United States 

Department of 

Agriculture

Forest Service

Pacific Southwest 

Research Station

General Technical 

Report

PSW-GTR-230

September 2010

Community

Benefits, Costs, and Strategic Planting

Central Florida

Tree Guide

Paula J. Peper, E. Gregory McPherson, James R. Simpson, 

Shannon N. Albers, and Qingfu Xiao
The Forest Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture is dedicated to the principle of 

multiple use management of the Nation’s forest resources for sustained yields of wood, 

water, forage, wildlife, and recreation. Through forestry research, cooperation with the 

States and private forest owners, and management of the National Forests and National 

Grasslands, it strives—as directed by Congress—to provide increasingly greater service to a 

growing Nation.

The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits discrimination in all its programs and 

activities on the basis of race, color, national origin, age, disability, and where applicable, sex, 

marital status, familial status, parental status, religion, sexual orientation, genetic information, 

political beliefs, reprisal, or because all or part of an individual’s income is derived from any 

public assistance program. (Not all prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with 

disabilities who require alternative means for communication of program information (Braille, 

large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact USDA’s TARGET Center at (202) 720-2600 (voice 

and TDD). To file a complaint of discrimination, write USDA, Director, Office of Civil Rights, 

1400 Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call (800) 795-3272 (voice) 

or (202) 720-6382 (TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity provider and employer.

Authors

Paula J. Peper is an ecologist, E. Gregory McPherson is a research forester, 

James R. Simpson is a forest meteorologist, and Shannon N. Albers is a biological 

science technician, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station, Center for Urban Forest Research, 1731 Research Park Dr., 

Davis, CA 95618; Qingfu Xiao is a research hydrologist, Department of Land, Air, 

and Water Resources, University of California, Davis, One Shields Ave., Davis, CA 

95616.
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Central Flordia Community Tree Guide: Benefits, Costs, and Strategic Planting

Central Florida Community Tree Guide:

Benefits, Costs, and Strategic Planting

Paula J. Peper, E. Gregory McPherson, James R. Simpson, 

Shannon N. Albers, and Qingfu Xiao

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service

Pacific Southwest Research Station

Albany, California

General Technical Report PSW-GTR-230

September 2010

This work was sponsored by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, 

State and Private Forestry, Urban and Community Forestry Program; the Florida 

Division of Forestry, Urban and Community Forestry; and the City of Orlando 

Families, Parks, and Recreation Department, Orlando Parks Division.
ii

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-230

Abstract

Peper, Paula J.; McPherson, E. Gregory; Simpson, James R.; Albers,

Shannon N.; Xiao, Qingfu 2010. Central Florida community tree guide: benefits, costs, and strategic planting. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-GTR-230. Albany, CA: 

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research 

Station. 118 p.

Trees make our cities more attractive and provide many ecosystem services, 

including air quality improvement, energy conservation, stormwater interception, 

and atmospheric carbon dioxide reduction. These benefits must be weighed against 

the costs of maintaining trees, including planting, pruning, irrigation, administration, pest control, liability, cleanup, and removal. We present benefits and costs for 

representative small, medium, and large broadleaf trees and a conifer in the Central 

Florida region derived from models based on research carried out in Orlando, 

Florida. Average annual net benefits increase with tree size and differ based on 

location: $1 (public) to $10 (yard) for a small tree, $32 (public) to $51 (yard) for a 

medium tree, $96 (public) to $123 (yard) for a large tree; $7 (public) to $9 (yard) for 

a conifer. Two hypothetical examples of planting projects are described to illustrate 

how the data in this guide can be adapted to local uses, and guidelines for maximizing benefits and reducing costs are given.

Keywords: Ecosystem services, Central Florida region, urban forestry, benefitcost analysis.
iii

Central Flordia Community Tree Guide: Benefits, Costs, and Strategic Planting

In the Central Florida region, trees play an environmental, cultural, and historical role in communities. Here grand old oaks grace a residential street in downtown Orlando. Paula Peper
iv

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-230

Summary

Trees provide many valuable ecosystem services: they reduce energy consumption, 

they trap and filter stormwater, they help clean the air by intercepting air pollutants, 

and they help in the fight against global climate change by sequestering carbon 

dioxide (CO2). At the same time, they provide a wide array of aesthetic, social, 

economic, and health benefits that are less tangible.

This report quantifies benefits and costs for representative small, medium, and 

large broadleaf trees and a conifer in the Central Florida region: the species chosen 

as representative are the common crapemyrtle, Southern magnolia, live oak, and 

slash pine (see “Common and Scientific Names” section). The analysis describes 

“yard trees” (those planted in residential sites) and “public trees” (those planted on 

streets or in parks). Benefits are calculated based on tree growth curves and numerical models that consider regional climate, building characteristics, air pollutant 

concentrations, and prices. Tree care costs and mortality rates are based on results 

from a survey of municipal and commercial arborists. We assume a 60-percent 

survival rate over a 40-year timeframe.

The measurements used in modeling environmental and other benefits of trees 

are based on research carried out in Orlando, Florida. Given the Central Florida 

region’s large geographical area, this approach provides general approximations 

based on some necessary assumptions that serve as a starting point for more 

specific local calculations. It is a general accounting of benefits and costs that can 

be easily adapted and adjusted for local tree planting projects. Two examples are 

provided that illustrate how to adjust benefits and costs to reflect different aspects 

of local planting projects.

Large trees provide the most benefits. Average annual benefits over 40 years 

increase with mature tree size and differ based on tree location. Except for conifers, 

the lowest values are for public trees and the highest values are for yard trees on the 

western side of houses. Benefits range as follows:

•	 $23 to $30 for a small tree (24 ft tall 40 years after planting)

•	 $59 to $74 for a medium tree (46 ft tall 40 years after planting)

•	 $127 to $149 for a large tree (56 ft tall 40 years after planting)

•	 $32 to $34 for a conifer (67 ft tall 40 years after planting)

Benefits associated with reduced levels of stormwater runoff and increased 

property values account for the largest proportion of total benefits in this region. 

Energy savings, reduced levels of air pollutants and CO2

 in the air are the next most 

important benefits.

Benefits and costs 

quantified

Average annual 

benefits
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Central Flordia Community Tree Guide: Benefits, Costs, and Strategic Planting

Energy conservation benefits differ with tree location as well as size. Trees 

located opposite west-facing walls provide the greatest net cooling energy savings. 

Reducing energy needs reduces CO2 emissions and thereby reduces atmospheric 

CO2. Similarly, energy savings that reduce demand from powerplants account for 

important reductions in gases that produce ozone, a major component of smog.

The benefits of trees are offset by the costs of caring for them. Based on our 

surveys of municipal and commercial arborists, the average annual cost for tree 

care over 40 years ranges from $20 to $31 per tree. (Values below are for yard and 

public trees, respectively.)

•	 $20 and $22 for a small tree

•	 $23 and $27 for a medium tree

•	 $25 and $31 for a large tree

•	 $23 and $27 for a conifer

Planting costs, annualized over 40 years, are the greatest expense for yard trees 

($11 per tree per year); planting costs for public trees are significantly lower ($6 per 

tree per year). For public trees, pruning ($7 to $11 per tree per year) and removal 

and disposal expenses ($4 to $6 per tree per year) are the greatest costs. Public trees 

also incur administrative costs, including inspections ($2 to $4 per tree per year).

Average annual net benefits (benefits minus costs) per tree for a 40-year period 

are as follows:

•	 $1 for a small public tree to $10 for a small yard tree on the west side of a

house

•	 $32 for a medium public tree to $51 for a medium yard tree on the west side

of a house

•	 $96 for a large public tree to $123 for a large yard tree on the west side of a

house

•	 $7 for a public conifer to $9 for a yard conifer in a windbreak

Environmental benefits alone, including energy savings, stormwater runoff 

reduction, improved air quality, and reduced atmospheric CO2, are greater than tree 

care costs for medium and large trees.

Net benefits for a yard tree opposite a west wall and a public tree are substantial 

when summed over the entire 40-year period:

•	 $403 (yard) and $23 (public) for a small tree

•	 $2,039 (yard) and $1,266 (public) for a medium tree

•	 $4,939 (yard) and $3,859 (public) for a large tree

•	 $344 (yard) and $296 (public) for a conifer

Costs

Average annual net 

benefits

Net benefits summed 

over 40 years
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-230

Private trees produce higher net benefits than public trees. Our survey results 

indicate that this is primarily due to higher maintenance costs for street and park 

trees. The standard of care is often higher for public trees because municipalities 

need to manage risk, maintain required clearances for pedestrians and vehicles, 

remove tree debris after hurricanes, and repair damage to sidewalks and curbing 

caused by tree roots.

To demonstrate ways that communities can adapt the information in this report 

to their needs, examples of two fictional cities interested in improving their urban 

forest have been created. The benefits and costs of different planting projects are 

determined. In the hypothetical city of Hurston Park, net benefits and benefit-cost 

ratios (BCRs; total benefits divided by costs) are calculated for a planting of 1,000 

trees (2-in caliper) assuming a cost of $225 per tree, 40 percent mortality rate, and 

40-year analysis. Total benefits are $4.4 million, total costs are about $1.1 million, 

and net benefits are $3.3 million ($83.66 per tree per year). The BCR is 4.09:1, 

indicating that $4.09 is returned for every $1 invested. The net benefits and BCRs 

(in parentheses) by mature tree size are:

•	 $4,461 (1.10:1) for 50 common crapemyrtle trees

•	 $230,799 (2.48:1) for 150 southern magnolia trees

•	 $3.1 million (4.97:1) for 700 live oaks

•	 $36,858 (1.35:1) for 100 slash pines

Increased property values reflecting aesthetic and other benefits of trees (52 

percent) made up the largest share, and reduced stormwater runoff accounted for 

another 36 percent. Reduced energy (8 percent), air quality improvement (3 percent), and atmospheric CO2 reduction (1 percent) make up the remaining benefits.

In the fictional city of Marcusville, long-term planting and tree care costs and 

benefits were compared to determine if current fashion for planting small flowering trees instead of the large stately trees that were once standard is substantially 

affecting the level of benefits residents are receiving. Over a 40-year period, the net 

benefits are:

•	 $11 for a small tree

•	 $1,205 for a medium tree

•	 $3,675 for a large tree

Based on this analysis, the city of Marcusville decided to strengthen its tree 

ordinance, requiring developers to plant large-growing trees wherever feasible and 

to create tree shade plans that show how they will achieve 50-percent shade over 

streets, sidewalks, and parking lots within 15 years of development.
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Central Flordia Community Tree Guide: Benefits, Costs, and Strategic Planting

Contents

1 Chapter 1. Introduction

1 The Central Florida Region

5 Chapter 2. Benefits and Costs of Urban and Community Forests

5 Benefits

5 Saving Energy

7 Reducing Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide

10 Improving Air Quality

14 Reducing Stormwater Runoff and Improving Hydrologic Function

16	 Aesthetics and Other Benefits

19 Costs

19 Planting and Maintaining Trees

20	 Conflicts With Urban Infrastructure

23 Wood Salvage, Recycling, and Disposal

25 Chapter 3. Benefits and Costs of Community Forests in Central Florida

 Communities

25 Overview of Procedures

25 Approach

30 Reporting Results

30 A Note on Palms

31 Findings of This Study

31	 	 Average Annual Net Benefits

35 Average Annual Costs

35	 	 Average Annual Benefits

41 Chapter 4. Estimating Benefits and Costs for Tree Planting Projects in

 Your Community

41 Applying Benefit-Cost Data

41 Hurston Park Example

47 City of Marcusville Example

49 Increasing Program Cost-Effectiveness

49	 	 Increasing Benefits

50 Reducing Program Costs
viii

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-230

55 Chapter 5. General Guidelines for Selecting and Placing Trees

55 Guidelines for Energy Savings

55 Maximizing Energy Savings From Shading

56	 	 Selecting Trees to Maximize Benefits

57 Guidelines for Reducing Carbon Dioxide

59 Guidelines for Reducing Stormwater Runoff

60 Guidelines for Improving Air Quality Benefits

62 Guidelines for Avoiding Conflicts With Infrastructure

64 Guidelines for Maximizing Long-Term Benefits

64 Invasive Nonnative Species

64 Planting Guidelines

67 Trees for Hurricane-Prone Areas

69 Glossary of Terms

74 Common and Scientific Names

75 Metric Equivalents

75 Acknowledgments

76 References

91 Appendix 1: Additional Resources

93 Appendix 2: Benefit-Cost Information Tables

103 Appendix 3: Procedures for Estimating Benefits and Costs
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Central Flordia Community Tree Guide: Benefits, Costs, and Strategic Planting

The green infrastructure is a significant component of communities in the Central Florida region. 

This is one of the canals joining the chain of lakes in Winter Park, Florida.

Paula Peper
This Page Left Blank Intentionally
1

Central Florida Community Tree Guide: Benefits, Costs, and Strategic Planting

Chapter 1. Introduction

The Central Florida Region

From small seashore towns dotting the east and west coasts to the city of Orlando, 

one of the world’s primary tourist destinations, the Central Florida region (fig. 1) is 

a study in contrasts. Communities range from small, rural towns reminiscent of the 

Deep South to the sprawling, modern metropolitan areas surrounding Tampa, St. 

Petersburg, and Orlando. Home to over 8 million people, the region extends from 

Daytona Beach and Port St. Lucie on the east coast, through Orlando, Okeechobee 

and LaBelle, to Cape Coral, and Florida’s “Suncoast” cities, Tampa and Clearwater. 

The warm climate has attracted both national and international immigration, 

making it one of the most culturally diverse areas in the Nation (U.S.

Government 2010).

Figure 1—The Central Florida region is shown in dark gray. 

Reference cities for the Central Florida and other nearby regions 

are indicated with large circles. (Illustration courtesy of USDA 

Forest Service, PSW, Center for Urban Forest Research.)
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-230

The climate1 of this region is subtropical and corresponds to Sunset climate 

zone 26 (Brenzel 2001) and USDA hardiness zones 9 and 10, and is characterized 

by humid, warm to hot temperatures throughout the year. Thunderstorms are plentiful and rain heaviest in summer and early fall, averaging between 50 and 60 in of 

rain each year. Precipitation in coastal areas tends toward the higher end of this 

scale with inland areas receiving up to 10 in less annually. Average high temperatures range from the low 90s in July to the low 70s in January. Average low temperatures range from the high 40s in January to the low 70s in August. Hurricane 

season runs from June through November. Although communities in the state’s 

interior do not usually experience wind and flood damage to the extent that coastal 

communities do, there are years where property damage is extensive. In 2004, for 

example, Orlando suffered the loss of an estimated 20,000 public and private trees 

when three hurricanes tore through the city. 

As the communities of the Central Florida region continue to grow and change 

during the coming decades, growing and sustaining healthy community forests is 

integral to the quality of life that residents experience. The urban forest is a distinctive feature of the landscape that protects us from the elements, cleans the water 

we drink and the air we breathe, and forms a connection to earlier generations who 

planted and tended the trees.

The role of urban forests in enhancing the environment, increasing community 

attractiveness and livability, and fostering civic pride takes on greater significance 

as communities strive to balance economic growth with environmental quality and 

social well-being. The simple act of planting trees provides opportunities to connect residents with nature and with each other (fig. 2). Neighborhood tree plantings 

and stewardship projects stimulate investment by local citizens, businesses, and 

governments for the betterment of their communities. Community forests bring 

opportunity for economic renewal, combating development woes, and increasing 

the quality of life for community residents. 

Central Florida communities can promote energy efficiency through tree 

planting and stewardship programs that strategically locate trees to save energy and 

minimize conflicts with urban infrastructure. The same trees can provide additional benefits by reducing stormwater runoff; improving local air, soil, and water 

quality; reducing atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2); providing wildlife habitat; 

increasing property values; slowing vehicular traffic; enhancing community attractiveness and investment; and promoting human health and well-being.

1

 Words in bold are defined in the glossary.

Geographic scope of 

the Central Florida 

region

Central Florida 

communities can 

derive many benefits 

from community 

forests

Quality of life improves 

with trees
3

Central Florida Community Tree Guide: Benefits, Costs, and Strategic Planting

Figure 2—Tree planting and stewardship programs provide opportunities for local residents to 

work together to build better communities.

USDA Forest Service, PSW, Center for Urban Forest Research

This guide builds upon studies by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, in Chicago and Sacramento (McPherson et al. 1994, 1997), and other 

regional tree guides from the Pacific Southwest Research Station (McPherson et al. 

1999a, 1999b, 2000, 2003, 2004, 2006a, 2006b, 2006c, 2007; Peper et al. 2009b; 

Vargas et al. 2007a, 2007b) to extend knowledge of urban forest benefits in the 

Central Florida region. The guide:

•	 Quantifies benefits of trees on a per-tree basis rather than on a canopy

cover basis (it should not be used to estimate benefits for trees growing in 

forest stands).

•	 Describes management costs and benefits.

•	 Details benefits and costs for trees in parks, residential yards, and along

streets.

•	 Illustrates how to use this information to estimate benefits and costs for

local tree planting projects.

These guidelines are specific to the Central Florida region and are based on 

measurements and calculations from open-growing urban trees in this region.

Street, park, and shade trees are integral to urban communities. However,

with municipal tree programs dependent on taxpayer-supported general funds, 

communities are forced to ask whether trees are worth the price to plant and

care for over the long term, thus requiring urban forestry programs to demonstrate 

their cost-effectiveness (McPherson 1995). If tree plantings are proven to benefit 

Scope defined
4

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-230

communities, then financial commitment to tree programs will be justified. Therefore, the objective of this tree guide is to identify and describe the benefits and costs 

of planting trees in Central Florida communities—providing a tool for municipal 

tree managers, arborists, and tree enthusiasts to increase public awareness and support for trees (Dwyer and Miller 1999). 

This tree guide addresses a number of questions about the environmental and 

aesthetic benefits of community tree plantings in Central Florida communities: 

•	 How can tree-planting programs improve environmental quality, conserve

energy, and add value to communities?

•	 Where should residential yard and public trees be placed to maximize their

benefits?

•	 How can conflicts between trees and power lines, sidewalks, and buildings

be minimized?

Audience and 

objectives

What will this tree 

guide do?

Paula Peper

Trees in Central Florida communities enhance quality of life.
5

Central Florida Community Tree Guide: Benefits, Costs, and Strategic Planting

Chapter 2. Benefits and Costs of Urban and 

Community Forests

This chapter describes benefits and costs of public and privately managed trees. 

Ecosystem services and associated economic value of community forests are 

described. Expenditures related to tree care and management are assessed—a 

necessary process for creating cost-effective programs (Dwyer et al. 1992, Hudson 

1983).

Benefits

Saving Energy

Energy is essential to maintain quality of life and sustain economic growth. Conserving energy with shade trees can reduce the need for building new powerplants. 

For example, while California was experiencing energy shortages in 2001, its 177 

million city trees were providing shade and conserving energy. Annual savings 

to utilities were an estimated $500 million in wholesale electricity and generation 

purchases (McPherson and Simpson 2003). Planting 50 million more shade trees 

in strategic locations would provide savings equivalent to seven 100-MWh powerplants. The cost of reducing the peak load was $63 per kW, considerably less than 

the $150 per kW threshold amount that is deemed cost-effective for energy conservation measures by the California Energy Commission (see http://www.fs.fed.us/

psw/programs/cufr/products/3/cufr_148.pdf). Like electric utilities throughout the 

country, utilities in the Central Florida region could invest in shade tree programs 

as a cost-effective energy conservation measure.

Trees modify climate and conserve building energy use in three principal ways 

(fig. 3): 

•	 Shading reduces the amount of heat absorbed and stored by built surfaces,

including buildings and paved areas.

• Evapotranspiration converts liquid water to water vapor and thus cools 

the air by using solar energy that would otherwise result in heating of the 

air.

•	 Windspeed reduction reduces the infiltration of outside air into interior

spaces, especially where conductivity is relatively high (e.g., glass 

windows) (Simpson 1998).

Trees and other vegetation on individual building sites may lower air temperatures 5 °F compared with sites outside the greenspace. At larger scales (6 mi2

), 

temperature differences of more than 9 °F have been observed between city centers 

How trees work to save 

energy
6

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-230

and more vegetated suburban areas (Akbari et al. 1992). These “hot spots” in cities 

are called urban heat islands. A recent study for New York City compared trees, 

living roofs, and light surfaces, finding that curbside tree planting was the most 

effective heat island mitigation strategy (Rosenzweig et al. 2006). 

For individual buildings, strategically placed trees can increase energy efficiency. Because the sun is low in the east and west for several hours each day, trees 

that shade these walls in particular will help keep buildings cool.

Trees provide greater energy savings in the Central Florida region than in 

milder climate regions because they can have cooling effects year round. In Miami, 

for example, trees were found to produce substantial cooling savings for an energyefficient two-story wood-frame house (McPherson et al. 1993). A typical energyefficient house with air conditioning requires about $546 each year for cooling.

A computer simulation demonstrated that three 25-ft-tall trees—two on the west 

side of the house and one on the east—would save $150 each year for cooling, a 

28-percent reduction.

A recent study on tree shade and energy savings in Alabama showed that for 

every 10 percent shade coverage of a home, there was a summertime electricity 

reduction of 1.29 kWh per day. Conversely, for every 10 percent increase in average 

shade falling on a residential structure during winter, electricity use increased by 

1.74 kWh per day, illustrating the importance of selecting deciduous, solar-friendly 

trees for shading homes (Pandit and Laband, in press).

Trees lower 

temperatures

Figure 3—Trees save energy for cooling by shading buildings and lowering summertime temperatures. (Drawing by Mike Thomas.)
7

Central Florida Community Tree Guide: Benefits, Costs, and Strategic Planting

Shading and climate effects of 68,211 municipal trees of Orlando reduced 

annual electricity used for air conditioning by 1,369 MWh, saving city residents 

approximately $445,451 in annual air conditioning (Peper et al. 2009b) or $6.53 per 

tree. The largest trees provide the largest benefits; the live oak (see “Common and 

Scientific Names” section), for example, accounted for 42 percent of the energy 

benefits although it represented only 25 percent of the population. 

In Central Florida, there is ample opportunity to “retrofit” communities with 

more sustainable landscapes through strategic tree planting and care of existing 

trees.

Reducing Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide

Global temperatures have increased since the late 19th century, with major warming periods from 1910 to 1945 and from 1976 to the present (IPCC 2007). Human 

activities, primarily fossil-fuel consumption, are adding greenhouse gases to the 

atmosphere, and current research suggests that the recent increases in temperature 

can be attributed in large part to increases in greenhouse gases (IPCC 2007). 

Higher global temperatures are expected to have a number of adverse effects, 

including melting polar ice caps, which could raise sea level by 6 to 37 in by 2100 

(Hamburg et al. 1997). With more than one-third of the world’s population living 

in coastal areas (Cohen et al. 1997), the effects could be disastrous. Increasing 

frequency and duration of extreme weather events will continue to tax emergency 

management resources. Some plants and animals may become extinct as habitat 

becomes restricted (Hamburg et al. 1997).

Urban forests have been recognized as important storage sites for carbon dioxide (CO2

), the primary greenhouse gas (Nowak and Crane 2002). At the same time, 

private markets dedicated to reducing CO2 emissions by trading carbon credits are 

emerging (McHale et al. 2007). Damage costs of CO2 emissions range from about 

$5 to $15 per metric tonne (Tol 2005). For every $18 spent on a tree planting project in Arizona, 1 ton of atmospheric CO2 was reduced (McPherson and Simpson 

1999). The Climate Action Reserve’s (2010) Urban Forest Project Protocol provides 

guidance for tree planting and stewardship projects aimed at providing monetary 

resources for community forestry programs.

Urban forests can reduce atmospheric CO2

 in two ways (fig. 4):

•	 Trees directly sequester CO2

 in their stems, leaves, and roots while they 

grow.

•	 Trees near buildings can reduce the demand for air conditioning, thereby

reducing emissions associated with power production.

Trees increase home 

energy efficiency and 

save money

Trees reduce CO2
8

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-230

Figure 4—Trees sequester carbon dioxide (CO2) as they grow and indirectly reduce CO2 emissions 

from powerplants through energy conservation. At the same time, CO2

 is released through decomposition and tree care activities that involve fossil-fuel consumption. (Drawing by Mike Thomas.)

On the other hand, vehicles, chain saws, chippers, and other equipment

release CO2 during the process of planting and maintaining trees. And eventually, 

all trees die, and most of the CO2 that has accumulated in their biomass is released 

into the atmosphere through burning or decomposition. The rate of release into

the atmosphere depends on if and how the wood is reused. For instance, recycling 

of urban wood waste into products such as furniture can delay the rate of 

decomposition compared to its reuse as mulch.

Typically, CO2 released owing to tree planting, maintenance, and other 

program-related activities is about 2 to 8 percent of annual CO2 reductions obtained 

Some tree-related 

activities release CO2
9

Central Florida Community Tree Guide: Benefits, Costs, and Strategic Planting

through sequestration and reduced powerplant emissions (McPherson and 

Simpson 1999). To provide a complete picture of atmospheric CO2 reductions from 

tree plantings, it is important to consider CO2 released into the atmosphere through 

tree planting and tree maintenance operations, as well as decomposition of wood 

from pruned or dead trees. 

Regional variations in climate and the mix of fuels that produce energy to cool 

buildings influence potential CO2 emission reductions. The average emission rate 

in Orlando, Florida, is 2,079 lb of CO2 per MWh (US EPA 2006b), a high value, 

because 97.9 percent of Orlando’s power is generated from oil. The state of Florida, 

on the other hand, derives its energy from less CO2-intensive sources—a mix of 

coal, oil, natural gas, and nuclear power—and therefore has an average emission 

of 1,327 lbs of CO2 per MWh, which is close to the national average of 1,363 lb of 

CO2 per MWh (US EPA 2006b). Cities in the Central Florida region with relatively 

high CO2 emission rates will see greater benefits from reduced energy demand relative to other areas with lower emissions rates. Nevertheless, tree planting programs 

targeted to maximize energy savings will provide climate protection dividends 

throughout the Central Florida region.

A study of the municipal trees of Orlando found that the 68,211 trees in the 

inventory sequester about 11,531 tons of CO2 (Peper et al. 2009b) annually and, 

by reducing energy use, reduce the production of CO2 at the powerplant by 3,431 

tons. Approximately 1,380 tons of CO2 is released from decaying trees and during 

maintenance, with a positive net reduction in CO2 from trees of 13,582 tons.

A recent study of Tampa’s urban forest estimated that the amount of carbon 

sequestered or removed from the atmosphere by the city’s 7.8 million trees was 

46,525 tons in 2007, valued conservatively at $945,396 (Andreu et al. 2008).

A study in Chicago focused on the carbon sequestration benefit of residential 

tree canopy. Tree canopy cover in two residential neighborhoods was estimated to 

sequester on average 0.112 lb/ft2

, and pruning activities released 0.016 lb/ft2 (Jo and 

McPherson 1995). Net annual carbon uptake was 0.096 lb/ft2 .

A comprehensive study of CO2 reduction by Sacramento’s urban forest found 

the region’s 6 million trees offset 1.8 percent of the total CO2 emitted annually 

as a byproduct of human activities (McPherson 1998). This savings could be 

substantially increased through strategic planting and long-term stewardship that 

maximize future energy savings from new tree plantings.

Since 1990, the Sacramento Tree Foundation, a nonprofit organization, has 

partnered with the Sacramento Municipal Utility District to plant trees for energy 

savings and atmospheric CO2

 reduction. Nearly 500,000 trees have been planted 

Avoided CO2 emissions

CO2 reduction through 

community forestry
10

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-230

with the help of local residents. These trees are estimated to have offset CO2 emissions by 807,394 t and provided 12,313 GWh of cooling energy savings and 3.54 

MW of capacity savings (Sarkovich 2009).

Improving Air Quality

Approximately 159 million people live in areas where ozone (O3) concentrations 

violate federal air quality standards. About 100 million people live in areas where 

dust and other small particulate matter (PM10) exceed levels for healthy air. Air 

pollution is a serious health threat to many city dwellers, contributing to asthma, 

coughing, headaches, respiratory and heart disease, and cancer (Smith 1990). 

Impaired health results in increased social costs for medical care, greater absenteeism, and reduced longevity. Short-term increases in O3 concentrations have been 

statistically associated with increased mortality for 95 large U.S. cities (Bell et al. 

2004). Impaired health results in increased social costs for medical care, greater 

absenteeism, and reduced longevity. 

Recently, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency recognized tree planting 

as a measure in state implementation plans for reducing O3. Air quality management districts have funded tree planting projects to control particulate matter. 

These policy decisions are creating new opportunities to plant and care for trees as 

a method for controlling air pollution (Bond 2006, Hughes 2008, Luley and Bond 

2002; for more information see www.treescleanair.org) .

Urban forests provide a number of air quality benefits (fig. 5):

•	 They absorb gaseous pollutants (e.g., O3

, nitrogen dioxide [NO2], and

sulfur dioxide [SO2]) through leaf surfaces.

•	 They intercept PM10 (e.g., dust, ash, pollen, smoke).

•	 They release oxygen through photosynthesis.

•	 They reduce energy use, which reduces emissions of pollutants from

powerplants, including NO2, SO2, PM10, and volatile organic compounds 

(VOCs).

•	 They transpire water and shade surfaces, which lowers air temperatures,

thereby reducing O3 levels.

Trees may also adversely affect air quality. Most trees emit biogenic volatile 

organic compounds (BVOCs) such as isoprenes and monoterpenes that can contribute to O3

 formation. The contribution of BVOC emissions from city trees to 

O3 formation depends on complex geographic and atmospheric interactions that 

have not been studied in most cities. Some complicating factors include variations 

with temperature and atmospheric levels of NO2. As well, the O3-forming potential 

Trees improve air 

quality
11

Central Florida Community Tree Guide: Benefits, Costs, and Strategic Planting

Figure 5—Trees absorb gaseous pollutants, retain particles on their surfaces, and release oxygen and 

volatile organic compounds. By cooling urban heat islands and shading parked cars, trees can reduce 

ozone formation. (Drawing by Mike Thomas.)

differs considerably for different tree species (Benjamin and Winer 1998). Genera 

having the greatest relative effect on increasing O3

 are sweetgum, blackgum, 

sycamore, poplar, and oak (Nowak 2000).

A computer simulation study for Atlanta suggested that it would be very difficult to meet EPA ozone standards in the region by using trees because of the high 

BVOC emissions from native pines and other vegetation (Chameides et al. 1988). 

Although removing trees reduced BVOC emissions, this effect was overwhelmed 

by increased hydrocarbon emissions from natural and anthropogenic sources 

owing to the increased air temperatures associated with tree removal (Cardelino 

and Chameides 1990). In the Los Angeles basin, increased planting of low BVOCemitting tree species would reduce O3 concentrations, whereas planting of medium 

and high emitters would increase overall O3 concentrations (Taha 1996). A study in 

Trees affect ozone 

formation
12

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-230

the Northeastern United States, however, found that species mix had no detectable 

effects on O3 concentrations (Nowak et al. 2000). Although new trees increased 

BVOC emissions, ambient VOC emissions were so high that additional BVOCs had 

little effect on air quality. These potentially negative effects of trees on one kind of 

air pollution must be considered in light of their great benefit in other areas. 

Trees absorb gaseous pollutants through stomates, tiny openings in the leaves. 

Secondary methods of pollutant removal include adsorption of gases to plant 

surfaces and uptake through bark pores (lenticels). Once gases enter the leaf, they 

diffuse into intercellular spaces, where some react with inner leaf surfaces and 

others are absorbed by water films to form acids. Pollutants can damage plants 

by altering their metabolism and growth. At high concentrations, pollutants cause 

visible damage to leaves, such as spotting and bleaching (Costello and Jones 2003). 

Although they may pose health hazards to plants, pollutants such as nitrogenous 

gases can be sources of essential nutrients for trees.

Trees intercept small airborne particles. Some particles that are intercepted by 

a tree are absorbed, but most adhere to plant surfaces. Species with hairy or rough 

leaf, twig, and bark surfaces are efficient interceptors (Smith and Dochinger 1976). 

Intercepted particles are often resuspended to the atmosphere when wind blows the 

branches, and rain will wash some particulates off plant surfaces. The ultimate fate 

of these pollutants depends on whether they fall onto paved surfaces and enter the 

stormwater system, or fall on pervious surfaces, where they are filtered in the soil. 

Trees near buildings can reduce the demand for air conditioning, thereby reducing emissions of PM10, SO2, NO2, and VOCs associated with electric power 

production, an effect that can be sizable. For example, a strategically located tree 

can save 100 kWh in electricity for cooling annually (McPherson and Simpson 

1999, 2002, 2003). Assuming that this conserved electricity comes from a typical 

new coal-fired powerplant in the Central Florida region, the tree reduces emissions 

of SO2 by 0.23 lb, NO2 by 0.28 lb (US EPA 2006b), and PM10 by 0.1 lb (US EPA 

1998). The same tree is responsible for conserving 60 gal of water in cooling towers 

and reducing CO2 emissions by 204 lb.

Although air pollutants removed and avoided owing to energy savings from 

Orlando’s municipal forest had substantial value ($203,645 annually), the releases 

of BVOCs reduced the net air-quality benefit to $115,237 (Peper et al. 2009b). The 

ability of trees to produce net air-quality benefits differed dramatically among species; those with low BVOC emissions produced significant benefits. Large-canopied 

trees with large leaf surface areas and low BVOC emissions produced the greatest 

benefits. Although live and laurel oak were classified as high emitters, their large 

amount of leaf surface area resulted in substantial net air quality benefits ($81,711 

total) .

Trees absorb gaseous 

pollutants

Trees intercept 

particulate matter
13

Central Florida Community Tree Guide: Benefits, Costs, and Strategic Planting

The urban forests in Jacksonville and Miami were estimated to remove 11,000 

and 243 tons of air pollutants, a service valued at $60.8 and $1.4 million, respectively (Nowak et al. 2006). Removal of 1,380 tons of air pollutants by Tampa’s 

urban forest was valued at $6.4 million (Andreu et al. 2009). Another study in Palm 

Beach County, Florida, assessed the damage done to the urban canopy by recent 

hurricanes and calculated the benefits lost. Between 2004 and 2006, the tree canopy 

of the urbanized parts of the county declined by 38 percent and thereby increased 

the level of air pollutants in the atmosphere by approximately 2.3 million pounds 

(American Forests 2007).

Trees in a Davis, California, parking lot were found to improve air quality by 

reducing air temperatures 1 to 3 °F (Scott et al. 1999). By shading asphalt surfaces 

and parked vehicles, trees reduce hydrocarbon emissions (VOCs) from gasoline that 

evaporates out of leaky fuel tanks and worn hoses) (fig. 6). These evaporative emissions are a principal component of smog, and parked vehicles are a primary source. 

In California, parking lot tree plantings can be funded as an air quality improvement measure because of the associated reductions in evaporative emissions. 

Trees shade 

prevents evaporative 

hydrocarbon emissions

Figure 6—Trees planted to shade parking areas can reduce hydrocarbon emissions and improve

air quality. 

USDA Forest Service, PSW, Center for Urban Forest Research
14

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-230

Reducing Stormwater Runoff and Improving Hydrologic Function

Urban stormwater runoff is a major source of pollution entering wetlands, streams, 

lakes, and oceans. Healthy trees can reduce the amount of runoff and pollutants 

in receiving waters (Cappiella et al. 2005). This is important because federal law 

requires states and localities to control nonpoint-source pollution, such as runoff 

from pavements, buildings, and landscapes. Also, many older cities have combined 

sewer outflow systems, and during large rain events excess runoff can mix with raw 

sewage. Rainfall interception by trees can reduce the magnitude of this problem 

during large storms. Trees are mini-reservoirs, controlling runoff at the source, 

thereby reducing runoff volumes and erosion of watercourses, as well as delaying 

the onset of peak flows. Trees can reduce runoff in several ways (fig. 7):

•	 Leaves and branch surfaces intercept and store rainfall, thereby reducing

runoff volumes and delaying the onset of peak flows.

•	 Roots increase the rate at which rainfall infiltrates soil by creating root

channels. This increases the capacity of soil to store water, reducing overland flow.

•	 Tree canopies and litter reduce soil erosion by diminishing the impact of

raindrops on barren surfaces.

• Transpiration through tree leaves reduces moisture levels in the soil, 

increasing the soil’s capacity to store rainfall.

Rainfall that is stored temporarily on canopy leaf and bark surfaces is called 

intercepted rainfall. Intercepted water evaporates, drips from leaf surfaces, and 

flows down stem surfaces to the ground. Tree surface saturation generally occurs 

after 1 to 2 in of rain has fallen (Xiao et al. 2000). During large storm events, rainfall exceeds the amount that the tree crown can store, about 50 to 100 gal per tree. 

The interception benefit is the amount of rainfall that does not reach the ground 

because it evaporates from the crown. As a result, the volume of runoff is reduced 

and the time of peak flow is delayed. Trees protect water quality by substantially 

reducing runoff during small rainfall events that are responsible for most pollutant 

washoff into receiving water bodies. Therefore, urban forests generally produce 

more benefits through water quality protection than through flood control (Xiao

et al. 1998, 2000).

The amount of rainfall trees intercept depends on the tree’s architecture, rainfall patterns, and climate. Tree-crown characteristics that influence interception 

are the trunk, stem, surface areas, textures, area of gaps, period when leaves are 

present, and dimensions (e.g., tree height and diameter). Trees with coarse surfaces 

retain more rainfall than those with smooth surfaces. Large trees generally intercept 

Trees reduce runoff
15

Central Florida Community Tree Guide: Benefits, Costs, and Strategic Planting

Figure 7—Trees intercept a portion of rainfall that evaporates and never reaches the ground. Some 

rainfall runs to the ground along branches and stems (stemflow), and some falls through gaps or 

drips off leaves and branches (throughfall). Transpiration increases soil moisture storage potential. 

(Drawing by Mike Thomas.)

more rainfall than small trees do because greater surface areas allow for greater 

evaporation rates. Tree crowns with few gaps reduce throughfall to the ground. 

Species that are in leaf when rainfall is plentiful are more effective than deciduous

species that have dropped their leaves during the rainy season.

Studies in California that have simulated urban forest effects on stormwater 

runoff have reported reductions of 2 to 7 percent. Annual interception of rainfall 

by Sacramento’s urban forest for the total urbanized area was only about 2 percent 

because of the winter rainfall pattern and scarcity of evergreen species (Xiao et al. 

1998). However, average interception in canopied areas ranged from 6 to 13 percent 
16

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-230

(150 gal per tree), similar to values reported for rural forests. Broadleaf evergreens 

and conifers intercept more rainfall than deciduous species in areas where rainfall 

is highest in fall, winter, or spring (Xiao and McPherson 2002). However, deciduous 

trees in Florida are in full leaf during peak precipitation months, June to November, 

and intercept a significant amount of rainfall.

In Orlando, Florida, the municipal forest reduced runoff by 284 million gallons 

annually (Peper et al. 2009b), valued at $851,291. Tree species with the highest 

rate of interception were laurel oak, live oak, and camphor. The American Forests 

(2007) study of Palm Beach County, Florida, found that the 38 percent decline in 

the urban forest canopy between 2004 and 2006 owing to hurricanes meant that an 

additional 1 billion gallons of stormwater had to be treated.

Urban forests can provide other hydrologic benefits, too. For example, when 

planted in conjunction with engineered soil around paved areas, trees can serve 

as mini stormwater reservoirs, capturing and filtering much more runoff than the 

trees alone. Tree plantations, nurseries, or landscapes can be irrigated with partially 

treated wastewater. Reused wastewater applied to urban forest lands can recharge 

aquifers, reduce stormwater-treatment loads, and create income through sales 

of nursery or wood products from the forests. Recycling urban wastewater into 

greenspace areas can be an economical means of treatment and disposal while at 

the same time providing other environmental benefits (USDA NRCS 2005).

Aesthetics and Other Benefits

Trees provide a host of aesthetic, social, economic, and health benefits that should 

be included in any benefit-cost analysis. One of the most frequently cited reasons 

that people plant trees is for beautification. Trees add color, texture, line, and form 

to the landscape, softening the hard geometry that dominates built environments. 

Research on the aesthetic quality of residential streets has shown that street trees 

are the single strongest positive influence on scenic quality (Schroeder and Cannon 

1983). 

In surveys, consumers have shown greater preference for commercial streetscapes with trees. In contrast to areas without trees, people shop more often and 

longer in well-landscaped business districts. They are willing to pay more for 

parking and up to 12 percent more for goods and services (Wolf 2007).

Research in public housing complexes found that outdoor spaces with trees 

were used significantly more often than spaces without trees. By facilitating interactions among residents, trees can contribute to reduced levels of domestic violence, 

as well as foster safer and more sociable neighborhood environments (Sullivan and 

Kuo 1996).

Beautification

Public safety benefits
17

Central Florida Community Tree Guide: Benefits, Costs, and Strategic Planting

Well-maintained trees increase the “curb appeal” of properties (fig. 8). Research 

documenting the increase in dollar value that can be attributed to trees is difficult 

to conduct and still in early stages, but some studies comparing sales prices of 

residential properties with different numbers of trees have suggested that people 

are willing to pay 3 to 7 percent more for properties with ample trees versus few or 

no trees. One of the most comprehensive studies of the influence of trees on home 

property values was based on actual sales prices in Athens, Georgia, and found that 

each large front-yard tree was associated with about a 1-percent increase in sales 

price (Anderson and Cordell 1988). A much greater value of 9 percent ($15,000) was 

determined in a U.S. Tax Court case for the loss of a large black oak on a property 

valued at $164,500 (Neely 1988). In Portland, Oregon, street trees added on average 

$7,020 to the sales price of a home ($297,115) (Donovan and Butry 2008).

Scientific studies confirm that trees in cities provide social and psychological 

benefits. Humans derive substantial pleasure from trees, whether it is inspiration 

from their beauty, a spiritual connection, or a sense of meaning (Dwyer et al. 1992, 

Lewis 1996). After natural disasters, people often report a sense of loss if their 

community forest has been damaged (Hull 1992). Views of trees and nature from 

homes and offices provide restorative experiences that ease mental fatigue and 

help people to concentrate (Kaplan and Kaplan 1989). Desk workers with a view of 

nature report lower rates of sickness and greater satisfaction with their jobs compared to those having no visual connection to nature (Kaplan 1992).

Property value benefits

Social and 

psychological benefits

Figure 8—Trees beautify a neighborhood, increasing property values and creating a more sociable 

environment. 

Paula Peper
18

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-230

Trees provide important settings for recreation and relaxation in and near cities. 

The act of planting trees can have social value, as bonds between people and local 

groups often result. 

The presence of trees in cities provides public health benefits and improves 

the well-being of those who live, work, and play in cities. Physical and emotional 

stress has both short-term and long-term effects. Prolonged stress can compromise 

the human immune system. A series of studies on human stress caused by general 

urban conditions and city driving show that views of nature reduce the stress 

response of both body and mind (Parsons et al. 1998). Urban green also appears to 

have an “immunization effect,” in that people show less stress response if they have 

had a recent view of trees and vegetation. Hospitalized patients with views of nature 

and time spent outdoors need less medication, sleep better, have a better outlook, 

and recover more quickly than patients without connections to nature (Ulrich 1985).

Skin cancer is a particular concern in the sunny, low-latitude Central Florida 

region. By providing shade, trees reduce exposure to ultraviolet (UV) light, thereby 

lowering the risk of harmful effects from skin cancer and cataracts (Tretheway 

and Manthe 1999). In low-latitude regions like the Tropics, the ultraviolet protection factor provided by trees increases from approximately 2 under a 30-percent 

canopy cover to as much as 30 under a 90-percent canopy cover (Grant et al. 2002). 

Because early exposure to UV radiation is a risk factor for later development of 

skin cancer, planting trees around playgrounds, schools, day care centers, and ball 

fields can be especially valuable in helping reduce the risk of later-life cancers.

Certain environmental benefits from trees are more difficult to quantify than 

those previously described, but can be just as important. Noise can reach unhealthy 

levels in cities. Trucks, trains, and planes can produce noise that exceeds 100 decibels, twice the level at which noise becomes a health risk. Thick strips of vegetation 

in conjunction with landforms or solid barriers can reduce some highway noise and 

have a psychological effect (Cook 1978).

Numerous types of wildlife inhabit cities and are generally highly valued by 

residents. For example, older parks, cemeteries, and botanical gardens often contain 

a rich assemblage of wildlife. Remnant woodlands and riparian habitats within 

cities can connect a city to its surrounding bioregion (fig. 9). Wetlands, greenways 

(linear parks), and other greenspace can provide habitats that conserve biodiversity

(Platt et al. 1994). Native plants are particularly valuable because they support 

wildlife. Also, regionally appropriate and native plant selections reduce potential 

resource inputs.

Urban forestry can provide jobs for both skilled and unskilled labor. Public service programs and grassroots-led urban and community forestry programs provide 

Human health benefits 

Wildlife habitat
19

Central Florida Community Tree Guide: Benefits, Costs, and Strategic Planting

Figure 9—Natural areas within cities are refuges for wildlife and help connect city dwellers with 

their ecosystems. Shown here is one of many homes that border a multitude of lakes throughout 

Central Florida communities. These lakes provide habitat for birds, amphibians, alligators, and 

other wildlife. 

Paula Peper

horticultural training to volunteers across the United States. Also, urban and community forestry provides educational opportunities for residents who want to learn 

about nature through firsthand experience (McPherson and Mathis 1999). Local 

nonprofit tree groups and municipal volunteer programs often provide educational 

material and hands-on training in the care of trees and work with area schools.

Tree shade on streets can help offset the cost of managing pavement by protecting it from weathering. The asphalt paving on streets contains stone aggregate in an 

oil binder. Tree shade lowers the street surface temperature and reduces heating and 

volatilization of the binder (McPherson and Muchnick 2005). As a result, the aggregate remains protected for a longer period by the oil binder. When unprotected, 

vehicles loosen the aggregate, and much like sandpaper, the loose aggregate grinds 

down the pavement. Because most weathering of asphalt-concrete pavement occurs 

during the first 5 to 10 years when new street tree plantings provide little shade, this 

benefit mainly applies when older streets are resurfaced (fig. 10).

Costs

Planting and Maintaining Trees 

The environmental, social, and economic benefits of urban and community forests 

come, of course, at a price. A national survey reported that communities in the Gulf 

Coast region spent an average of $0.98 per tree, in 1994, for street- and park-tree 

management (Tschantz and Sacamano 1994). This is the lowest amount reported 

compared with average expenditures in all other regions. Nationwide, the single 

largest expenditure was for tree pruning, followed by tree removal/disposal, and 

tree planting.

Jobs and environmental 

education
20

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-230

Figure 10—Although shade trees can be expensive to maintain, their shade can reduce the costs 

of resurfacing streets (McPherson and Muchnick 2005), promote pedestrian travel, and improve 

air quality directly through pollutant uptake and indirectly through reduced emissions of volatile 

organic compounds from cars. 

USDA Forest Service, PSW, Center for Urban Forest Research

Our survey of municipal foresters in Central Florida indicates that on average they are spending about $22 to $31 per tree annually. Most of this amount is 

for pruning ($7 to $11 per tree) and removal and disposal ($4 to $6 per tree), and 

administration ($2 to 4 per tree). Other municipal departments incur costs for 

infrastructure repair and trip-and-fall claims resulting from root-buckled pavement 

that average to about $2 per tree depending on city policy.

Annual expenditures for tree management on private property have also not 

been well documented. Costs differ considerably, ranging from some commercial 

or residential properties that receive regular professional landscape service to 

others that are virtually “wild” and without maintenance. An analysis of data for 

Sacramento suggested that households typically spent about $5 to $10 annually per 

tree for pruning and pest and disease control (Summit and McPherson 1998). Our 

survey of commercial arborists in the Central Florida region indicated that expenditures typically exceed that amount, ranging from $20 to $25 per tree with less than 

half of residential trees receiving care. Expenditures are usually greatest for planting, pruning, and removal.

Conflicts With Urban Infrastructure

Like other cities across the United States, communities in the Central Florida region 

are spending millions of dollars each year to manage conflicts between trees and 

Municipal costs of tree 

care

Residential costs vary
21

Central Florida Community Tree Guide: Benefits, Costs, and Strategic Planting

power lines, sidewalks, sewers, and other elements of the urban infrastructure. 

Orlando is currently spending over $15 per tree annually on sewer, sidewalk, curb, 

and gutter repair costs (Peper et al. 2009b). Although this amount exceeds the 

value of $11.22 per tree reported for 18 California cities (McPherson 2000), it also 

includes sewer repair costs not included in the California study.

In some cities, decreasing budgets are increasing the sidewalk-repair backlog 

and forcing cities to shift the costs of sidewalk repair to residents. This shift has 

significant impacts on residents in older areas, where large trees have outgrown 

small sites and infrastructure has deteriorated. It should be noted that trees are not 

always solely responsible for these problems. In older areas, in particular, sidewalks 

and curbs may have reached the end of their 20- to 25-year service life, or may have 

been poorly constructed in the first place (Sydnor et al. 2000).

Efforts to control the costs of these conflicts are having alarming effects on 

urban forests (Bernhardt and Swiecki 1993, Thompson and Ahern 2000):

•	 Cities are downsizing their urban forests by planting smaller trees.

Although small trees are appropriate under power lines and in small planting sites, they are less effective than large trees at providing shade, absorbing air pollutants, and intercepting rainfall.

•	 Thousands of healthy urban trees are lost each year and their benefits forgone because of sidewalk damage, the second most common reason that 

street and park trees were removed.

•	 Most cities surveyed were removing more trees than they were planting.

Residents forced to pay for sidewalk repairs may not want replacement 

trees.

Cost-effective strategies to retain benefits from large street trees while reducing 

costs associated with infrastructure conflicts are described in Reducing Infrastructure Damage by Tree Roots (Costello and Jones 2003). Matching the growth characteristics of trees to the conditions at the planting site is one important strategy. 

Other strategies include meandering sidewalks around trees, suspending sidewalks 

above tree roots, and replacing concrete sidewalks with recycled rubber sidewalks.

Tree roots can also damage old sewer lines that are cracked or otherwise 

susceptible to invasion (Randrup et al. 2001). Sewer repair companies estimate that 

sewer damage is minor until trees and sewers are over 30 years old, and roots from 

trees in yards are usually more of a problem than roots from trees in planter strips 

along streets. The latter assertion may be because the sewers are closer to the root 

zone as they enter houses than at the street. Repair costs typically range from $100 

for sewer rodding (inserting a cleaning implement to temporarily remove roots) to 

$1,000 or more for sewer excavation and replacement.

Tree roots can damage 

sidewalks
22

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-230

Most communities sweep their streets regularly to reduce surface-runoff pollution entering local waterways. Street trees drop leaves, flowers, fruit, and branches 

year round that constitute a significant portion of debris collected from city streets. 

When leaves fall and rains begin, tree litter can clog sewers, dry wells, and other 

elements of flood-control systems. Costs include additional labor needed to remove 

leaves, and property damage caused by localized flooding.

In Central Florida communities, hurricanes contribute to higher than average 

cleanup costs. Debris production has ranged from 0.2 (Sanford, Florida) to 60.7 

cubic yards (Gulf Breeze, Florida) per 100 ft of studied road segments (Escobedo et 

al. 2009). The smaller amount is associated with a city in interior Florida compared 

to the larger amount for a coastal community. Cost of removal and disposal averaged $21.50 per yard. The cost of tree cleanup from the three hurricanes during the 

2004–2005 season was nearly $23 million. About 20,000 municipal trees were lost 

and many more damaged.

The cost of addressing conflicts between trees and power lines is reflected in 

electric rates. Large trees under power lines require more frequent pruning than 

better-suited trees, which can make them appear less attractive (fig. 11). Frequent 

crown reduction reduces the benefits these trees could otherwise provide. Moreover, increased costs for pruning are passed on to customers.

Cleaning up after trees

Large trees under 

power lines can be 

costly

Figure 11—Large trees planted under power lines can require extensive pruning, which increases 

tree care costs and reduces the benefits of those trees, including their appearance. 

USDA Forest Service, PSW, Center for Urban Forest Research
23

Central Florida Community Tree Guide: Benefits, Costs, and Strategic Planting

Wood Salvage, Recycling, and Disposal

According to our survey, green waste recycling in Central Florida cities ranges 

from 0 percent to 100 percent. Some of those recycle 100 percent of their green 

waste from urban trees as mulch, compost, and firewood. Some powerplants will 

use this wood to generate electricity, thereby helping defray costs for hauling and 

grinding. Some cities, like St. Petersburg, Florida, pay recyclers as much as $24 

per ton, but realize a $14 per ton savings compared to dumping the green waste in 

a landfill. Generally, the net costs of waste-wood disposal are less than 1 percent 

of total tree-care costs, and cities and contractors may break even. Hauling and 

recycling costs can be nearly offset by revenues from sales of mulch, milled lumber, 

and firewood. The cost of wood disposal may be higher depending on geographic 

location and the presence of exotic pests that require elaborate waste-wood disposal 

(Bratkovich 2001). Growing markets for urban wood products and biomass feedstock for biopower plants could turn this cost into a revenue source. 

Recycling green waste 

may pay for itself
24

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-230

USDA Forest Service, PSW, Center for Urban Forest Research
25

Central Florida Community Tree Guide: Benefits, Costs, and Strategic Planting

Chapter 3. Benefits and Costs of Community 

Forests in Central Florida Communities

This chapter presents estimated benefits and costs for trees planted in typical 

residential yards and public sites in Central Florida communities. Because benefits 

and costs differ with tree size, we report results for representative small, medium, 

and large broadleaf trees and for a representative conifer.

Estimates are initial approximations as some benefits and costs are intangible 

or difficult to quantify (e.g., impacts on psychological health, crime, and violence). 

Limited knowledge about physical processes at work and their interactions makes 

estimates imprecise (e.g., fate of air pollutants trapped by trees and then washed 

to the ground by rainfall). Tree growth and mortality rates are highly variable 

throughout the region. Benefits and costs also differ, depending on differences in 

climate, pollutant concentrations, maintenance practices, and other factors. Given 

the Central Florida region’s diverse landscape, with different soils and types of 

community forestry programs, the approach used here provides first-order approximations. These findings can be used for general planning purposes, but should not 

be applied to estimate benefits produced by individual trees in the landscape. They 

provide a basis for decisions that set priorities and influence management direction, 

but are not suitable for determining whether a specific tree should be removed or 

retained (Maco and McPherson 2003).

Overview of Procedures

Approach

In this study, annual benefits and costs are estimated over a 40-year planning 

horizon for newly planted trees in three residential yard locations (about 27 ft from 

the east, south, and west of the residence) and a public streetside or park location. 

Henceforth, we refer to trees in these hypothetical locations as “yard” trees and 

“public” trees, respectively. Prices are assigned to each cost (e.g., planting, pruning, 

removal, irrigation, infrastructure repair, liability) and benefit (e.g., heating/cooling energy savings, air pollutant mitigation, stormwater runoff reduction, property 

value increase) through direct estimation and implied valuation of benefits as environmental externalities. This approach makes it possible to estimate the net benefits 

of plantings in “typical” locations using “typical” tree species. More information on 

data collection, modeling procedures, and assumptions can be found in appendix 3.

To account for differences in the mature size and growth of different tree species, we report results for three broadleaf trees—the small crapemyrtle, medium 

Southern magnolia, and large live oak—and a conifer, the slash pine (figs. 12 to 15)
26

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-230

Figure 12—The common crapemyrtle represents small trees in this guide. 

Aren Dottenwhy

Figure 13—The southern magnolia represents medium trees in this guide.

Aren Dottenwhy
27

Central Florida Community Tree Guide: Benefits, Costs, and Strategic Planting

Figure 14—The live oak represents large trees in this guide. 

Aren Dottenwhy

Aren Dottenwhy

Figure 15—The slash pine 

represents conifers in this 

guide. 
28

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-230

(see “Common and Scientific Names” section). The selection of these species is 

based on data availability and representative growth and is not necessarily intended 

to endorse their use in large numbers.

Tree dimensions are derived from growth curves developed from street trees 

in Orlando, Florida (Peper et al. 2009b) (fig. 16). Frequency and costs of tree 

management are estimated based on data from municipal foresters in Brooksville, 

Dunedin, Lakeland, Orlando, and St. Petersburg, Florida. In addition, commercial 

arborists from Ward Reasoner and Sons Landscaping, Inc., Central Florida Tree 

Services, and Earth Advisors, Inc. provided information on tree management costs 

on residential properties.

Benefits are calculated with numerical models and data both from the region 

(e.g., pollutant emission factors for avoided emissions from energy savings) and 

from local sources (e.g., Orlando climate data for energy effects). Changes in 

building energy use from tree shade were based on computer simulations that 

incorporated building, climate, and shading effects. Sequestration, the net rate of 

carbon dioxide (CO2) storage in above- and belowground biomass over the course 

of one growing season, was calculated using tree growth data and biomass equations for urban trees. Emission reductions were calculated as the product of energy 

savings and CO2 emission factors for electricity and heating. Annual consumption 

of gasoline and diesel fuel by the community forestry divisions was converted into 

CO2 equivalent emissions to estimate CO2 released due to tree maintenance activities. Hourly meteorological data for windspeed, solar radiation and precipitation, as 

well as hourly concentrations for nitrogen dioxide (NO2), ozone (O3), sulfur dioxide 

(SO2), and particulate matter (PM10) were used with a numerical model to calculate 

pollutant dry deposition per tree. Energy savings resulting in reduced emissions 

of criteria air pollutants (volatile organic compounds [VOCs], NO2, PM10) from 

powerplants and space heating equipment were calculated using utility-specific 

emission factors for electricity and heating fuels. A numerical interception model 

accounted for the volume of rainfall stored in tree crowns using information on 

crown projection areas (area under tree dripline), leaf areas, and water depths on 

canopy surfaces with hourly meteorological and rainfall data. The value of aesthetic 

and other benefits was captured from research that has quantified differences in 

sales prices of properties that are associated with trees. Anderson and Cordell 

(1988) found that each large front-yard tree was associated with a 0.88 percent 

increase in sales price. In this analysis, aesthetic benefits reflect the contribution of 

a large front-yard tree to local residential sales prices, with adjustments that account 

for the location of the tree (e.g., front or back yard, residential or commercial land 

use) and its growth rate.

Tree care costs based 

on survey findings

Tree benefits based on 

numerical models
29

Central Florida Community Tree Guide: Benefits, Costs, and Strategic Planting

Figure 16—Tree growth curves are based on data 

collected from street trees in Orlando, Florida. Data for 

representative small, medium, and large trees are for 

the common crapemyrtle, southern magnolia, live oak, 

and slash pine, respectively. Differences in leaf surface 

area among species are most important for this analysis 

because functional benefits such as summer shade, 

rainfall interception, and pollutant uptake are related to 

leaf surface area.
30

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-230

Regional electricity and natural gas prices are used in this study to quantify 

the dollar value of energy savings. Costs of preventing or repairing damage from 

pollution, flooding, or other environmental risks were used to estimate society’s 

willingness to pay for clean air and water (Wang and Santini 1995). For example, 

the value of stormwater runoff reduction owing to rainfall interception by trees is 

estimated by using marginal control costs. If a community or developer is willing 

to pay an average of $0.01 per gal of treated and controlled runoff to meet minimum 

standards, then the stormwater runoff mitigation value of a tree that intercepts 

1,000 gal of rainfall, eliminating the need for control, should be $10. Appendix 3 

contains more detailed information on methods used to calculate benefits and costs 

and assign monetary value to tree services.

Reporting Results

Results are reported in terms of annual value for an average tree. To make these 

calculations realistic, however, mortality rates are included. Based on our survey of 

regional municipal foresters and commercial arborists, this analysis assumes that 40 

percent of the planted trees will die over the 40-year period, for an annual mortality 

rate of 1.0 percent per year. This accounting approach “grows” trees in different 

locations and uses computer simulation to calculate the annual flow of benefits and 

costs as trees mature and die (McPherson 1992). In appendix 2, results are reported 

at 5-year intervals for 40 years. 

A Note on Palms

There has been controversy in recent years about the magnitude of the environmental and other benefits of palm trees. Some argue that they have little value and 

should be avoided in favor of shade trees. Others point to their aesthetic value. 

Palm trees, especially large-crowned palms, provide shade for cooling, sequester 

carbon, remove air pollutants from the air, and trap stormwater. At the same time, 

they can be very expensive to plant and maintain. In Central Florida, our research 

determined that annual benefits and expenditures for a typical palm used as a street 

tree (sabal palm) were $4 and $30, respectively, resulting in a net annual loss of $26 

per tree. In a municipal forest resource analysis for Orlando, the average annual 

benefits for sabal palm, Washington fan palm, and queen palm were $5, $8, and 

$12, respectively. However, management costs specific to palms were not reported 

(Peper et al. 2009b). The palmetto and fan palm produced fewer benefits than the 

typical small tree—crapemyrtle. 

Many people plant palms believing that they are low maintenance plants, but 

according to palm expert Dr. Timothy Broschat, they are high maintenance (2010b). 

He noted that although small, inexpensive container-grown palms are often planted 

Tree mortality included

Palms in Central 

Florida
31

Central Florida Community Tree Guide: Benefits, Costs, and Strategic Planting

by homeowners, public, commercial, and new development landscapes invariably 

install larger, field-grown, specimen palms that cost much more to plant. Although 

structural pruning is not required for palms, non-self-cleaning palms (all of the 

species grown regularly in the Central Florida region are non-self-cleaning) require 

that every leaf ever produced by the palm be manually removed from the palm and 

from the landscape. Fallen fronds do not biodegrade into turf and soil as do the 

leaves of many broadleaf tree species.

In addition, palms have the highest nutritional requirements of any plant grown 

in the state. They require routine fertilization with expensive palm fertilizers to 

maintain full, deficiency symptom-free canopies (Broschat 2010a). The small 

canopies of most palms are largely owing to nutrient deficiencies such as potassium, which causes premature leaf senescence and discoloration of the older leaves. 

The discolored older leaves are unsightly and are often removed unnecessarily by 

tree trimmers. Most palms in Florida landscapes are over-trimmed, to the detriment 

of the palm’s health and functionality (see examples of properly and over-pruned 

palms at Assessing Damage and Restoring Trees After a Hurricane link in appendix 1). Although the environmental benefits of many small-crowned palms may not 

exceed the costs of purchasing, installing, and maintaining them, properly maintained palms will live longer, create a better aesthetic “sense of place,” and produce 

more benefits for Florida communities. For more information on palm care, see 

appendix 1.

Findings of This Study

Average Annual Net Benefits

Average annual net benefits (benefits minus costs) per tree over a 40-year period 

increase with mature tree size (for detailed results see app. 2): 

•	 $1 to $10 for a small tree

•	 $32 to $51 for a medium tree

•	 $96 to $123 for a large tree

•	 $7 to $9 for a conifer

Benefits associated with reduced levels of stormwater runoff and increased 

property values account for the largest proportion of total benefits in this region. 

Energy savings, reduced levels of air pollutants and CO2 in the air are the next most 

important benefits.

Energy conservation benefits differ with tree location as well as size. Trees 

located opposite west-facing walls provide the greatest net cooling energy savings. 

Reducing energy needs reduces CO2

 emissions and thereby reduces atmospheric 

Average annual net 

benefits increase with 

tree size
32

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-230

CO2. Similarly, energy savings that reduce demand from powerplants account for 

important reductions in gases that produce ozone, a major component of smog.

Our findings demonstrate that average annual net benefits from large trees like 

live oak are substantially greater than those from small trees like the crapemyrtle, 

where public tree maintenance costs exceed benefits returned. Average annual net 

benefits for the small, medium, and large broadleaf public trees are $1, $32, and 

$96, respectively. The slash pine, although a large conifer, has a relatively small 

amount of leaf area; hence, benefits are only slightly greater than the small broadleaf tree values. The largest average annual net benefits from yard trees stemmed 

from a tree opposite the west-facing wall of a house: $10, $51, $123, and $9 for 

small, medium, large broadleaf evergreen, and the conifer, respectively.

The large yard tree opposite a west wall produces a net annual benefit of $192 

at year 40. In the same location, 40 years after planting, the small, medium, and 

pine produce annual net benefits of $20, $74, and $27, respectively.

Forty years after planting at a typical public site, the small, medium, and 

large trees and the conifer provide annual net benefits of $5, $38, $153, and $21, 

respectively.

Net benefits for a yard tree opposite a west house wall and a public tree also 

increase with size when summed over the entire 40-year period:

•	 $403 (yard) and $23 (public) for a small tree

•	 $2,039 (yard) and $1,266 (public) for a medium tree

•	 $4,939 (yard) and $3,859 (public) for a large tree

•	 $344 (yard) and $296 (public) for a conifer

Twenty years after planting, average annual benefits for all public trees exceed 

costs of tree planting and management (tables 1 and 2). For a large live oak in a yard 

20 years after planting, the total value of environmental benefits alone ($80) is five 

times the total annual cost ($16). Environmental benefits total $21, $43, and $16 for 

the small, medium, and pine tree, whereas tree care costs are lower, $9, $12, and 

$15, respectively. Adding the value of aesthetics and other benefits to the environmental benefits results in substantial net benefits.

Net benefits are lower for public trees (table 2) than yard trees. Based on our 

survey findings, public trees are about twice as expensive to maintain as private 

trees. The standard of care is often high for public trees because of their prominence and potential risk. Also, energy benefits are lower for public trees than for 

yard trees because public trees are assumed to provide general climate effects, but 

not to shade buildings directly.

Large broadleaf trees 

provide the most 

benefits

Net annual benefits at 

year 40

Year 20: environmental 

benefits exceed tree 

care costs
33

Central Florida Community Tree Guide: Benefits, Costs, and Strategic Planting

Table 1—Estimated annual benefits and costs for a private tree (residential yard) opposite the west-facing wall 20 years after planting

Common crapemyrtle Southern magnolia Live oak Slash pine

Small tree Medium tree Large tree Conifer tree

21 ft tall 33 ft tall 40 ft tall 48 ft tall

24-ft spread 29-ft spread 42-ft spread 28-ft spread

LSA = 1,211 ft2 LSA = 2,346 ft2 LSA = 4,482 ft2 LSA = 1,492 ft2

Resource Total Resource Total Resource Total Resource Total

Benefit category units value units value units value units value

Dollars Dollars Dollars Dollars

Electricity savings ($0.1318/kWh) 100 kWh 13.20 186 kWh 24.49 339 kWh 44.67 37 kWh 4.89Natural gas savings ($0.0027/kBtu) 5 kBtu 0.01 -6 kBtu -0.01 -1 kBtu 0.00 46 kBtu 0.12Carbon dioxide ($0.003/lb) 266 lb 0.89 468 lb 1.56 1,006 lb 3.36 195 lb 0.65

Ozone ($2.20/lb) 0.40 lb 0.88 0.79 lb 1.74 1.65 lb 3.63 0.70 lb 1.54Nitrous oxide ($2.20/lb) 0.21 lb 0.47 0.42 lb 0.91 0.81 lb 1.79 0.16 lb 0.36Sulfur dioxide ($2.01/lb) 0.15 lb 0.30 0.29 lb 0.59 0.57 lb 1.14 0.09 lb 0.18Small particulate matter ($2.10/lb) 0.17 lb 0.36 0.36 lb 0.76 0.65 lb 1.37 0.25 lb 0.53

Volatile organic compounds

($1.03/lb) 0.06 lb 0.07 0.12 lb 0.13 0.24 lb 0.25 0.04 lb 0.04

Biogenic volatile organic

compounds ($1.03/lb) 0 lb 0.00 -1.21 lb -1.25 -2.75 lb -2.84 -0.03 lb -0.03

Rainfall interception ($0.003/gal) 1,749 gal 5.25 4,657 gal 13.97 8,854 gal 26.56 2,711 gal 8.13

Environmental subtotal 21.43 42.88 79.92 16.41

Other benefits 9.95	 30.66	 69.98	 	 	 13.07

Total benefits	 31.38	 73.55	 149.90	 	 	 29.48

Total costs 9.30 11.61 16.18 14.73

Net benefits	 	 	 22.08	 61.94	 133.72	 	 	 14.76

LSA = leaf surface area.
34

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-230 Table 2—Estimated annual benefits and costs for a public tree (street/park) 20 years after planting Common crapemyrtle Southern magnolia Live oak Slash pine Small tree Medium tree Large tree Conifer tree 21 ft tall 33 ft tall 40 ft tall 48 ft tall 24-ft spread 29-ft spread 42-ft spread 28-ft spread

LSA = 1,211 ft2 LSA = 2,346 ft2 LSA = 4,482 ft2 LSA = 1,492 ft2

Resource Total Resource Total Resource Total Resource Total

Benefit category units value units value units value units value

Dollars Dollars Dollars Dollars

Electricity savings ($0.0788/kWh) 27 kWh 3.50 42 kWh 5.53 91 kWh 11.95 37 kWh 4.89

Natural gas savings ($0.0110/kBtu) 14 kBtu 0.04 21 kBtu 0.06 42 kBtu 0.11 46 kBtu 0.12Carbon dioxide ($0.003/lb) 118 lb 0.39 178 lb 0.59 505 lb 1.69 195 lb 0.65Ozone ($0.61/lb) 0.40 lb 0.88 0.79 lb 1.74 1.65 lb 3.63 0.70 lb 1.54

Nitrous oxide ($0.61/lb) 0.21 lb 0.47 0.42 lb 0.91 0.81 lb 1.79 0.16 lb 0.36Sulfur dioxide ($1.42/lb) 0.15 lb 0.30 0.29 lb 0.59 0.57 lb 1.14 0.09 lb 0.18Small particulate matter ($1.14/lb) 0.17 lb 0.36 0.36 lb 0.76 0.65 lb 1.37 0.25 lb 0.53Volatile organic compounds ($0.19/lb) 0.06 lb 0.07 0.12 lb 0.13 0.24 lb 0.25 0.04 lb 0.04Biogenic volatile organic compounds

($0.19/lb) 0 lb 0.00 -1.21 lb -1.25 -2.75 lb -2.84 0 lb -0.03

Rainfall interception ($0.003/gal) 1,749 gal 5.25 4,657 gal 13.97 8,854 gal 26.56 2,711 gal 8.13 Environmental subtotal 11.26 23.03 45.64 16.41

Other benefits 	 	 11.28	 	 	 34.75	 	 	 79.30	 	 	 14.81

Total benefits	 	 	 22.54	 	 	 57.77	 	 	 124.94	 	 	 31.22

 Total costs 19.30 22.20 28.82 25.29

Net benefits	 	 	 3.24	 	 	 35.57	 	 	 96.12	 	 	 5.93

LSA = leaf surface area.
35

Central Florida Community Tree Guide: Benefits, Costs, and Strategic Planting

Costs of tree care

Average Annual Costs

Averaged over 40 years, the costs for yard and public trees, respectively, are as 

follows:

•	 $20 and $22 for a small tree

•	 $23 and $27 for a medium tree

•	 $25 and $31 for a large tree

•	 $23 and $27 for a conifer

Costs increase with mature tree size because of added expenses for pruning and 

removing larger trees.

Over the 40-year period, tree planting is the single greatest cost for yard trees, 

averaging $11 per tree per year (see app. 2, table 7). Based on our survey, we 

assume in this study that a 3-in caliper (16-ft overall height) yard tree is planted at 

a cost of $440; the price includes the tree, labor, and any necessary watering during 

the establishment period. For public trees, pruning ($7 to $11 per tree per year) 

and tree planting ($6 per tree per year) are the greatest costs. Annual removal and 

disposal costs are significant for yard trees, ranging from $6 to $10 over the four 

tree types. Pruning, annualized over 40 years, averages $1 to $3 per tree. At $4 to 

$6 per tree per year, removal and disposal costs are also significant for public trees, 

as are administrative costs ($3 to $4 per tree) in this hurricane-prone region.

Table 3 shows annual management costs 20 years after planting for yard trees 

to the west of a house and for public trees. Annual costs for yard trees range from 

$9 to $16, and public tree care costs are $19 to $29. In general, public trees are more 

expensive to maintain than yard trees because of their prominence, the greater need 

for public safety, and conflicts with infrastructure.

Average Annual Benefits

Average annual benefits over 40 years, including energy savings, stormwater runoff 

reduction, aesthetic value, air quality improvement, and CO2 sequestration increase 

with mature tree size (figs. 17 and 18; for detailed results see app. 2):

•	 $23 to $30 for a small tree

•	 $59 to $74 for a medium tree

•	 $127 to $149 for a large tree

•	 $32 to $34 for a conifer

Stormwater runoff reduction—

Stormwater runoff reduction services by trees that intercept rain before it reaches a 

stormwater treatment system are the most significant environmental benefit provided by trees. The live oak intercepts 12,141 gal per year on average over a 40-year 
36

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-230 Table 3—Estimated annual costs 20 years after planting for a private tree opposite the west-facing wall and a public tree Common crapemyrtle Southern magnolia Live oak Slash pine Small tree Medium tree Large tree Conifer tree 21 ft tall 33 ft tall 40 ft tall 48 ft tall

24-ft spread 29-ft spread 42-ft spread 28-ft spread

LSA = 1,211 ft2 LSA = 2,346 ft2 LSA = 4,482 ft2 LSA = 1,492 ft2

Private: Public Private: Public Private: Public Private: Public

Costs west tree west tree west tree west tree

Dollars per tree per year

Pruning 1.09 9.00 1.09 9.00 4.37 14.00 4.37 14.00Remove and dispose 6.47 4.28 8.29 5.48 9.31 6.16 8.17 5.40Pest and disease 0.20 0.22 0.26 0.29 0.29 0.32 0.26 0.28Infrastructure 0.19 1.68 0.24 2.15 0.27 2.41 0.24 2.12Irrigation 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00Cleanup 0.09 0.79 0.12 1.01 0.13 1.14 0.11 1.00Liability and legal 0.02 0.18 0.03 0.23 0.03 0.26 0.03 0.23Administration and other 1.23 3.15 1.57 4.03 1.77 4.53 1.55 2.27 Total costs 9.30 19.30 11.61 22.20 16.18 28.82 14.73 25.29

Total benefits	 31.38	 22.54	 73.55	 57.77	 149.90	 124.94	 29.48	 31.22

Total net benefits	 22.08	 3.24	 61.94	 35.57	 133.72	 96.12	 14.76	 5.93Note: Prices for removal and disposal are included to account for expected mortality of citywide planting.LSA = leaf surface area.
37

Central Florida Community Tree Guide: Benefits, Costs, and Strategic Planting

Figure 17—Estimated annual benefits and costs for a small 

(common crapemyrtle), medium (southern magnolia), large 

(live oak), and a conifer (slash pine) tree located west of a 

residence. Costs are greatest during the initial establishment period, whereas benefits increase with tree size.

Figure 18—Estimated annual benefits and costs for 

public small (common crapemyrtle), medium (southern 

magnolia), large (live oak), and a conifer (slash pine) 

tree.
38

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-230

period with an implied value of $36 (app. 2, table 12). The crapemyrtle, southern 

magnolia, and slash pine intercept 1,573, 6,191, and 3,084 gal per year on average, 

with values of $5, 19, and $9, respectively (app. 2, tables 6, 9, and 15). Forty years 

after planting, average stormwater runoff reductions equal 2,251, 13,124, 27,449, 

and 6,317 gal, respectively, for the small, medium, large, and conifer trees. The 

hydrology modeling was based on 2008 rainfall data for the Orlando International 

Airport (53 in per year); other, wetter parts of the Central Florida region can expect 

much higher benefits.

As the cities of the Central Florida region continue to grow, the amount of 

impervious surface will continue to increase. The role that trees, in combination 

with other strategies such as rain gardens and structural soils, can play in reducing 

stormwater runoff is substantial.

Energy savings—

Energy benefits are the second most significant environmental benefit and tend to

increase with mature tree size. For example, average annual energy benefits over

the 40-year period are $11 for the small crapemyrtle tree opposite a west-facing 

wall and $42 for the larger live oak. For species of all sizes, energy savings increase 

as trees mature and their leaf surface area increases (figs. 17 and 18).

As expected in a region with warm summers and mild winters, cooling savings account for most of the total energy benefit. Trees planted on the west side of 

buildings have the greatest energy benefits because the effect of shade on cooling 

costs is maximized by blocking the sun during the warmest time of the day. A yard 

tree located south of a home produced the least total benefit because, at the lower 

latitudes of the Central Florida region where the sun remains mostly overhead 

throughout the year, less sunlight strikes a building on the south side. Trees located 

east of a building provided intermediate benefits. Total energy benefits also reflect 

species-related traits such as size, form, branch pattern, and density, as well as time 

in leaf.

Average annual total energy benefits for public trees were less than for yard 

trees and ranged from $3 for the crapemyrtle to $13 for the large live oak.

Air quality improvement—

Air quality benefits are defined as the sum of pollutant uptake by trees and

avoided powerplant emissions from energy savings minus biogenic volatile organic compounds (BVOCs) released by trees. Average annual air quality benefits

over the 40-year period were approximately $2 to $4 per tree. These relatively low 

Stormwater benefits 

are crucial
39

Central Florida Community Tree Guide: Benefits, Costs, and Strategic Planting

air quality benefits reflect the clean air of most cities in the Central Florida region.

Contrast these results with the air quality benefits of a large tree in the Northeast

($13; McPherson et al. 2007), Midwest ($8; McPherson et al. 2006c), and southern 

California ($28; McPherson et al. 2000).

The ability of trees to intercept O3 from the air is the most highly valued. The 

large-stature live oak produces the greatest benefit because of its size. Over 40 

years it is estimated to reduce an average of 1.99 lb of O3 from the air annually, 

valued at $4.37. Average annual reductions in NO2, SO2, PM10, and volatile organic 

compounds (VOCs) for the large tree are valued at $1.78, $1.10, $1.77, and $0.24, 

respectively. This oak is a high emitter of BVOCs; however, the large amount of leaf 

area associated with these populations result in substantial net air quality benefits.

Forty years after planting, the average annual monetary values of air quality 

improvement (avoided + uptake of pollutants) for the crapemyrtle, southern magnolia, live oak, and slash pine are $1.90, $2.59, 4.22, and $2.61, respectively.

Carbon dioxide reduction—

Net atmospheric CO2 reductions accrue for all tree types. Average annual net reductions range from a high of 1,025 lb ($3.42) for a large live oak on the west side 

of a house to a low of 99 lbs ($0.33) for a small public crapemyrtle. Deciduous trees 

opposite west-facing house walls generally produce the greatest CO2 reduction from 

reduced powerplant emissions associated with energy savings. The values for the 

crapemyrtle are lowest for CO2 reduction because of the relatively small impacts of 

shade from the small-growing tree on energy consumption and emission reductions.

Forty years after planting, average annual avoided emissions and sequestered 

and released CO2 for a yard tree opposite a west wall are 220, 462, 1,025, and 151 

lb, respectively, for the small, medium, and large broadleaf trees and the conifer.

Aesthetic and other benefits—

Benefits associated with property value account for the largest portion of total benefits. As trees grow and become more visible, they can increase a property’s sales

price. Average annual values associated with these aesthetic and other benefits for

yard trees are $12, $28, $63, and $15, for the small, medium, and large broadleaf 

evergreen trees and for the conifer, respectively. The values for public trees are $13, 

$31, $72, and $17, respectively. The values for yard trees are slightly less than for 

public trees because offstreet trees contribute less to a property’s curb appeal than 

more prominent street trees. Because these estimates are based on median home 

sale prices, the effects of trees on property values and aesthetics will vary depending on local economies and market fluctuations.

Aesthetic benefits are 

substantial
40

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-230

USDA Forest Service, PSW, Center for Urban Forest Research
41

Central Florida Community Tree Guide: Benefits, Costs, and Strategic Planting

Chapter 4. Estimating Benefits and Costs for 

Tree Planting Projects in Your Community

Using hypothetical examples, this chapter shows two ways that benefit-cost information presented in this guide can be used. The first example demonstrates how 

to adjust values from the guide for local conditions when the goal is to estimate 

benefits and costs for a proposed tree planting project. The second example explains 

how to compare net benefits derived from planting different types of trees. The 

Center for Urban Forest Research has developed a computer program called i-Tree 

Streets (formerly STRATUM), part of the i-Tree software suite, that simplifies 

these calculations for analysis of existing street tree populations (http://www.

itreetools.org ) in a complete or sample inventory and will produce a “snapshot” of 

the structure, function, and value of trees. The program produces detailed reports, 

including benefit and cost estimates, for a single year. The methods detailed in the 

following examples allow users to estimate benefits and costs using a typical small, 

medium, and large broadleaf tree, and a conifer for a 40-year period. As mentioned 

previously, the goal is to provide a general accounting of the value of services provided by the trees, as well as the costs they incur. The last section discusses actions 

communities can take to increase the cost-effectiveness of their tree programs.

Applying Benefit-Cost Data

Hurston Park Example

The hypothetical city of Hurston Park is located in the Central Florida region 

and has a population of 74,000. Most of its street trees were planted decades ago, 

with laurel oak and crapemyrtle (see “Common and Scientific Names” section) as 

the dominant species. Currently, the tree canopy cover is sparse because a recent 

hurricane and a pest destroyed many of the laurel oaks and they have not been 

replaced. Many of the remaining street trees are in declining health. The city hired 

an urban forester 2 years ago and an active citizens’ group, the Green Team, has 

formed (fig. 19).

Initial discussions among the Green Team, local utilities, the urban forester, and 

other partners led to a proposed urban forestry program. The program intends to 

plant 1,000 trees in Hurston Park over a 5-year period. Trained volunteers will plant 

2-in-caliper trees in the following proportions: 70 percent large-maturing trees, 15 

percent medium-maturing trees, 5 percent small-maturing trees, and 10 percent 

conifers. One hundred trees will be planted in parks, and the remaining 900 trees 

will be planted along Main Street and other downtown streets following guidelines 

for selecting and planting wind-resistant trees. Mortality rates for earlier planting 
42

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-230

Figure 19—The (hypothetical) Green Team is motivated to re-green their 

community by planting 1,000 trees in 5 years.

USDA Forest Service, PSW, Center for Urban Forest Research

projects have been high, so the Green Team and the urban forester will concentrate 

their planting efforts in areas that are likely to be most successful, including planting spaces with sufficient soil capacity for trees to grow and as little conflict with 

infrastructure as possible, and that maximize environmental benefits. They expect 

to find a number of good suggestions for planting in chapter 5 of this guide and 

from the University of Florida/Institute of Food and Agriculture Sciences Extension 

Web sites (UF/IFAS) for urban forestry (see app. 1).

The Hurston Park City Council has agreed to maintain the current funding level 

for management of existing trees. Also, they will advocate formation of a municipal 

tree district to raise funds for the proposed tree-planting project. A municipal tree 

district is similar in concept to a landscape assessment district, which receives revenues based on formulas that account for the services different customers receive. 

For example, the proximity of customers to greenspace in a landscape assessment 

district may determine how much they pay for upkeep. A municipal tree district 
43

Central Florida Community Tree Guide: Benefits, Costs, and Strategic Planting

might receive funding from air quality districts, stormwater management agencies, electric utilities, businesses, and residents in proportion to the value of future 

benefits these groups will receive from trees in terms of air quality, hydrology, 

energy, carbon dioxide (CO2), and property value. The formation of such a district 

would require voter approval of a special assessment that charges recipients for 

tree planting and maintenance costs in proportion to the benefits they receive from 

the new trees. The council needs to know the amount of funding required for tree 

planting and maintenance, as well as how the benefits will be distributed over the 

40-year life of the project.

As a first step, the Hurston Park city forester and Green Team decided to use 

the values in appendix 2, tables 6 to 17, to quantify total cumulative benefits and 

costs over 40 years for the proposed planting of 1,000 public trees—700 large, 150 

medium, and 50 small broadleaf evergreen along with 100 pines. 

Before setting up a spreadsheet to calculate benefits and costs, the team considered which aspects of Hurston Park’s urban and community forestry project differ 

from the regional values used in this guide (the methods for calculating the values 

in appendix 2 are described in appendix 3): 

1. The price of electricity in Hurston Park is $0.1143 per kWh, not $0.132 per kWh 

as used in this guide. It is assumed that the buildings that will be shaded by the 

new street trees have air conditioning.

2. The community recently voted to increase funding for improved flood control 

to protect surrounding wetlands, increasing the price of stormwater treatment 

from $0.003 per gallon used in this guide to $0.004 per gallon.

3. The Green Team projected future annual costs for monitoring tree health and 

implementing their stewardship program. Administration costs are estimated to 

average $1,500 annually for the life of the trees or $1.50 per tree each year. This 

guide assumed an average annual administration cost of about $2.00 per tree. 

Thus, an adjustment is necessary.

4. Planting will cost $225 per tree. The guide assumes planting costs of $230 per 

tree. The costs will be lower for Hurston Park because purchase price is slightly 

lower from a local grower.

To calculate the dollar value of total benefits and costs for the 40-year period, 

the forester created a spreadsheet table (table 4). Each benefit and cost category is 

listed in the first column. Prices, adjusted where necessary for Hurston Park, are 

entered into the second column. The third column contains the resource units

(RUs) per tree per year associated with the benefit or the cost per tree per year, 

The first step: 

determine tree planting 

numbers
44

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-230 Table 4—Spreadsheet calculations of benefits and costs for the Hurston Park planting project (1,000 trees) over 40 years 700 large trees 150 medium trees 50 small trees 100 conifer trees 1,000 total trees Percentage Price Annual Total Annual Total Annual Total Annual Total Total Annual of positive Benefits (adjusted) per tree value per tree value per tree value per tree value value per tree services Resource Resource Resource Resource Dollars units Dollars units Dollars units Dollars units Dollars Dollars Dollars Percent Electricity (kWh) 0.1143 97.11 310,791 43.61 29,908 21.82 4,988 32.46 14,841 360,527 9.01 8.14 Natural gas (kBtu) 0.0027 41 3,075 21 337 12 64 40 429 3,905 0.10 0.09 Net carbon dioxide (lb) 0.0033 584 54,616 187 3,747 99 661 151 2,017 61,042 1.53 1.38 Ozone (lb) 2.20 1.99 122,393 0.92 12,125 0.39 1,713 0.68 5,975 142,206 3.56 3.21 Nitrous oxide (lb) 2.20 0.81 49,818 0.42 5,535 0.18 791 0.15 1,318 57,462 1.44 1.30 Sulfur dioxide (lb) 2.01 0.55 30,892 0.29 3,490 0.12 481 0.08 642 35,505 0.89 0.80 Small particulate matter (lb) 2.10 0.84 49,408 0.46 5,798 0.17 714 0.31 2,605 58,525 1.46 1.32 Volatile organic

compounds (lb) 1.03 0.23 6,655 0.12 744 0.05 103 0.03 124 7,627 0.19 0.17

Biogenic volatile

organic compounds (lb) 1.03 -4.88 -141,207 -1.98 -12,277 0.00 0 -0.06 -248 -153,733 -3.84 -3.47

Hydrology (gal) 0.0040 12,141 1,359,792 6,191 148,584 1,573 12,584 3,084 49,344 1,570,304 39.26 35.46

Aesthetics and

other benefits ($)	 	 71.50	 2,002,000	 31.43	 188,580	 13.10	 26,200	 16.95	 67,800	 2,284,580	 57.11	 51.59

Total benefits	 3,848,231 386,572 48,301 144,846 4,427,950 110.70 100.00

Price Annual Total Annual Total Annual Total Annual Total Total Annual Percentage

Costs (adjusted) per tree value per tree value per tree value per tree value value per tree of costs

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – Dollars – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – Percent

Tree and planting 225 5.63 157,500 5.63 33,750 5.63 11,250 5.63 22,500 225,000 5.63 20.80

Pruning 10.12 283,334 8.54 51,268 6.83 13,654 10.63 42,539 390,795 9.77 36.13

Remove and dispose 6.27 175,697 5.60 33,589 4.13 8,264 4.92 19,675 237,225 5.93 21.93

Pest and disease 0.30 8,504 0.27 1,621 0.20 406 0.24 964 11,495 0.29 1.06

Infrastructure repair 2.26 63,408 2.01 12,087 1.51 3,027 1.80 7,187 85,708 2.14 7.9

Irrigation 0.24 6,790 0.24 1,455 0.24 485 0.24 960 9,690 0.24 0.92

Cleanup 1.07 29,935 0.95 5,706 0.71 1,429 0.85 3,393 40,463 1.01 3.74

Liability and legal 0.24 6,803 0.22 1,297 0.16 325 0.19 771 9,196 0.23 0.85

Admin and other 1.50 1.50 42,000 2.50 15,000 2.50 5,000 2.50 10,000 72,000 1.80 6.66

 Total costs 773,972 155,773 43,839 107,988 1,081,572 27.04 100.00

Net benefit	 3,074,260 230,799 4,461 36,858 3,346,378 83.66

Benefit/cost ratio	 4.97 2.48 1.10 1.34 4.09

(Net benefit per tree)	 	 	 109.79	 	 38.47	 	 2.23	 	 9.21	 83.66

Note: Adjusted values are for electricity, natural gas, tree and planting, and admin and other costs. 
45

Central Florida Community Tree Guide: Benefits, Costs, and Strategic Planting

which can be found in appendix 2. For aesthetic and other benefits, the dollar values 

for public trees are placed in the RU columns. The fourth column lists the 40-year 

total values, obtained by multiplying the RU values by tree numbers, prices, and 40 

years.

To adjust for lower electricity prices, the forester multiplied electricity saved 

for a large public tree in the RU column (97.11 kWh) by the Hurston Park price 

for electricity ($0.1143/kWh) by the number of trees planted and 40 years (97.11 x 

$0.1143 x 700 x 40 = $310,791) to obtain cumulative air-conditioning energy savings 

for the large public trees (table 4). The process was carried out for all benefits and 

all tree types.

Similarly, to adjust for higher cost of stormwater retention and treatment, the 

forester multiplied stormwater intercepted by a large public tree in the RU column 

(12,141 gal) by the new price for retaining and treating the water ($0.004 per 

gallon) and the number of trees over the 40-year period for a cumulative value of 

$1,359,792.

To adjust cost figures, the city forester changed the planting cost from $230 

assumed in the guide to $225 (table 4). This planting cost was annualized by dividing the cost per tree by 40 years ($225 ÷ 40 = $5.63 per tree per year). Total planting 

costs were calculated by multiplying this value by 700 large trees and 40 years 

($157,500).

The administration, inspection, and outreach costs are expected to average 

$1.50 per tree per year. Consequently, the total administration cost for large trees is 

$1.50 × 700 large trees × 40 years ($42,000). The same procedure was followed to 

calculate costs for the medium and small trees.

All costs and all benefits were summed. Subtracting total costs from total 

benefits yields net benefits over the 40-year period: 

•	 $3.1 million for 700 large trees

•	 $230,799 for 150 medium trees

•	 $4,461 for 50 small trees

•	 $36,858 for 100 conifers

Annual benefits over 40 years total $4.4 million ($111 per tree per year), and 

annual costs total about $1.1 million ($27 per tree per year). The total annual net 

benefits for all 1,000 trees over the 40-year period are $3.3 million. To calculate this 

average annual net benefit per tree, the forester divided the total net benefit by the 

number of trees planted (1,000) and 40 years ($3,346,378 ÷ 1,000 trees ÷ 40 years = 

$83.66). Dividing total benefits by total costs yielded benefit-cost ratios (BCRs) of 

1.10, 2.48, 4.97, and 1.34 for small, medium, and large broadleaf trees and conifers, 

The second step: adjust 

for local prices of 

benefits

The third step: adjust 

for local costs

The fourth step: 

calculate net benefits 

and benefit-cost ratios 

for public trees
46

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-230

respectively. The BCR for the entire planting is 4.09, indicating that $4.09 will be 

returned for every $1 invested.

It is important to remember that this analysis assumes 40 percent of the planted 

trees die and are not replaced. Also, it does not account for the time value of money 

from a capital investment perspective. Use the municipal discount rate to compare this investment in tree planting and management with alternative municipal 

investments.

The city forester and Green Team now know that the project will cost about 

$1.1 million, and the average annual cost will be about $27,000 ($1,080,612 ÷ 40 

years); however, expenditures are front-loaded because relatively more funds will 

be needed initially for planting and stewardship. The fifth and last step is to identify 

the distribution of services that the trees will provide. The last column in table 4 

shows the distribution of services as a percentage of the total: 

•	 Stormwater runoff reduction = 35.5 percent

•	 Energy savings = 8.2 percent (cooling = 8.1 percent, heating = 0.1 percent)

•	 Air quality improvement = 3.3 percent

•	 CO2 reduction = 1.4 percent

•	 Aesthetics/property value increase = 51.6 percent

With this information, the planning team can determine how to distribute the 

costs for tree planting and maintenance based on who benefits from the services 

the trees will provide. For example, assuming the goal is to generate enough annual 

revenue to cover the total costs of managing the trees ($1.1 million), fees could be 

distributed in the following manner:

•	 $383,600 from the stormwater management district for water quality

improvement associated with reduced runoff (35.5 percent).

•	 $88,600 from electric and natural gas utilities for peak energy savings (8.2

percent). (Utility companies invest in planting trees because it is more cost 

effective to reduce peak energy demand than to meet peak needs through 

added infrastructure.)

•	 $35,700, from air quality management district for net reduction in air pollutants (3.3 percent).

•	 $15,100 from local industry for atmospheric CO2

 reductions (1.4 percent).

•	 $557,600 from property owners for increased property values (51.6 percent).

Whether funds are sought from partners, the general fund, homeowners associations, or other sources, this information can assist managers in developing policy, 

setting priorities, and making decisions.

The final step: 

determine how 

services are 

distributed, and link 

these to sources of 

revenue
47

Central Florida Community Tree Guide: Benefits, Costs, and Strategic Planting

City of Marcusville Example

Ten years ago, as a municipal cost-cutting measure, the hypothetical city of Marcusville stopped planting street trees in areas of new development. Instead, developers were required to plant front yard trees, thereby reducing costs to the city. The 

community forester and concerned citizens came to notice that instead of the large, 

stately trees the city had once planted, developers were planting small flowering trees, which were more aesthetically pleasing in early years, but would never 

achieve the stature—or the benefits—of larger shade trees. To evaluate the consequences of these changes, the community forester and citizens decided to compare 

the benefits of planting small, medium, and large trees for a hypothetical street-tree 

planting project in a new neighborhood in Marcusville.

As a first step, the city forester and concerned citizens decided to quantify 

the total cumulative benefits and costs over 40 years for three potential street tree 

planting scenarios in Marcusville. The scenarios compare plantings of 500 small 

trees, 500 medium trees, and 500 large trees. Data in appendix 2 are used for the 

calculations; however, three aspects of Marcusville’s urban and community forestry 

program are different from those assumed in this tree guide: 

1. The price of electricity is $0.075/kWh, not $0.132/kWh.

2. The city will provide irrigation for the first 5 years at a cost of approximately 

$0.50 per tree annually.

3. Planting costs are $200 per tree for trees instead of $230 per tree.

To calculate the dollar value of total benefits for the 40-year period, values from 

the last columns in the benefit tables in appendix 2 (40-year average) are multiplied 

by 40 years. As this value is for one tree, it must be multiplied by the total number 

of trees planted in the respective small, medium, or large tree size classes. To adjust 

for lower electricity prices, we multiply electricity saved for each tree type in the 

RU column by the number of trees and 40 years (large tree: 97 kWh × 500 trees × 

40 years = 1,940,000 kWh). This value is multiplied by the price of electricity in 

Marcusville ($0.075/kWh × 1,940,000 kWh = $145,600) to obtain cumulative airconditioning energy savings for the project (table 5). 

All the benefits are summed for each size tree for a 40-year period. The 500 

small trees provide $434,600 in total benefits. The medium and large trees provide 

about $1.1 and $2.4 million, respectively.

To adjust cost figures, we add a value for irrigation by multiplying the annual 

cost by the number of trees and by the number of years that irrigation will be 

applied ($0.50 × 500 trees × 5 years = $1,250). We multiply 500 trees by the unit

The first step: calculate 

benefits and costs over 

40 years

The second step: adjust 

for local prices of 

benefits
48

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-230 Table 5—Spreadsheet calculations of benefits and costs for the Marcusville planting project (1,500 trees) over 40 years 500 large 500 medium 500 small 1,500 tree total Price Resource Total Resource Total Resource Total Resource Total Average Benefits (adjusted) units value units value units value units value /tree Dollars Dollars Dollars Dollars Dollars Dollars Electricity (kWh) 0.08 1,940,000 145,600 880,000 66,000 440,000 33,000 3,260,000 244,600 163.07 Natural gas (kBtu) 0.0027 820,000 2,200 420,000 1,200 240,000 600 1,480,000 4,000 2.67 Net carbon dioxide (lb) 0.0033 11,680,000 39,000 3,740,000 12,400 1,980,000 6,600 17,400,000 58,000 38.67 Ozone (lb) 2.20 39,760 87,400 18,480 40,600 7,750 17,000 65,990 145,000 96.67 Nitrous oxide (lb) 2.20 16,230 35,600 8,430 18,600 3,570 7,800 28,230 62,000 41.33 Sulfur dioxide (lb) 2.01 10,990 22,000 5,830 11,600 2,470 5,000 19,290 38,600 25.73 Small particulate matter (lb) 2.10 16,870 35,400 9,160 19,200 3,380 7,200 29,410 61,800 41.20 Volatile organic

compounds (lb) 1.03 4,590 4,800 2,450 2,600 1,050 1,000 8,090 8,400 5.60

Biogenic volatileorganic compounds (lb) 1.03 -97,590 -100,800 -39,530 -40,800 0 0 -137,120 -141,600 -94.40

Hydrology (gal) 0.0030 242,820,000 728,400 123,820,000 371,400 31,460,000 94,400 398,100,000 1,194,200 796.13

Aesthetics and

other benefits ($)	 	 1,430,000	 	 628,600	 	 262,000	 	 2,320,600	 1,547.07

Total benefits	 	 2,429,600	 	 1,131,400	 	 434,600	 	 3,995,600	 2,663.73

Total Total Total Total

Costs value value value value

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – Dollars – – – – – – – – – – – – –– – – – – – –

Tree and planting 200 100,000 100,000 100,000 300,000 200.00Pruning 202,381 170,893 136,543 509,816 339.88Remove and dispose 125,498 111,964 82,636 320,097 213.40Pest and disease 6,074 5,404 4,060 15,538 10.36

Infrastructure 45,291 40,289 30,269 115,850 77.23Irrigation 0.06 1,250 1,250 1,250 3,750 2.50

Cleanup 21,382 19,021 14,290 54,693 36.46Liability and legal 4,860 4,323 3,248 12,430 8.29

Admin and other 85,043 75,651 56,835 217,529 145.02

Total costs 591,780 528,793 429,130 1,549,703 1,033.13Net benefits	 	 1,837,820	 	 602,607	 	 5,470	 	 2,445,897	 1,630.60

Benefit/cost ratio	 	 4.11	 	 2.14	 	 1.01	 	 2.58(Net benefit per tree)	 	 3,676	 	 1,205	 	 11	 	 1,631

Note: Adjusted values are for electricity, tree and planting, and irrigation.
49

Central Florida Community Tree Guide: Benefits, Costs, and Strategic Planting

planting cost ($200) to obtain the adjusted cost for planting (500 × $200 = 

$100,000). The average annual 40-year costs taken from the cost tables in appendix 

2 for other items are multiplied by 40 years and the number of trees to compute 

total costs. These 40-year cost values are entered into table 5. 

Subtracting total costs from total benefits yields net benefits for the small 

($5,470), medium ($602,607), and large ($1,837,820) trees. The total net benefit for 

the 40-year period is about $2.4 million or $1,631 per tree ($2,445,897 ÷ 1,500 trees) 

on average (table 5).

The net benefits per street tree over the 40-year period are as follows:

•	 $11 for a small tree

•	 $1,205 for a medium tree

•	 $3,676 for a large tree

When small trees are planted instead of large trees, the residents of Marcusville 

stand to lose over $3,600 per tree in benefits foregone. In a new neighborhood 

with 500 small trees, the total loss of net benefits would exceed $1.8 million over 

the project lifetime. Planting all small trees would result in net benefits of $16,411 

(3 x 5,470). If 1,500 large trees were planted the benefits would exceed $5.5 million. Planting all small trees would cost the city well over $5 million in ecosystem 

services forgone.

Based on this analysis, the city of Marcusville decided to develop and enforce 

a street tree ordinance that requires planting large trees where space permits and 

requires tree shade plans that show how developers will achieve 50 percent shade 

over streets, sidewalks, and parking lots within 15 years of development.

This analysis assumes that 40 percent of the planted trees died. It does not 

account for the time value of money from a capital investment perspective, but this 

could be done by using the municipal discount rate.

Increasing Program Cost-Effectiveness

What if the program you have designed looks promising in terms of stormwaterrunoff reduction, energy savings, volunteer participation, and additional benefits, 

but the costs are too high? This section describes some steps to consider that may 

increase benefits and reduce costs, thereby increasing cost-effectiveness.

Increasing Benefits

Improved stewardship to increase the health and survival of recently planted trees 

is one strategy for increasing cost-effectiveness. An evaluation of the Sacramento 

Shade program found that tree survival rates had a substantial impact on projected 

The third step: adjust 

for local costs

The fourth step: 

calculate cost savings 

and benefits foregone

What if costs are too 

high?

Work to increase 

survival rates
50

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-230

benefits (Hildebrandt et al. 1996). Higher survival rates increase energy savings and 

reduce tree removal and planting costs.

Energy benefits can be further increased by planting a higher percentage of 

trees in locations that produce the greatest energy savings, such as opposite westfacing walls and close to buildings with air conditioning. By customizing tree 

locations to increase numbers in high-yield sites, energy savings can be boosted.

Conifers and broadleaf evergreens intercept rainfall and particulate matter year 

round as well as provide shade, which lowers cooling costs. Locating these types 

of trees in yards, parks, school grounds, and other open-space areas can increase 

benefits. 

Reducing Program Costs

Cost effectiveness is influenced by program costs as well as benefits:

Cost effectiveness = Total net benefit ÷ total program cost

Cutting costs is one strategy to increase cost effectiveness. A substantial 

percentage of total program costs occur during the first 5 years and are associated 

with tree planting and establishment (McPherson 1993). Some strategies to reduce 

these costs include:

•	 Plant bare-root or smaller tree stock.

•	 Use trained volunteers for planting and young tree care, irrigation, and

structural pruning (fig.20).

•	 Provide followup care to increase tree survival and reduce replacement

costs.

•	 Select and locate trees to avoid conflicts with infrastructure.

•	 Select high-quality nursery stock with well-formed roots and crowns

(Florida #1 or Florida Fancy), which often results in reduced pavement 

damage, improved survival, and less pruning.

•	 Select wind-resistant species.

•	 Maintain a single dominant leader by pruning young trees to reduce future

pruning costs. Also, prune young trees to eliminate and minimize defects. 

This will reduce the risk of failure, increase longevity, and reduce conflicts 

with vehicles.

•	 Increase planting space; make cutouts larger, meander sidewalks, and

use structural soils to reduce future costs associated with infrastructure 

conflicts.

•	 Select species that are tolerant of harsh conditions and with a low potential

to damage nearby pavement.

•	 Minimize competition from turf and weeds to encourage rapid

establishment.

Customize planting 

locations

Reduce up-front and 

establishment costs
51

Central Florida Community Tree Guide: Benefits, Costs, and Strategic Planting

Figure 20—Trained volunteers can plant and maintain young trees, 

allowing the community to accomplish more at less cost and providing satisfaction for participants.

Tree Trust

Where growing conditions are likely to be favorable, such as yard or garden settings, it may be cost-effective to use smaller, less expensive stock or bare-root trees. 

In highly urbanized settings and sites subject to vandalism, however, large stock 

may survive the initial establishment period better than small stock.

Develop standards of “establishment success” for different types of tree species. 

Perform periodic inspections to alert residents to tree health problems, and reward 

those whose trees meet your program’s establishment standards. Replace dead trees 

as soon as possible, and identify ways to improve survivability.

Although organizing and training volunteers requires labor and resources, it 

is usually less costly than contracting the work. A cadre of trained volunteers can 

easily maintain trees until they reach a height of about 20 ft and limbs are too high 

to prune from the ground with pole pruners/saws. By the time trees reach this size, 

they are well established. Pruning during this establishment period should result in 

trees that will require less care in the long term. Training young trees can provide 

Use less expensive 

stock where 

appropriate
52

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-230

a strong branching structure that requires less structural and corrective pruning 

(Costello 2000). Ideally, young trees should be inspected and pruned every other 

year for the first 5 years after planting. Pruning thereafter, depending on species 

should occur about every 5 years to correct structural problems. For most trees, it’s 

a good idea to maintain a single leader to height of no less than about 20 ft. This 

will facilitate clearance pruning of street trees to prevent conflicts with vehicles

and reduce the potential for wind damage during storms and hurricanes.

As trees grow larger, pruning costs may increase on a per-tree basis. The 

frequency of pruning will influence these costs, as it takes longer to prune a tree 

that has not been pruned in 10 years than one that has been pruned every 3 to 5 

years, and it is less stressful to the tree. Specifications should be developed for 

tree pruning for each species and should emphasize structural development, not 

thinning or shaping. Although pruning frequency varies by species and location, a 

return frequency of about 5 to 8 years is usually sufficient for mature trees (Gilman 

2002, Miller 1997). 

Investing in the resources needed to promote tree establishment during the first

5 years after planting is usually worthwhile, because once trees are established they 

have a high probability of continued survival. If your program has targeted trees 

on private property, then encourage residents to attend tree-care workshops. These 

workshops should include information on recognizing pests and diseases and contact information for notifying authorities should an outbreak occur. Residents are an 

important first line of defense against pests in the Central Florida region, which is 

especially prone to attacks from nonnative species.

Carefully select and locate trees to avoid conflicts with overhead power lines, 

sidewalks, and underground utilities. Time spent planning the planting will result 

in long-term savings. Also consider soil type and irrigation, microclimate, and 

the type of activities occurring around the tree that will influence its growth and 

management.

When evaluating the bottom line, do not forget to consider tree services other 

than stormwater-runoff reductions, energy savings, atmospheric CO2 reductions, 

and other tangible benefits. The magnitude of benefits related to employment 

opportunities, job training, community building, reduced violence, and enhanced 

Prune early

Match tree to site

It all adds up—trees 

pay us back
53

Central Florida Community Tree Guide: Benefits, Costs, and Strategic Planting

Figure 21—Trees pay us back in tangible and intangible ways. 

Paula Peper

human health and well-being can be substantial (fig. 21). Moreover, these benefits 

extend beyond the site where trees are planted, furthering collaborative efforts to 

build better communities.

For more information on urban and community forestry program design and 

implementation, see the list of additional resources in appendix 1.
54

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-230

USDA Forest Service, PSW, Center for Urban Forest Research
55

Central Florida Community Tree Guide: Benefits, Costs, and Strategic Planting

Chapter 5. General Guidelines for Selecting and 

Placing Trees

In this chapter, general guidelines for selecting and locating trees are presented. 

Residential trees and trees in public places are considered. In all cases, when selecting trees to maximize benefits, be sure to select species that are noninvasive to 

preserve native vegetation and natural ecosystems in Florida.

Guidelines for Energy Savings

Maximizing Energy Savings From Shading

The right tree in the right place can save energy and reduce tree care costs. The 

sun shines on the east side of a building in the morning, passes over the roof near 

midday, and then shines on the west side in the afternoon (fig. 4). Electricity use for 

cooling is highest during the afternoon when temperatures are warmest and incoming sunshine is greatest. Therefore, the west side of a home is the most important 

side to shade (Pandit and Laband, in press; Sand 1993) (fig. 22). 

Depending on building orientation and window placement, sun shining through 

windows can heat a home quickly during the morning hours. The east side is the 

second most important side to shade when considering the net impact of tree shade 

on energy savings (fig. 22).

The closer a tree is to a home the more shade it provides, but roots of trees that 

are too close can damage the foundation. Branches too close to the building can 

make it difficult to maintain exterior walls and windows. In addition, trees with 

branches overhanging the roof will drop leaves and wood onto the roof. Overhanging branches and trees planted too closely can cause significant damage during 

hurricanes and tropical storms. In Central Florida communities in particular, where 

roofs are more likely to be flat, debris can accumulate and cause damage as it rots. 

Keep trees 10 ft or farther from the home, depending on mature crown spread, to 

Where should shade 

trees be planted?

Figure 22—Locate trees to shade 

west and east windows. (Illustration from Sand 1993.)
56

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-230

avoid these conflicts. Trees within 30 to 50 ft of the home most effectively shade 

windows and walls. Trees beyond 50 ft of the home do not effectively shade windows and walls. In fire-prone areas, conifers should not be planted within about 

30 ft of a home. A few individual specimens, though, can be planted within 30 ft, 

assuming they are well maintained and sufficiently pruned up. The UF/IFAS

Extension Web site has more information on Florida fire-wise landscaping (Doran 

et al. 2004).

Paved patios and driveways can become heat sinks that warm the home during 

the day. Shade trees can make them cooler and more comfortable spaces. If a home 

is equipped with an air conditioner, shading can reduce its energy use, but do not 

plant vegetation so close that it will obstruct the flow of air around the unit.

Plant only small-growing trees under overhead power lines, and avoid planting 

directly above underground water and sewer lines if possible. Contact your local 

utility company before planting to determine where underground lines are located 

and which tree species should not be planted below power lines.

Selecting Trees to Maximize Benefits

The ideal shade tree has a fairly dense, round crown with limbs broad enough to 

partially shade the roof. Given the same placement, a large tree will provide more 

shade than a small tree. Plant small trees where nearby buildings or power lines 

limit aboveground space. Columnar trees are appropriate in narrow side yards. 

Because the best location for shade trees is relatively close to the west and east sides 

of buildings, the most suitable trees will be strong and capable of resisting storm 

damage, disease, and pests (Sand 1994). 

Drought and water conservation are major issues currently for Floridians. When 

selecting trees, low water-use species are preferable, but be sure to match the tree’s 

water requirements with those of surrounding plants. Also, match the tree’s maintenance requirements with the amount of care and the type of use different areas in 

the landscape receive. Tree species, for example, that drop fruit that can be a slipand-fall problem should not be planted near paved areas that are frequently used by 

pedestrians. The University of Florida Tree Selector Web site offers information on 

well over 1,000 tree species and allows users to select trees based on tree and site 

attributes (see http://orb.at.ufl.edu/FloridaTrees/index.html). Check with your local 

landscape professional before selecting trees to make sure that they are well suited 

to the site’s soil and climatic conditions. 

There are many 

choices

Picking the right tree
57

Central Florida Community Tree Guide: Benefits, Costs, and Strategic Planting

Use the following practices to plant and manage trees strategically to maximize 

energy conservation benefits: 

•	 Increase community-wide tree canopy, and target shade to streets, parking

lots, and other paved surfaces, as well as air-conditioned buildings.

•	 Shade west- and east-facing windows and walls.

•	 Shade air conditioners, but do not obstruct airflow.

•	 Avoid planting trees too close to utilities and buildings.

Guidelines for Reducing Carbon Dioxide

Because trees in common areas and other public places may not shelter buildings 

from sun and wind and reduce energy use, carbon dioxide (CO2

) reductions are 

primarily due to sequestration. Fast-growing trees sequester more CO2 initially 

than slow-growing trees, but this advantage can be lost if the fast-growing trees 

die at younger ages. Large trees have the capacity to store more CO2 than smaller 

trees (fig. 23). Use the Center for Urban Forest Research Tree Carbon Calculator 

(CTCC) to compare sequestration rates for different tree species in this region 

Maximizing energy 

savings from trees

Figure 23—Compared with small 

trees, large trees can store more 

carbon, filter more air pollutants, intercept more rainfall, and 

provide greater energy savings. 

Here, young Shumard oaks line a 

downtown Orlando street. USDA Forest Service, PSW, Center for Urban Forest Research
58

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-230

(http://www.fs.fed.us/ccrc/topics/urban-forests/ctcc/). To maximize CO2 sequestration, select tree species that are well suited to the site where they will be planted. 

Consult resources such as Plant Health Care for Woody Ornamentals: a Professional’s Guide to Preventing and Managing Environmental Stresses and Pests

(Lloyd 1997), and, for information on abiotic disorders, refer to Abiotic Disorders 

of Landscape Plants: a Diagnostic Guide (Costello et al. 2003). Consult online 

resources at the Florida Division of Plant Industry (http://www.doacs.state.fl.us/pi/), 

University of Florida Landscape Plants (http://hort.ifas.ufl.edu/woody/index.shtml), 

University of Florida’s Urban and Urbanizing Forestry program (http://www.sfrc.

ufl.edu/urbanforestry/), and your local University of Florida Cooperative Extension 

Horticulture Advisors (http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/topic_urban_forestry). Also consult 

landscape professionals and arborists to select the right tree for your site. Trees 

that are not well-adapted will grow slowly, show symptoms of stress, or die at an 

early age. Unhealthy trees do little to reduce atmospheric CO2 and can be unsightly 

liabilities in the landscape.

Design and management guidelines that can increase CO2 reductions include 

the following:

•	 Preserve existing tree cover.

•	 Maximize use of woody plants, especially trees, as they store more CO2

than do palms, herbaceous plants, and grasses.

•	 Plant more trees where feasible, and immediately replace dead trees to

compensate for CO2 lost through removal.

•	 Create a diverse assemblage of habitats, with trees of different ages and

species, to promote a continuous canopy cover over time. Do not rely on a 

few favored species such as live oaks. Diversity is a key to developing sustainable landscapes. New, introduced insect and disease pests are a constant 

threat to urban trees. It is also important to avoid species that are invasive 

and can spread in natural habitats.

•	 Consider the project’s lifespan when selecting species. Although fast-growing species will sequester more CO2 initially than slow-growing species, 

many are short-lived and begin to decline in 30 years or less.

•	 Avoid removing trees by considering other alternatives. Alternatives should

include, but are not limited to:

•	 Crown reduction to improve safety

•	 Changing project design

•	 Bridging over roots

•	 Ramping sidewalks
59

Central Florida Community Tree Guide: Benefits, Costs, and Strategic Planting

•	 Using flexible paving materials or thinner sections

•	 Using permeable paving materials and enlarging tree wells (cutouts)

•	 Reducing sidewalk width

•	 Group species with similar landscape maintenance requirements together

and consider how irrigation, pruning, fertilization, and weed, pest, and disease control can be minimized.

•	 Reduce CO2

 associated with landscape management by using push mowers 

(not gas or electric), hand saws (not chain saws), pruners (not gas/electric 

shears), rakes (not leaf blowers), and employ landscape professionals who 

don’t have to travel far to your site.

•	 Reduce maintenance by reducing turfgrass and planting sustainable

landscapes.

•	 Provide ample space belowground for tree roots to grow so that they can

maximize CO2 sequestration and tree longevity.

•	 When trees die or are removed, salvage as much wood as possible for use as

furniture and other long-lasting products to delay decomposition or use as a 

bioenergy source.

•	 Plant trees, shrubs, and vines in strategic locations to maximize summer

shade and reduce winter shade, thereby reducing atmospheric CO2 emissions associated with power production.

Guidelines for Reducing Stormwater Runoff

Trees are mini-reservoirs, controlling runoff at the source because their leaves and 

branch surfaces intercept and store rainfall, thereby reducing runoff volumes and 

erosion of watercourses, as well as delaying the onset of peak flows. Rainfall interception by large trees is a relatively inexpensive first line of defense in the battle to 

control nonpoint-source pollution.

When selecting trees to maximize rainfall interception benefits, consider the 

following:

•	 Select tree species with physiological features that maximize interception,

such as evergreen foliage, large leaf surface area, and rough surfaces that 

store water (Metro 2002).

•	 Increase interception by planting large trees where possible (fig. 24).

•	 Plant low-water-use tree species that, once established, require little supplemental irrigation.

•	 In bioretention areas, such as roadside swales, select species that tolerate

inundation, are long-lived, wide-spreading, and fast-growing (Metro 2002).
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-230

•	 Along streets, sidewalks, and parking lots, plant trees in engineered soils

designed to capture runoff from adjacent paving and promote deep root 

growth.

•	 Do not pave over streetside planting strips for easier weed control; this can

impair tree health and increase runoff.

•	 Minimize compaction during construction activities.

Guidelines for Improving Air Quality Benefits

Trees, sometimes called the “lungs of our cities,” are important because of their 

ability to remove contaminants from the air. The amount of gaseous pollutants and 

particulates removed by trees depends on their size and architecture, as well as 

local meteorology and pollutant concentrations.

Along streets, in parking lots, and in commercial areas, locate trees to maximize shade on paving and parked vehicles. Shade trees reduce heat that is stored 

or reflected by paved surfaces. By cooling streets and parking areas, trees reduce 

Figure 24—Trees can create a continuous canopy for maximum rainfall 

interception, even in commercial areas. In this example, a swale in the median 

filters runoff and provides ample space for large trees. Parking-space-sized 

planters contain the soil volume required to grow healthy, large trees.

(Illustration from Metro 2002.) 
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Central Florida Community Tree Guide: Benefits, Costs, and Strategic Planting

emissions of evaporative hydrocarbons from parked cars and thereby reduce smog 

formation (Scott et al. 1999). Large trees can shade a greater area than smaller trees, 

but should be used only where space permits.

Tree planting and management guidelines to improve air quality include the 

following (Nowak 2000, Smith and Dochinger 1976):

•	 It is important to allow adequate space for root growth to ensure long-term

survival. Planting projects should emphasize large cutouts, wide planting strips, increasing space every time pavement must be repaired owing 

to root-pavement conflicts, and avoiding soil compaction where trees and 

landscapes are planned. Engineered soil mixes can also be used to facilitate 

root development in mass-graded sites and planting areas surrounded by 

pavement.

•	 Select species that tolerate pollutants that are present in harmful concentrations. For example, in areas with high ozone (O3

) concentration, avoid 

sensitive species such as sweetgum, red maple, and loblolly pine (Coulston 

et al. 2003).

•	 Broadleaf evergreens and conifers have high surface-to-volume ratios and

retain their foliage year round, which may make them more effective than 

deciduous species.

•	 Species with long leaf stems and hairy plant parts are especially efficient

interceptors.

•	 Effective uptake depends on proximity to the pollutant source and the

amount of biomass. Where space and fire conditions permit, plant multilayered stands near the source of pollutants.

•	 Consider the local meteorology and topography to promote airflow that can

“flush” pollutants out of the city along streets and greenspace corridors. 

Use columnar-shaped trees instead of spreading forms to avoid trapping 

pollutants under the canopy and obstructing airflow.

•	 In areas with unhealthy O3 concentrations, maximize use of plants that 

emit low levels of biogenic volatile organic compounds to reduce ozone 

formation—for example, members of the pea family. Consider beneficial 

effects from large trees, such as urban heat island reduction and pollutant 

uptake, relative to their species-based biogenic volatile organic compound 

emissions.

•	 To reduce emissions of volatile organic compounds and other pollutants,

plant trees to shade parked cars and conserve energy.

•	 Sustain large, healthy trees; they produce the most benefits.
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-230

Guidelines for Avoiding Conflicts With Infrastructure

Conflicts between trees and infrastructure create lose-lose situations. Examples 

include trees growing into power lines, blocking traffic signs, and roots heaving 

sidewalks. Trees lose because often they must be altered or removed to rectify the 

problem. People lose directly because of the additional expense incurred to eliminate the conflict. They lose indirectly owing to benefits foregone when a large tree 

is replaced with a smaller tree or, too frequently, no tree at all. Tree conflicts with 

infrastructure are usually avoidable with good planning and judicious tree selection. 

Tree Selector, a Web-based tree selection program contains a wealth of information 

on trees for the region (http://orb.at.ufl.edu/FloridaTrees/index.html). Guidelines to 

reduce conflicts with infrastructure include the following:

•	 Before planting, contact your local before-digging company, such as Call

Before You Dig/Call 811, to locate underground water, sewer, gas, and telecommunications lines.

•	 Avoid locating trees where they will block streetlights or views of traffic

and commercial signs.

•	 Check with local transportation officials for sight visibility requirements.

Keep trees at least 30 ft away from street intersections to ensure visibility.

•	 Avoid planting shallow-rooting species near sidewalks, curbs, and paving.

Tree roots can heave pavement if planted too close to sidewalks and patios. 

Generally, avoid planting within 3 ft of pavement, and remember that trunk 

flare at the base of large trees can displace soil and paving for a considerable distance. When space is limited, use smaller trees. Use strategies to 

reduce damage by tree roots such as meandering sidewalks around trees 

ramping sidewalks over tree roots, root barriers, and deflectors (Costello 

and Jones 2003).

•	 Select only small trees (<25 ft tall) under overhead power lines, and do not

plant directly above underground water and sewer lines (fig. 25). Avoid 

locating trees where they will block illumination from streetlights or views 

of street signs in parking lots, commercial areas, and along streets.

For trees to deliver benefits over the long term, they require enough soil volume 

to grow and remain healthy. Matching tree species to the site’s soil volume can 

reduce sidewalk and curb damage as well. Figure 26 shows recommended soil 

volumes for different size trees.
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Central Florida Community Tree Guide: Benefits, Costs, and Strategic Planting

Figure 25—Know where power lines and other utility lines are before planting. Under power lines, 

use only small-growing trees (“low zone”) and avoid planting directly above underground utilities. 

Larger trees may be planted where space permits (“medium” and “tall zones”). (Illustration from 

ISA 1992.)

Figure 26—Developed from several sources by Urban (1992), this graph shows the relationship 

between tree size and required soil volume. For example, a tree with a 16-in diameter at breast height 

(41 cm) with 640 ft2

 of crown projection area (59.5 m2 under the dripline) requires 1,000 ft3 (28 m3) 

of soil. (Illustration from Costello and Jones 2003.)
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-230

Maintenance requirements and public safety concerns influence the type of 

trees selected for public places. The ideal public tree is not susceptible to wind damage and branch drop, does not require frequent pruning, produces negligible litter, 

is deep-rooted, has few serious pest and disease problems, and tolerates a wide 

range of soil conditions, irrigation regimes, and air pollutants. Because relatively 

few trees have all these traits, it is important to match the tree species to the planting site by determining what issues are most important on a case-by-case basis. For 

example, parking-lot trees should be tolerant of hot, dry conditions, have strong 

branch attachments, and be resistant to attacks by pests that leave vehicles covered 

with sticky exudates. Check with your local horticulture extension agency, state 

urban forestry program, or city forestry department for horticultural information on 

tree traits.

Guidelines for Maximizing Long-Term Benefits

Invasive Nonnative Species

In the previous sections, we have offered suggestions for choosing trees to achieve 

certain goals. A basic underlying rule, however, must always be to choose species 

that are not, on balance, harmful to native vegetation and natural ecosystems. 

Special care should be taken when selecting nonnative plants to avoid those that are 

invasive species. Invasive species are plants that have been brought to a region for 

aesthetic or agricultural reasons or have been introduced accidentally and are able 

to gain a special foothold in their new environment. In Central Florida communities, they can destroy native ecosystems, displace native plants, and disturb habitats 

for native fauna.

Not all nonnative plant species are invasive; many have great economic or 

aesthetic value and pose little risk to their ecosystems. The difficulty lies in distinguishing between the two. The Florida Exotic Plant Pest Council (FLEPPC) 

publishes an annual list of species known to have caused or likely to cause ecological damage (FLEPPC 2009). The FLEPPC Web site (http://www.fleppc.org) has 

many other helpful references, including links to individual county resources on 

prohibited plants, scientific and general publications to provide more information, 

and ways to get involved in helping to combat the problem of invasive species.

Planting Guidelines

Selecting a tree from the nursery that has a high probability of becoming a healthy, 

low-maintenance, mature tree is critical to a successful outcome. Therefore, select 

the very best stock at your nursery, and when necessary, reject stock that does not 
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Central Florida Community Tree Guide: Benefits, Costs, and Strategic Planting

meet industry standards. The University of Florida, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences Extension (2006b) and the Florida Division of Plant Industry (2009) 

provide a good starting point for communities interested in creating their own 

standards for nurseries or for assessing quality.

The health of the tree’s root ball is critical to its ultimate survival. If the tree is 

in a container, check for matted or circling roots by sliding off the container. Roots 

should penetrate to the edge of the root ball, but not densely circle the inside of the 

container or grow through drain holes. As well, at least two large structural roots 

should emerge from the trunk within 1 to 3 in of the soil surface. If there are no 

roots in the upper portion of the root ball, excess soil has been placed over the top 

of the root ball, and the root ball that has developed is undersized or poorly formed. 

Such trees should be avoided.

The roots of containerized trees should be shaved (outer 1/2 to 1 in of the root 

ball trimmed away) carefully with a sharp blade or saw to ensure that roots will 

grow horizontally and radially outward into the backfill and native soil. In addition, 

the soil on top of the root ball should also be removed down to where the first main 

root originates. This will prevent deep planting and future rooting problems.

Another way to evaluate the quality of the tree before planting is to gently move 

the trunk back and forth. A good tree trunk bends and does not move in the soil, 

whereas a poor trunk bends a little and pivots at or below the soil line—a tell-tale 

sign of a poorly anchored tree. If the tree is balled-and-burlapped, be careful not to 

move the trunk too vigorously, as this could loosen the roots. It is also a good idea 

to remove the burlap or fold it down at least half way. Better yet, cut as much of it 

away as possible without disturbing the root ball. 

Dig the planting hole 1 in shallower than the depth of the root ball to allow for 

some settling after watering. Make the hole two to three times as wide as the root 

ball and loosen the sides of the hole to make it easier for roots to penetrate. Place 

the tree so that the root flare is at the top of the soil. If the structural roots have 

grown properly as described above, the top of the root ball will be slightly higher 

(1 to 2 in) than the surrounding soil to allow for settling. Backfill with the native 

soil unless it is very rocky or sandy, in which case you may want to add composted 

organic matter such as peat moss or shredded bark (fig. 27). Once the tree has 

been backfilled, loosen the surrounding soil with a shovel or digging bar to reduce 

compaction and encourage root growth. 

Planting trees in urban plazas, commercial areas, and parking lots poses special 

challenges because of limited soil volume and poor soil structure. Engineered soils 

and other soil volume expansion solutions can be placed under the hardscape to 

A good tree is wellanchored

Plant the tree in the 

right size hole
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-230

increase rooting space while meeting engineering requirements. For more information on engineered soils see Reducing Infrastructure Damage by Tree Roots: 

a Compendium of Strategies (Costello and Jones 2003) and Up By Roots (Urban 

2008).

Use additional soil to build a berm outside the root ball that is 6 in high and 3 ft 

in diameter. Soak the root ball, and gently rock it to settle it in. Apply water directly 

to the rootball, as water applied outside of the rootball typically will not readily 

move into the rootball owing to textural differences between the soil in the root 

ball and the backfill. Apply water to the backfill soil to encourage rooting there. 

Handle only the ball so the trunk is not loosened. Water the new tree three times a 

week until the tree is established. Water more frequently during very hot, dry, or 

windy weather. Generally, a tree requires about 1 in of water per week. Add 3 to 5 

gals each watering for a 15-gal tree, and more for a larger size. A rain gauge or soil 

moisture sensor (tensiometer) can help determine tree watering needs, or contact 

your local cooperative extension agent or water conservancy district for recommendations. For more information on proper tree planting see Planting and Establishing 

Trees (Gilman and Sadowski 2007).

Water trees as needed to facilitate rapid establishment and rapid growth. Once 

established, water trees as needed to maintain reasonable growth and health.

Figure 27—Prepare a broad planting area, plant the tree with the root flare at or just above ground 

level, and provide a berm/water ring to retain water (drawing courtesy of International Society of 

Arboriculture). (Note that trunk flare shown here represents a tree grown under optimum conditions. 

In trees grown under poorer conditions, the trunk flare may be hidden beneath the soil. These trees 

should be rejected in favor of those grown more carefully, or at the very least, the soil should be 

removed to expose the flare.) (Illustration from ISA 1992.)
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Central Florida Community Tree Guide: Benefits, Costs, and Strategic Planting

After you’ve planted your tree, remember the following:

•	 Inspect your tree several times a year, and contact a certified arborist if

problems develop.

•	 If your tree needed staking to keep it upright, remove the stake and ties

after 1 year or as soon as the tree can hold itself up. The staking should 

allow some tree movement, as this movement sends hormones to the roots 

causing them to grow and create greater tree stability. It also promotes 

trunk taper and growth. It may be necessary to stake a tree for several years 

until it has developed sufficient caliper to resist vandalism. Trees that have 

been grown with lower laterals often don’t need to be staked.

•	 Avoid removing lower lateral branches because they support rapid growth

and help to develop taper.

•	 Reapply mulch and irrigate the tree as needed.

•	 Retain but shorten lower lateral branches during the first few years.

Prune the young tree to maintain a central main trunk and equally spaced 

branches. For more information, see Costello (2000). As the tree matures, 

have it pruned by a certified arborist or other experienced professional to 

remove dead or damaged branches. For more information, see Costello 

(2000) and Gilman (2002).

•	 Retain or develop a single, dominant leader by careful structural pruning.

Lateral branches should be kept to less than half the diameter of the trunk 

by pruning. This will prevent lower laterals from becoming dominant (competing with the leader) and ultimately interfering with traffic.

By keeping your tree healthy, you maximize its ability to produce shade, 

intercept rainfall, reduce atmospheric CO2, and provide other benefits. For more 

information on tree selection, planting, establishment, and care, see the resources 

listed in appendix 1.

Trees for Hurricane-Prone Areas

In addition to the damage they cause to urban infrastructure, hurricanes can also 

have a significant impact on a city’s green infrastructure. Trees may be uprooted, 

snapped, or may lose large branches. But hurricanes don’t affect all trees or all 

tree species equally. A study in Florida after several hurricanes between 1995 and 

2005 showed that some species stood a better chance of surviving (Duryea et al. 

2007). Trees having the highest survival in winds included bald cypress, Southern 

magnolia, live oak, sweetgum, crapemyrtle, flowering dogwood, and sabal palm, 

all having greater than an 80 percent survival rate (see “Common and Scientific 
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-230

Names” section). The least wind resistant with 60 percent or less survival were tulip 

poplar, Carolina laurelcherry, laurel oak, water oak, spruce, and sand and longleaf 

pines. Other studies have shown bald cypress to be extremely wind resistant (Ogden 

1992).

When cities manage trees properly, urban forests can provide protection from 

high winds (Gilman et al. 2006). General suggestions for selecting and maintaining 

trees in hurricane-prone areas include:

•	 Plant species that are more wind resistant (see Wind Resistant Tree Species

at http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdffiles/EP/EP29100.pdf).

•	 Match recommended species to the local site conditions.

•	 Plant trees in groups or clusters where feasible (Duryea et al. 2007).

•	 Provide trees with plenty of room for roots to grow—they provide the

anchor that holds the tree in place. Root pruning will greatly reduce 

stability.

•	 Plant a variety of species, ages, and layers of trees and shrubs to maintain

diversity.

•	 Consider soil properties (soil depth, water table, and compaction).

•	 Choose trees that resist decay, hence recover well from wind damage.

•	 Prune trees appropriately to remove weak branches and improve structure

(Gilman et al. 2008a, 2008b). (See UF/IFAS Extension 2006a for extensive 

information on pruning.) “Topping” and “lion-tailing” in particular reduce 

tree strength, raise the tree’s center of gravity, and reduce its aerodynamics.

•	 Municipalities, utility companies, and others responsible for tree maintenance should draft standards for pruning and care to reduce hurricanerelated damage.

For more information on hurricane recovery and planning for a wind-resistant 

urban forest, the UF/ IFAS Extension provides an excellent resource in their Urban 

Forest Hurricane Recovery Program Series available via the Electronic Data 

Information Source. See appendix 1 for links.
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Central Florida Community Tree Guide: Benefits, Costs, and Strategic Planting

Glossary of Terms

annual fuel utilization efficiency (AFUE)—A measure of space heating equipment efficiency defined as the fraction of energy output per energy input.

anthropogenic—Caused by humans.

biodiversity—The variety of life forms in a given area. Diversity can be categorized in terms of the number of species, the variety in the area’s plant and animal 

communities, the genetic variability of the animals or plants, or a combination of 

these elements.

biogenic—Produced by living organisms.

biogenic volatile organic compounds (BVOCs)—Hydrocarbon compounds from 

vegetation (e.g., isoprene, monoterpene) that exist in the ambient air and contribute 

to the formation of smog or may themselves be toxic. Emission rates (μg·g−1·hr−1) 

used for this report follow Benjamin and Winer (1998):

Common crapemyrtle—0.0 (isoprene); 0.0 (monoterpene)

Southern magnolia—0.0 (isoprene); 5.9 (monoterpene)

Live oak—20.2 (isoprene); 0.3 (monoterpene)

Slash pine—0.0 (isoprene); 5.3 (monoterpene)

caliper—diameter of the trunk measured 6 in above the ground (up to 4-in caliper 

size) and 12 in above the ground for larger sizes. Used by the nursery industry in 

the sale of trees.

canopy—A layer or multiple layers of branches and foliage at the top or crown of a 

forest’s trees.

canopy cover—The area of land surface that is covered by tree canopy, as seen 

from above.

climate—The average weather for a particular region and period (usually 30 years). 

Weather describes the short-term state of the atmosphere; climate is the average 

pattern of weather for a particular region. Climatic elements include precipitation, 

temperature, humidity, sunshine, wind velocity; phenomena such as fog, frost, and 

hailstorms; and other measures of weather.

climate effects—Impact on residential space heating and cooling (pounds

of carbon dioxide [CO2

] per tree per year) from trees located more than 50 ft

from a building owing to associated reductions in windspeeds and summer air 

temperatures.
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-230

community forests—The sum of all woody and associated vegetation in and 

around human settlements, ranging from small rural villages to metropolitan 

regions.

conifers—Cone-bearing trees or shrubs with needle-like leaves that usually retain 

their leaves during the winter.

contract rate—The percentage of residential trees cared for by commercial 

arborists; the proportion of trees for which a specific service (e.g., pruning or pest 

management) is contracted.

control costs—The marginal cost of preventing, controlling, or mitigating an 

impact.

crown—The branches and foliage at the top of a tree.

damage costs—The total estimated economic loss to society produced by an 

impact.

deciduous—Trees or shrubs that lose their leaves every fall.

diameter at breast height (d.b.h.)—The diameter of a tree outside the bark measured 4.5 ft above the ground on the uphill side (where applicable) of the tree.

dripline—The area beneath a tree marked by the outer edges of the branches.

emission factor—The rate of CO2, nitrogen dioxide (NO2

), sulfur dioxide (SO2), 

and small particulate matter (PM10) output resulting from the consumption of 

electricity, natural gas, or any other fuel source.

evapotranspiration (ET)—The total loss of water by evaporation from the soil 

surface and by transpiration from plants, from a given area, and during a specified 

period.

evergreens—Trees or shrubs that are never entirely leafless. Evergreens may be 

broadleaved or coniferous (cone-bearing with needlelike leaves).

greenspace—Urban trees, forests, and associated vegetation in and around human 

settlements, ranging from small communities in rural settings to metropolitan 

regions.

hardscape—Paving and other impervious ground surfaces that reduce infiltration 

of water into the soil.

heat sinks—Paving, buildings, and other surfaces that store heat energy from the 

sun.
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Central Florida Community Tree Guide: Benefits, Costs, and Strategic Planting

hourly pollutant dry deposition—Removal of gases from the atmosphere by 

direct transfer to natural surfaces and absorption of gases and particles by natural 

surfaces such as vegetation, soil, water, or snow.

interception—Amount of rainfall held on tree leaves and stem surfaces.

kWh (kilowatt-hour)—A unit of work or energy, measured as 1 kW (1,000 watts) 

of power expended for 1 hour.

leaf area index (LAI)—Total leaf area per unit area of crown if crown were 

projected in two dimensions.

leaf surface area (LSA)—Measurement of area of one side of a leaf or leaves.

mature tree—A tree that has reached a desired size or age for its intended use. 

Size, age, and economic maturity differ depending on the species, location, growing conditions, and intended use.

mature tree size—The approximate size of a tree 40 years after planting.

metric tonne—A measure of weight (abbreviated “t”) equal to 1,000,000 grams 

(1000 kg) or 2,205 lb.

municipal forester—A person who manages public street and/or park trees 

(municipal forestry programs) for the benefit of the community.

MWh (megawatt-hour)—A unit of work or energy, measured as one megawatt 

(1,000,000 watts) of power expended for 1 hour. One MWh is equivalent to 3.412 

MBtu.

nitrogen oxides (oxides of nitrogen, NOx

)—A general term for compounds of 

nitric oxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and other oxides of nitrogen. Nitrogen 

oxides are typically created during combustion processes and are major contributors to smog formation and acid deposition. NO2 may cause numerous adverse 

human health effects.

ozone (O3

)—A strong-smelling, pale blue, reactive toxic chemical gas consisting of 

three oxygen atoms. It is a product of the photochemical process involving the Sun’s 

energy. Ozone exists in the upper layer of the atmosphere as well as at the Earth’s 

surface. Ozone at the Earth’s surface can cause numerous adverse human health 

effects. It is a major component of smog.

peak flow (or peak runoff)—The maximum rate of runoff at a given point or from 

a given area, during a specific period.
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-230

photosynthesis—The process in green plants of converting water and CO2 into 

sugar with light energy; accompanied by the production of oxygen.

PM10 (particulate matter)—Major class of air pollutants consisting of tiny solid or 

liquid particles of soot, dust, smoke, fumes, and mists. The size of the particles (10 

microns or smaller, about 0.0004 in or less) allows them to enter the air sacs (gasexchange region) deep in the lungs where they may be deposited and cause adverse 

health effects. PM10 also reduces visibility.

reduced powerplant emissions—Reduced emissions of CO2 or other pollutants 

that result from reductions in building energy use owing to the moderating effect 

of trees on climate. Reduced energy use for heating and cooling results in reduced 

demand for electrical energy, which translates into fewer emissions by powerplants.

resource unit (RU)—The value used to determine and calculate benefits and costs 

of individual trees. For example, the amount of air conditioning energy saved in 

kilowatt-hours per year per tree, air-pollutant uptake in pounds per year per tree, or 

rainfall intercepted in gallons per tree per year.

riparian habitats—Narrow strips of land bordering creeks, rivers, lakes, or other 

bodies of water.

seasonal energy efficiency ratio (SEER)—The total heat removed from an airconditioned space during the annual cooling season, expressed in British thermal 

units, divided by the total electrical energy consumed by the air conditioner or heat 

pump during the same season, expressed in watt-hours.

sequestration—Annual net rate that a tree removes CO2

 from the atmosphere 

through the processes of photosynthesis and respiration (pounds of CO2 per tree

per year).

shade coefficient—The percentage of light striking a tree crown that is transmitted 

through gaps in the crown. This is the percentage of light that hits the ground.

shade effects—Impact on residential space heating and cooling (pounds of CO2

per tree per year) from trees located within 50 ft of a building.

stem flow—Amount of rainfall that travels down the tree trunk and onto the 

ground.

sulfur dioxide (SO2

)—A strong-smelling, colorless gas that is formed by the 

combustion of fossil fuels. Powerplants, which may use coal or oil high in sulfur 

content, can be major sources of SO2. Sulfur oxides contribute to the problem of 

acid deposition.
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Central Florida Community Tree Guide: Benefits, Costs, and Strategic Planting

t—See metric tonne.

therm—A unit of heat equal to 100,000 British thermal units (BTUs) or 100 kBtu.

throughfall—Amount of rainfall that falls directly to the ground below the tree 

crown or drips onto the ground from branches and leaves.

transpiration—The loss of water vapor through the stomata of leaves.

tree or canopy cover—Within a specific area, the percentage covered by the 

crown of an individual tree or delimited by the vertical projection of its outermost 

perimeter; small openings in the crown are ignored. Used to express the relative 

importance of individual species within a vegetation community or to express the 

coverage of woody species.

tree litter—Fruit, flowers, leaves, twigs, and other debris shed by trees.

tree-related CO2 emissions—CO2 released when growing, planting, and caring 

for trees.

tree surface saturation storage capacity—The maximum volume of water that 

can be stored on a tree’s leaves, stems, and bark. This part of rainfall stored on the 

canopy surface does not contribute to surface runoff during and after a rainfall 

event.

urban heat island—An area in a city where summertime air temperatures are 3 

to 8 °F warmer than temperatures in the surrounding countryside. Urban areas are 

warmer for two reasons: (1) dark construction materials for roofs and asphalt absorb 

solar energy, and (2) few trees, shrubs, or other vegetation provide shade and cool 

the air.

volatile organic compounds (VOCs)—Hydrocarbon compounds that exist in the 

ambient air. VOCs contribute to the formation of smog or are themselves toxic. 

VOCs often have an odor. Some examples of VOCs are gasoline, alcohol, and the 

solvents used in paints.

watt-hour (Wh)—a unit of energy equivalent to 1 watt of power expended for

1 hour of time.

willingness to pay—The maximum amount of money an individual would be 

willing to pay for nonmarket, public goods and services provided by environmental 

amenities such as trees and forests rather than do without.
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-230

Common and Scientific Namesa

Common name Scientific name

American sycamore Platanus occidentalis L.

Baldcypress Taxodium distichum (L.) Rich.

Black cherry Prunus serotina Ehrh.

Black oak Quercus velutine Lam.

Blackgum Nyssa sylvatica Marsh.

Camphor Cinnamomum camphora (L.) J. Presl

Carolina laurelcherry Prunus caroliniana Aiton.

Chinese elm Ulmus parvifolia Jacq.

Chinese tallow Triadica sebifera (L.) Small

Common crapemyrtle Lagerstroemia indica L.

Flowering dogwood Cornus florida L.

Golden raintree Koelreuteria elegans (Seem.) A.C. Sm.

Laurel oak Quercus laurifolia Michx.

Live oak Quercus virginiana Mill.

Loblolly pine Pinus taeda L.

Longleaf pine Pinus palustris Mill.

Loquat Eriobotrya japonica (Thunb.) Lindl.

Oak Quercus spp.

Oriental arborvitae Platycladus orientalis (L.) Franco 

Poplar Populus spp.

Queen palm Syagrus romanzoffiana (Cham.) Glassman

Red maple Acer rubrum L.

Sabal palm Sabal palmetto (Walter) Lodd. ex Schult. & Schult. f.

Sand pine Pinus clausa (Chapm. ex Engelm.) Vasey ex Sarg.

Shumard oak Quercus shumardii Buckley

Slash pine Pinus elliottii Engelm.

Southern magnolia Magnolia grandiflora L.

Southern redcedar Juniperus virginiana var. silicicola (Small) E. Murray

Southern red oak Quercus falcata Michx.

Spruce pine Pinus glabra Walter

Sweetgum Liquidambar styraciflua L.

Sycamore Platanus spp.

Tulip poplar Liriodendron tulipifera L.

Water oak Quercus nigra L.

Washington fan palm Washingtonia robusta H. Wendl.

Wax myrtle Morella cerifera (L.) Small

a This list provides the scientific names for species mentioned in the text. It is not intended 

to serve as a list of recommended plants for the region.
75

Central Florida Community Tree Guide: Benefits, Costs, and Strategic Planting

Metric Equivalents

When you know: Multiply by: To find:

Inch (in) 25,400 Microns (μ)

Inches (in) 25.4 Millimeters (mm)

Inches (in) 2.54 Centimeters (cm)

Feet (ft) .305 Meters (m)

Square feet (ft2

) .0929 Square meters (m2)

Cubic feet (ft3

) .0283 Cubic meters (m3)

Cubic yards (yd3) .7646 Cubic meters (m3)

Miles (mi) 1.61 Kilometers (km)

Acres (ac) .405 Hectares (ha)

Acre-feet (ac-ft) 1.23 x 106 Hectare meters (ha-m)

Square miles (mi2

) 2.59 Square kilometers (km2)

Gallons (gal) .00378 Cubic meters (m3)

Pounds (lb) .454 Kilograms (kg)

Pounds per square foot (lb/ft2

) 4.882 Kilograms per square meter (kg/m2)

Ounces (oz) 28.35 Grams (g)

Ounces (oz) 2.83 x 107 Micrograms (μg)

Tons (ton) .907 Metric tonnes (t)

Thousand British thermal units (kBtu) 1.05 Megajoules (MJ)

Thousand British thermal units (kBtu) .293 Kilowatt-hours (kWh)

Million British thermal units (mmBtu) 8.141 Megawatt-hours (MWh)

Watts (W) 106 Megawatts (MW)

Watt-hour (Wh) 109 Gigawatt-hours (GWh)

Fahrenheit (°F)	 (F−32).55 	 Celsius (°C)

Acknowledgments

We are indebted to Timothy Broschat, Francisco Escobedo (University of Florida), 

and Charles Marcus (Florida Division of Forestry) for providing insightful reviews 

of this work.

We greatly appreciate the assistance provided by Denise Aldridge and Andrew 

Kittsley (Orlando Parks Division, Families, Parks, and Recreation Department, city 

of Orlando, Florida), with special thanks to and Kevin McCann and Katie Kulbaba 

(Streets and Stormwater Division, Public Works Department, city of Orlando, 

Florida); Scott Maco, Joseph Gregory, Aren Dottenwhy, Doak Marsco, Amanda 

Peter, and John Duncan (Davey Resource Group.)

We thank those who returned our many requests and calls for tree care expenditure information: Denise Aldridge and Andrew Kittsley (city of Orlando, Florida), 

Linda Beck (city of Tampa, Florida), Brian Dick (city of Lakeland, Florida), Bill 

Geiger (city of Brooksville, Florida), Alan Mayberry (city of Dunedin, Florida), 

Linda Seufert (city of St. Petersburg, Florida), John Harris (Earth Advisors), Sergio 

Vasquez (Central Florida Tree Services), and Ward Reasoner (Ward Reasoner & 

Sons Landscaping).

Additionally, Keith Cline (USDA Forest Service, State and Private Forestry) 

and Charles Marcus (Florida Division of Forestry) provided invaluable support for 

this project.
76

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87

Central Florida Community Tree Guide: Benefits, Costs, and Strategic Planting

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Central Florida Community Tree Guide: Benefits, Costs, and Strategic Planting

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90

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USDA Forest Service, PSW, Center for Urban Forest Research
91

Central Florida Community Tree Guide: Benefits, Costs, and Strategic Planting

Appendix 1: Additional Resources

Additional information regarding urban and community forestry program design 

and implementation can be obtained from the following sources:

Utilizing Municipal Trees: Ideas From Across the Country by S.M. Bratkovich 

(2001)

Urban Forestry: Planning and Managing Urban Greenspaces by R.W. Miller 

(1997)

A Technical Guide to Urban and Community Forestry by R. Morgan (1993)

Urban Tree Risk Management: A Community Guide to Program Design and 

Implementation edited by J.D. Pokorny (2003)

For additional information on tree selection, planting, establishment, and care, see 

the following resources:

How to Prune Trees by P.J. Bedker, J.G. O’Brien, and M.E. Mielke (1995)

Training Young Trees for Structure and Form, a video by L.R. Costello (2000)

An Illustrated Guide to Pruning by E.F. Gilman (2002)

Trees for Urban and Suburban Landscapes by E.F. Gilman (1997)

Ornamental Palm Horticulture by T.K. Broschat and A.W. Meerow (2000)

Planting Trees and Shrubs for Long-Term Health by R. Hargrave, G.R. Johnson, and M.E. Zins (2002)

Arboriculture, 4th ed., by R.W. Harris, J.R. Clark, and N.P. Matheny (2003)

Native Trees, Shrubs, and Vines for Urban and Rural America by G.L. Hightshoe (1988)

Ornamental Plants for Subtropical Regions by R.S. Hoyt (1998)

Principles and Practice of Planting Trees and Shrubs by G.W. Watson and E.B. 

Himelick (1997)

Alliance for Community Trees: http://actrees.org (2006)

International Society of Arboriculture: http://www.isa-arbor.com

National Arbor Day Foundation: http://www.arborday.org

TreeLink: http://www.treelink.org 

The Urban Horticulture Institute: http://www.hort.cornell.edu/UHI/outreach/

recurbtree/index.html (2003)
92

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-230

State urban forestry agency and Web site for the Central Florida region:

Florida Division of Forestry, Urban and Community Forestry, 3125 Conner 

Blvd., Suite R3, Tallahassee, FL 32399; Phone: 850-921-0300; http://fl-dof.com/

forest_management/cfe_urban_index.html 

University of Florida-IFAS EDIS Urban Forest Hurricane

Recovery Program series: http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/

topic_series_urban_forest_hurricane_recovery_program

University of Florida-IFAS Assessing Damage and Restoring Trees After a 

Hurricane: http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdffiles/EP/EP29100.pdf

University of Florida-IFAS Landscape Plants (Edward F. Gilman): http://hort.

ufl.edu/woody/

University of Florida-IFAS Palm nutrition and fertilization (Timothy K. Broschat): http//:edis.ifas.ufl.edu/topic_palm_nutrition

University of Florida’s Urban and Urbanizing Forests Program: http://www.sfrc.

ufl.edu/urbanforestry/

University of Florida IFAS Urban forestry extension publications: http://edis.

ifas.ufl.edu/topic_urban_forestry

These suggested references are only a starting point. Your local cooperative 

extension agent, urban forester, or state forestry agency can provide you with up-todate and local information.
93

Central Florida Community Tree Guide: Benefits, Costs, and Strategic Planting

Appendix 2: Benefit–Cost Information Tables

Information in this appendix can be used to estimate benefits and costs associated with proposed tree plantings. The tables contain data for representative small 

(common crapemyrtle), medium (southern magnolia), large (live oak) trees, and a 

large conifer (slash pine) (see “Common and Scientific Names” section). Data are 

presented as annual values for each 5-year interval after planting (tables 6 to 17). 

Annual values incorporate effects of tree loss. Based on the results of our survey, 

we assume that 40 percent of the trees planted die by the end of the 40-year period.

For the benefits tables (tables 6, 9, 12, and 15), there are two columns for each 

5-year interval. In the first column, values describe resource units (RUs): for 

example, the amount of air conditioning energy saved in kilowatt-hours per year 

per tree, air pollutant uptake in pounds per year per tree, and rainfall intercepted in 

gallons per year per tree. Energy and carbon dioxide (CO2

) benefits for residential 

yard trees are broken out by tree location to show how shading effects differ among 

trees opposite west-, south-, and east-facing building walls. The second column for 

each 5-year interval contains dollar values obtained by multiplying RUs by local 

prices (e.g., kWh saved [RU] x $/kWh).

In the costs tables (tables 7, 10, 13, and 16), costs are broken down into categories for yard and public trees. Costs for yard trees do not differ by planting location 

(i.e., east, west, south walls). Although tree purchase and planting costs occur at 

year 1, we divided this value by 5 years to derive an average annual cost for the first 

5-year period. All other costs are the estimated values for each year and not values 

averaged over 5 years.

Annual net benefits are calculated by subtracting annual costs from annual 

benefits and are presented in tables 8, 11, 14, and 17. Data are presented for a yard 

tree opposite west-, south-, and east-facing walls, as well as for the public tree.

The last column in each table presents 40-year-average annual values. These 

numbers were calculated by dividing the total costs and benefits by 40 years.
94

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-230 Table 6—Annual benefits at 5-year intervals and 40-year average for a representative small tree (crapemyrtle) 40-year Year 5 Year 10 Year 15 Year 20 Year 25 Year 30 Year 35 Year 40 average Benefits/tree RU Value RU Value RU Value RU Value RU Value RU Value RU Value RU Value RU Value Dollars Dollars Dollars Dollars Dollars Dollars Dollars Dollars Dollars Cooling (kWh): Yard: west 23 3.06 55 7.30 80 10.57 100 13.20 106 14.02 103 13.60 96 12.66 89 11.72 82 10.77 Yard: south 9 1.22 24 3.15 36 4.74 46 6.05 49 6.49 48 6.31 45 5.87 41 5.44 37 4.91 Yard: east 19 2.51 47 6.15 70 9.18 89 11.69 95 12.51 92 12.16 86 11.32 80 10.48 72 9.50 Public 7 0.90 15 1.95 21 2.78 27 3.50 28 3.74 28 3.63 26 3.38 24 3.13 22 2.88 Heating (kBtu): Yard: west 2 0.01 4 0.01 5 0.01 5 0.01 6 0.02 6 0.01 5 0.01 5 0.01 5 0.01 Yard: south 2 0.01 2 0.01 3 0.01 3 0.01 2 0.01 2 0.01 2 0.01 2 0.005 2 0.01 Yard: east -2 0 -3 -0.01 -4 -0.01 -4 -0.01 -3 -0.01 -3 -0.01 -3 -0.01 -3 -0.01 -3 -0.01 Public 4 0.01 8 0.02 12 0.03 14 0.04 15 0.04 15 0.04 14 0.04 13 0.03 12 0.03 Net energy (kBtu): Yard: west 234 3.06 557 7.31 806 10.58 1,006 13.21 1,069 14.04 1,037 13.61 966 12.67 894 11.74 821 10.78 Yard: south 95 1.22 241 3.16 362 4.75 462 6.06 494 6.49 480 6.31 447 5.88 414 5.44 375 4.91

 Yard: east 189 2.51 463 6.14 693 9.17 883 11.68 946 12.50 919 12.15 856 11.31 792 10.47 718 9.49

 Public 72 0.91 157 1.97 223 2.81 280 3.54 299 3.78 290 3.67 270 3.42 250 3.16 230 2.91

Net carbon dioxide (lb): Yard: west 65 0.22 155 0.52 231 0.77 266 0.89 271 0.90 266 0.89 258 0.86 250 0.83 220 0.74

 Yard: south 37 0.12 91 0.30 141 0.47 156 0.52 154 0.51 153 0.51 153 0.51 152 0.51 130 0.43

 Yard: east 56 0.19 136 0.45 209 0.70 242 0.81 246 0.82 243 0.81 237 0.79 230 0.77 200 0.67

 Public 32 0.11 73 0.24 112 0.37 118 0.39 113 0.38 113 0.38 116 0.39 118 0.39 99 0.33

Air pollution (lb):a

Ozone uptake 0.0967 0.21 0.2064 0.45 0.3082 0.68 0.3996 0.88 0.4478 0.98 0.4964 1.09 0.5499 1.21 0.5951 1.31 0.39 0.85

Nitrous oxide uptake + avoided: 0.0483 0.11 0.1145 0.25 0.1686 0.37 0.2137 0.47 0.2297 0.50 0.2276 0.50 0.2185 0.48 0.2087 0.46 0.18 0.39

Sulfur dioxide uptake + avoided: 0.0337 0.07 0.0812 0.16 0.1194 0.24 0.1509 0.30 0.1613 0.32 0.1571 0.32 0.1471 0.30 0.1369 0.27 0.12 0.25

Small particulate matter uptake+ avoided 0.0158 0.03 0.0585 0.12 0.1105 0.23 0.1735 0.36 0.2208 0.46 0.2622 0.55 0.2576 0.54 0.2530 0.53 0.17 0.36

Volatile organic compounds

avoided 0.0144 0.01 0.0346 0.04 0.0509 0.05 0.0643 0.07 0.0686 0.07 0.0667 0.07 0.0621 0.06 0.0575 0.06 0.05 0.05

Biogenic volatile organic

compounds released 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Avoided + net uptake 0.209 0.43 0.495 1.03 0.758 1.57 1.002 2.08 1.128 2.35 1.210 2.53 1.235 2.59 1.251 2.63 0.91 1.90

Hydrology (gal):

Rainfall interception 242 0.73 610 1.83 1,101 3.30 1,749 5.25 2,130 6.39 2,251 6.75 2,251 6.75 2,251 6.75 1,573 4.72

Aesthetics and other benefits: Yard 9.00 13.51 17.49 9.95 10.36 10.63 10.78 10.79 11.56

 Public 10.20 15.31 19.82 11.28 11.74 12.05 12.21 12.23 13.10

Total benefits:

Yard: west 13.44 24.20 33.72 31.38 34.03 34.41 33.65 32.74 29.70

Yard: south 11.50 19.83 27.58 23.86 26.10 26.73 26.50 26.12 23.53

Yard: east 12.86 22.96 32.23 29.76 32.42 32.87 32.22 31.41 28.34

Public 12.38 20.39 27.88 22.54 24.63 25.37 25.36 25.17 22.96

Note: Annual values incorporate effects of tree loss. We assume that 5 percent of trees planted die during the first 5 years, 35 percent during the remaining 35 years, for a total mortality of 40 percent. RU = resource unit. a Values are the same for yard and public trees.
95

Central Florida Community Tree Guide: Benefits, Costs, and Strategic Planting

Table 7—Annual costs (dollars per tree) at 5-year intervals and 40-year average for a representative small tree 

(crapemyrtle)

40-year

Costs Year 5 Year 10 Year 15 Year 20 Year 25 Year 30 Year 35 Year 40 average

 Dollars

Tree and planting:a

 Yard 88.00 11.00

 Public 46.00 5.75

Pruning: 

 Yard 0.07 0.02 1.18 1.09 1.01 0.92 0.84 0.75 0.73

 Public 1.90 3.60 9.56 9.00 8.44 7.88 7.31 6.75 6.83

Remove and dispose:

 Yard 4.14 4.22 5.54 6.47 7.40 9.33 9.26 10.19 6.36

 Public 1.57 2.79 3.66 4.28 4.89 5.51 6.12 6.73 4.13

Pest and disease:

 Yard 0.09 0.15 0.19 0.20 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.18

 Public 0.10 0.17 0.20 0.22 0.24 0.25 0.26 0.27 0.20

Infrastructure repair:

 Yard 0.09 0.14 0.18 0.19 0.20 0.21 0.21 0.21 0.17

 Public 0.73 1.23 1.53 1.68 1.80 1.89 1.95 1.98 1.51

Irrigation:

 Yard 0.04 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.09 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.08

 Public 0 1.90 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.24

Cleanup:

 Yard 0.04 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.09 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.08

 Public 0.34 0.58 0.72 0.79 0.85 0.89 0.92 0.93 0.71

Liability and legal:

 Yard 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02

 Public 0.08 0.13 0.16 0.18 0.19 0.20 0.21 0.21 0.16

Admin/inspect/other:

 Yard 0.56 0.93 1.13 1.23 1.29 1.33 1.34 1.33 1.09

 Public 1.37 2.31 2.86 3.15 3.37 3.55 3.66 3.72 2.84

Total costs:

 Yard 93.00 5.55 8.32 9.30 10.23 11.13 11.99 12.81 19.63

 Public 53.98 10.81 18.70 19.30 19.78 20.16 20.43 20.59 22.39

Note: Annual values incorporate effects of tree loss. We assume that 5 percent of trees planted die during the first 5 years, 35 percent during the 

remaining 35 years, for a total mortality of 40 percent. 

a Although tree and planting costs occur in year 1, this value was divided by 5 years to derive an average annual cost for the first 5-year period.

Table 8—Annual net benefits (dollars per tree) at 5-year intervals and 40-year average for a representative small tree 

(crapemyrtle)

40-year

Total net benefits Year 5 Year 10 Year 15 Year 20 Year 25 Year 30 Year 35 Year 40 average

 Dollars

 Yard: west -80 19 25 22 24 23 22 20 10

 Yard: south -81 14 19 15 16 16 15 13 4

 Yard: east -80 17 24 20 22 22 20 19 9

 Public -42 10 9 3 5 5 5 5 1

Note: Annual values incorporate effects of tree loss. We assume that 5 percent of trees planted die during the first 5 years, 35 percent during the 

remaining 35 years, for a total mortality of 40 percent. 

See table 6 for annual benefits and table 7 for annual costs.
96

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-230 Table 9—Annual benefits (dollars per tree) at 5-year intervals and 40-year average for a representative medium tree (southern magnolia) 40-year Year 5 Year 10 Year 15 Year 20 Year 25 Year 30 Year 35 Year 40 average Benefits/tree RU Value RU Value RU Value RU Value RU Value RU Value RU Value RU Value RU Value Dollars Dollars Dollars Dollars Dollars Dollars Dollars Dollars Dollars Cooling (kWh): Yard: west 28 3.67 86 11.34 140 18.39 186 24.49 224 29.48 249 32.76 262 34.50 268 35.29 180 23.74 Yard: south 10 1.29 37 4.89 73 9.60 106 13.92 134 17.61 156 20.58 171 22.52 180 23.77 108 14.27 Yard: east 22 2.88 73 9.61 126 16.58 171 22.54 205 27.03 230 30.35 245 32.30 250 32.92 165 21.78 Public 6 0.76 17 2.26 30 3.98 42 5.53 52 6.87 61 8.08 68 8.92 73 9.59 44 5.75 Heating (kBtu): Yard: west -1 0 -4 -0.01 -5 -0.01 -6 -0.01 -4 -0.01 -2 -0.01 -1 0.00 0 0.00 -3 -0.01 Yard: south -1 0 -10 -0.03 -30 -0.08 -47 -0.13 -59 -0.16 -69 -0.19 -76 -0.20 -80 -0.21 -46 -0.12 Yard: east -6 -0.02 -11 -0.03 -11 -0.03 -10 -0.03 -7 -0.02 -4 -0.01 -1 0.00 0 0.00 -6 -0.02 Public 3 0.01 9 0.03 15 0.04 21 0.06 26 0.07 30 0.08 32 0.09 33 0.09 21 0.06 Net energy (kBtu): Yard: west 278 3.67 856 11.33 1,390 18.38 1,853 24.48 2,233 29.47 2,483 32.76 2,616 34.49 2,677 35.29 1,798 23.73 Yard: south 96 1.28 361 4.86 699 9.52 1,009 13.79 1,276 17.45 1,492 20.40 1,633 22.32 1,723 23.56 1,036 14.15

 Yard: east 213 2.86 718 9.58 1,247 16.55 1,700 22.51 2,044 27.02 2,299 30.34 2,449 32.29 2,498 32.92 1,646 21.76

 Public 61 0.77 181 2.29 317 4.02 441 5.59 547 6.94 643 8.16 708 9.00 761 9.68 457 5.81

Net carbon dioxide (lb): Yard: west 70 0.23 210 0.70 346 1.16 468 1.56 573 1.91 655 2.19 711 2.38 663 2.21 462 1.54

 Yard: south 33 0.11 110 0.37 207 0.69 299 1.00 383 1.28 459 1.53 517 1.73 476 1.59 311 1.04

 Yard: east 57 0.19 182 0.61 317 1.06 437 1.46 534 1.78 618 2.06 677 2.26 627 2.09 431 1.44

 Public 26 0.09 71 0.24 125 0.42 178 0.59 227 0.76 278 0.93 320 1.07 270 0.90 187 0.62

Air pollution (lb):a

Ozone uptake 0.1166 0.26 0.3128 0.69 0.5509 1.21 0.7912 1.74 1.0233 2.25 1.2853 2.82 1.5291 3.36 1.7811 3.91 0.92 2.03

Nitrous oxide uptake +

avoided 0.0550 0.12 0.1741 0.38 0.3016 0.66 0.4159 0.91 0.5116 1.12 0.5899 1.30 0.6436 1.41 0.6814 1.50 0.42 0.93

Sulfur dioxide uptake +

avoided 0.0382 0.08 0.1239 0.25 0.2143 0.43 0.2938 0.59 0.3587 0.72 0.4079 0.82 0.4384 0.88 0.4556 0.91 0.29 0.58

Small particulate matter

uptake + avoided 0.0195 0.04 0.0859 0.18 0.2006 0.42 0.3607 0.76 0.5085 1.07 0.6713 1.41 0.8308 1.75 0.9855 2.07 0.46 0.96

Volatile organic compounds

avoided 0.0160 0.02 0.0524 0.05 0.0906 0.09 0.1241 0.13 0.1511 0.16 0.1713 0.18 0.1833 0.19 0.1896 0.20 0.12 0.13

Biogenic volatile organic

compounds released: -0.014 -0.01 -0.264 -0.27 -0.609 -0.63 -1.213 -1.25 -1.876 -1.94 -2.787 -2.88 -3.886 -4.02 -5.162 -5.33 -1.98 -2.04

Avoided + net uptake 0.232 0.50 0.485 1.28 0.749 2.19 0.773 2.87 0.677 3.38 0.339 3.64 -0.261 3.57 -1.069 3.25 0.24 2.59

Hydrology (gal)Rainfall interception 1,212 3.64 2,145 6.44 3,333 10.00 4,657 13.97 6,226 18.68 8,361 25.08 10,471 31.41 13,124 39.37 6,191 18.57

Aesthetics and other benefits: Yard 20.23 24.26 27.73 30.66 33.04 34.88 36.16 14.19 27.73

 Public 22.93 27.49 31.43 34.75 37.45 39.52 40.98 16.89 31.43

Total benefits:

Yard: west 28.27 44.00 59.45 73.55 86.48 98.55 108.02 95.03 74.17

Yard: south 25.76 37.20 50.13 62.30 73.82 85.54 95.20 82.67 64.08Yard: east 27.42 42.17 57.53 71.48 83.90 96.01 105.70 92.54 72.09

Public 27.92 37.73 48.05 57.77 67.20 77.34 86.04 70.10 59.02

Note: Annual values incorporate effects of tree loss. We assume that 5 percent of trees planted die during the first 5 years, 35 percent during the remaining 35 years, for a total mortality of 40 percent.RU = resource unit. a Values are the same for yard and public trees.
97

Central Florida Community Tree Guide: Benefits, Costs, and Strategic Planting

Table 10—Annual costs (dollars per tree) at 5-year intervals and 40-year average for a representative medium tree 

(southern magnolia)

40-year

Costs Year 5 Year 10 Year 15 Year 20 Year 25 Year 30 Year 35 Year 40 average

 Dollars

Tree and planting:a

 Yard 88.00 11.00

 Public 46.00 5.75

Pruning: 

 Yard 0.07 1.26 1.18 1.09 1.01 3.69 3.34 3.00 1.58

 Public 1.90 10.13 9.56 9.00 8.44 12.25 11.38 10.50 8.54

Remove and dispose:

 Yard 4.30 4.40 6.35 8.29 10.24 12.18 14.13 15.64 8.58

 Public 1.63 2.91 4.20 5.48 6.77 8.05 9.34 10.34 5.60

Pest and disease:

 Yard 0.10 0.16 0.22 0.26 0.30 0.33 0.34 0.34 0.24

 Public 0.10 0.17 0.23 0.29 0.33 0.37 0.40 0.41 0.27

Infrastructure repair:

 Yard 0.09 0.15 0.20` 0.24 0.28 0.30 0.29 0.32 0.22

 Public 0.76 1.28 1.75 2.15 2.49 2.76 2.97 3.04 2.01

Irrigation: 

 Yard 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

 Public 0 1.90 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.24

Cleanup: 

 Yard 0.04 0.07 0.10 0.12 0.13 0.14 0.14 0.15 0.11

 Public 0.36 0.61 0.83 1.01 1.17 1.30 1.40 1.43 0.95

Liability and legal:

 Yard 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.13 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.02

 Public 0.08 0.14 0.19 0.23 0.27 0.30 0.32 0.33 0.22

Admin/inspect/other:

 Yard 0.58 0.97 1.30 1.57 1.79 1.95 1.86 2.04 1.44

 Public 1.42 2.41 3.28 4.03 4.67 5.19 5.58 5.71 3.78

 Total costs:

 Yard 93.18 7.03 9.36 11.61 13.77 18.62 20.13 21.51 23.20

 Public 54.14 17.65 20.04 22.20 24.14 30.22 31.39 31.75 27.37

Note: Annual values incorporate effects of tree loss. We assume that 5 percent of trees planted die during the first 5 years, 35 percent during the 

remaining 35 years, for a total mortality of 40 percent.

a

Although tree and planting costs occur in year 1, this value was divided by 5 years to derive an average annual cost for the first 5-year period.

Table 11—Annual net benefits (dollars per tree) at 5-year intervals and 40-year average for a representative medium tree 

(southern magnolia)

40-year

Total net benefits Year 5 Year 10 Year 15 Year 20 Year 25 Year 30 Year 35 Year 40 average

 Dollars

 Yard: west -65 37 50 62 73 80 88 74 51

 Yard: south -67 30 41 51 60 67 75 61 41

 Yard: east -66 35 48 60 70 77 86 71 49

 Public -26 20 28 36 43 47 55 38 32

Note: Annual values incorporate effects of tree loss. We assume that 5 percent of trees planted die during the first 5 years, 35 percent during the 

remaining 35 years, for a total mortality of 40 percent.

See table 9 for annual benefits and table 10 for annual costs.
98

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-230 Table 12—Annual benefits (dollars per tree) at 5-year intervals and 40-year average for a representative large tree (live oak) 40-year Year 5 Year 10 Year 15 Year 20 Year 25 Year 30 Year 35 Year 40 average Benefits/tree RU Value RU Value RU Value RU Value RU Value RU Value RU Value RU Value RU Value Dollars Dollars Dollars Dollars Dollars Dollars Dollars Dollars Dollars Cooling (kWh): Yard: west 69 9.14 175 23.08 271 35.69 339 44.67 387 51.02 418 55.05 431 56.88 437 57.61 316 41.64 Yard: south 32 4.19 96 12.71 168 22.11 227 29.89 274 36.12 309 40.75 336 44.27 352 46.43 224 29.56 Yard: east 59 7.79 160 21.08 250 32.99 317 41.74 364 47.97 393 51.85 407 53.65 414 54.55 296 38.95 Public 14 1.88 38 5.04 65 8.63 91 11.95 114 15.01 135 17.85 152 20.06 167 21.99 97 12.80 Heating (kBtu): Yard: west -3 -0.01 -5 -0.01 -3 -0.01 -1 0.00 2 0.01 4 0.01 7 0.02 -15 -0.04 -2 0.00 Yard: south -12 -0.03 -42 -0.11 -79 -0.21 -110 -0.29 -132 -0.35 -143 -0.38 -151 -0.40 -152 -0.41 -103 -0.27 Yard: east -9 -0.02 -9 -0.02 -4 -0.01 2 0.01 7 0.02 13 0.03 18 0.05 21 0.06 5 0.01 Public 8 0.02 20 0.05 32 0.09 42 0.11 50 0.13 55 0.15 58 0.16 60 0.16 41 0.11 Net energy (kBtu): Yard: west 691 9.13 1,746 23.07 2,704 35.68 3,388 44.67 3,872 51.03 4,180 55.06 4,321 56.90 4,355 57.57 3,157 41.64 Yard: south 306 4.16 922 12.59 1,598 21.90 2,158 29.60 2,608 35.77 2,949 40.37 3,208 43.87 3,370 46.02 2,140 29.28

 Yard: east 582 7.77 1,590 21.05 2,499 32.98 3,168 41.74 3,647 47.99 3,946 51.88 4,088 53.70 4,160 54.61 2,960 38.97

 Public 151 1.91 403 5.09 687 8.72 948 12.06 1,188 15.14 1,410 18.00 1,580 20.21 1,728 22.15 1,012 12.91

Net carbon dioxide (lb): Yard: west 189 0.63 477 1.59 765 2.56 1,006 3.36 1,210 4.04 1,382 4.62 1,522 5.08 1,650 5.51 1,025 3.42

 Yard: south 111 0.37 313 1.04 547 1.83 764 2.55 964 3.22 1,144 3.82 1,308 4.37 1,461 4.88 826 2.76

 Yard: east 167 0.56 446 1.49 724 2.42 960 3.21 1,163 3.89 1,333 4.45 1,473 4.92 1,607 5.37 984 3.29

 Public 78 0.26 202 0.67 351 1.17 505 1.69 659 2.20 813 2.72 959 3.20 1,109 3.70 584 1.95

Air pollution (lb):a

Ozone uptake 0.233 0.51 0.624 1.37 1.121 2.46 1.654 3.63 2.206 4.84 2.770 6.09 3.341 7.34 3.954 8.68 1.99 4.37

Nitrous oxide uptake+ avoided 0.141 0.31 0.378 0.83 0.617 1.36 0.813 1.79 0.973 2.14 1.100 2.42 1.195 2.63 1.274 2.80 0.81 1.78

Sulfur dioxide uptake + avoided 0.101 0.20 0.272 0.55 0.439 0.88 0.568 1.14 0.668 1.34 0.741 1.49 0.788 1.58 0.819 1.64 0.55 1.10

Small particulate matter uptake +

avoided 0.051 0.11 0.169 0.36 0.369 0.78 0.651 1.37 0.943 1.98 1.232 2.59 1.511 3.18 1.822 3.83 0.84 1.77

Volatile organic compounds

avoided 0.043 0.04 0.116 0.12 0.186 0.19 0.239 0.25 0.280 0.29 0.309 0.32 0.326 0.34 0.337 0.35 0.23 0.24

Biogenic volatile organic

compounds released: -0.028 -0.03 -0.394 -0.41 -1.157 -1.20 -2.752 -2.84 -4.827 -4.99 -7.235 -7.48 -9.825 -10.15 -12.819 -13.25 -4.88 -5.04

Avoided + net uptake 0.540 1.14 1.166 2.82 1.575 4.47 1.174 5.33 0.243 5.61 -1.083 5.42 -2.664 4.90 -4.613 4.05 -0.46 4.22

Hydrology (gal):Rainfall interception 1,207 3.62 2,908 8.72 5,493 16.48 8,854 26.56 12,646 37.94 16,731 50.19 21,840 65.52 27,449 82.35 12,141 36.42

Aesthetics and other: Yard 34.58 50.88 62.53 69.98 73.70 74.15 71.80 67.11 63.09

 Public 39.18 57.66 70.86 79.30 83.52 84.03 81.37 76.05 71.50

Total benefits:

 Yard: west 49.10 87.08 121.71 149.90 172.31 189.44 204.20 216.59 148.79

 Yard: south 43.87 76.06 107.20 134.02 156.23 173.95 190.46 204.42 135.78

 Yard: east 47.67 84.96 118.88 146.82 169.12 186.10 200.84 213.49 145.99

 Public 46.11 74.97 101.70 124.94 144.40 160.36 175.21 188.30 127.00

Note: Annual values incorporate effects of tree loss. We assume that 5 percent of trees planted die during the first 5 years, 35 percent during the remaining 35 years, for a total mortality of 40 percent. RU = resource unit.a Values are the same for yard and public trees.
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Central Florida Community Tree Guide: Benefits, Costs, and Strategic Planting

Table 13—Annual costs (dollars per tree) at 5-year intervals and 40-year average for a representative large tree (live oak)

40-year

Costs Year 5 Year 10 Year 15 Year 20 Year 25 Year 30 Year 35 Year 40 average

 Dollars

Tree and planting:a

 Yard 88.00 11.00

 Public 46.00 5.75

Pruning: 

 Yard 0.07 1.26 1.18 4.37 4.03 3.69 3.34 3.00 2.42

 Public 1.90 10.13 9.56 14.00 13.13 12.25 11.38 10.50 10.12

Remove and dispose:

 Yard 4.75 4.91 7.11 9.31 11.51 13.71 15.91 18.11 9.60

 Public 1.79 3.25 4.70 6.16 7.61 9.06 10.52 11.97 6.27

Pest and disease: 

 Yard 0.11 0.18 0.24 0.29 0.34 0.37 0.39 0.39 0.27

 Public 0.11 0.19 0.26 0.32 0.38 0.42 0.45 0.47 0.30

Infrastructure repair:

 Yard 0.10 0.17 0.23 0.27 0.31 0.34 0.36 0.37 0.25

 Public 0.84 1.43 1.96 2.41 2.80 3.11 3.35 3.52 2.26

Irrigation:

 Yard 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

 Public 0 1.90 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.24

Cleanup:

 Yard 0.05 0.08 0.11 0.13 0.15 0.16 0.17 0.17 0.12

 Public 0.39 0.68 0.92 1.14 1.32 1.47 1.58 1.66 1.07

Liability and legal: 

 Yard 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.03

 Public 0.09 0.15 0.21 0.26 0.30 0.33 0.36 0.38 0.24

Admin/inspect/other: 

 Yard 0.64 1.08 1.46 1.77 2.01 2.20 2.31 2.25 1.62

 Public 1.57 2.69 3.68 4.53 5.25 5.84 6.29 6.61 4.25

 Total costs:

 Yard 93.72 7.70 10.35 16.18 18.38 20.50 22.52 24.33 25.31

 Public 54.59 18.52 21.30 28.82 30.78 32.48 33.92 35.11 30.52

Note: Annual values incorporate effects of tree loss. We assume that 5 percent of trees planted die during the first 5 years, 35 percent during the 

remaining 35 years, for a total mortality of 40 percent.

a Although tree and planting costs occur in year 1, this value was divided by 5 years to derive an average annual cost for the first 5-year period.

Table 14—Annual net benefits (dollars per tree) at 5-year intervals and 40-year average for a representative large tree

(live oak)

40-year

Total net benefits Year 5 Year 10 Year 15 Year 20 Year 25 Year 30 Year 35 Year 40 average

 Dollars

 Yard: west -45 79 111 134 154 169 182 192 123

 Yard: south -50 68 97 118 138 153 168 180 110

 Yard: east -46 77 109 131 151 166 178 189 121

 Public -8 56 80 96 114 128 141 153 96

Note: Annual values incorporate effects of tree loss. We assume that 5 percent of trees planted die during the first 5 years, 35 percent during the 

remaining 35 years, for a total mortality of 40 percent.

See table 12 for annual benefits and table 13 for annual costs.
100

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-230 Table 15—Annual benefits (dollars per tree) at 5-year intervals and 40-year average for a representative conifer tree (slash pine) 40-year Year 5 Year 10 Year 15 Year 20 Year 25 Year 30 Year 35 Year 40 average Benefits/tree RU Value RU Value RU Value RU Value RU Value RU Value RU Value RU Value RU Value Dollars Dollars Dollars Dollars Dollars Dollars Dollars Dollars Dollars Cooling (kWh): Yard: west 8 1.05 18 2.37 28 3.72 37 4.89 40 5.23 42 5.48 43 5.68 44 5.82 32 4.28 Yard: south 8 1.05 18 2.37 28 3.72 37 4.89 40 5.23 42 5.48 43 5.68 44 5.82 32 4.28 Yard: east 8 1.05 18 2.37 28 3.72 37 4.89 40 5.23 42 5.48 43 5.68 44 5.82 32 4.28 Public 8 1.05 18 2.37 28 3.72 37 4.89 40 5.23 42 5.48 43 5.68 44 5.82 32 4.28 Heating (kBtu): Yard: west 17 0.05 30 0.08 39 0.10 46 0.12 48 0.13 48 0.13 48 0.13 48 0.13 40 0.11 Yard: south 17 0.05 30 0.08 39 0.10 46 0.12 48 0.13 48 0.13 48 0.13 48 0.13 40 0.11 Yard: east 17 0.05 30 0.08 39 0.10 46 0.12 48 0.13 48 0.13 48 0.13 48 0.13 40 0.11 Public 17 0.05 30 0.08 39 0.10 46 0.12 48 0.13 48 0.13 48 0.13 48 0.13 40 0.11 Net energy (kBtu): Yard: west 97 1.09 210 2.45 321 3.82 417 5.01 444 5.35 464 5.61 479 5.80 489 5.95 365 4.39 Yard: south 97 1.09 210 2.45 321 3.82 417 5.01 444 5.35 464 5.61 479 5.80 489 5.95 365 4.39

 Yard: east 97 1.09 210 2.45 321 3.82 417 5.01 444 5.35 464 5.61 479 5.80 489 5.95 365 4.39

 Public 97 1.09 210 2.45 321 3.82 417 5.01 444 5.35 464 5.61 479 5.80 489 5.95 365 4.39

Net carbon dioxide (lb): Yard: west 34 0.11 79 0.26 146 0.49 195 0.65 190 0.64 184 0.62 183 0.61 199 0.67 151 0.51

 Yard: south 34 0.11 79 0.26 146 0.49 195 0.65 190 0.64 184 0.62 183 0.61 199 0.67 151 0.51

 Yard: east 34 0.11 79 0.26 146 0.49 195 0.65 190 0.64 184 0.62 183 0.61 199 0.67 151 0.51

 Public 34 0.11 79 0.26 146 0.49 195 0.65 190 0.64 184 0.62 183 0.61 199 0.67 151 0.51

Air pollution (lb):a

Ozone uptake 0.1131 0.25 0.3049 0.67 0.5028 1.10 0.7001 1.54 0.8013 1.76 0.9026 1.98 1.0034 2.20 1.1031 2.42 0.68 1.49

Nitrous oxide uptake + avoided 0.0331 0.07 0.0778 0.17 0.1232 0.27 0.1645 0.36 0.1799 0.40 0.1936 0.43 0.2057 0.45 0.2166 0.48 0.15 0.33

Sulfur dioxide uptake + avoided 0.0193 0.04 0.0442 0.09 0.0696 0.14 0.0919 0.18 0.0989 0.20 0.1045 0.21 0.1090 0.22 0.1126 0.23 0.08 0.16

Small particulate matter uptake +

avoided 0.0136 0.03 0.0485 0.10 0.1311 0.28 0.2507 0.53 0.3597 0.76 0.4666 0.98 0.5641 1.18 0.6711 1.41 0.31 0.66

Volatile organic compounds

avoided 0.0079 0.01 0.0179 0.02 0.0280 0.03 0.0367 0.04 0.0393 0.04 0.0412 0.04 0.0426 0.04 0.0437 0.05 0.03 0.03

Biogenic volatile organic

compounds released: -0.001 0.00 -0.002 0.00 -0.010 -0.01 -0.028 -0.03 -0.054 -0.06 -0.088 -0.09 -0.128 -0.13 -0.181 -0.19 -0.06 -0.06

Avoided + net uptake 0.186 0.40 0.491 1.05 0.845 1.81 1.216 2.62 1.425 3.09 1.620 3.55 1.797 3.97 1.966 4.39 1.19 2.61

Hydrology (gal) Rainfall interception 234 0.70 751 2.25 1,645 4.94 2,711 8.13 3,510 10.53 4,309 12.93 5,192 15.58 6,317 18.95 3,084 9.25

Aesthetics and other: Yard 10.06 16.90 22.94 13.07 13.69 14.13 14.38 14.46 14.95

 Public 11.41 19.15 26.00 14.81 15.15 16.01 16.30 16.38 16.95

Total benefits:	

 Yard: west 12.37 22.91 34.00 29.48 33.30 36.83 40.35 44.41 31.71

 Yard: south 12.37 22.91 34.00 29.48 33.30 36.83 40.35 44.41 31.71

 Yard: east 12.37 22.91 34.00 29.48 33.30 36.83 40.35 44.41 31.71

 Public 13.71 25.16 37.05 31.22 35.13 38.71 42.26 46.34 33.70

Note: Annual values incorporate effects of tree loss. We assume that 5 percent of trees planted die during the first 5 years, 35 percent during the remaining 35 years, for a total mortality of 40 percent. RU = resource unit. a Values are the same for yard and public trees.
101

Central Florida Community Tree Guide: Benefits, Costs, and Strategic Planting

Table 16—Annual costs (dollars per tree) at 5-year intervals and 40-year average for a representative conifer tree

(slash pine)

40-year

Costs Year 5 Year 10 Year 15 Year 20 Year 25 Year 30 Year 35 Year 40 average

 Dollars

Tree and planting:a

 Yard 88.00 11.00 

 Public 46.00 5.75 

Pruning:

 Yard 0.07 1.26 1.18 4.37 4.03 3.69 3.34 3.00 2.71

 Public 1.90 10.13 9.56 14.00 13.13 12.25 11.38 10.50 10.63

Remove and dispose:

 Yard 4.75 4.53 6.54 8.17 9.13 10.09 11.05 12.01 7.56

 Public 1.79 2.99 4.32 5.40 6.03 6.67 7.31 7.94 4.92

Pest and disease: 

 Yard 0.11 0.17 0.22 0.26 0.27 0.27 0.27 0.26 0.22

 Public 0.11 0.18 0.24 0.28 0.30 0.31 0.31 0.31 0.24

Infrastructure repair: 

 Yard 0.10 0.15 0.21 0.24 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.24 0.20

 Public 0.84 1.32 1.80 2.12 2.22 2.29 2.33 2.33 1.80

Irrigation:

 Yard 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

 Public 0 1.90 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.24

Cleanup: 

 Yard 0.05 0.07 0.10 0.11 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.11 0.09

 Public 0.39 0.62 0.85 1.00 1.05 1.08 1.10 1.10 0.85

Liability and legal:

 Yard 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.02

 Public 0.09 0.14 0.19 0.23 0.24 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.19

Admin/inspect/other:

 Yard 0.64 0.99 1.34 1.55 1.60 1.62 1.60 2.25 1.29

 Public 1.57 0.83 1.93 2.27 2.38 2.45 2.50 2.50 1.93

 Total costs:

 Yard 93.72 7.20 9.61 14.73 15.41 16.06 16.66 17.91 23.10

 Public 54.59 16.21 18.90 25.29 25.34 25.29 25.16 24.94 26.55

Note: Annual values incorporate effects of tree loss. We assume that 5 percent of trees planted die during the first 5 years, 35 percent during the 

remaining 35 years, for a total mortality of 40 percent.

a Although tree and planting costs occur in year 1, this value was divided by 5 years to derive an average annual cost for the first 5-year period.

Table 17—Annual net benefits (dollars per tree) at 5-year intervals and 40-year average for a representative conifer tree 

(slash pine)

40-year

Total net benefits Year 5 Year 10 Year 15 Year 20 Year 25 Year 30 Year 35 Year 40 average

 Dollars

 Yard: west -81 16 24 15 18 21 24 27 9

 Yard: south -81 16 24 15 18 21 24 27 9

 Yard: east -81 16 24 15 18 21 24 27 9

 Public -41 9 18 6 10 13 17 21 7

Note: Annual values incorporate effects of tree loss. We assume that 5 percent of trees planted die during the first 5 years, 35 percent during the 

remaining 35 years, for a total mortality of 40 percent.

See table 15 for annual benefits and table 16 for annual costs.
102

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-230

USDA Forest Service, PSW, Center for Urban Forest Research
103

Central Florida Community Tree Guide: Benefits, Costs, and Strategic Planting

Appendix 3: Procedures for Estimating Benefits 

and Costs

Approach

Pricing Benefits and Costs

In this study, annual benefits and costs over a 40-year planning horizon were estimated for newly planted trees in three residential yard locations (east, south, and 

west of the dwelling unit) and a public streetside or park location. Trees in these 

hypothetical locations are called “yard” and “public” trees, respectively. Prices

were assigned to each cost (e.g., planting, pruning, removal, irrigation, infrastructure repair, liability) and benefit (e.g., heating/cooling energy savings, air-pollution 

reduction, stormwater-runoff reduction) through direct estimation and implied 

valuation of benefits as environmental externalities. This approach made it possible 

to estimate the net benefits of plantings in “typical” locations with “typical” tree 

species.

To account for differences in the mature size and growth rates of different 

tree species, we report results for small, medium, and large broadleaf trees and a 

conifer. Results are reported for 5-year intervals for 40 years.

Mature tree height is frequently used to characterize a tree as being a small, 

medium, or large species because matching tree height to available overhead space 

is an important design consideration. However, in this analysis, leaf surface area 

(LSA) and crown diameter were also used to characterize mature tree size. These 

additional measurements are useful indicators for many functional benefits of trees 

that relate to leaf-atmosphere processes (e.g., interception, transpiration, photosynthesis). Tree growth rates, dimensions, and LSA estimates are based on tree growth 

modeling.

Growth Modeling

Growth models are based on data collected in Orlando, Florida. Using Orlando’s 

street tree inventory that included 68,211 trees, we measured a stratified random 

sample of 20 of the most common tree species to establish relations between tree 

age, size, leaf area, and biomass. The species were as follows:

•	 American sycamore (Platanus occidentalis L.)

•	 Camphor (Cinnamomum camphora (L.) J. Presl.)

•	 Carolina laurelcherry (Prunus caroliniana (Mill.) Aiton.)

•	 Chinese elm (Ulmus parvifolia Jacq.)

•	 Chinese tallow (Triadica sebifera (L.) Small)
104

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-230

•	 Common crapemyrtle (Lagerstroemia indica L.)

•	 Golden raintree (Koelreuteria elegans (Seem.) A.C. Sm.)

•	 Laurel oak (Quercus laurifolia Michx.)

•	 Live oak (Quercus virginiana Mill.)

•	 Loquat tree (Eriobotrya japonica (Thunb.) Lindl.)

•	 Oriental arborvitae (Platycladus orientalis (L.) Franco)

•	 Queen palm (Syagrus romanzoffiana (Cham.) Glassman)

•	 Red maple (Acer rubrum L.)

•	 Sabal palm (Sabal palm (Walt.) Lodd. ex J.A. & J.H. Schultes)

•	 Slash pine (Pinus elliottii Engelm.)

•	 Southern magnolia (Magnolia grandiflora L.)

•	 Southern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana var. silicicola (Small) E. Murray)

•	 Sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua L.)

•	 Washington fan palm (Washingtonia robusta H. Wendl.)

For the growth models, information spanning the life cycle of predominant 

tree species was collected. The inventory was stratified into the following nine 

diameter-at-breast height (d.b.h.) classes:

•	 0 to 2.9 in

•	 3.0 to 5.9 in

•	 6.0 to 11.9 in

•	 12.0 to 17.9 in

•	 18.0 to 23.9 in

•	 24.0 to 29.9 in

•	 30.0 to 35.9 in

•	 36.0 to 41.9 in

•	 >42.0 in

Thirty-five to sixty trees of each species were randomly selected for surveying, 

along with an equal number of alternative trees. Tree measurements included d.b.h. 

(to nearest 0.1 cm [0.04 in] by sonar measuring device), tree crown and bole height 

(to nearest 0.5 m [1.6 ft] by clinometer), crown diameter in two directions (parallel 

and perpendicular to nearest street to nearest 0.5 m [1.6 ft] by sonar measuring 

device), and tree condition and location. Replacement trees were sampled when 

trees from the original sample population could not be located. Tree age was determined by street-tree managers using a variety of methods including ring counts 

on removed trees, planting records, development dates, historical documents, and 

resident interviews. Field work was conducted in June and July 2008.
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Central Florida Community Tree Guide: Benefits, Costs, and Strategic Planting

Crown volume and leaf area were estimated from computer processing of 

tree-crown images obtained with a digital camera. The method has shown greater 

accuracy than other techniques (± 20 percent of actual leaf area) in estimating 

crown volume and leaf area of open-grown trees (Peper and McPherson 2003).

Segmented linear regression was used to fit predictive models with d.b.h. as 

a function of age for each of the 20 sampled species. Predictions of LSA, crown 

diameter, and height metrics were modeled as a function of d.b.h. by using best-fit 

models. After inspecting the growth curves for each species, we selected the typical 

small, medium, and large tree species for this report.

Reporting Results

Results are reported in terms of annual values per tree planted. However, to make 

these calculations realistic, mortality rates are included. Based on our survey of 

regional municipal foresters and commercial arborists, this analysis assumed that 

40 percent of the hypothetical planted trees died over the 40-year period. Annual 

mortality rates were 1.0 percent. The accounting approach “grows” trees in different locations and uses computer simulation to directly calculate the annual flow of 

benefits and costs as trees mature and die (McPherson 1992).

Benefits and costs are directly connected with tree-size variables such as trunk 

d.b.h., tree canopy cover, and LSA. For instance, pruning and removal costs usually 

increase with tree size, expressed as d.b.h. For some parameters, such as sidewalk 

repair, costs are negligible for young trees but increase relatively rapidly as tree 

roots grow large enough to heave pavement. For other parameters, such as airpollutant uptake and rainfall interception, benefits are related to tree canopy cover 

and leaf area.

Most benefits occur on an annual basis, but some costs are periodic. For 

instance, street trees may be pruned on regular cycles but are removed in a less 

regular fashion (e.g., when they pose a hazard or soon after they die). In this analysis, most costs and benefits are reported for the year in which they occur. However, 

periodic costs such as pruning, pest and disease control, and infrastructure repair 

are presented on an average annual basis. Although spreading one-time costs over 

each year of a maintenance cycle does not alter the 40-year nominal expenditure, it 

can lead to inaccuracies if future costs are discounted to the present.

Benefit and Cost Valuation

Source of cost estimates—

Frequency and costs of public tree management were estimated based on surveys 

with municipal foresters in Brooksville, Dunedin, Orlando, St. Petersburg, and 

Lakeland, Florida. Commercial arborists from Plantation, Umatilla, and Parrish, 
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-230

Florida, who work throughout Central Florida, provided information on tree management costs on residential properties.

Monetizing benefits—

To monetize effects of trees on energy use, we take the perspective of a residential customer by using retail electricity and natural gas prices for utilities serving 

Central Florida. The retail price of energy reflects a full accounting of costs as paid

by the end user, such as the utility costs of power generation, transmission, distribution, administration, marketing, and profit. This perspective aligns with our modeling method, which calculates energy effects of trees based on differences among 

consumers in heating and air conditioning equipment types, saturations, building 

construction types, and base loads.

The preferred way to value air quality benefits from trees is to first determine 

the costs of damages to human health from polluted air, then calculate the value of 

avoided costs because trees are cleaning the air. Economic valuation of damages 

to human health usually uses information on willingness to pay to avoid damages 

obtained via interviews or direct estimates of the monetary costs of damages (e.g., 

alleviating headaches, extending life). Empirical correlations developed by Wang 

and Santini (1995) reviewed five studies and 15 sets of regional cost data to relate 

per-ton costs of various pollutant emissions to regional ambient air quality measurements and population size. We use their damage-based estimates unless the values 

are negative, in which case we use their control-cost-based estimates.

Calculating Benefits

Calculating Energy Benefits

The prototypical building used as a basis for the simulations was typical of post1980 construction practices, and represents approximately one-third of the total 

single-family residential housing stock in the Central Florida region. The house 

was a one-story brick building on a slab with total conditioned floor area of 1,620 

ft2

, window area (single-glazed) of 264 ft2, and wall and ceiling insulation of R11 

and R19, respectively. The central cooling system had a seasonal energy efficiency 

ratio (SEER) of 10, and the natural gas furnace had an annual fuel utilization 

efficiency (AFUE) of 78 percent. Building footprints were square, reflecting 

average impacts for a large number of buildings (McPherson and Simpson 1999). 

Buildings were simulated with 1.5-ft overhangs. Blinds had a visual density of 37 

percent and were assumed to be closed when the air conditioner was operating. 

Summer thermostat settings were 78 °F; winter settings were 68 °F during the day 

and 60 °F at night. Because the prototype building was larger, but more energy 
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Central Florida Community Tree Guide: Benefits, Costs, and Strategic Planting

efficient, than most other construction types, our projected energy savings can be 

considered similar to those for older, less thermally efficient, but smaller buildings. 

The energy simulations relied on typical meteorological year (TMY2) weather data 

from Orlando (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 2007).

Calculating energy savings—

Dollar values for energy savings were based on electricity and natural gas prices of 

$0.132/kWh (Orlando Utilities Commission 2009) and $0.268/therm (Peoples Gas 

2009), respectively. Homes were assumed to have central air conditioning and natural gas heating.

Calculating shade effects—

Residential yard trees were within 60 ft of homes so as to directly shade walls and 

windows. Shade effects of these trees on building energy use were simulated for 

small, medium, and large broadleaf trees and a conifer at three tree-to-building distances, following methods outlined by McPherson and Simpson (1999). The small 

tree (common crapemyrtle) had a visual density of 70 percent during summer and 

25 percent during winter. The medium tree (southern magnolia) had a density of 21 

percent during summer and winter. The large tree (live oak) had a visual density of 

15 percent during summer and winter, and the conifer (slash pine) had a density of 

10 percent year round. Crown densities for calculating shade were based on published values where available (Hammond et al. 1980, McPherson 1984).

Foliation periods for deciduous trees were obtained from the literature (Hammond et al. 1980, McPherson 1984) and adjusted for the region’s climate based on 

consultation with the forestry manager (Kittsley 2009). Small trees were leafless 

January 1 through March 31; medium and large broadleaf trees and conifers were 

evergreen. Results of shade effects for each tree were averaged over distance and 

weighted by occurrence within each of three distance classes: 28 percent at 10 to

20 ft, 68 percent at 20 to 40 ft, and 4 percent at 40 to 60 ft (McPherson and Simpson 1999). Results are reported for trees shading east-, south-, and west-facing 

surfaces. The conifer is included as a windbreak tree located greater than 50 ft 

from the residence so it does not shade the building. Our results for public trees 

are conservative in that we assumed that they do not provide shading benefits. For 

example, in Modesto, California, 15 percent of total annual dollar energy savings 

from street trees was due to shade and 85 percent due to climate effects (McPherson 

et al. 1999a).

Calculating climate effects—

In addition to localized shade effects, which were assumed to accrue only to 

residential yard trees, lowered air temperatures and windspeeds from increased 
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-230

neighborhood tree cover (referred to as climate effects) produced a net decrease 

in demand for winter heating and summer cooling (reduced windspeeds by themselves may increase or decrease cooling demand, depending on the circumstances). 

Climate effects on energy use, air temperature, and windspeed, as a function of 

neighborhood canopy cover, were estimated from published values (McPherson and 

Simpson 1999). Existing tree canopy cover for Orlando was 18 percent based on 

estimates of urban tree cover for Florida (Nowak and Crane 2002); building cover 

was estimated to be 25 percent. Canopy cover was calculated to increase by 4.5, 6.8, 

14.2 and 6.0 percent for 20-year-old small, medium, and large broadleaf trees and 

the conifer, respectively, based on an effective lot size (actual lot size plus a portion 

of adjacent street and other rights-of-way) of 10,000 ft2, and one tree on average 

was assumed per lot. Climate effects were estimated by simulating effects of air 

temperature and wind reductions on energy use. Climate effects accrued for both 

public and yard trees.

Calculating windbreak effects—

Trees near buildings result in additional windspeed reductions beyond those from 

the aggregate effects of trees throughout the neighborhood. This leads to a small 

additional reduction in annual heating energy use of about 2 percent per tree for 

conifers in the Gulf Coast region (McPherson and Simpson 1999). Yard and public 

conifer trees were assumed to be windbreaks, and therefore located where they did 

not increase heating loads by obstructing winter sun. Windbreak effects were not 

attributed to deciduous trees because their crowns are leafless during winter and do

not block winds near ground level.

Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide Reduction

Calculating reduction in carbon dioxide emissions from powerplants—

Conserving energy in buildings can reduce carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from 

powerplants. These emission reductions were calculated as the product of energy 

savings for heating and cooling based on CO2 emission factors (table 18) and were 

based on data for the Orlando Metropolitan region where the average fuel mix is 

97.9 percent coal, 1.8 percent biomass, and less than 1 percent natural gas and oil 

(US EPA 2006b). The value of $0.00334 per pound of CO2 reduction (table 18) was 

based on the average value in Pearce (2003).

Calculating carbon storage—

Sequestration, the net rate of CO2

 storage in above- and belowground biomass over 

the course of one growing season, was calculated by using tree height and d.b.h. 
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Central Florida Community Tree Guide: Benefits, Costs, and Strategic Planting

growth estimates from the Orlando, Florida, street tree sample with volume equations for urban, open-grown trees growing in a temperate climate zone (McHale 

et al. 2009, Pillsbury et al. 1998). Volume estimates were converted to dry-weight 

estimates using density factors based on same species or nearest taxonomic relationship (Markwardt 1930) and divided by 78 percent to incorporate root biomass. 

Dry-weight biomass was converted to carbon (50 percent), and these values were 

converted to CO2. The amount of CO2 sequestered each year is the annual increment of CO2 stored as biomass each year.

Calculating CO2 released by power equipment—

Tree-related emissions of CO2, based on gasoline and diesel fuel consumption 

during tree care in our survey cities, were calculated by using the value 0.34 lb 

CO2/in d.b.h. This amount may overestimate CO2 release for less intensively maintained residential yard trees.

Calculating CO2 released during decomposition—

To calculate CO2 released through decomposition of dead woody biomass, we conservatively estimated that dead trees were removed and mulched in the year that 

death occurred, and that 80 percent of their stored carbon was released to the atmosphere as CO2 in the same year (McPherson and Simpson 1999).

Calculating Reduction in Air Pollutant Emissions

Reductions in building energy use also result in reduced emission of air pollutants 

from powerplants and space-heating equipment. Volatile organic hydrocarbons 

(VOCs) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2)—precursors of ozone (O3) formation—as well 

as sulfur dioxide (SO2) and particulate matter of <10 micron diameter (PM10) were 

considered. Changes in average annual emissions and their monetary values were 

calculated in the same way as for CO2, with utility-specific emissions factors for 

electricity (Ottinger et al. 1990, US EPA 2006a). The price of emissions savings was 

derived from models that calculate the marginal cost of controlling different pollutants to meet air quality standards (Wang and Santini 1995). Emissions concentrations were obtained from U.S. EPA (2006b) (table 18), and population estimates 

from the U.S. Census Bureau (2009).

Calculating pollutant uptake by trees—

Trees also remove pollutants from the atmosphere. The modeling method we applied was developed by Scott et al. (1998). It calculates hourly pollutant dry deposition per tree expressed as the product of deposition velocity (Vd = 1 ÷ [Ra

 + Rb

+ Rc]), pollutant concentration (C), canopy-projection area (CP), and a time step, 

where Ra

, Rb, and Rc are aerodynamic, boundary layer, and stomatal resistances. 
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-230

Hourly deposition velocities for each pollutant were calculated during the growing 

season by using estimates for the resistances (Ra + Rb + Rc) for each hour throughout the year. Hourly concentrations for 2007 were selected as representative for 

modeling deposition based on a review of mean PM10 and O3 concentrations for 

the years 2000–2008. The O3, NO2, SO2, and PM10 data were from Winter Park 

(Kruger 2009). Hourly air temperature, solar radiation, and windspeed data were 

obtained for the Apopka weather station of the Florida Automated Weather Network 

(Florida Automated Weather Network 2009). To set a value for pollutant uptake by 

trees, we used the procedure described above for emissions reductions (table 18). 

The monetary value for NO2 was used for O3.

Estimating biogenic volatile organic compounds emissions from trees—

Annual emissions for biogenic volatile organic compounds (BVOCs) were estimated for the three tree species by using the algorithms of Guenther et al. (1991, 

1993). Annual emissions were simulated during the growing season over 40 years. 

The emission of carbon as isoprene was expressed as a product of the base emission rate (micrograms of carbon per gram of dry foliar biomass per hour), adjusted 

for sunlight and temperature and the amount of dry, foliar biomass present in the 

tree. Monoterpene emissions were estimated by using a base emission rate adjusted 

for temperature. The base emission rates for the four species were based on values reported in the literature (Benjamin and Winer 1998). Hourly emissions were 

summed to get monthly and annual emissions.

Annual dry foliar biomass was derived from field data collected in Orlando 

during the summer of 2008. The amount of foliar biomass present for each year of 

the simulated tree’s life was unique for each species. Hourly air temperature and 

solar radiation data for 2007 described in the pollutant uptake section were used as 

model inputs.

Table 18—Emissions factors and implied values for carbon dioxide and criteria air 

pollutants

Emission factor Electricitya Natural gasb Implied valuec

Pounds per Pounds per million

megawatt hour British thermal units Dollars per pound

Carbon dioxide 2,037 118 0.00334

Nitrous oxide 2.808 0.1020 2.20

Sulfur dioxide 2.257 0.0006 2.01

Small particulate matter 0.985 0.0075 2.10

Volatile organic compounds 0.984 0.0054 1.03

a U.S. EPA 2006b, except Ottinger et al. 1990 for volatile organic compounds.

b

 U.S. EPA 1998.

c

 Carbon dioxide from Pearce 2003. Value for others based on methods of Wang and Santini (1995) using 

emissions concentrations from U.S. EPA (2006b) and population estimates from the U.S. Census Bureau (2009).
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Central Florida Community Tree Guide: Benefits, Costs, and Strategic Planting

Calculating net air quality benefits—

Net air quality benefits were calculated by subtracting the costs associated with

BVOC emissions from benefits associated with pollutant uptake and avoided powerplant emissions. The o3-reduction benefit from lowering summertime air temperatures, thereby reducing hydrocarbon emissions from anthropogenic and biogenic

sources, was estimated as a function of canopy cover following McPherson and 

Simpson (1999). They used peak summer air temperature reductions of 0.1 °F for 

each percentage increase in canopy cover. Hourly changes in air temperature were 

calculated by reducing this peak air temperature at every hour based on hourly 

maximum and minimum temperature for that day, scaled by magnitude of maximum total global solar radiation for each day relative to the maximum value for the 

year.

Stormwater Benefits

Estimating rainfall interception by tree canopies—

A numerical simulation model was used to estimate annual rainfall interception 

(Xiao et al. 2000). The interception model accounted for water intercepted by the 

tree, as well as throughfall and stem flow. Intercepted water is stored temporarily 

on canopy leaf and bark surfaces. Rainwater drips from leaf surfaces, flows down

the stem surface to the ground, or evaporates. Tree-canopy parameters that affect 

interception include species, leaf and stem surface areas, shade coefficients (visual density of the crown), foliation periods, and tree dimensions (e.g., tree height, 

crown height, crown diameter, and d.b.h.). Windspeeds were estimated for different 

heights above the ground; from this, rates of evaporation were estimated.

The volume of water stored in the tree crown was calculated from crown-projection area (area under tree dripline), leaf area indices (LAI, the ratio of LSA to 

crown projection area), and the depth of water captured by the canopy surface. Gap 

fractions, foliation periods, and tree surface saturation storage capacity influence 

the amount of projected throughfall. Tree surface saturation was 1.0 mm (0.04 in) 

for all trees.

Hourly meteorological and rainfall data for 2008 from the Orlando International 

Airport (ORL) (Latitude: 28.43°, Longitude: -81.33°, Elevation: 27.4 m (96 ft) above 

sea level, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration/National Weather 

Service COOPID: 086628) in Orlando, Florida, were used in this simulation. 

Annual precipitation during 2008 was 53.8 in, which is slightly higher than longtime annual average precipitation 48.35 in (1228.1 mm). The year 2008 was chosen 

because, although the overall amount of rainfall was higher, it most closely approximated the monthly distribution of the long-term average rainfall. Storm events less 
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-230

than 0.1 in (2.5 mm) were assumed to not produce runoff and were dropped from 

the analysis. More complete descriptions of the interception model can be found in 

Xiao et al. (1998, 2000).

Calculating water quality protection and flood control benefit—

The benefits that result from reduced surface runoff include reduced property damage from flooding and reduced loss of soil and habitat owing to erosion and sediment flow. Reduced runoff also results in improved water quality in streams, lakes,

and rivers. This can translate into improved aquatic habitats, less human disease 

and illness owing to contact with contaminated water and reduced stormwater treatment costs.

The city of Orlando spends approximately $36.5 million annually on operations 

and maintenance of its stormwater management system (McCann 2009). To calculate annual runoff, the USDA Soil Conservation Service TR55 (USDA SCS 1986) 

calculations were used and curve numbers were assigned for each land use. Land 

use percentages were obtained from the city’s parcel geographic information system 

(GIS) layers (2009). We calculated runoff depth for each land use (12.4 in, citywide) 

and found the citywide total to be 37,374 acre-feet. The annual stormwater control 

cost was estimated to be $0.0019 per gallon of runoff.

Aesthetic and Other Benefits

Many benefits attributed to urban trees are difficult to translate into economic 

terms. Beautification, privacy, wildlife habitat, shade that increases human comfort, 

sense of place and well-being are services that are difficult to price. However, the 

value of some of these benefits may be captured in the property values of the land 

on which trees stand.

To estimate the value of these “other” benefits, we applied results of research 

that compared differences in sales prices of houses to statistically quantify the 

difference associated with trees. All else being equal, the difference in sales price 

reflects the willingness of buyers to pay for the benefits and costs associated with 

trees. This approach has the virtue of capturing in the sales price both the benefits 

and costs of trees as perceived by the buyers. Limitations to this approach include 

difficulty determining the value of individual trees on a property, the need to 

extrapolate results from studies done years ago in other parts of the country, and the 

need to extrapolate results from front-yard trees on residential properties to trees in 

other locations (e.g., back yards, streets, parks, and nonresidential land).
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Central Florida Community Tree Guide: Benefits, Costs, and Strategic Planting

A large tree adds value to a home—

Anderson and Cordell (1988) surveyed 844 single-family residences in Athens, 

Georgia, and found that each large front-yard tree was associated with a 0.88 percent increase in the average home sales price. This percentage of sales price was 

used as an indicator of the additional value a resident in the Central Florida region 

would gain from selling a home with a large tree.

We averaged the home prices for the Orlando ($223,500), Cape Coral/Fort 

Myers ($178,100), Deltona/Daytona Beach/Ormand Beach ($173,400), Ocala 

($147,600), Palm Bay/Melbourne/Titusville ($148,000), Sarasota/Bradenton/Venice 

($266,400), and Tampa/St. Petersburg/Clearwater ($180,800) metropolitan statistical areas as our starting point ($195,633; National Association of Realtors 2009). 

Therefore, the value of a large tree that added 0.88 percent to the sales price of such 

a home was $1,722. To estimate annual benefits, the total added value was divided 

by the LSA of a 40-year-old live oak ($1,722 per 3,801 ft2

) to yield the base value of 

LSA, $0.45 per ft2. This value was multiplied by the amount of LSA added to the 

tree during 1 year of growth.

Additionally, not all street trees are as effective as front-yard trees in increasing property values. For example, trees adjacent to multifamily housing units will 

not increase the property value at the same rate as trees in front of single-family 

homes (Gonzales 2004). Therefore, a citywide street tree reduction factor (0.83) was 

applied to prorate trees’ value based on the assumption that trees adjacent to different land uses make different contributions to property sales prices. For this analysis, 

the street reduction factor reflects the distribution of street trees in Honolulu by 

land use. Reduction factors were single-home residential (100 percent), multihome 

residential (70 percent), small commercial (66 percent), industrial/institutional/large 

commercial (40 percent), park/vacant/other (40 percent) (Gonzales 2004, McPherson 2001).

Calculating the aesthetic and other benefits of residential yard trees—

To calculate the base value for a large tree on private residential property we assumed that a 40-year-old live oak in the front yard increased the property sales 

price by $1,722. Approximately 75 percent of all yard trees, however, are in back 

yards (Richards et al. 1984). Lacking specific research findings, it was assumed that

back-yard trees had 75 percent of the impact on “curb appeal” and sales price compared to front-yard trees. The average annual aesthetic and other benefits for a tree

on private property were, therefore, estimated as $0.60 per square foot of LSA. To 

estimate annual benefits, this value was multiplied by the amount of LSA added to

the tree during 1 year of growth.
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-230

Calculating the aesthetic value of a public tree—

The base value of street trees was calculated in the same way as yard trees. 

However, because street trees may be adjacent to land with little resale potential, an 

adjusted value was calculated. An analysis of street trees in Modesto, California, 

sampled from aerial photographs (sample size 8 percent of street trees), found 

that 15 percent were located adjacent to nonresidential or commercial property 

(McPherson et al. 1999a). We assumed that 33 percent of these trees—or 5 percent 

of the entire street-tree population—produced no benefits associated with property

value increases. Although the impact of parks on real estate values has been reported (Hammer et al. 1974, Schroeder 1982, Tyrvainen 1999), to our knowledge, the 

onsite and external benefits of park trees alone have not been isolated (More et al.

1988). After reviewing the literature and recognizing an absence of data, we made 

the conservative estimate that park trees had half the impact on property prices of 

street trees.

Given these assumptions, typical large street and park trees were estimated to 

increase property values by $0.74 and $0.44 per square foot of LSA, respectively. 

Assuming that 80 percent of all municipal trees were on streets and 20 percent in 

parks, a weighted average benefit of $0.68 per square foot of LSA was calculated 

for each tree.

Calculating Costs

Tree management costs were estimated based on surveys with municipal foresters 

in Brooksville, Dunedin, Orlando, St. Petersburg, and Lakeland, Florida. In addition, several commercial arborists from Plantation, Umatilla, and Parrish, Florida, 

who work throughout Central Florida, provided information on tree management 

costs on residential properties.

Planting

Planting costs include the cost of the tree and the cost for planting, staking, mulching, and establishment irrigation if necessary. Based on our survey of Central 

Florida municipal and commercial arborists, planting costs ranged widely from 

$125 for a 15-gal tree to $2,000 for very large trees. In this analysis, we assumed 

that a 3-in yard tree was planted at a cost of $440. The cost for planting a 2-in 

public tree was $230.
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Central Florida Community Tree Guide: Benefits, Costs, and Strategic Planting

Pruning

Pruning costs for public trees—

After studying data from municipal forestry programs and their contractors, we 

assumed that young public trees were inspected and pruned once during the first 5

years after planting, at a cost of $10 per tree. Pruning for small trees (< 20 ft tall)

cost $20 per tree on a 5-year cycle. More expensive equipment and more time were 

required to prune medium trees ($90 per tree) once every 8 years and large trees 

($175 per tree) once every 10 years. After factoring in pruning frequency, annualized costs were $2, $4, $11.25, and $17.50 per tree for public young, small, medium, 

and large trees, respectively.

Pruning costs for yard trees—

Based on findings from our survey of commercial arborists in the Central Florida

region, pruning cycles for yard trees were different than for public trees. Young 

trees (first 5 years after planting) were pruned once in the first 4 years, and small,

medium, and large trees were pruned every 10 years. Only about 20 percent of all 

private trees, however, were professionally pruned (contract rate), although the 

number of professionally pruned trees grows as the trees grow. We assumed that 

professionals are paid to prune all large trees, 60 percent of the medium trees, and 

only 6 percent of the small and young trees and conifers (Summit and McPherson 

1998). Using these contract rates, along with average pruning prices ($25, $20, 

$120, and $300 for young, small, medium, and large trees, respectively), the average 

annual costs for pruning a yard tree were $0.08, $0.02, $1.5, and $6.00 for young, 

small, medium, and large trees, respectively.

Tree and Stump Removal

The costs for tree removal and disposal were $30 per in d.b.h. for public trees, and 

$40 per in d.b.h. for yard trees. Stump removal costs were $4 per in d.b.h. for public 

trees and $5 per in d.b.h. for yard trees. Therefore, total costs for removal and 

disposal of trees and stumps were $34 per in d.b.h. for public trees, and $45 per in 

d.b.h. for yard trees. Removal costs of trees less than 3 inches in diameter were $50 

and $68 for yard and public trees, respectively.

Pest and Disease Control

Expenditures for pest and disease control in the Central Florida region are minimal 

for public and yard trees. They averaged about $0.25 per tree per year or approximately $0.02/in d.b.h.
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-230

Irrigation Costs

Rain falls regularly throughout most of the region during summer and fall and additional irrigation is not usually needed after establishment when trees are planted 

into landscapes with installed irrigation. Costs during establishment were reported 

to be $0.25 per tree for both public and yard trees.

Other Costs for Public and Yard Trees

Other costs associated with the management of trees include expenditures for infrastructure repair/root pruning, leaf-litter cleanup, litigation/liability, and inspection/

administration. Cost data were obtained from the municipal arborist survey and 

assume that 80 percent of public trees are street trees and 20 percent are park trees. 

Costs for park trees tend to be lower than for street trees because there are fewer 

conflicts with infrastructure such as power lines and sidewalks.

Infrastructure conflict costs—

As trees and sidewalks age, roots can cause damage to sidewalks, curbs, paving, 

and sewer lines. Sidewalk repair is typically one of the largest expenses for public 

trees (McPherson and Peper 1995). Infrastructure-related expenditures for public 

trees in Central Florida communities were approximately $2 per tree on an annual basis. Roots from most trees in yards do not damage sidewalks and sewers. 

Therefore, the cost for yard trees was estimated to be only 10 percent of the cost for 

public trees.

Litter and storm cleanup costs—

The average annual per-tree cost for litter cleanup (i.e., street sweeping, stormdamage cleanup) was $1.10/tree ($0.08/in d.b.h.). This value was based on average 

annual litter cleanup costs and storm cleanup, assuming a large storm results in 

extraordinary costs about twice a decade. Because most residential yard trees are 

not littering the streets with leaves, it was assumed that cleanup costs for yard trees 

were 10 percent of those for public trees.

Liability costs—

Urban trees can incur costly payments and legal fees owing to trip-and-fall claims. 

A survey of Western U.S. cities showed that an average of 8.8 percent of total 

tree-related expenditures was spent on tree-related liability (McPherson 2000). 

Communities in our survey report spending on average $0.25 per tree for treerelated liabilities annually.
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Central Florida Community Tree Guide: Benefits, Costs, and Strategic Planting

Inspection and administration costs—

Municipal tree programs have administrative costs for salaries of supervisors and 

clerical staff, operating costs, and overhead. Our survey found that the average 

annual cost for inspection and administration associated with street- and park-tree 

management was $2 per tree ($0.18 per in d.b.h.). Trees on private property do not 

accrue this expense.

Calculating Net Benefits

Benefits Accrue at Different Scales

When calculating net benefits, it is important to recognize that trees produce 

benefits that accrue both on- and offsite. Benefits are realized at four scales: parcel, 

neighborhood, community, and global. For example, property owners with onsite 

trees not only benefit from increased property values, but they may also directly 

benefit from improved human health (e.g., reduced exposure to cancer-causing 

ultraviolet radiation) and greater psychological well-being through visual and direct 

contact with plants. However, on the cost side, increased health care costs owing 

to allergies and respiratory ailments related to pollen may be incurred because of 

nearby trees. We assume that these intangible benefits and costs are reflected in 

what we term “aesthetics and other benefits.”

The property owner can obtain additional economic benefits from onsite trees 

depending on their location and condition. For example, carefully located onsite 

trees can provide air-conditioning savings by shading windows and walls and 

cooling building microclimates. This benefit can extend to adjacent neighbors who 

benefit from shade and air-temperature reductions that lower their cooling costs.

Neighborhood attractiveness and property values can be influenced by the 

extent of tree canopy cover on individual properties. At the community scale, benefits are realized through cleaner air and water, as well as social, educational, and 

employment and job training benefits that can reduce costs for health care, welfare, 

crime prevention, and other social service programs.

Reductions in atmospheric CO2

 concentrations owing to trees are an example 

of benefits that are realized at the global scale.

Annual benefits are calculated as:

B = E + AQ + CO2

 + H + A

where

E = value of net annual energy savings (cooling and heating)

AQ = value of annual air-quality improvement (pollutant uptake, avoided 

powerplant emissions, and BVOC emissions)
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-230

CO2 = value of annual CO2 reductions (sequestration, avoided emissions, 

release from tree care and decomposition)

H = value of annual stormwater-runoff reductions

A = value of annual aesthetics and other benefits

On the other side of the benefit-cost equation are costs for tree planting and 

management. Expenditures are borne by property owners (irrigation, pruning, and 

removal) and the community (pollen and other health care costs). Annual costs (C) 

are the sum of costs for residential yard trees (CY ) and public trees (CP ) where:

CY = P + T + R+ D + I + S + Cl + L

CP = P + T + R + D + I + S + Cl + L + A

where

P = cost of tree and planting

T = average annual tree pruning cost

R = annualized tree and stump removal and disposal cost

D = average annual pest- and disease-control cost

I = annual irrigation cost

S = average annual cost to repair/mitigate infrastructure damage

Cl = annual litter and storm cleanup cost

L = average annual cost for litigation and settlements from tree-related claims

A = annual program administration, inspection, and other costs

Net benefits are calculated as the difference between total benefits and costs:

Net benefits = B - C

Benefit-cost ratios (BCR) are calculated as the ratio of benefits to costs:

BCR = B ÷ C
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