. Sow seed during 

the late winter in a greenhouse. Just cover 

the seed with potting mix. The seed might 

require up to 3 months cold stratification. Once 

seedlings are about 2 inches (10 millimeters) 

tall, replant the seedlings in individual pots and 

grow them in a lightly shaded portion of the 

greenhouse, at least for their first winter.

Use a blender to separate the seed. Float off 

the pulp. Seed should be chilled at 50 degrees 

Fahrenheit (10 degrees Celsius) for several 

days. Dry seed at 59 to 70 degrees Fahrenheit 

(15 to 21 degrees Celsius) for 2 days. Stored 

seed germinates well when kept at 82 degrees 

Fahrenheit (28 degrees Celsius) in the light 

for 14 hours and at 55 degrees Fahrenheit (13 

degrees Celsius) in the dark for 10 hours. 

Take cuttings when the plants are dormant.

After collecting seed, place it in a plastic bag 

and store it at 41 degrees Fahrenheit (5 degrees 

Celsius) for a few days to a few weeks. Macerate 

the fruit, separate the seed using floatation. Seed 

does not require treatment before planting. 

Transplant cuttings into cone cells with a 

mixture of perlite, peat, vermiculite, sand, and 

Osmocote. Apply bottom heat of 70 degrees 

Fahrenheit (21 degrees Celsius). Keep the 

medium moist. Place in a lathhouse for winter.

Link 1993

Rose and others 1998

Sheat 1948

Dirr and Heuser 1987

Weisberg 1993

Potash and Aubry 1997

Rose and others 1998

Young and Young 1992

Link 1993

Rose and others 1998

Link 1993

Scientific name Propagation 

Common name method References Remarks
Appendix B—Propagation and Establishment of Requirements for Selected Plant Species

324

8

8

1: 48–84

1e

1, 3, 4

1f, 2, 4, 9

1f, 2, 4, 9

1e

1e

1e

1e

Valeriana sitchensis

 Sitka valerian

Vancouveria sitchensis

 Inside-out flower

Veratrum californicum

 False hellebore

Verbena spp.

Viburnum spp.

Viburnum edule

 Highbush cranberry

Viburnum ellipticum

 Western viburnum

Vicia americana

 American vetch

Viguiera multiflora

 Showy goldeneye

Viola spp.

Washingtonia filifera

 California fan palm

False hellebore has a very low germination rate. 

Seed production is inconsistent from year to 

year.

Verbena requires light for germination.

Seed can be sown in nursery beds during the 

spring for warm stratification. By the following 

winter, the seed will be chilled. Seedlings will 

emerge the next spring. This species can be 

propagated with softwood or hardwood cuttings 

and with air layering.

Seeds are difficult to germinate because of their 

hard seed coat and embryo dormancy. Take 

cuttings from 1-year-old and new growth during 

July and August.

Seed ripens during September. Seed should be at 

least 1 year old. Plant during the spring or fall in 

moist, clay soil.

Seed ripens from early to mid-September.

Dormant fall seeding is recommended. Seed 

should be broadcast.

Macerate the fruit and float off the seed. Do not 

allow the seed to dry. Do not store the seed for 

a long time. Sow the seed in sand or a mixture 

Weisberg 1993

Weisberg 1993

Link 1993

Young and Young 1986

Young and Young 1986

Young and Young 1992

Rose and others 1998

Randall and others 1978

Rose and others 1998

Link 1993

Young and Young 1986

Young and Young 1992

Scientific name Propagation 

Common name method References Remarks
Appendix B—Propagation and Establishment of Requirements for Selected Plant Species

325

1a: 28

1e

1b

1, 2, 5, 8, rhizomes

1e or 1a: 180 

8

Wyethia amplexicaulis

 Mule’s ear

Yucca baccata

 Spanish bayonet

Yucca elata

 Soaptree yucca

Yucca glauca

 Yucca

Xerophyllum tenax

 Beargrass

of peat and sand. Apply bottom heat. Transplant 

seedlings to containers once the elongated 

second leaf appears. Grow seedlings in partial 

shade.

Seed ripens during July and August. 

Sow seed directly into the final containers.

Soak the seed for 24 hours or scarify the seed 

mildly.

Soak the seed for 24 hours or scarify the seed 

mildly.

Soak seed for 24 hours or mechanically scarify 

the seed to remove its hard seed coat. Seedlings 

should be ready for transplanting during the 

second season. Yucca can be propagated by root 

cuttings covered with 4 inches (100 millimeters) 

of soil.

The seed requires no treatment for sowing 

during the fall. If the seed will be sowed during 

the spring, store flats of covered seed outside in 

a sheltered location until spring. Uncover the 

flat and add a layer of dry perlite. See additional 

information in appendix C.

Rose and others 1998

Young and Young 1986

Link 1993

Young and Young 1992

Link 1993

Young and Young 1992

Potash and Aubry 1997

Scientific name Propagation 

Common name method References Remarks

References 

Browse, P.M. 1979. The Royal Horticultural Society’s encyclopedia of practical gardening: plant propagation. New 

York: Simon and Schuster, Inc. 96 p.

Densmore, R.V.; Dalle–Molle, L.; Holmes, K.E. 1990. Restoration of alpine and subalpine plant communities in 

Denali National Park and Preserve, Alaska, USA. In: Hughes, Glenn H.; Bonnicksen, Thomas M., eds. 1990. Proceedings: 

Restoration ’89: the new management challenge. First annual meeting of the Society for Ecological Restoration; 1989 January 

16–20; Oakland, CA. Madison, WI: Society for Ecological Restoration.
Appendix B—Propagation and Establishment of Requirements for Selected Plant Species

326

Dirr, M.A.; Heuser, M.W. 1987. The reference manual of woody plant propagation. ISBN 0942375009. Athens, GA: 

Varsity Press.

Harris, R.; Leiser, A. 1979. Direct seeding of woody plants in the landscape. Leaflet 2577. Division of Agricultural 

Sciences, University of California. 13 p.

Hartmann, H.T.; Kester, D.E.; Davies, F.T., Jr. 1990. Plant propagation: principles and practices. Englewood Cliffs, 

NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc. 647 p.

Hingston, S.G. 1982. Revegetation of subalpine backcountry campgrounds: principles and guidelines. Resource 

Management Report Series KR–3. Alberta, Canada: Alberta Recreation and Parks, Kananaskis Region.

Landis, T.J.; Simonich, E.J. 1984. Producing native plants as container seedlings. In: Murphy, Patrick M., comp. The 

challenge of producing native plants for the Intermountain area: Proceedings: Intermountain Nurseryman’s Association 1983 

conference; 1983 August 8–11; Ogden, UT. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-168. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest 

Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 16–25.

Link, E. 1993. Native plant propagation techniques for national parks. U.S. Department of Agriculture Soil Conservation Service and U. S. Department of the Interior National Park Service. 240 p. 

Potash, L.L.; Aubry, C.A. 1997. Mt. Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest native plant notebook. Mountlake Terrace, 

WA: U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Mt. Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest. 412 p.

Randall, W.R.; [and others]. 1978. Manual of Oregon trees and shrubs. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State College Cooperative Association. 234 p.

Rose, R.; Chachulski, C.E.C.; Haase, D. 1998. Propagation of Pacific Northwest native plants. Corvallis, OR: Oregon 

State University Press. 256 p.

Schmidt, M.G. 1980. Growing California native plants. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Shaw, N. 1984. Producing bareroot seedlings of native shrubs. In: Murphy, Patrick M., comp. The challenge of producing native plants for the Intermountain area: Proceedings: Intermountain Nurseryman’s Association 1983 conference; 1983 

August 8–11; Ogden, UT. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-168. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 6–15.

Sheat, W.G. 1948. Propagation of trees, shrubs, and conifers. New York: MacMillan and Co. 

Weisberg, S. 1993. Revegetation handbook. Unpublished report. U.S. Department of the Interior National Park Service, 

Pacific Northwest Region. 

Young, J.A.; Young, Cheryl G. 1986. Collecting, processing, and germinating seeds of wildland plants. Portland, OR: 

Timber Press. 236 p.

Young, J.A.; Young, Cheryl G. 1992. Seeds of woody plants in North America. Portland, OR: Dioscoridies Press. 407 p.
Appendix C—Detailed Propagation Methods for Beargrass, Heather, Huckleberry, and Partridgefoot

327

Appendix C—Detailed Propagation Methods for 

Beargrass, Heather, Huckleberry, and Partridgefoot

Beargrass (Xerophyllum tenax)

According to the literature reviewed, two methods were 

found to propagate seed from the coarse evergreen perennial, 

Xerophyllum tenax (figures C–1a and 1b):

Method A (From the University of 

Idaho Forest Research Nursery)

Begin by soaking the seed in a running water bath for 

imbibition (when the seed absorbs water and swells). Sow the 

seed into copper-treated styrofoam blocks called Copperblock (45-cell, 12-ounce [340-milliliter] trays) (Silvaseed 

Co., Roy, WA) in a medium of 50-percent peat moss and 50-

percent vermiculite, along with a top covering of No. 2 

nursery grit.

Saturate the medium with water and place all trays in a 

walk-in cooler for a cold stratification period of 7 months at 

31 to 42 degrees Fahrenheit (–0.6 to 5.5 degrees Celsius). 

After this cold stage, place all trays into a greenhouse with 

temperatures between 70 and 81 degrees Fahrenheit (21 and 

27 degrees Celsius). Some seed may have begun to germinate 

at this point. After 8 weeks, thin and consolidate the seedlings, leaving four or five plants per cell in the Copperblock 

trays. These plants will create enough root mass to fill each 

12-ounce (340-milliliter) cell by the end of the 7-month 

growing season.

Provide 24-hour lighting in the greenhouse with a 500-

watt halogen light, suspended 6 feet (1.8 meters) above the 

plants. Fertilize plants twice weekly 3 weeks after germinaFigure C–1a—Beargrass, Xerophyllum tenax, is a dominant and durable 

species in many mountainous areas throughout the Pacific Northwest, making it a desirable restoration species. Drawings courtesy of the University of 

Washington Press (Hitchcock and Cronquist 1976).

Figure C–1b—Beargrass blossoms brighten alpine meadows during early 

summer.

Xerophyllum tenax
Appendix C—Detailed Propagation Methods for Beargrass, Heather, Huckleberry, and Partridgefoot

328

tion with Peter’s 7–40–17 Conifer Starter (42 parts per 

million of nitrogen). Increase the nitrogen at 7 weeks, using 

Peter’s 20–7–19 Conifer Grower (192 parts per million of 

nitrogen) and CAN 17 calcium nitrate (162 parts per million 

of nitrogen) once a week.

Six weeks before outplanting, turn off extra lights to 

begin hardening off the seedlings. Taper off watering 

slightly. After each mild moisture stress, apply Peter’s 4–25–

35 Conifer Finisher (24 parts per million of nitrogen), 

alternating with calcium nitrate (51 parts per million of 

nitrogen). Move the seedlings to an outside shadehouse for 

further hardening 1 month before planting. Maintain the 

same fertilization regime during this period.

After this process, all seedlings should be at least 6 

inches (150 millimeters) tall with ample root growth. To 

transport seedlings into the backcountry, cover their roots 

with a plastic bag to keep them moist and pack them in 

cardboard boxes. Separate seedlings with enough paper to 

eliminate shifting.

Method B (From the Olympic 

National Park Greenhouse)

For fall sowing, collect seed and sow directly. 

For spring sowing, two methods have been successful:

• Soak the seed in distilled water for 24 hours, 

sow in flats of vermiculite, cover with vemiculite, and keep moist. Cold stratify for 112 days 

at 37 degrees Fahrenheit (3 degrees Celsius). 

After this period, place the flats in a growth 

chamber at 64 degrees Fahrenheit (18 degrees 

Celsius) for 12 hours during the day and 55 

degrees Fahrenheit (13 degrees Celsius) for 12 

hours at night. 

• Soak the seed in distilled water for 24 hours, 

sow in flats of peat/vermiculite/perlite/pumice 

medium (2:2:2:1), and keep moist. Cover flats 

with a cloth that is permeable to water and air 

and place them outside in a sheltered place until 

the spring. Uncover the flats before germination 

in the spring. Move them into a warm spot in 

the greenhouse when germination begins. 

Because the seedlings are susceptible to 

damping off, keep a dry layer of perlite on the 

surface of the flats.

Transplant seedlings into deep pots with well-drained 

planting medium and cover the seedlings with a thin layer of 

perlite to prevent crown rot. When transplanting new plants, 

be careful not to injure young roots at the base of the crown. 

(Olympic National Park Greenhouse cited in: Rose, R.; 

Chaculski C.E.C.; Haase, D. 1998. Propagation of Pacific 

Northwest native plants. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State 

University Press: 60–61.)

Propagation of Red 

Mountain-Heather 

(Phyllodoce empetriformis) 

and White MountainHeather (Cassiope 

mertensiana) in the 

Olympic Mountains

Seed Collection and Propagation

The date of snow release varies annually for Phyllodoce 

empetriformis (figure C–2), but usually occurs between midJune and mid-July. In the Olympic Mountains, Olmsted 

(1975) found that the number of days between snow release 

and flowering varied from 21 to 35 in two succeeding years. 

About 45 days from flower wilting until seed shedding is 

typical. Seed collections should take place from early 

September until snowfall.
Appendix C—Detailed Propagation Methods for Beargrass, Heather, Huckleberry, and Partridgefoot

329

the contents of the bag through a No. 30 screen. The inflorescences can be abraded over the screen to dislodge the 

remaining seeds from the capsules.

Olmsted (1975) concluded that stratification of seeds at 

39 degrees Fahrenheit (4 degrees Celsius) for 14 days 

enhanced germination by 20 percent. We have seen prolific 

germination with seed lots stored dry in polyethylene bags at 

low temperatures. Cold, moist stratification is probably not 

necessary for this species. As with many subalpine and 

alpine species, seed may need to be exposed to light for 

germination. Among high-elevation plants that exhibit some 

form of dormancy, photosensitive seed dormancy is more 

common than temperature-controlled dormancy (Amen 

1966).

At Olympic National Park, we have propagated this 

species from seed for a number of years successively. 

Although some suggested that it would take 5 to 10 years for 

seed propagation, we have grown Phyllodoce from seed to a 

branched, 6-inch (150-millimeter) plant in 3 years. Here are 

some important generalizations to keep in mind when 

growing Phyllodoce from seeds:

• Seeds probably need light to germinate and 

should be sown on the soil surface. Never cover 

seeds with any soil medium.

• The seedlings are minute and grow slowly, 

needing a full year to reach a sturdy size that 

will survive transplanting. 

• The seeds are even more sensitive to temperature fluctuations, extremes, and low relative 

humidity than are rooted cuttings. Flats of 

seedlings must be protected from desiccation 

and direct sunlight during the summer and 

transplanted during the winter or spring. Some 

mortality is to be expected, but mortality can be 

reduced by storing the flats in a cool shady 

place.

• Without importation of native soil with their 

mycorrhizal symbionts, heather seedlings need 

supplemental phosphorus and trace elements. 

Figure C–2—Red mountain heather (Phyllodoce empetriformis). Drawings 

courtesy of the University of Washington Press (Hitchcock and Cronquist 

1976). 

Phyllodoce empetriformis

When the capsules (which are umbellike and borne 

terminally) change color, the seed has reached maturity. 

Capsules turn from yellow-green to red as they swell and 

darken to purplish-black. In mid- to late-September, capsules 

dehisce at the apex and the minute seeds are dispersed by the 

wind. Before seed dispersal, entire inflorescences can be 

detached with the stem tips and stored in paper bags.

Because the capsules of Phyllodoce empetriformis 

dehisce from the apex, if the inflorescences have been stored 

upside down, the seeds will drop to the bottom of the bag in a 

few weeks, where they will look like fine, yellow-brown dust. 

Seeds of this species are tiny—about 0.04 inch (1 millimeter) 

in diameter. Batches of pure seed can be gathered by sifting 
Appendix C—Detailed Propagation Methods for Beargrass, Heather, Huckleberry, and Partridgefoot

330

Selection of Cuttings

Cuttings from lateral shoots of Phyllodoce growing in 

shaded understory will root easily, and should be taken in the 

semiripened region between the distal softwood candle and 

the proximal mature secondary (hardwood) growth. Cuttings 

that are too soft will deteriorate quickly. Hardwood cuttings 

require special treatment for rooting. The ideal semiripe 

cutting is between 3 and 5 inches (about 80 to 130 millimeters) long. The cutting should be long enough so that the 

semiripened portion of the stem can be inserted in a flat of 

propagation soil.

Avoid taking actively flowering or fruiting shoots, or 

shoots with newly set buds. Latent buds appear as small protuberances along the terminus of the softwood shoot. Tall 

specimens of Phyllodoce empetriformis, revealing the flush of 

etiolated, vegetative growth, which is valuable for stem propagation, occur abundantly in shaded areas under the canopy 

of Abies lasiocarpa, Chamaecyparis nootkatensis, and Tsuga 

mertensiana in high montane and subalpine plant communities. Heavily shaded ravines and streambanks with northwest 

and northeast aspects are good collection sites. In general, 

plants growing in full sun will be stunted and woody, and are 

less valuable for obtaining propagules. Shoots that develop in 

full sun also will have a shorter zone of semiripe wood.

Preservation of Cuttings

Keep fresh cuttings cool, moist, and aerated. Mature 

leaves of Phyllodoce empetriformis are frost resistant, but the 

Soil Medium for Seed Propagation

Percent of

Material soil medium

High-grade sphagnum peat moss 40 to 50

Fine, aged Douglas-fir bark 30 to 40

Propagation-grade perlite or high-grade, 10 to 20

3⁄

8-inch- (9.5-millimeter-) minus white pumice

new growth required for semihardwood propagation will 

burn (turn brown) if the temperature drops much below 

freezing. 

1. Heavy 1-gallon (3.8-liter), zip-seal bags can be 

used for collecting cuttings in the backcountry. 

Fill each bag about half full. Thoroughly moisten 

the cuttings before sealing the bags for transport. 

2. Store cuttings in the shade and put them under 

cover at night if the temperature will approach 

freezing. In the field, bags of cuttings can be 

stored by filling them with water and weighing 

them down with rocks in pools or along lakeshores.

3. When carrying cuttings from backcountry areas, 

leave an air cushion in the zip-seal bag to help 

keep the cuttings from being damaged. Carry the 

cuttings in a daypack strapped to the outside of 

your overnight gear. Bear-resistant food canisters 

work well for transporting cuttings.

4. Heather stem cuttings can be preserved for 

several weeks or longer with little loss of 

viability if they are handled properly at the 

greenhouse. Rinse the cuttings with fresh water 

and arrange them in bags so that air can circulate 

around them. Seal zip-seal bags to prevent 

cuttings from being desiccated in frost-free 

refrigeration systems. Cuttings deteriorate 

rapidly under anaerobic conditions, so they 

should never be stored in completely air-tight 

containers.

5. Store the bags in a refrigerator at 33 to 42 

degrees Fahrenheit (0.6 to 5.6 degrees Celsius).

6. Rinse the cuttings regularly—every few days if 

possible—and inspect them for deterioration or 

desiccation. When cuttings are preserved for 

several months in this manner, they may begin to 

form roots in the bags. Cuttings should be 

treated and propagated as soon as possible after 

collection.
Appendix C—Detailed Propagation Methods for Beargrass, Heather, Huckleberry, and Partridgefoot

331

Treatment: Dilute Solution 

Presoaking

1. If the Phyllodoce empetriformis cuttings have 

been refrigerated for longer than a week or two, 

recut them, slicing a few hundredths of an inch 

(a few millimeters) from the proximal end (the 

end that was cut straight) with a razor blade or 

sharp pruner to remove any callus that may 

have formed and to open the vascular tissue. 

This will help rooting hormone be drawn into 

the stem.

2. Remove leaves within half of an inch of the 

basal end of each cutting. 

3. Keep the cuttings in a bucket of cold water 

during preparation.

4. Mix the dilute soaking solution at a ratio of 1 

tablespoon (15 milliliters) Dip n’ Grow to 1 

quart (0.95 liter) of water in a 1-gallon (3.8-liter) 

plastic bucket.

5. Make bundles of cuttings using 10-inch (250-

millimeter) twist-ties and suspend the bundles 

in the solution to the depth required. We put 50 

to 60 cuttings in a bundle, the number of 

cuttings that will be planted in a 10- by 20-inch 

(254- by 508-millimeter) flat. A quicker method 

is to place a standard 10- by 20-inch (254- by 

508-millimeter) flat underneath an inverted 

plastic hemidome cover, which holds the 

solution. Insert the cuttings through the slots in 

the flat. You may use any other method that 

allows the proximal ends of cuttings to soak, 

but prevents the distal parts from contacting the 

solution.

6. Soak the cuttings for at least 24 hours. 

Propagation Medium for Cuttings

Adequate drainage is the primary concern with soil 

media when propagating stem cuttings under intermittent 

mist systems. Cuttings media should contain enough fine 

sphagnum peat to lower the pH and give structure to the 

finely branched roots of Phyllodoce, Cassiope, and other 

ericaceous seedlings. Use equal parts fine sphagnum peat, 

fine aged bark and perlite for cuttings of these species under 

mist propagation. If sand is used for propagation, sharp 

quartz (blasting) sand is best, because it stimulates rooting 

and is less likely to compact. Small amounts of pumice may 

be substituted for perlite or sharp sand. One proven formula 

is described below.

Cuttings Medium for Mist 

Propagation

• One part fine sphagnum peat

• One part fine, aged Douglas-fir bark

• Two parts horticultural perlite (3⁄

8-inch- [9.5-

millimeter-] minus pumice or coarse, sharp sand)

Phyllodoce empetriformis, Cassiope mertensiana, and 

most ericaceous species root well in this mix and can be 

maintained for as long as 6 months before transplanting. 

Phyllodoce cuttings require longer than 3 months under mist 

propagation to develop root systems large enough to survive 

being transplanted into containers. The fine root structure in 

this species does very poorly in a saturated substrate. Most 

ericaceous species require soils that are moist but well 

drained, with high organic content and low pH. 

Fifty to 60 cuttings fill a 10- by 20-inch (254- by 508-

millimeter) flat efficiently, while allowing enough room for 

root development. Using a fixed number of cuttings allows 

the yield ratio to be calculated easily for the flat when the cuttings are potted.
Appendix C—Detailed Propagation Methods for Beargrass, Heather, Huckleberry, and Partridgefoot

332

Greenhouse Environment

The propagation environment should be designed to 

prevent high heat and low relative humidity, increasing the 

survivability of cuttings during rooting. Intermittent mist 

systems greatly increase the likelihood of rooting. Use a 

propagation bench with heating cables or hot water pipes to 

maintain an optimum bottom temperature of 65 degrees 

Fahrenheit (18 degrees Celsius).

Transplanting and Hardening Off

Stem cuttings of Phyllodoce empetriformis take 3 to 4 

months to root. Cuttings are ready for transplanting when 

their root systems occupy most of the soil in a 10-by-20 flat 

and are poking out the bottom. Seedlings can be transplanted 

during the fall when cool weather arrives.

1. Seedlings grown under greenhouse conditions 

will need to be exposed to sunlight slowly and 

intermittently in a shaded area outdoors to 

prevent ultraviolet burn (that would cause the 

seedlings to turn brown).

2. Use pots that are 2 1⁄

4 inches (57 millimeters) 

square by 2 1⁄

2 inches (64 millimeters) deep for 

cuttings and seedlings. The root systems of 

some plants may require 3 1⁄

2-inch (89-millimeter) deep pots. 

3. The potting soil described at the end of this 

protocol works well for native heathers and 

other ericaceous shrubs.

4. The roots of heathers are sensitive to desiccation and disturbance. Transplanting is most 

successful when the air is cool and damp. Take 

care to minimize root handling. Use a table fork 

to lift the plants from the rooted or seeded flats. 

When transplanting from seeded flats, never 

attempt to transplant individual seedlings; 

always transplant small clumps of seedlings 

into pots. 

5. Place the soil loosely around the root ball in the 

pot, and gently tap the bottom of the pot to 

settle the soil. 

6. Water the plants immediately after transplanting with a solution of 9–45–15 water-soluble 

plant-starter fertilizer diluted to half strength. 

Maxicrop liquid seaweed can be added to the 

solution to provide trace elements.

7. Keep transplanted heathers in complete shade 

for several weeks. These species seem to 

tolerate moist soil conditions better than dry 

conditions, but plants that are overwatered or 

constantly inundated with rain do not fare well.

8. When warm weather arrives, spread wood 

shavings or bark over the potted heathers to 

keep the soil shaded and cool.

9. Apply a light watering in the morning to wet 

the mulch without inundating the soil; evaporation throughout the day will humidify the 

plants.

Continue a fertilizing regimen of 9–45–15 plant starter 

diluted to half the recommended strength and applied every 2 

weeks. This mix should be supplemented with Maxicrop 

liquid kelp (at about one-quarter the recommended strength) 

to provide trace elements that are lacking in commercial 

soluble fertilizers. As in the formula given below, highphosphorus bonemeal (3–15–0) should be added to the 

potting mix to bolster soil phosphate levels. As the growing 

season progresses, fertilize every 2 weeks with a watersoluble formula of: 

Percent in

Material formula

Alaska Fish Fertilizer 5–1–1 60

20–20–20 water-soluble fertilizer 30

Maxicrop Liquid Seaweed 10
Appendix C—Detailed Propagation Methods for Beargrass, Heather, Huckleberry, and Partridgefoot

333

Potting Soil for Ericaceous Shrubs

1 cubic foot (0.03 cubic meter) of high-grade sphagnum 

peat moss

7 cubic feet (0.2 cubic meter) of fine, aged Douglas-fir 

bark

1 to 2 cubic feet (0.03 to 0.06 cubic meter) of high-grade, 

3⁄

8-inch- (9.5-millimeter-) minus white pumice

1 cup (0.24 liter) steamed bonemeal

or

Additional Considerations for 

Cassiope mertensiana

White mountain-heather occupies slopes with northerly 

and westerly aspects. Luxuriant specimens can be found in 

damp, shadowy ravines where it may be mixed with Luetkea 

pectinata. It layers readily in the field. Semiripe heel cuttings 

(where a little older wood is left at the base of the cutting) 

taken from nonflowering branches root strongly when 

hormone treatment is used.

The procedure for propagating Cassiope mertensiana

(figure C–3) is similar to that for Phyllodoce empetriformis, 

using the same soaking solution, soil medium, potting 

treatment, and fertilizing regimen. Take 4- to 6-inch (100- to 

150-millimeter) sprigs of Cassiope with several branches in 

the field and subdivide them at the greenhouse. Trim material 

Percent of

Material potting soil

Fine, aged Douglas-fir bark 70 to 80

High-grade, sphagnum peat moss 10 to 15

High-grade, 3⁄

8-inch- (9.5-millimeter-) 10 to 15

minus white pumice

Bonemeal <1

Figure C–3—White heather (Cassiope mertensiana). Drawings courtesy of 

the University of Washington Press (Hitchcock and Cronquist 1976). 

Cassiope mertensiana

that is excessively woody and clean just enough of the lower 

leaves or branches to immerse cuttings in the soaking bath 

and insert them in the cutting medium. Roots form abundantly along the lower branches at the leaf axils. If humidity is 

high, the cuttings may form aerial roots above the soil 

surface. 

Wilderness Impacts of Propagation 

With Cuttings

Cuttings taken from wilderness areas for front-country 

greenhouse propagation programs can have a significant 

impact. The goal should be to maximize greenhouse yield 

while minimizing impacts in the wilderness, such as trampling off trail and excessive pruning of localized populations 

of a given species. Surveys for good sources of cuttings near 

the revegetation area should be done early in the season, after 
Appendix C—Detailed Propagation Methods for Beargrass, Heather, Huckleberry, and Partridgefoot

334

snow release. Try to locate as many collection areas as 

possible to spread the impact of pruning and to increase the 

genetic variability of the selected stock plants.

Emulating Field Conditions

Our primary recommendation on cultural treatments for 

increasing rooting, seedling establishment, and survival of 

difficult-to-grow ericaceous species is to try to reproduce the 

soil properties and climatic conditions that are observed in 

the field. This does not require mining wilderness sites for 

mycorrhizal fungi or replicating the exact nutrient content of 

native soils. Modest increases of native heathers, Vacciniums, 

and other ericads can be gained by paying attention to soil 

organic content, soil acidity, soil drainage, greenhouse 

environment, and plant nutrition. Use mist propagation 

systems, shade structures, bark soil amendments, and 

mulches. All of the local resources for soil ingredients should 

be investigated with the goal of replicating the conditions of 

native soil.

Huckleberry (Vaccinium spp.)

Vaccinium (figure C–4) deliciosum berries can be kept 

refrigerated in zip-seal bags or preserved in the freezer for 

extended periods until they are ready for processing.

Berry Forage and Processing

1. Process berries in a blender, using a 1:1 ratio of 

berries to water, until the berries are thoroughly 

macerated. Nongerminative seeds and pulp will 

float or sink slowly, so pour off some solution 

after a minute of settling to obtain a clean batch 

of seeds.

2. Spread the mixture of seeds, skins, and pulp, 

with some additional water, in a thin layer on 

ramey cloth fixed over a screen. Ramey cloth, 

also called raw cover, is a thin, white fabric 

often used to moderate temperatures and keep 

insects off plantings. Leave the cloth in the rain 

for 1 or 2 days to clean seed and rinse away 

saccharides and pectic substances or spray the 

cloth lightly with water from a garden hose. Do 

not allow the cloth to bake in the sun, because 

the seeds may stick to the ramey.

3. When the cloth has air-dried for a few hours, 

the seeds and remaining dry pulp can be 

scraped into paper bags and kept in a drying 

room for several weeks.

4. The dried seeds and excess material can be 

sifted through a screen to collect batches of 

pure seed. 

Figure C–4—Cascade huckleberry (Vaccinium deliciosum). Drawings courtesy of the University of Washington Press (Hitchcock and Cronquist 1976). 

Vaccinium deliciosum
Appendix C—Detailed Propagation Methods for Beargrass, Heather, Huckleberry, and Partridgefoot

335

Pretreatment

Vacciniums vary in their pretreatment requirements: 

Vaccinium deliciosum seed may not require cold stratification, while the seed of Vaccinium membranaceum and 

Vaccinium ovalifolium germinate inconsistently and very 

slowly without stratification. Chill the seeds in sealed plastic 

bags in the refrigerator for 1 to 3 months. Many Vaccinium

species require stratification to break temperature-related 

dormancy.

The edaphic and other environmental conditions 

favoring the cultivation of Vacciniums are similar to those for 

Phyllodoce empetriformis and Cassiope mertensiana. Native 

Vacciniums exhibit a type of heterophylly, having evergreen 

leaves in the first season and deciduous leaves after the 

second season. Vacciniums prefer extremely acidic soil (pH 

4.2 to 5.0).

For propagation of Vaccinium species, follow the same 

procedures described for Phyllodoce empetriformis. However, because Vaccinium seeds are much larger, sow them at 

a rate of 1⁄

4 to 3⁄8 teaspoon (1.2 to 1.9 milliliters) in an 11- by 

22-inch (280- by 560-millimeter) flat. As with heathers, never 

attempt to transplant individual seedlings; always transplant 

small clumps of seedlings into pots. Transplant the seedlings 

during cool weather and keep the new transplants in a shaded 

area for several weeks. The seedlings will still be small (1.6 

to 2.4 inches, 40 to 60 millimeters) at the end of the first 

season and should be transferred from shade to sun over a 

period of 6 months.

Growing Partridgefoot 

(Luetkea pectinata) and 

Spiraea (Spiraea splendens) 

in the Olympic Mountains

Collect seed heads of these species when the follicles of 

dry fruit are beginning to open and the floral structure turns 

red-brown. Detach floral stems (racemes) down to the basal 

tuft with florist shears and store them in paper bags for one to 

several weeks at about 20-percent humidity or lower. Sift 

seeds through a No. 12 screen and store them in a zip-seal 

bag inside another zip-seal bag in the freezer.

Stratification Requirements and 

Seed Treatments

Because there appears to be no temperature-related 

dormancy in this species, cold stratification is unnecessary. 

We have seen prolific germination in both of these species 

without stratification. The seeds may need light to germinate 

and should be sown on the surface of the medium. 

1. Luetkea pectinata (figure C–5) seed is sown 

during February and March on the surface of 

the seed germination mix. See the soil medium 

for ericad seed propagation. Follow this 

protocol for Spiraea splendens (figure C–6). 

2. Press the seeds by hand or with a flat piece of 

plastic on the surface of the germination mix in 

10- by 20-inch (254- by 508-millimeter) 

propagation flats at a rate of 3⁄

8 teaspoon (1.9 

milliliters) of seed per flat. As with the seed of 

high-elevation ericaceous shrubs, sow Luetkea

seed on the soil surface. 

3. Mist the flats generously and place them on 

heating mats outfitted with hemidomes or place 

them under intermittent mist with heating mats. 

Keep the soil moist until germination.

4. Maintain the soil temperature at 70 degrees 

Fahrenheit (21 degrees Celsius).

5. Germination will occur in 7 to 10 days (same as 

for Spiraea splendens). 

6. When all the seeds have germinated, take the 

flats off the heating mats and remove the 

hemidomes during the day. Transition the flats 

of seedlings to ambient greenhouse temperature 

and relative humidity.
Appendix C—Detailed Propagation Methods for Beargrass, Heather, Huckleberry, and Partridgefoot

336

7. Apply a foliar fertilizer once every 2 weeks 

after the seedlings have developed true leaves, 

using a solution of 9–45–15 plant starter that 

has been diluted to one-fourth strength. Apply 

the fertilizer with a hand-pump applicator or 

Figure C–5—Partridgefoot (Leutkea pectinata). Drawing courtesy of the 

University of Washington Press (Hitchcock and Cronquist 1976). 

Leutkea pectinata

pressure-tank sprayer as a fine mist until the 

seedlings are hardy and can support themselves. 

If the fertilizer is applied at high concentration 

or too early, the seedlings may burn (turn crispy 

brown), or excessive moss scum may proliferate 

in the flats. High nitrogen levels foster fungal 

pathogens, so never add nutrients to the soil 

media. Never fertilize seedlings while cotyledons are present. Wait until mature foliage has 

developed. Fertilize sparingly during the first 3 

months of development.

Losses

Most losses of Leutkea pectinata occur after the onset of 

warm weather, when aphid infestations increase rapidly on 

seedlings stressed from transplanting. Aphid infestations also 

can occur rapidly. Green aphid species, common on Luetkea

and Spiraea, sometimes can be detected only by using a hand 

lens. Aphids are commonly found on the underside of new 

foliage. Patches of wilting foliage and leaf curl are common 

symptoms of aphid infestation.

References

Amen, R.D. 1966. The extent and role of seed dormancy 

in alpine plants. Quarterly Review of Biology. 41: 271–281.

Hitchcock, C.L.; Cronquist, A. 1976. Flora of the 

Pacific Northwest: an illustrated manual. Illustrations by 

Jeanne R. Janish. Seattle, WA: University of Washington 

Press.

Olmsted, I.C. 1975. Factors influencing the distribution 

of two species of Phyllodoce in the mountains of Western 

North America. Durham, NC: Duke University. Dissertation. 

Protocol developed by:

Matthew Albright, nursery manager

Olympic National Park

(Revised April 30, 2004)

Figure C–6—Spiraea (Spiraea splendens). Photo courtesy of J.S. 

Peterson@USDA-NRCS PLANTS Database.
Appendix D—Case Studies

337

Figure D–1—Lake Valhalla in the Henry M. Jackson Wilderness, WA, has 

three major factors that place it at risk from damage by visitors. The lake is 

only a 3-mile hike from the trailhead; it is very picturesque; and it is situated in a fragile heath community.

Appendix D—Case Studies

Lake Valhalla Project Plan

Henry M. Jackson Wilderness, Wenatchee National 

Forest, WA.

Description of the Area

Lake Valhalla is in the Henry M. Jackson Wilderness 

along the Pacific Crest Trail, about 5 miles (8 kilometers) 

north of the trailhead at Stevens Pass on U.S. Highway 2 in 

Washington. At 4,828 feet (1,472 meters), Lake Valhalla 

(figure D–1) is an easy 3-mile (4.8-kilometer) hike.

The lake basin holds some 25 campsites, ranging from 

just a few square feet (about 0.3 square meter) of trampled 

vegetation to sites covering more than 3,000 square feet (279 

square meters) that are devoid of vegetation. Use could be 

characterized as moderate to heavy. The lake is one of the 

Wenatchee River Ranger District’s most popular day hiker 

and backpacker destinations. During the 1990 field season, 

wilderness rangers encountered an average of 11 groups at 

the lake during weekends. During the 1991 field season, rangers encountered an average of 12 groups per day on weekends 

and 4 groups each weekday. Peak use may be considerably 

higher. On October 5, 1991, a Saturday, a wilderness ranger 

encountered 27 groups (97 individuals and 3 stock animals) 

on round-trip day hikes to the lake using the Smithbrook 

Trail.

Stock use is fairly light, consisting mostly of a few 

parties of day riders each week who access the lake primarily 

from the Stevens Pass Trailhead of the Pacific Crest Trail. 

Some stock users camp overnight at the lake, but most take 

day trips. The small meadow at the lake is not suitable for 

grazing stock.

Key resource degradation problems at Lake Valhalla 

center around six issues:

1. Proliferation of social trails and erosion from them.

2. Damage to soils and vegetation at campsites 

because of trampling. Eleven sites are not in 

compliance with forest plan standards.

3. Damage to campsite vegetation and trails by 

pack and saddle stock.

4. Vegetative damage to the small meadow and 

soil erosion on the banks of the inlet stream 

because of grazing by pack and saddle stock.

5. Damage to standing trees and depletion of 

natural levels of woody debris because of 

firewood gathering.

6. Loss of the area’s wilderness character because 

of lack of solitude, frequent encounters with 

other groups, and visible site degradation 

(figure D–2).
Appendix D—Case Studies

338

Analysis of Current Situation

Problems at Lake Valhalla are caused largely by the 

social trail network that accesses the lake and lake basin 

campsites. The Pacific Crest Trail actually skirts the lake, but 

there has never been a designated system trail to access the 

lakeshore. Campsites at the lake were never constructed nor 

defined, resulting in sprawling sites linked by a maze of 

trails. There is no designated stock holding area or designated stock-user campsite. There have been frequent problems with stock being tied close to water or in campsites.

An additional source of problems at Lake Valhalla is the 

relatively high level of use, coupled with somewhat infrequent patrol by wilderness rangers. The high level of use has 

resulted in the area being stripped of firewood. Litter and 

improperly disposed feces also are frequent problems. At the 

lake, two Wallowa-style (unenclosed) toilets are used 

frequently enough to require that they be moved twice a year.

Because of this high level of use, it is virtually impossible for visitors to experience the “solitude or unconfined 

type of primitive recreation” called for by wilderness 

designation. On weekends, it is seldom possible to be away 

Figure D–2—Fragile sites, such as this campsite at Lake Valhalla, are easily degraded.

from the sights and sounds of others. Often, all of the lake’s 

main campsites are occupied.

Proposed Actions

Unless restrictions on the level of use are implemented 

(which is not being proposed at this time), none of the 

impacts occurring at Lake Valhalla can be managed effectively. Rehabilitation of campsites is not practical if use 

patterns remain unchanged. Some significant actions could 

be taken to improve conditions at the lake, bringing the area 

closer to meeting forest plan goals and standards.

Our current proposal is for a work project during the 

1992 field season, using a high school work group of the 

Student Conservation Association. The work plan will be 

written in discrete sections, allowing for incremental 

implementation, depending on the availability of resources.

1. Develop system trail day-use-only areas for 

access to the lakeshore.

 Objectives: Eliminate the current problem of 

eroded, braided trails that access the lakeshore. 

Improve opportunity for visitor solitude by 

channeling day users away from campsites. 

Reduce visual impact of degraded trails. 

Eliminate the current situation in which one or 

two camping parties can monopolize the best 

lakeshore viewpoints.

 This action will require the development of a 

hardened, defined trail tread and the rehabilitation of several sections of badly eroded trail. 

Campsite VL-02 would be closed and become 

the junction of the proposed lake access trail 

and the Pacific Crest Trail. The new trail 

section would skirt above boggy areas near the 

inlet creek, pass near site VL-11, then switchback to the lake near site VL-10.

 Sites VL-10 and VL-11 would become 

designated day-use areas, because these two 

sites represent the only easily accessible section 

of lakeshore.
Appendix D—Case Studies

339

 A small, oak bulletin board, and possibly one 

or two oak directional signs, will be made and 

posted. The bulletin board would be placed 

along the Pacific Crest Trail at the junction of 

the proposed lake access trail and would 

include a map of the lake area showing campsites and the location of the day-use area.

2. Designate a stock hitching area and a stock 

camp.

 Objectives: Alleviate conflicts between hikers 

and stock users. Protect soils, vegetation, and 

water quality at the inlet of Lake Valhalla. 

Provide appropriate camping and hitching areas 

for stock.

 Site VL-01 would become a designated stockhitching area for persons taking day rides to the 

lake. This area would be signed and the location 

shown on the bulletin board at the lake. The site 

can accommodate a permanent highline as well 

as one or two hitch rails. These facilities should 

be adequate for current levels of stock use and 

should protect the nearby meadow and campsites from trampling.

 A good site for overnight stock use is about 1 

mile (1.6 kilometers) south of Lake Valhalla 

along the Pacific Crest Trail. This site has good 

feed in a nearby resilient meadow. The site 

would be signed as a stock site and a sign would 

be placed there advising stock users that 

overnight camping with stock is prohibited at 

Lake Valhalla.

3. Establish defined tread for the Pacific Crest 

Trail between sites VL-04 and VL-02.

 Objectives: Allow recovery of trampled 

vegetation and the braided trail tread near the 

main inlet creek.

 Establish tread and build a creek crossing 

where the Pacific Coast Trail crosses the main 

inlet creek. This project will include construction of a turnpike and/or a rock ford crossing.

4. Provide heavy maintenance for the Pacific 

Coast Trail in the vicinity of Lake Valhalla.

 Objectives: Reconstruct tread, improve 

drainage of the Pacific Coast Trail, provide fill 

material, and transplant vegetation for trail 

rehabilitation at Lake Valhalla.

 Widen the tread, install drain dips and/or 

waterbars, and clean existing drainage features. 

Transport any usable fill material or plant 

material to the worksite to rehabilitate eroded 

social trials leading to the lake from site VL-03.

5. Prepare a special order prohibiting overnight stock use.

 Objectives: Allow implementation of stockuse aspects of this plan.

 An enforcement plan will be drafted and will 

outline education to make stock users aware of 

the closure and the alternative site for overnight 

camping with stock.

6. Consider future implementation of a campfire closure for the lake basin.

 Objectives: Analyze the needs for such an 

action, which are primarily to protect trees 

from damage and to reduce impacts at campsites.

 Despite an apparently abundant source of 

wood in the surrounding area, available 

firewood is scarce near campsites. However, 

tree damage and availability of firewood needs 

to be addressed in more detail before we would 

propose to ban campfires at lake campsites.

Strategy for Implementation

During the 1991 field season, seed was collected from 

the Lake Valhalla basin for propagation of subalpine spiraea 

(Spiraea densiflora), subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa), Sitka 

mountain-ash (Sorbus sitchensis), mountain hemlock (Tsuga 
Appendix D—Case Studies

340

mertensiana), and several sedges and herbaceous plants. A 

portion of this material will be saved for direct seeding, 

while some is being propagated by the Forest Service’s Wind 

River Nursery.

The projects listed above would require roughly 1,000 to 

2,000 hours of work, depending on the extent to which fill 

material is brought in to backfill eroded trail sections. 

Collection of seed or cuttings for plant propagation could 

take much longer, depending on the scope of specific siterelated projects.

Possible offsite sources of fill and plant material for 

transplants are in the Smithbrook area outside of the wilderness. Such material may need to be transported by helicopter, 

greatly increasing costs.

Our current plan is to accomplish the bulk of this project 

with a crew from the Student Conservation Association, 

probably a 7-person high school work crew. Additional 

project work will be accomplished by the district wilderness 

and trail crews.

The estimated first-year cost of the project will be 

$15,000. Followup work would be required to seed sites and 

transplant vegetation. In addition, we expect that an increased 

presence of wilderness rangers will be required over the next 

few years. The district also hopes to recruit volunteers to 

assist with some of the followup work. In view of the amount 

of vegetation needed to rehabilitate trails in this area, the 

district also may pursue partnerships with other interested 

groups, such as the Washington Native Plant Society.

Written by: 

Rich Haydon, lead wilderness ranger

Wenatchee River Ranger District

1991

2004 Update

This project was implemented largely as described in 

1992. A Student Conservation Association high school work 

crew (figures D–3a and 3b) completed the initial trail work, 

as well as campsite and trail closures. All fill was collected 

and hauled locally without the use of a helicopter. A fall 

planting of greenhouse-grown plant stock was successful, but 

a spring planting failed, probably because of a lack of soil 

moisture during the summer season. Because of declining 

budgets and turnover in personnel, ongoing maintenance of 

signs and stock structures has been a challenge. The campfire 

prohibition has been put in place. Overall, area conditions are 

improving because trails and campsites were reconfigured to 

handle the level of use in a more sustainable fashion.

Figures D–3a and 3b—Teenagers on a Student Conservation Association 

high school work crew spent many hours installing and backfilling rock 

(top) and installing log checkdams (bottom) to stabilize erosion at Lake 

Valhalla.
Appendix D—Case Studies

341

Grouse and Hemlock Lakes 

Campsite Restoration 

Project, Desolation 

Wilderness, Eldorado 

National Forest, CA

Description of Project Environment

Grouse and Hemlock Lakes (figures D–4a and 4b) are 

located in the subalpine zone at 8,200 to 8,400 feet (2,499 to 

2,560 meters) in the Crystal Range of the Sierra Nevada 

Mountains. The dominant tree species include lodgepole 

pine, mountain hemlock, and western white pine. The 

dominant understory vegetation is mountain heather, a short 

flowering plant that grows on the forest floor. Meadow 

vegetation also is prominent on the east side of Grouse Lake. 

Both Grouse and Hemlock Lakes are relatively small. The 

area surrounding these lake basins consists mostly of granitic 

soils with sparse vegetation and steep terrain. 

Access

Grouse and Hemlock Lakes are about a 3-mile (4.8-

kilometer) hike (Hemlock Lake is about 1⁄2 mile, 0.8 kilometer, past Grouse Lake) from the Twin Lakes Trailhead, which 

is in the popular Wrights Lake Recreation Area. Because it is 

so close to a popular recreation area, the Twin Lakes Trailhead is one of the more heavily used trailheads for the 

Desolation Wilderness. With Grouse and Hemlock Lakes just 

a short hike from such a popular trailhead, these lakes 

receive high overnight and day use. 

Visitor Attractions

• Lakes serve as a destination (scenic beauty, 

fishing opportunity)

• Relatively short hike from an easily accessed 

trailhead (the trailhead is near a popular 

campground and summer homes tract; access to 

the trailhead is by a paved road)

Causes of Impacts and Management 

of the Wilderness Resource

With Grouse and Hemlock Lakes just a short hike from 

a popular trailhead, these lake basins receive a great deal of 

overnight and day use. Because of the terrain, most of this 

use is concentrated in a small area in the sensitive lake 

basins. The amount of visitor use has resulted in a proliferation of campsites and social trails around the lakes. Most of 

this use is during the summer months (June through September), with the peak use during July and August. In most 

years, this area is covered by snow from November through 

June. 

Figures D–4a and 4b—Ease of access to Grouse and Hemlock Lakes (top) 

in the Desolation Wilderness, CA, led to extensive impacts (bottom).
Appendix D—Case Studies

342

Management Actions Taken To Reduce 

Impacts

Grouse and Hemlock Lakes were being impacted by 

camping at sites within the sensitive lakeshore zone, riparian 

areas, and meadows. The impacts associated with this use 

included: 

• Loss of native vegetation

• Soil compaction

• Increased erosion 

• Reduced water quality because the sediment 

load increased after vegetative cover was lost 

and the soil was compacted

• Reduced visual and scenic beauty

The following is a brief description of the management 

actions taken to reduce impacts. More specific information 

will be provided later.

• Established designated campsites within 500 feet 

(152 meters) of Grouse and Hemlock Lakes.

• Restored eliminated campsites and social trails 

to natural conditions. Restoration activities 

involved revegetating the area by breaking up 

compacted soil, mulching with native materials, 

transplanting native plants found onsite, and 

placing rocks and logs to give the area a natural 

appearance and to encourage groups to use the 

well-established, durable sites and avoid the 

sensitive areas (figure D–5).

• Installed temporary signs where necessary to 

keep visitors from walking through and trampling the restoration site. Rocks and logs couldn’t 

do the job everywhere. 

• Increased wilderness ranger presence to provide 

education and inform the public about the 

project.

• Prepared a forest order for implementation (to be 

completed in 2004).

• Conducted monitoring (observations by wilderness rangers and photopoint documentation). 

Subsequent restoration has been completed based 

on the monitoring information.

Standards, Guidelines, and Direction From 

the Wilderness Management Plan

The Desolation Wilderness Management Guidelines 

restrict camping within 500 feet (152 meters) of Grouse and 

Hemlock Lakes to designated sites. The number of designated sites will be correlated with the quota so campers will 

not have to be assigned a specific site, but will have the 

freedom to choose their preferred designated site. Campers 

can camp without restriction if they are farther than 500 feet 

(152 meters) from the lakeshore. Allow natural recovery in 

areas where vegetation that has been impacted can revegetate 

naturally in less than 10 years. If recovery is expected to take 

longer than 10 years, develop and implement site-specific 

restoration plans to include closure to use and/or revegetation 

using species native to the area. 

In addition, the Desolation Wilderness Management 

Guidelines provide direction to implement a zone quota 

system, which has been an effective method of dispersing 

campers and appears to have reduced the number of overnight visitors to Grouse and Hemlock Lakes. The quota for 

this zone is 12 people, which was implemented in 1999. 

Before 1999, a trailhead quota system was in place. The 

quota for the trailhead was 39 people. Because there was no 

control over where the 39 people ended up, Grouse Lake 

Figure D–5—Rocks and logs were installed on social trails and closed 

campsites to deter use and provide microhabitat for plantings.
Appendix D—Case Studies

343

often was overcrowded. It was the first lake backpackers 

came to after a steep climb.

Results of Minimum Requirements 

Analysis

1. Is the action necessary? Yes.

2. What are the minimum tools? Because other 

techniques failed to return the area to standards, restoration treatments were part of the 

minimum tool necessary to meet management 

direction. No motorized equipment was needed.

Prescription for Restoration

The Three Es: 

Engineering—You must be able to remove or reduce the 

impact to the site.

Education—When sites are being impacted by recreational use, you must inform the public to get cooperation.

Enforcement—When engineering and education don’t 

do the job, you must be able to fall back on law enforcement.

Site Protection and Confinement

Campsites were designated within 500 feet (152 meters) 

of Grouse and Hemlock Lakes. The number of designated 

campsites was correlated with the quota so that users would 

not be assigned a specific site, but would have the freedom to 

choose their preferred designated site. Designated campsites 

were selected based on campsite durability and proximity to 

the lakeshore, streams, meadow areas, and other campsites. 

Four sites were designated at Grouse Lake and three sites 

were designated at Hemlock Lake. The zone quota for the 

Hemlock Lake zone (which includes Grouse and Hemlock 

Lakes) is 12 people. 

• Reduced or eliminated use from impacted sites 

(or restoration sites).

• Encouraged use at selected campsites and areas 

suitable for visitor use.

• Used rocks and logs for a natural appearance, 

and to encourage groups to use the wellestablished, durable sites and discourage use of 

the sensitive areas. Rocks and logs were partially 

buried in closed campsites and at the beginning 

of social trails leading to sensitive areas and old 

campsites. 

• The tools used included: shovel, rock bar, 

Pulaski, and a come-along.

Soil Treatments

• Broke up compacted soil using a shovel and 

Pulaski.

• Mulched the bare ground using native materials 

from the area, including pine needles and 

meadow grasses.

Vegetative Treatments

• Transplanted mountain heather, lodgepole pine 

seedlings, and meadow grasses.

• Used a lawn-coring aerator (nonmotorized), 

grass plugger, and a mulch of meadow grasses 

when spreading the seed in the meadow areas.

• Most of the transplanting was completed in the 

late fall, when the plants had gone dormant and 

precipitation was likely.

Regulations, Signs, and Education

• Temporary signs are in place at selected 

restoration sites where it was difficult to 

discourage visitor use through engineering. The 

signs are on a 4- by 4-inch (about 100- by 100-

millimeter) wooden post: “Restoration Site: 

Please help restore this area by walking and 

camping elsewhere.” (figure D–6).
Appendix D—Case Studies

344

• Information about the restoration project and a 

map with the designated campsites is included 

in a wilderness-regulation handout that is 

attached to each overnight wilderness permit.

• Increased wilderness ranger presence is being 

provided at these sites to allow rangers to talk 

with the public about the project and enforce 

the camping restrictions. 

• A forest order, which would prohibit camping 

outside of designated campsites within 500 feet 

(152 meters) of Grouse and Hemlock Lakes, has 

not been completed, but is planned to be in 

place in 2004. For the most part, this project 

has been well received and compliance has 

been about 90 percent. Most of the success has 

probably been because of the increased presence of the wilderness rangers and the public 

contacts they have made.

Work Accomplished

Budget: $8,000 (fee demo)

Workforce: Project leader and five-person crew

Partnerships: None. Because this was our first wilderness restoration project, we decided to accomplish the work 

with employees instead of volunteers. Now that we have 

experience with this type of project, volunteers could be used 

effectively.

Monitoring Results

Monitoring was conducted through wilderness ranger 

observations, campsite condition inventories, and photo 

documentation. Although the restoration project was a 

success, monitoring results indicate some followup work is 

needed.

Wilderness Ranger Observations

There has been about 90-percent compliance for the 

designated campsite restrictions within 500 feet (152 meters) 

of Grouse and Hemlock Lakes. The temporary signs at 

selected restoration sites have reduced the amount of use 

(visitors walking through or camping on these sites) to a level 

that will allow the site to recover within 5 to 10 years. In 

addition, dissemination of information about the restoration 

work and the designated campsite restrictions has improved, 

making users more aware of the problem and leading to 

better compliance with the restrictions.

Campsite Condition Inventories and 

Photo Documentation

Campsite inventories were conducted at Grouse and 

Hemlock Lakes in 1992. Twenty-two campsites were 

documented at Grouse Lake and eight campsites were 

documented at Hemlock Lake. By 2001, just 16 campsites 

were documented at Grouse Lake. The number of documented campsites at Hemlock Lake had not changed. After the 

Figure D–6—Restoration closure signs helped deter use at closed sites.
Appendix D—Case Studies

345

project, the number of campsites at Grouse Lake was reduced 

to eight (four designated sites within 500 feet (152 meters) of 

Grouse Lake and four campsites outside the 500-foot (152-

meter) zone). At Hemlock Lake, the eight campsites were 

reduced to five (three designated sites within 500 feet (152 

meters) of Hemlock Lake and two campsites outside the 500-

foot (152-meter) zone). Photopoints were established for each 

campsite.

Followup Actions and Lessons 

Learned

Additional restoration has been completed since the 

initial work in 2001. Most of the additional work was 

transplanting, with some minor rock and log moving to 

provide a more natural appearance at the restoration sites that 

were still being used. 

Tips and Lessons Learned

• No instant gratification—Restoration projects 

take years to complete and even longer before 

the improvements become apparent. 

• Recognize long-term implications—Monitor 

progress and plan for additional work. You can’t 

just do the initial work and then leave an area to 

recover on its own. 

• Don’t take on too much—Concentrate your 

efforts in a few small sites or on a portion of a 

larger site.

• Transplanting can be difficult—Don’t spend a 

lot of time on transplanting until you know your 

plants will survive and become established.

• Monitoring is important—At a minimum, establish photopoints and record locations of the 

restoration sites using a global positioning 

system receiver. 

Report submitted by:

Jennifer Ebert, wilderness resource manager

Eldorado National Forest

Mill Flat Restoration

Pine Valley Mountain 

Wilderness, Dixie National 

Forest, UT

Description of the Area

Mill Flat is a subalpine meadow in the Pine Valley 

Mountain Wilderness on the Pine Valley Ranger District of 

the Dixie National Forest in southern Utah. Mill Flat is about 

a 20-acre (8.1-hectare) grassy meadow at 8,500 feet (2,591 

meters). The surrounding vegetation is mixed conifer and 

high-elevation shrubs, such as mountain mahogany, serviceberry, and juniper. The mixed-conifer forest includes 

Engelmann spruce, white fir, Douglas-fir, ponderosa pine, 

and aspen. The meadow includes the upper reaches of Mill 

Creek and an unnamed, seepy, grassy, riparian area. 

Causes of Impacts and Management 

of the Wilderness Resource

Mill Flat (figure D–7) is a pleasant mountain meadow 

that has always provided livestock respite from the summer 

heat at lower elevations. Recreational livestock and permitted 

Figure D–7—Mill Flats had substantial changes in vegetative composition 

because of overgrazing. Restoration involved improving management of 

grazing. No active revegetation was needed.
Appendix D—Case Studies

346

cattle have overgrazed the area, leaving stunted and severely 

damaged forage plants and forbs. Much of the area is 

denuded of plants, which has led to gullying and erosion in 

the riparian areas. Cows like to wallow and root with their 

heads in the soft earth of the gully banks, enlarging the 

gullies.

When I first became aware of the conditions at Mill Flat, 

I asked the question, “Why doesn’t grass grow in Mill Flat?” 

Often, the answer was, “Grass won’t grow in Mill Flat, never 

has, never will.” I determined to discover if this was true. 

Prescription for Restoration

I enlisted the help of various specialists, such as soil 

scientists, hydrologists, vegetation specialists, and wildlife 

biologists, searching for a reason why grass wouldn’t grow in 

Mill Flat. Their answers were the same, “Grass can grow in 

Mill Flat, there must be a mechanical reason why it’s not 

growing. Maybe horses and cows.” We obtained a special 

order to restrict grazing by recreational livestock and enlisted 

the help and cooperation of the grazing permittees to limit 

grazing by permitted cattle. Because we couldn’t afford to 

station a herder or wilderness ranger at the meadow to 

monitor the meadow full time, we decided to use a three-wire 

electric fence to control grazing (figure D–8). This decision 

came as the result of an informal minimum-tool evaluation. 

We have experienced fairly good success with the 

electric fence, although at first we did have some vandalism 

and some visitors let the fence down so their stock could 

graze inside. It took some time to change the attitude of some 

visitors and ranchers so they could accept the fence and the 

idea that the fence was going to stay. I think persistence and 

patience on our part have been the reasons for their change of 

attitude. We also have tried to explain the project’s goals to 

visitors. In the past few years, folks have begun to accept and 

support the project.

Monitoring Results

After 9 years of protection by the electric fence, vegetation is healing and rehabilitating itself (figures D–9a and 9b) 

in the meadow area. The gully banks have filled in with 

grasses and forbs, the uplands are now showing a great deal 

of cover, and the tiny grasses are starting to grow to a more 

natural height. There has been significant recovery throughout the meadow, including the filling in of the 100-year-old 

trail that has run through the middle of it. This trail has been 

rerouted to the edge of the meadow. There has been a 

significant recovery of quaking aspen. Many new shoots and 

saplings now grow within the fenced area. We have not done 

any other restoration, such as scarifying or reseeding.

We have a very good working partnership with the local 

chapter of the Back Country Horsemen of America. They 

help us put up and take down the fence, help monitor the 

fence, and maintain it during the summer. Because of 

reductions in wilderness and trail budgets, we rely heavily on 

these volunteers.

In conclusion, I would say that we have been successful 

with this project. The visitors and the cattlemen are cooperating with the closure. After 9 years of protecting this meadow, 

I can say without qualification: “Grass will grow in Mill 

Flat.”

Figure D–8—Commercial livestock were rotated between three pastures 

separated by electric fences.
Appendix D—Case Studies

347

If I can be of any further help or assistance, or can 

supply any other information, please feel free to contact me. I 

can be reached at 435–652–3124.

Fredric R. Ybright, wilderness coordinator

Pine Valley Mountain Wilderness

Pine Valley Ranger District

Dixie National Forest

196 East Tabernacle St.

St. George, UT 84770

Edith Lake Campsite 

Restoration Project,

Sawtooth Wilderness, 

Sawtooth National 

Recreation Area, ID

Description of Project Environment

Edith Lake (figure D–10) was formed by glaciation. The 

lake sits in a small cirque basin formed in the Idaho batholith 

at about 8,660 feet (2,640 meters) in the subalpine zone of 

the Sawtooth Mountains of south-central Idaho. The dominant tree species include lodgepole pine and subalpine fir. 

Grouse whortleberry is dominant in the understory. Slopes 

are steep, vegetation is sparse, and soils in this area are 

predominantly shallow, silty pockets along shorelines or 

among granitic outcrops. Temperatures are extreme, the 

growing season is short, and moisture comes predominantly 

in the form of snow. 

Figures D–9a and 9b—These before (top) and after (bottom) photos show 

the response of vegetation after grazing pressure was reduced at Mill Flats.

Figure D–10—Edith Lake in the Sawtooth Wilderness, WA.
Appendix D—Case Studies

348

Access

Edith Lake is accessed by traveling 6 to 12 miles (about 

10 to 20 kilometers) from any one of three trailheads on the 

east side of the Sawtooth Wilderness. Of the four most used 

wilderness trailheads, two provide direct access to Edith 

Lake. Several other popular lakes can be accessed by the 

Edith Lake Trail. Visitors can incorporate a loop into their 

trip by using this trail. Campsites at Edith Lake have been 

popular since the 1930s, receiving both overnight and day 

use. 

Visitor Attractions

• Destination area for scenic beauty and fishing

• Edith Lake Trail provides access to other highly 

popular lakes, as well as an option for a loop 

hike

• Relatively short hike from an easily accessed 

trailhead (the trailhead is near a popular 

campground and a summer-home tract)

Causes of Impacts and Management 

of the Wilderness Resource

Edith Lake has been a popular Sawtooth Mountain 

destination since the early 1900s. Snow often does not leave 

campsites until July. Users arrive before the campsites have 

dried out, while the soil is still wet and easily compacted. 

Visitors’ activity has reduced the possibility for spring 

revegetation and increased compaction and the potential for 

sheet erosion. Because access is easy, both day and overnight 

use are fairly high. The peak use occurs during July and 

August, coinciding with the very short growing season. 

Management Actions Taken To Reduce 

Impacts

Soils in most of the overused campsites are compacted. 

The surface layer has a platy structure, with surface compaction ranging from 6 to 12 inches (about 150 to 300 millimeters) deep. Before the compacted areas can revegetate, the 

surface soil must be broken up or loosened so seeds can 

penetrate the soil.

Edith Lake was being heavily impacted by camping in 

sites that straddled the trail or that were within the sensitive 

lakeshore zone. The impacts associated with this use included: 

• Loss of native vegetation

• Soil compaction

• Increased erosion

• Reduced water quality because of increased 

sediment load after vegetation was lost and the 

soil was compacted

• Reduced visual and scenic attractiveness

The following is a brief description of the management 

actions taken to reduce impacts. More specific information is 

provided later.

• Implemented closure to overnight stock use 

within 200 yards (183 meters) of the lake in 

1998.

• Five sites were rehabilitated after the high-use 

season in 2002 and left in a condition that made 

overnight use undesirable, if not impossible. 

Three of the closed sites either overlapped the 

system trail or were right beside it. A fourth 

was on the eastern lakeshore. Compacted soil 

was broken up and reseeded with locally 

gathered seeds in the hopes that vegetation 

could become established once again. (Note: 

Because the seeds were gathered late in the 

season, many seeds already had dropped.) Logs 

were strewn across the sites and large rocks 

were buried to prevent material from being 

moved easily by wilderness visitors. Some 

members of the crew were rehabilitation artists, 

making the altered sites appear as natural as 

possible.

• An alternate site (figure D–11), suitable for 

large groups, was found and a user trail was 
Appendix D—Case Studies

349

Figure D–11—This campsite was opened after five others in less suitable 

areas were closed and rehabilitated. 

created so visitors could find it. A small area of 

one of the reclaimed sites was left unaltered to 

allow a highline to be placed where day riders 

could tie their stock. An access to the lake was 

left through another reclaimed site.

• During 2004, plant growth was inventoried. 

Tree seedlings and new plugs of grass and 

whortleberry were transplanted onsite. 

• Monitoring information (observations by 

wilderness rangers and photopoint documentation) was collected. Subsequent restoration was 

completed based on this documentation.

Standards, Guidelines, and Direction From 

the Wilderness Management Plan

Direction in the Sawtooth Wilderness Management Plan 

(Forest Land and Resource Management Plan Amendment 

1997) provides:

• Overall Goals 

 – Natural biological processes are not

 changed over time by human use.

 – The visitor is provided opportunities

 where naturalness, solitude, and

 freedom are paramount.

• During the summer of 2003, the changes were 

explained to front desk personnel so they could 

help visitors locate the preferred group site and 

understand how they could help the rehabilitation. “Closed to Camping” signs were placed at 

this site. Another small sign was placed at the 

junction of the maintained trail and the trail 

that directed users to the new site for large 

groups.

• During the late summer of 2003, more local 

seed was gathered (figure D–12). Our timing 

was better this year and seeds had not dispersed. The seeds were mixed with mud and 

manure from the site and formed into small 

balls that were scattered at the sites.

Figure D–12—Gathering seed used to restore vegetation at closed campsites.
Appendix D—Case Studies

350

 – The minimum-tool concept will be used

 to accomplish site-specific work that

 least degrades wilderness values.

 – Stock users and large groups are

 encouraged to camp in sites that can

 withstand their use.

Guidelines for Site Selection

Existing sites should be used whenever possible. 

The following guidelines are to be used for 

establishing new sites or for rehabilitating 

existing sites.

Designated Group Campsites

• Farther than 100 feet (31 meters) from water, or 

for existing sites, 50 to 100 feet (15 to 31 

meters) from water—with a vegetative buffer

• Farther than 100 feet (31 meters) from trails, or 

for existing sites, 50 to 100 feet (15 to 31 

meters) from trails—with a visual buffer

• Larger than 1,000 square feet (93 square 

meters)

• Impact levels 3 to 5

• 0- to 5-degree slope

Stock-Holding Facilities

• Rocky terrain with little vegetation

• Less than 2-degree slope within 100 feet (31 

meters) of water 

• Less than 5-degree slope if 150 to 300 feet (46 

to 91 meters) from water 

• Less than 10-degree slope farther than 300 feet 

(91 meters) from water 

• Not in draws or where water may concentrate

Toilets

• Farther than 300 feet (91 meters) from water 

• Farther than 100 feet (31 meters) from campsites 

• Farther than 100 feet (31 meters) from trails 

• Not visible from lakeshore or trails 

• Not in draws or areas where water may concentrate

Desired Future Condition

Edith Lake is in a Class III opportunity class with 

the following desired future condition:

Clear evidence of camping. Minimal number of sites generally limited to areas previously disturbed. No further degradation 

of existing campsites. Expect some loss of 

ground cover. Evidence of stock confined 

to stock holding areas. Area of disturbance 

will have some evidence of soil compaction. Little evidence of wood gathering and 

some evidence of campfires.

Results of Minimum Requirements 

Analysis

1. Is the action necessary? Yes.

2. What are the minimum tools? Because other 

techniques failed to return the area to standards, restoration treatments were part of the 

minimum tool necessary to meet management 

direction. Motorized equipment was not 

considered.

Prescription for Restoration

A holistic restoration prescription was developed to 

improve conditions for reestablishing vegetation and for 

redirecting recreational use at the site.

Site Protection and Confinement

Before any restoration, an effort was made to analyze 

where users would go and the resulting impacts if sites were 

closed. We identified the sites that would remain open, the 

sites that should be restored, and a new site where we could 

direct visitors. 
Appendix D—Case Studies

351

The sites that were selected for restoration were made as 

unusable as possible. Logs were strewn throughout the site, 

rocks were iceberged (the larger portion was buried), and 

native debris (pine needles, fine gravel) was strewn across the 

site to mimic the appearance of the surrounding area. Logs 

and rocks were placed on the site to restrict use and provide 

shade for vegetation. 

Soil Treatments

The soil in this area was badly compacted, so we tried to 

break it up to allow root establishment. We used Pulaskis, 

shovels, rock bars, and picks, but despite all our effort, we 

were unable to break up the soil deeper than 6 inches (150 

millimeters). Manure was collected onsite and dispersed with 

the locally gathered seeds.

Vegetative Treatments

Initially, lodgepole and subalpine-fir seedlings were the 

only transplants. We chose to transplant these seedlings 

during early fall and watered them heavily during planting. 

Afterward, we transplanted mountain heather, elk sedge, 

grouse whortleberry, and saplings (lodgepole, whitebark 

pine, and subalpine fir).

Supporting Regulations, Signs, and 

Education

• Special order “Prohibiting camping with equine 

stock” is in place.

• Carsonite signs with a standard no camping 

symbol and “Protect the wilderness environment” stickers were placed at each site.

• Signs were displayed on information boards at 

trailheads. These included a small map indicating where campsites were available.

Work Accomplished

Budget: $1,430 (salary)

Workforce: A project leader and seven-person crew for 

2 days each for the initial implementation. One wilderness 

ranger spends 1 day annually monitoring the site and doing 

additional work.

Partnerships: None. The work was accomplished as an 

end-of-season project by wilderness rangers.

Monitoring Results 

Monitoring was conducted through wilderness ranger 

observations, campsite condition inventories, and photo 

documentation. Overall, I would consider the project a 

success. However, the degree of success varied across sites—

two of the sites were only partially restored, leaving a portion 

of the sites for day use by stock and for access to the lake. 

These two sites have been the least successful. At one of the 

sites, no plants have grown, but the iceberg rocks are still in 

place. Recent observations determined that fires have been 

built, despite a no-campfire regulation that is in effect. The 

other site allows access to the lake and, despite signs, it 

appears that camping is continuing. Some of the debris has 

been removed and there is little regrowth at the site. The 

remaining three sites have multiple seedlings, and some 

sedges and grasses are reestablishing themselves (figures D–

13a and 13b). All but one of the transplanted saplings 

survived and appear to be growing. 

Future monitoring needs to include growth rates of 

vegetation.

Use of the new site has been very low. The only sign is at 

the small user trail that accesses the site. We surmise that 

users aren’t seeing the sign. We have not identified any 

proliferation of campsites.
Appendix D—Case Studies

352

Followup Actions and Lessons 

Learned

Restoration has continued annually since the initial 

project in 2002. Transplanting and collection and dispersal of 

local seed has taken place annually and is planned to 

continue. Some logs had to be moved into the campsites.

Tips and Lessons Learned

• Plan ahead. Understand the implications of 

closing a site.

• Scarification of soil is critical to establishing 

new growth. 

• Timing is critical. The late season works well 

for transplants and seed dispersal. Wait too late 

and you miss the window for collecting seed.

• Monitoring is important to understand success 

and failure and to plan work. A good inventory 

as soon as the project is initiated is useful as a 

baseline.

• Work with your frontliners (receptionists and 

other employees who contact the public) to 

ensure that users are informed of your objectives.

• It is better to be successful at a few sites than to 

be unsuccessful at many sites. Choose your sites 

carefully.

Report submitted by:

Liese C. Dean, wilderness program coordinator 

Sawtooth National Recreation Area

Wilderness Restoration 

Case Study, Lake of the 

Woods Campsite 

Restoration Project,

Desolation Wilderness, 

Pacific Ranger District, 

Eldorado National Forest

Lake of the Woods (figure D–14) is in the subalpine 

zone, at about 8,000 feet elevation in the Crystal Range of 

California’s Sierra Nevada Mountains. Lake of the Woods is 

one of the larger lakes within the Desolation Wilderness. The 

lake basin is densely forested with lodgepole pine, mountain 

hemlock, and red fir. The area surrounding this lake basin 

consists mostly of granitic soils with sparse vegetation and 

steep terrain. 

Figures D–13a and 13b—This heavily impacted campsite (top) at Edith 

Lake has begun to recover (bottom).
Appendix D—Case Studies

353

Visitor Use (Amount/Pattern/Type/

Season)

Because Lake of the Woods is an attractive destination 

just a short hike from a popular trailhead, it receives an 

excessive amount of overnight and day use. The terrain 

concentrates most use in a small area inside the sensitive 

lakeshore zone. Lake of the Woods tends to attract larger 

groups (maximum group size in the Desolation Wilderness is 

12 persons per group) compared to other destinations within 

the Desolation Wilderness. Most use occurs during the 

summer months (June through September), with peak use 

during July and August, coinciding with the very short 

growing season. In most years, the area near Desolation Lake 

is covered by snow from November through June.

Management Actions To Reduce 

Impacts

Lake of the Woods was being heavily impacted by 

camping in sites that were within the sensitive lakeshore 

zone. The impacts associated with this use included: 

• Loss of native vegetation

• Soil compaction

• Increased erosion

• Reduced water quality because of increased 

sediment load (caused by the loss of vegetative 

cover and soil compaction)

• Reduced visual and scenic attractiveness 

Management actions to reduce impacts included: 

• Campsites in undesirable locations were 

restored to natural conditions. The campsites 

that had the highest impacts were the first to be 

restored. Restoration activities involved 

breaking up compacted soil, placing rocks and 

logs to give the area a natural appearance, and 

mulching the surface with native materials 

(figures D–15a and 15b). 

Access

Lake of the Woods is a 5-mile hike when accessed by 

the popular Echo Lakes Trailhead. With a 15-minute boat 

taxi, access to Lake of the Woods is a fairly easy 3-mile hike. 

The boat taxi is very popular, and contributes to the popularity of Lake of the Woods as a destination in the Desolation 

Wilderness. 

Visitor Attractions

• Destination area for scenic beauty, fishing 

opportunity.

• Relatively short hike from a trailhead that is 

accessed easily from a major highway near the 

Lake Tahoe Basin. In addition, the trailhead is 

near a popular campground and a summer 

homes tract.

Figure D–14—Lake of the Woods in the Desolation Wilderness, CA.
Appendix D—Case Studies

354

 Some vegetation was transplanted—with 

limited success. Because hazard trees had not 

yet been eliminated, campsites could not be 

designated before the restoration work was 

completed. Some obvious campsites were left 

open to encourage visitors to camp there instead 

of at the restoration sites.

• Because the campsite proliferation was so 

extensive (including several campsites that 

merged into one large campsite) and rocks and 

logs to restore the site’s natural appearance 

were in short supply, snags were directionally 

felled by blasting to provide some ground cover 

and discourage use (figures D–16a and 16b).

Figure D–15a—Campsites that had the highest impacts were the first to be 

restored.

Figure D–15b—Campsites in undesirable locations were restored to natural 

conditions. 

Figure D–16a—Several campsites merged into one large campsite. Rocks 

and logs to restore the site’s natural appearance were in short supply.

Figure D–16b—Snags were directionally felled by blasting to provide some 

ground cover and discourage use. 
Appendix D—Case Studies

355

• After the blasting project removed the hazard 

trees, nine campsites were designated. 

• Temporary signs were installed where it would 

have been difficult to use rocks and logs to keep 

visitors from trampling the restoration site 

(figures D–17a and 17b).

Figure D–17a—Access trails leading to campsites in undesirable locations 

also need to be closed. 

Figure D–17b—Temporary signs were installed at access trails and campsites to keep visitors from trampling the restoration site. 

 This was particularly important because the 

designated campsite restrictions were not in 

place before the restoration work was completed. 

• Wilderness ranger presence was increased to 

inform the public about the project and its 

purpose.

Standards, Guidelines, and Direction 

from the Wilderness Management 

Plan

Desolation Wilderness Management Guidelines (final 

environmental impact statement signed in 1998):

• Restrict camping within 500 feet of Lake of the 

Woods to designated sites. The number of 

designated sites will be correlated with the 

quota so that users will not be assigned a 

specific site, but have the freedom to choose 

their preferred designated site. Campers can 

camp unrestricted if they are more than 500 

feet from the lakeshore.

• Allow areas where vegetation has been impacted by human use to revegetate naturally if 

recovery is expected to take less than 10 years. 

Where recovery is expected to take longer than 

10 years, develop and implement site-specific 

restoration plans to include closure to use and/

or revegetation using species native to the area. 

Results of Minimum Requirements 

Analysis

1. Is the action necessary? Yes.

2. What are the minimum tools? Because other 

techniques failed to return the area to standards, restoration treatments were part of the 

minimum tool necessary to meet management 

direction. Some traditional restoration techniques were not adequate for larger campsite 
Appendix D—Case Studies

356

areas, so snags were blasted as a restoration 

technique (figures D–18a and 18b). 

Relying on blasting rather than using crosscut saws to 

fell snags allowed the natural wilderness character to be 

maintained. If the trees had been felled with crosscut saws, 

saw marks would have been left on the trees. Motorized 

equipment was not considered.

Figure D–18a—This stump appears to have been broken off naturally, helping to maintain the wilderness character. 

Figure D–18b—After blasting was complete, the campsite had a natural appearance and the fallen logs discouraged camping on the restored site.

Site Protection and Confinement

Before any restoration work began, managers made an 

effort to analyze where users would go and the impacts they 

would cause if sites were unavailable at Lake of the Woods. 

We identified the campsites that would be designated for 

continued use and those that should be restored. 

• Groups were encouraged to use the wellestablished, durable sites that were designated 

for camping. 

• Use was reduced or eliminated from impacted 

sites (or restoration sites). 

• Rocks and logs were added and partially buried 

so they appeared to have been placed naturally 

and to discourage visitors from trying to move 

them. 

Soil Treatments

Because the soil in this area was severely compacted, 

pulaskis and shovels were used to break it apart to allow root 

establishment. The bare ground was mulched with native 

materials from the area, including pine needles.

Vegetative Treatments

Some native vegetation was transplanted, but success 

was limited. Breaking up the compacted soil and discouraging visitor use should allow vegetation to recover over the 

long term. 

Regulations, Signs, and Education

• Signs are in place at selected restoration sites 

where it was difficult to discourage visitor use 

with rocks and logs. The signs are on a 4- by 4-

inch (100- by 100- millimeter) wooden post 

saying: “Restoration Site: Please help restore 

this area by walking and camping elsewhere.”
Appendix D—Case Studies

357

• Information about the restoration project and a 

map with the designated campsites are included 

in a wilderness regulations handout that is 

attached to each overnight wilderness permit. 

• The time wilderness rangers spent at these sites 

was increased so they could talk with the public 

about the project and enforce the camping 

restrictions. 

• A Forest Order was implemented that prohibits 

camping outside of designated campsites within 

500 feet of Lake of the Woods. 

For the most part, this project has been well received and 

compliance has been about 90 percent. Most of the success is 

probably due to the increased time wilderness rangers have 

spent in the area and the contacts they have made with the 

public.

Work Accomplished

Budget: $23,000 (2-year project), of which $8,000 was 

for blasting. The cost includes project planning, environmental analysis, and implementation (partially funded by a 

grant).

Workforce: Initial restoration work, 2004—project 

leader and five-person crew for 2 weeks; blasting, 2004—2 

certified blasters, 2 packers, 11 mules, 6 other crewmembers 

for 3 days, 15 cases (800 pounds) of explosives; restoration 

work, 2005—project leader and 11 volunteers for 4 days. 

Partnerships: Worked with Wilderness Volunteers 

(http://www.wildernessvolunteers.org), a nonprofit organization, during 2005.

Monitoring Results 

Monitoring was conducted through wilderness ranger 

observations and photo documentation. 

August 2004: Initial restoration work was completed. 

About 12 campsites/areas were restored, two of which were 

larger areas. The restoration work was completed before 

hazard trees could be removed from some campsites, so those 

campsites could not be designated. Some campsites in less 

sensitive areas were left open to encourage visitors to use 

those sites, rather than the restored campsites. For the most 

part, this approach was successful. However, visitors moved a 

few rocks and logs so they could use some of the restored 

campsites. 

October 2004: A blasting project was undertaken to 

remove hazard trees from designated campsites and to 

provide fallen logs in areas where logs and other material 

needed to restore campsites were in short supply. Nine 

campsites were designated at this time. 

June 2005: After one winter, we were extremely pleased 

with the results. The fallen logs were especially effective at 

closing sensitive areas and discouraging use. 

August 2005: More restoration work was completed 

with the Wilderness Volunteers nonprofit organization. The 

restoration work focused on several of the campsites that had 

been missed during the initial restoration work and two large 

barren areas where restoration was begun—but couldn’t be 

completed—in 2004. 

Followup Actions and Lessons 

Learned

Some minor restoration work probably will continue in 

the area over the next several years, but it will probably be 

completed by wilderness rangers during routine patrol.

Lessons Learned

• Blasting trees (figure D–19) was an extremely 

effective restoration method, particularly in 

areas where rocks and fallen logs were not 

readily available. This technique was especially 

helpful at larger campsite areas where it would 

have been difficult to discourage visitor use 

otherwise. This technique produced immediate 

results. 
Appendix D—Case Studies

358

• Not only did blasting provide fallen logs, it also 

provided mulch materials (tree bark, needles, 

branches) for ground cover.

• Blasting maintained the wilderness character, 

leaving a natural appearance rather than saw 

marks on smooth stumps and the ends of logs.

Report submitted by:

Jennifer Ebert, wilderness resource manager

Desolation Wilderness Area

Eldorado National Forest, Pacific Ranger District

Figure D–19—Strapping explosives to trees.
Appendix E—Forms

359

Appendix E—Forms

This appendix includes eight forms you can modify to fit 

your own needs:

• Site Assessment Form—This form can be used 

to prepare a detailed site assessment. The form 

was developed by Glacier National Park.

• Campground Vegetation Inventory—This 

form will help you assess individual campsites 

for restoration treatments. The form was 

developed by Glacier National Park.

• Restoration Daily Project Log—This log 

provides a daily record that will prove invaluable for planning other projects when you need 

to estimate how much time is required to 

complete certain tasks.

• Onsite Restoration Information—This form 

can be used to document initial restoration 

treatments. The form was developed by the 

Wenatchee National Forest’s Wenatchee River 

Ranger District.

• Restoration Site Maintenance and Monitoring Record—This form will help you document 

ongoing maintenance and monitoring. Data 

recorded here may supplement data on the 

revegetation monitoring form. This form was 

developed by the Wenatchee River Ranger 

District.

• Revegetation Monitoring Form—This form 

tracks vegetative recovery. It was developed by 

the Wenatchee National Forest’s Wenatchee 

River Ranger District.

• Seed Collection Form—This form documents 

the attributes of each seed lot. It was developed 

by the Wallowa-Whitman National Forest. A 

similar form can be developed for other types 

of plant material.

• Plant Material Transportation, Storage, 

Extraction, and Preparation Log (excludes 

seed)—This form is used for shipping plant 

materials to nurseries and tracks the steps taken 

to process the materials. The form was developed by the Forest Service’s Pacific Northwest 

Region nursery program.
Appendix E—Forms

360

Site Assessment Form

Site name and location: _______________________________________________________________________

Date: ___________________________________________

Examiner’s name: _______________________________________________________

General description of site (include history and use): _____________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Site location (Section, township, and range or UTM): _____________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Elevation: _____________ Aspect: _______________ Slope/relief: ________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Appendix E—Forms

361

Soils and Geology

Soil type: ( ) Alluvial, flood plain, beach soils ( ) Wet soils ( ) Glacial soils

 ( ) Bedrock soil—metamorphic ( ) Bedrock soil—sedimentary

Soil description (from Natural Resources Conservation Service soil survey):____________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Characteristics of soil profile:

 O—Organic layer: Depth _______ Texture ___________ Color ___________ % Rock/gravel ________

 A—Surface layer: Depth _______ Texture ___________ Color ___________ % Rock/gravel ________

 B—Subsurface layer: Depth _______ Texture ___________ Color ___________ % Rock/gravel ________

Soil surface cover (total should equal 100%): Bare soil _____ Gravel ______ Rock (> 3 cm diam.) ______ Litter ______

Wood ______ Moss/lichen _____ Basal vegetation ______ Other ______ 

Describe soil surface status:

( ) Soil surface is stable; vegetation cover is adequate to prevent erosion in excess of natural rates.

( ) Soil surface is stable but vegetative cover is inadequate and increased erosion is likely.

( ) Soil surface is unstable because of trampling (compaction) and vegetation loss.

( ) Soil surface is unstable because of steepness, trampling, and vegetation loss.

Describe erosion type (rill, gully, slump, etc.), cause, and depth/extent over the site: _______________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Appendix E—Forms

362

General Vegetation Composition and Structure

Habitat type: ___________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Community area: ( ) Upland ( ) Alpine/subalpine ( ) Wetland/riparian ( ) Other __________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Dominant cover form: ( ) Aquatic species ( ) Broadleaf trees ( ) Conifers ( ) Shrubs ( ) Herbaceous cover

( ) Krummholz ( ) Moss/lichens ( ) Nonvegetated (rock or scree) ( ) Other ______________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Dominant species in upper layer (> 6.5 ft): _____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Dominant species in middle layer (2.5–6.5 ft): __________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Dominant species in lower layer (< 2.5 ft):_____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Life form size—Dominant trees:

% seedling (< 1.0 in d.b.h.) ______ % sapling (1–4.9 in d.b.h.) ______ % Pole (5–8.9 in d.b.h.) ______

% medium (9–20.9 in d.b.h.) ______ % large (21–32.9 in d.b.h.) ______ % very large (33+ in d.b.h.) _____ 

Life form size—Dominant shrubs: % low (< 2.5 ft )_____ % medium (2.5–6.5 ft)_____ % tall (6.5+ ft) _____

Structural class:

( ) Stand initiation: growing space is reoccupied following a stand-replacing disturbance

( ) Stem exclusion/open canopy: ground-level competition limits establishment of new tree seedlings; primarily medium or 

smaller trees

( ) Stem exclusion/closed canopy: establishment of new tree seedlings limited by competition for light and resources
Appendix E—Forms

363

( ) Understory reinitiation: initiation of younger tree stand as older trees occupy less than full growing space; dead trees 

present; two or more canopy strata

( ) Young multistrata: multiaged stand with a mix of tree sizes and canopy strata; no large trees

( ) Old forest multistrata: multiaged stand with a mix of tree sizes and canopy strata; includes large, old trees

( ) Old forest single-stratum: broken or continuous canopy of large, old trees; understory absent with only a few seedlings or 

saplings

Microclimate: ( ) Not applicable ( ) Cold-air drainage or frost pocket ( ) Upslope warm airflow

 ( ) Wind-blasted environment that maintains vegetation in deformed state

 ( ) Snow catchment area that retains snow 2 to 4 weeks longer than surrounding areas with the same aspect

Special features: ( ) Not applicable ( ) Talus ( ) Scree ( ) Avalanche chute

( ) Wet meadow, grass dominated; surface wet in spring, moist in midsummer

( ) Marsh, sedge dominated; soil surface wet in midsummer 

( ) Swamp, shrub dominated

( ) Bog mire, mosses, acidic wet peat soil 

( ) Fen mire, reeds/sedges, alkaline wet peat soil

( ) Swale, depression/bench with no surface water, but moist soil evident in vegetation type

( ) Seep, depression/bench with surface water and vegetation found in moist environments

( ) Community adjacent to surface water (within 3 vertical feet and 100 horizontal feet of lake, stream, pond, etc.)

Vegetation change: 

( ) Community is stable; will not change significantly in canopy closure, structure, species composition; similar to climax 

community

( ) Community is seral and changing toward climax community; will change significantly in canopy closure, structure, and 

species composition

( ) Community is changing away from climax community; will change significantly in canopy closure, structure, and species 

composition

( ) Community is seral and stable; dominant species will not change significantly

( ) Cannot tell if community is changing
Appendix E—Forms

364

Forest health: 

Describe general vigor of tree species present, history of disease or obvious decline in health of tree populations, any signs of 

disease/pest infestations (conks, punk knots, stem decay, cankers, boring dust, pitch tubes, dead terminals, needle casts, 

flagging, etc.) : _________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Exotic species present (species and abundance) and control recommendations: __________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Appendix E—Forms

365

Rare Species and Cultural Resources

Species of special concern: Identify any endangered or threatened species or species of special concern that are present:

Species name: ________________________________ Percent cover ______________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Section 7 consultation in reference to the Endangered Species Act required before mitigation? ( ) Yes ( ) No

Cultural resources: Enter the type of feature or structure (house, barn, firering, archeological site, etc., and the name, if 

known: _____________________________________________________________________ _________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Section 106 consultation in reference to the Historic Preservation Act required? ( ) Yes ( ) No

Animal Use 

Describe animals using or frequenting the site (horses, cattle, other stock, elk, deer, moose, bighorn sheep, beavers, bears, 

rodents, raptors, other birds, lions, wolves, etc.). Is this site a known travel corridor for wildlife (identify species)? ________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Appendix E—Forms

366

Disturbance History

Check the types of disturbance that have impacted this site:

( ) Understory burn ( ) Wildfire with suppression activities ( ) Prescribed fire (planned ignition)

( ) Prescribed fire (unplanned ignition) ( ) Herbicide application ( ) Other weed removal activities

( ) Recreational foot traffic, day use ( ) Camping ( ) Stock use ( ) Browsing ( ) Rodents

( ) Game trails ( ) Forest diseases ( ) Insect infestation ( ) Other ____________________

Disturbance intensity: ( ) Not applicable ( ) Low (5–20% bare ground) 

 ( ) Moderate (20–40% bare ground ) ( ) High (40–100% bare ground)

Describe visible impacts (exposed roots, damaged or scarred tree trunks, broken limbs, felled trees, etc.):

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Estimate size (square feet) of area requiring treatment: _________________________________________________
Appendix E—Forms

367

Rehabilitation Recommendations

Site management recommendations (closure, use restrictions, etc.): ___________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Describe previous rehabilitation work and results: _______________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Site and planting preparations (describe recommendations for scarification, soil amendments, mulch, etc.):

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Plant salvage (list species in the area available for salvage—define strategy for lifting and storage):

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Appendix E—Forms

368

Soil salvage potential and borrow sites available (describe soil resources available and quantify any deficits, if applicable): 

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Barriers necessary to restrict use: ( ) None needed ( ) Fence ( ) Vehicle barrier ( ) Brush or logs ( ) Signs ( ) Rocks ( ) 

Other ________________________________________________________________________________________

Describe where barriers are needed: _________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Suggested revegetation species and quantity from site:

Trees

Forbs Grasses

Shrubs
Appendix E—Forms

369

Plant materials collection and propagation recommendations:_______________________________________________ 

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Comments for project implementation: _______________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
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370

Species Inventory 

Abundance—Indicate whether the species is D (dominant), F (frequent), or O (occasional).

 Native Revegetative

 trees Abundance species

 Native Revegetative

 shrubs Abundance species
Appendix E—Forms

371

Abundance—Indicate whether the species is D (dominant), F (frequent), or O (occasional).

 Native Revegetative

 grasses Abundance species

 Exotic Revegetative

 forbs Abundance species
Appendix E—Forms

372

Abundance—Indicate whether the species is D (dominant), F (frequent), or O (occasional).

 Native Revegetative

 forbs Abundance species

 Exotic Revegetative

 grasses Abundance species
Appendix E—Forms

373

Campground Vegetation Inventory 

Name of campground: ________________________________________

Date: _______________________ Reported by: __________________________

UTMs—Mapping notes: __________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Measurement of impact: __________________________________________________________________________

Description of soil condition (topsoil depth, color, organic matter and litter content, and any other notable features):

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Dominant vegetative species: ______________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________________

Suggested revegetation species: _____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Suggestions for further restoration (including materials list):

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Appendix E—Forms

374

Site No. 1

UTMs—Mapping notes: __________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Measurement of impact:___________________________________________________________________________

Description of treatment implemented:________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Description of soil condition (topsoil depth, color, organic matter and litter content, and any other notable features): _______

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Dominant vegetative species: ______________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Suggested revegetation species: _____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Suggestions for further restoration (including materials list):________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Appendix E—Forms

375

Site No. 2

UTMs—Mapping notes: __________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Measurement of impact:___________________________________________________________________________

Description of treatment implemented:________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Description of soil condition (topsoil depth, color, organic matter and litter content, and any other notable features): _______

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________________

Dominant vegetative species: ______________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Suggested revegetation species: _____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Suggestions for further restoration (including materials list):

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Appendix E—Forms

376

Site No. 3

UTMs—Mapping notes: __________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Measurement of impact:___________________________________________________________________________

Description of treatment implemented:________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Description of soil condition (topsoil depth, color, organic matter and litter content, and any other notable features): _______

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________________

Dominant vegetative species: ______________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Suggested revegetation species: _____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Suggestions for further restoration (including materials list):

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Appendix E—Forms

377

Site No. 4

UTMs—Mapping notes: __________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Measurement of impact:___________________________________________________________________________

Description of treatment implemented:________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Description of soil condition (topsoil depth, color, organic matter and litter content, and any other notable features): _______

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________________

Dominant vegetative species: ______________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Suggested revegetation species: _____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Suggestions for further restoration (including materials list):

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Appendix E—Forms

378

Pit Toilet (Low Rider)

UTMs—Mapping notes: __________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Measurement of impact:___________________________________________________________________________

Description of treatment implemented:________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Description of soil condition (topsoil depth, color, organic matter and litter content, and any other notable features): _______

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Dominant vegetative species: ______________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Suggested revegetation species: _____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Suggestions for further restoration (including materials list):

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Appendix E—Forms

379

Food Hanging Pole

UTMs—Mapping notes: __________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Measurement of impact:___________________________________________________________________________

Description of treatment implemented:________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Description of soil condition (topsoil depth, color, organic matter and litter content, and any other notable features): _______

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Dominant vegetative species: ______________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Suggested revegetation species: _____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Suggestions for further restoration (including materials list):

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Appendix E—Forms

380

Other notes or comments:

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

General condition of campground—condition of all facilities, such as hitchrails, food hanging poles, toilets, etc.:

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Appendix E—Forms

381

Restoration Project Daily Log

Date:_________

Hours worked:______________

Crew:________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Number of visitors (people/stock/groups):

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Campsites occupied (by site number and how many other occupied sites are visible from each occupied site):

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Accomplishments:

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Comments and observations:

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Appendix E—Forms

382

Onsite Restoration Information

(Use this form to document initial restoration treatments)

Location:______________________________________________________________________________________

Restoration site and segment:___________________ Date:____________________ 

Approx. plot size:_______________________ Observer:_________________________________________________

1. Method of site preparation (stabilization and soil treatments):

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

2. Type of plant material:

a) Wildling plugs (number and species present)

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

b) Seeding (species and amount seeded)

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

c) Nursery stock (number by species/stock type)

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Appendix E—Forms

383

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

4. Local materials used: 

a) Boulders ____________________________________________________________________________________

b) Logs_______________________________________________________________________________________

c) Stumps cut flush to the ground____________________________________________________________________

3. Sketch restoration site on back: include size, location, trails and photopoints.

4. Remarks:____________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Appendix E—Forms

384

Restoration Site Maintenance and Monitoring Record

Site:_____ Site segment:______

Location:__________________________________________

Date:__________ Person taking observations:___________________________

Signs/stakes

Erosion control blankets

Erosion

Human disturbance

Weeds (nonnatives)

Seedlings:

 Number by species

Average diameter (in)

 Seeding and/or flowering (Y or N)
Appendix E—Forms

385

Additional seedlings added:

 Species, number, location

Wildling plugs added:

 Species, number, location

Additional seeds added:

 Species, location

Other native seedlings identified:

 Number, species, location

Document any additional or extensive work on the reverse side.

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________ 
Appendix E—Forms

386

Revegetation Monitoring Form

Location______________________________________________________________________________________

Plot No._______ Date________ Observer_____________________________________________________________ 

Coverage class2

Species No. of plants Vigor class1 (total for plot by species)

 ____________ ____________ ____________ ____________ 

 ____________ ____________ ____________ ____________ 

 ____________ ____________ ____________ ____________ 

 ____________ ____________ ____________ ____________ 

 ____________ ____________ ____________ ____________ 

 ____________ ____________ ____________ ____________ 

 ____________ ____________ ____________ ____________ 

 ____________ ____________ ____________ ____________ 

 ____________ ____________ ____________ ____________ 

 ____________ ____________ ____________ ____________ 

 ____________ ____________ ____________ ____________ 

 ____________ ____________ ____________ ____________ 

 ____________ ____________ ____________ ____________ 

 ____________ ____________ ____________ ____________ 

1

Coverage classes:

(1) 0–5% (2) >5–25% (3) >25–50% (4) >50–75% (5) >75–100%

2

Vigor classes:

(1) Plants appear unhealthy, probably not able to reproduce.

(2) Plants appear essentially healthy, but do not appear to be able to reproduce.

(3) Plants appear healthy, plants apparently spreading, but may be reproducing only vegetatively.

(4) Plants appear to be sexually reproducing, plants spreading.

(5) Plants appear robust, reproducing sexually, population spreading.
Appendix E—Forms

387

Seed Collection Form

*Asterisk indicates data that does not have to be recorded in the field. This information can be added later, but be sure to do 

so.

1. Scientific name_______________________________________________________________________________

2. Common name_______________________________________________________________________________

3. *Species code___________ 4. *Seed lot code____________________

5. *Watershed name and code____________________ 6. *Subwatershed name and code__________________

7. *Legal description____________________ 8. *Quad name__________________

9. Road number(s)_______________________________________________________________________________

10. Creek or site name____________________________________________________________________________

11. Directions to relocate the area:___________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

(Attach a quad or road map of the collection area on the back of the form)

12. Elevation(s)________________ 13. Slope(s)______________%

14. Aspect(s) (N, S, E, W)__________

15. Habitat description(s)________________________
Appendix E—Forms

388

16. Plant association(s)__________________________________________________

 Name (Use key or leave blank)

17. Number of plants in each population______________________

18. Number of populations in this seed lot____________________

19. Collector’s name_________________________________________

20. Collection date____________ 21. Hours spent collecting_____________

22. Comments_____________________________________

Drying and Transport 

23. *Drying method______________________ 24. *Drying time________

25. *Nursery name_______________________ 26. *Date shipped_______

27. *District contact person __________________________
Appendix E—Forms

389

Seed Collection Form Instructions

1. Scientific name: Be absolutely sure of the identification. Use the names in standard floras for area.

2. Common name: Use the names from standard floras for the area or those used in stand exams.

3. Species code: This is the code used for stand exams. Use the correct four- to six-letter code. Leave this field blank if you

 don’t know the code.

4. Seed lot code: This code is from Nursery Lot Form 158. See the instructions accompanying that form.

5. Watershed name and code: Get a map of these names and codes from the district hydrologist.

6. Subwatershed name and code: Get a map of these names and codes from the district hydrologist.

7. Legal description: The township, range, and section from which the seed was collected. More than one entry may be

 needed for large batches of seed.

8. Quad name: The U.S. Geological Survey quad map name. More than one entry may be needed for large batches of seed. 

9. Road number(s): List the main roads closest to the area where the seed was collected. 

10. Creek or site name: General name of the area.

11. Directions to find the area: These can be fairly general.

12. Elevation(s): If more than one population is included, give the range of elevations, or list each elevation.

13. Slope(s): If more than one population is included, give the range of slopes, or list each slope.

14. Aspect(s): If more than one population is included, give the range of aspects, or list each aspect.

15. Habitat description: General habitat information, such as meadow or forest.

16. Plant association: Use the appropriate guide to determine the association name. If more than one population is collected,

 list each association name. If in doubt, leave this field blank.

17. Number of plants in each population: Estimate the number of plants that were harvested in each population. This line will

 have just one entry because it will be the same for all populations in a seed lot.

18. Number of populations in a seed lot: Number of populations, separated by 1/4 mile, where seed was collected.

19. Collector’s name: The person (or persons) who did the collecting.

20. Collection date: Date the material was collected. Important for tracking success rates.

21. Hours spent collecting: Time spent actually collecting seed (not traveling).

22. Comments: Any extra information that may be helpful.

Drying and Transport

23. Drying method: Record whether the seed was dried in sun or shade and how the seed was dried.

24. Drying time: How many days the material was dried.

25. Nursery name: Name of the nursery where the material was sent.

26. Date shipped: Date the material was sent to the nursery.

27. District contact person: Name of the person the nursery should contact if there are any questions.
Appendix E—Forms

390

Plant Material Transportation, Storage, Extraction,

and Preparation Log (Excludes Seed)

A. Completed at collection site B. Completed at nursery

1. Collection site log No.:_____________

2. Geographic ID: (creek, lake, trail, etc.)

__________________________________

3. Forest:___________________________

4. Ranger district:____________________

5. Date shipped:____________________

6. No. of plant materials shipped: ___________

 (whips, roots, bulbs, etc.)

7. Transport mode:__________________

8. Shipped by whom:_________________

9. Shipping destination:_______________

10. History:

 Collection date:____________

 Insect/disease damage:_______________

 Storage of materials:__________________

11. Contact persons:__________________

 E-mail and phone:____________________

12. Date received:__________________

13. No. of plant materials received: __________

14. Received by:____________________

 (name)

15. Nursery log-in No.:_________________

16. Storage of plant materials:

 Building:____________________________

 Bay:________________________________

 Tier:________________________________

 Rack:_______________________________

 Tubs/buckets/etc.______________________

17. Nursery preparation date:___________

 a) No. of cuttings

 Length of cuttings:_________________

 Minimum caliper:__________________

18. Root or bulb preparation: __________________

19. Dip treatments for storage: ___________

 Date dipped:_____________________

20. Pre-sow dips:_____________________
Appendix E—Forms

391

C. Completed at the Collection Site and Verified by the Nursery

Species type:___________________________________________________________________________________ 

21. Plant material lot code (Use large, written numbers, the long code)

Long Code Instructions POTR2 16 862 02 711 40 27A 93 SIA

Species

Forest

Seed Zone

District

Type of Collection

Elevation Zone

Subwatershed

Year of Collection

Certification Class (Omit for Cuttings)

Species: This is the four- to six-digit alpha/numeric code for the scientific name of the plant. Refer to PNW Publication 

Northwest Plant Names and Symbols for Ecosystem Inventory and Analysis (PNW General Technical Report PNW–46; 

1976). If you only know what genus it is, fill in the first five letters of the genus; for example SALIX or RIBES.

Forest: A two-digit numeric code. For the Wallowa-Whitman this will always be 16.

Seed Zone: Zone of origin.

District: A two-digit numeric code.

Type of Collection: The Forest Service Handbook states that numbers from 700 and up will be used for non-seed collections. 

For hardwood cuttings this number will always be 711.

Elevation Band: These elevation groupings are in 500-foot bands, and the code is the first two digits of the upper limit of 

each band.

 2,000-2,500 = Band 25

 2,500-3,000 = Band 30

3,000-3,500 = Band 35

Year of Collection: A two-digit numerical code for the year. 1993 = 93.
Appendix E—Forms

392

The nursery fills in the entries below.

Treelot short code:__________________

Date planted:______________________ 0–1:_________ 0–2:_______________

No. of days callused:___________________

22. Inventory amount:_________________

23. Lifting date: _________________ Packing date:___________________

24. Net pack:_________________ Package by:___ Box _____Bag _____Both

25. Ship date:_______________ Shipped by: ____ Refrigerated truck _____ Hot trailer

Other (specify):_______________________

Nursery treelot number: ______

26. Remarks from nursery for forest/collection site followup:

 a. Section A of form not completed or not completed correctly ______

 b. Plant material of very poor quality, should NOT have been collected ______

 c. Plant material damaged, apparently stored, or shipped under unsatisfactory conditions ______

 d. Plant material collected at wrong time of year ______

 e. Plant tags not completed in compliance with instructions ______

 f. Plant material lot not on inventory plan or exceeds planned amount ______

 g. Plant materials not packaged properly ______

 h. Too much debris mixed with plant material ______

 i. Individual lots not properly segregated on shipping vehicle ______

 j. Other (specify) ______
Appendix E—Forms

393
Appendix E—Forms

394

About the Authors

Lisa Therrell is a wilderness manager on the Okanogan and Wenatchee National Forests in Washington. She also 

has worked as a wilderness planner, wilderness ranger, park ranger, and educator. Lisa has a bachelor’s degree 

in biology and environmental studies. In her spare time, she can be found botanizing and gardening, as well as 

teaching yoga and enjoying outdoor pursuits. For over 20 years, planning and implementing restoration projects has 

been the most rewarding part of Lisa’s job.

David Cole, Ph.D., is a research scientist with the Aldo Leopold Wilderness Research Institute in Missoula, MT. 

He has been studying the ecological impacts of wilderness recreation for 30 years. Recently, he has been working to 

find more effective ways to restore damaged sites.

Victor Claassen, Ph.D., wildland restorationist, teaches at the University of California Davis in the Land, Air, and 

Water Resources Department of the College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences. He grew up on a family 

farm in Kansas and has always had soil in his veins. Victor is especially interested in soil fertility in wildland 

systems.

Chris Ryan, wilderness specialist, is the wilderness, wild and scenic rivers, and outfitters program leader for 

the Forest Service’s Northern Region in Missoula, MT. She has worked in some of the Forest Service’s finest 

wilderness areas throughout her 25-year career.

Mary Ann Davies is a project leader at the Forest Service’s Missoula Technology and Development Center 

(MTDC). She received a bachelor’s degree in mechanical engineering with a minor in industrial and management 

engineering from Montana State University in 1988. She worked in the Forest Service’s Pacific Northwest Region 

with facilities, tramways, recreation, and fire. Before coming to MTDC in 1998, she worked 5 years with the Rocky 

Mountain Research Station’s fire chemistry and the fire behavior groups in Missoula, MT. Mary Ann works on 

projects in the facilities, fire, recreation, and watershed, soil, and air programs.
Library Card

Therrell, Lisa; Cole, David; Claassen, Victor; Ryan, Chris; Davies, 

Mary Ann. 2006. Wilderness and backcountry site restoration guide. 

Tech. Rep. 0623–2815–MTDC. Missoula, MT: U.S. Department of 

Agriculture Forest Service, Missoula Technology and Development 

Center. 394 p.

This comprehensive guide focuses on restoration of small-scale 

impact caused by human actions in wilderness and backcountry 

areas. The guide’s goals are to:

• Help practitioners develop plans that thoroughly 

address the question of whether site restoration is the 

best management action and, if so, develop a sitespecific restoration plan that incorporates ecological 

concepts and addresses patterns of human use.

• Provide the latest information on site-specific restoration techniques, including site preparation, soil amendments, planting, mulching, and so forth.

• Explore the various methods of plant propagation both 

on and off a restoration site.

• Provide approaches for project monitoring and documentation.

Techniques discussed in the guide do not rely on motorized tools or 

mechanized transport, although those options may be mentioned. 

Examples are drawn primarily from the Western United States. Many 

of the techniques could be used in other settings. The laws regulating 

wilderness management and the philosophy guiding it are considered 

when discussing whether restoration activities are appropriate in 

areas designated as wilderness. 

Keywords: bioengineering, cultural methods, disturbed land, disturbed soils, erodible soils, erosion, genetic diversity, genetics, 

handtools, monitoring, mulch, native plants, nurseries, philosophy, 

planning, planting, propagation, propagation materials, regulations, 

research, rooting, seeds, seed collection, soil amendments, soil 

physical properties, soils, tools, transplants, Western United States, 

wilderness management