slightly revised november 2015

A Field Guide for the Identification of

Invasive Plants in Southern Forests

United States

Department 

of Agriculture

Forest Service 

Southern Research Station 

General Technical Report SRS–119

James H. Miller, Erwin B. Chambliss, and Nancy J. Loewenstein

United States Department of Agriculture
James H. Miller, Emeritus Research Ecologist, and Erwin B. Chambliss, Research Technician, Forest 

Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Southern Research Station, Auburn University, AL 36849; and 

Nancy J. Loewenstein, Research Fellow and Alabama Cooperative Extension System Specialist for 

Forest Invasive Plants, School of Forestry and Wildlife Sciences, Auburn University, AL 36849.

Authors:

Funding support for all printings provided by the 

Southern Research Station, Insect, Disease, and Invasive Plants Research Work Unit, 

and Forest Health Protection, Southern Region, Asheville, NC.

First Printed April 2010

Slightly Revised February 2012

Revised August 2013

Reprinted January 2015

Slightly Revised November 2015

Southern Research Station

200 W.T. Weaver Blvd. 

Asheville, NC 28804

www.srs.fs.usda.gov

Front Cover

Upper left—Chinese lespedeza (Lespedeza cuneata) infestation that developed from dormant 

seed in the soil seed bank after a forest thinning operation.

Upper right—Kudzu (Pueraria montana) infestation within the urban-wildland interface.

Lower left—Chinese privet (Ligustrum sinense) and dormant kudzu invading and replacing a pinehardwood stand.

Lower right—Cogongrass (Imperata cylindrica) infestation under mature slash pine (Pinus elliottii).

Available without charge from the 

Southern Research Station

Also available online at 

www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/35292 

and invasive.org, or as a free download 

for iPhones and iPads at the AppStore
i

A Field Guide for the Identification of

Invasive Plants in Southern Forests

James H. Miller, Erwin B. Chambliss, 

and Nancy J. Loewenstein
ii

The clarity and accuracy of descriptions and nomenclature have been measurably 

improved by the sizable and appreciated reviews of the following experts. Reviewers 

of this edition: Curtis Hansen, Auburn University, Department of Biological Sciences, 

Auburn, AL; Ron Lance, plant consultant, Asheville, NC; Steven T. Manning, Invasive 

Plant Control, Inc., Nashville, TN; Carey Minteer, formerly with the University of 

Georgia’s Center for Invasive Species and Ecosystem Health, Tifton, GA; and Fred 

Nation, Weeks Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve, Fairhope, AL.

Reviewers of prior edition: Kristine Johnson, Great Smoky Mountains National Park, 

Gatlingburg, TN; Fred Nation, Weeks Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve, 

Fairhope, AL; Johnny Randall, North Carolina Botanical Gardens, Chapel Hill, NC; 

Jack Ranney, formerly with the University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN.

All Plant Images by James H. Miller and Posted on Bugwood.org 

with Crucial Contributions by:

Ted Bodner, copyrighted by the University of Georgia Press for “Forest Plants of the 

Southeast and Their Wildlife Uses” and used by permission, Champaign, IL

Patrick Breen, Oregon State University, Department of Horticulture, Corvallis, OR, 

Bugwood.org

Steven J. Baskauf, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN

Charles T. Bryson, USDA Agricultural Research Service, Southern Weed Science 

Research Unit, Stoneville, MS, Bugwood.org

John Cardina, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, Bugwood.org 

Gerald D. Carr, Carr Botanical Consultation, Bugwood.org

Erwin Chambliss, U.S. Forest Service, Southern Research Station, Auburn, AL

Steve Dewey, Utah State University Extension, Logan, UT, Bugwood.org

Thomas Ellis, Jr., Baldwin County Forestry Planning Committee, Bay Minette, AL

Stephen F. Enloe, Department of Agronomy & Soils, Auburn University, Auburn, AL

Chris Evans, River to River Cooperative Weed Management Area, Marion, IL, 

Bugwood.org

John Everest, Department of Agronomy & Soils, Auburn University, Auburn, AL

Nancy Fraley, U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Asheville, NC

Great Smoky Mountains National Park Resource Management Archive, USDI 

National Park Service, Gatlinburg TN, Bugwood.org

Michael Jordan, Alabama Department of Environmental Management, 

Montgomery, AL

Steven Katovich, U.S. Forest Service, Forest Health Protection, Bugwood.org

Acknowledgments

Ron Lance, plant consultant, Asheville, NC

Nancy Loewenstein, School of Forestry and Wildlife Sciences, Auburn University, 

Auburn, AL, Bugwood.org

Steven T. Manning, Invasive Plant Control Inc., Nashville, TN, Bugwood.org

Leslie J. Mehrhoff, University of Connecticut, Bugwood.org

David J. Moorhead, Center for Invasive Species and Ecosystem Health, University of 

Georgia, Bugwood.org

Fred Nation, Weeks Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve, Fairhope, AL, 

Bugwood.org

Ohio State Weed Lab Archive, The Ohio State University, Bugwood.org

Richard Old, XID Services, Incorporated, Bugwood.org

Christopher Oswalt, U.S. Forest Service, Southern Research Station, Forest 

Inventory and Analysis, Knoxville, TN

Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources - Forestry 

Archive, Harrisburg, PA, Bugwood.org

Corrie Pieterson, University of Florida, School of Forest Resources and 

Conservation, Gainesville, FL

John M. Randall, The Nature Conservancy, University of California, Davis, CA, 

Bugwood.org

Barry Rice, sarracenia.com, Bugwood.org

Amy Richard, University of Florida, Bugwood.org

Jan Samanek, State Phytosanitary Administration, Bugwood.org

Michael Shephard, U.S. Forest Service, Bugwood.org

John Schwegman, Illinois Department of Natural Resources, Springfield, IL

Forest and Kim Starr, U.S. Geological Survey, Bugwood.org

Dan Tenaglia, Missouriplants.com, Bugwood.org

Robert Vidéki, Doronicum Kft., Bugwood.org

Warner Park Nature Center, Metropolitan Board of Parks and Recreation, 

Nashville, TN

Gil Wojciech, Polish Forest Research Institute, Bugwood.org

Plant Names from:

USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service’s Plants Database: http://plants.

usda.gov with recent published modifications. All images are available free at 

Forestryimages.org
iii

TREES

Invasive

VINES

Invasive Invasive

GRASSES FERNS

Invasive

FORBS

Invasive Invasive

SHRUBS

Explanation of Codes and Conventions Used in Species Descriptions . 

Introduction..

Invasive Trees

Brazilian Peppertree .

Callery Pear, Bradford Pear .

Camphortree .

Chinaberrytree .

Chinese Parasoltree . 

Glossy Buckthorn . 

Paper Mulberry . 

Princesstree, Paulownia . 

Russian Olive . 

Silktree, Mimosa  .

Tallowtree, Popcorntree  .

Tree-of-Heaven  .

Trifoliate Orange, Hardy Orange  .

Tungoil Tree  .

Invasive Shrubs

Autumn Olive  .

Bush Honeysuckles  .

Chinese/European/Border/California Privet  .

Hen’s Eyes, Coral Ardisia  .

Japanese/Glossy Privet  .

Japanese Barberry  .

Japanese Knotweed  .

Japanese Meadowsweet  .

Leatherleaf Mahonia  .

Nonnative Roses  .

Sacred Bamboo, Nandina  .

Shrubby Nonnative Lespedezas  .

Silverthorn, Thorny Olive  .

Tropical Soda Apple  .

Winged Burning Bush  .

Invasive Vines

Amur Peppervine, Porcelain Berry  .

Climbing Yams  .

Contents

Five-Leaf Akebia, Chocolate Vine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

Japanese Honeysuckle  .

Kudzu  .

Nonnative Ivies  .

Nonnative Wisterias  .

Oriental Bittersweet . 

Vincas, Periwinkles . 

Winter Creeper  .

Invasive Grasses and Canes

Bamboos  .

Chinese Silvergrass  .

Cogongrass  .

Giant Reed  .

Johnsongrass  .

Nepalese Browntop, Japanese Stiltgrass  .

Tall Fescue  .

Weeping Lovegrass  .

Invasive Ferns

Japanese Climbing Fern  .

Invasive Forbs

Alligatorweed  .

Big Blue Lilyturf, Creeping Liriope . .

Chinese Lespedeza . .

Coltsfoot . .

Crownvetch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106

Garlic Mustard . .

Nodding Plumeless Thistle . .

Spotted Knapweed . .

Other Nonnative Plants Invading Southern Forests and Their 

Margins, Openings, Waterway Margins, Wetlands, and Stream, 

River, and Lake Banks. .

Sources of Identification Information . .

Glossary of Important Terms . .

Flower Parts, Flower Types, Inflorescences . .

Leaf Arrangements, Leaf Divisions, Shapes, Margins . .

Parts of a Grass Plant . .
iv

Firmiana simplex (L.) W. Wight FISI2 Sterculiaceae

Synonym: F. platanifolia (L. f.) Schott & Endl., Sterculia platanifolia L. f. 

Other common names: phoenix tree, varnish-tree 

Plant. Deciduous upright tree to 50 feet (16 m) in height and 2 feet (60 cm) in trunk 

diameter with stout alternate branches. Leaves dark green, large, 3- to 5-lobed resembling 

a maple leaf, and petioles almost as long as the leaf. Terminal clusters of tan and yellow 

flowers appear in midsummer to quickly yield unusual pods that split into 4 petal-like 

sections with pea-sized seeds attached to the upper margins. Leaves turn yellow in fall 

and branched showy fruit stalks remain during winter. 

Stem. Twigs and branches stout, glossy green when rapidly growing or dull green 

becoming grayish green from a wax coating. Buds large and round with numerous . . . 

Chinese Parasoltree 0998

Scientific name

$

International code

$

Common name

$

Forest Inventory and 

Analysis survey code

Explanation of Codes and Conventions

Used in Species Descriptions

Family name

$

$
1

Introduction

Invasions of nonnative plants into southern forests continue to go largely 

unchecked and only partially monitored. Small forest openings, forest road 

right-of-ways, and areas under and beside forest canopies are often occupied 

by invasive nonnative plants. These infestations increasingly erode forest 

productivity, hindering forest use and management activities, degrading 

diversity and wildlife habitat. Often called nonnative, exotic, nonindigenous, 

alien, or noxious weeds, nonnative invasive plants occur as trees, shrubs, 

vines, grasses, ferns, and forbs. Some have been introduced into this country 

accidentally, but most were brought here as ornamentals, potential crops, 

wildlife plants, soil improvement and stabilization plants, or for livestock 

forage, and as contaminants in seed and live plants. These robust plants 

arrived without their natural predators of insects, diseases, and animals that 

tend to keep native plants in natural balance. Many have hybridized and 

undergone plant breeding to become more aggressive, predator resistant 

and resilient, drought tolerant, and cold hardy. Now, they increase across 

the landscape with little opposition beyond the control and reclamation 

measures applied by landowners, managers, and agencies on individual 

land holdings. An increased awareness of the threat has resulted in growing 

networks of concerned individuals, agencies, governments, and companies 

aimed at stopping plant invasions across landscapes and restoring formerly 

infested lands.

The objective of this book is to provide information on accurate identification 

of 56 plants or groups (like the many invasive roses) that are aggressively 

invading forests of the 13 Southern States at alarming rates. It also lists other 

nonnative invasive plants that are of growing concern. A companion booklet, “A 

Management Guide for Invasive Plants of Southern Forests,” explains control 

recommendations, selective application procedures, and prevention measures 

for these and other plant invaders. The text and photographs for 33 species 

were originally developed for the 2003 edition to assist in the first regionwide 

survey and monitoring of these invading species. Survey work was conducted 

by the Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Inventory and 

Analysis Research Work Unit of the Southern Research Station in collaboration 

with State forest management agencies. The four-number survey codes are 

given for these species as well as the international plant codes for all species 

when available (see opposite page). The latest data for this ongoing survey 

can be viewed and downloaded at http://srsfia2.fs.fed.us/SNIPET/.

Accurate identification of nonnative invasive plants is critical for recognition of 

new entries and positive control of existing infestations. Many invasive species 

have native and nonnative plants that closely resemble them and most have 

been commercially bred to yield many varieties with varying traits. A section 

is included for each invasive species giving traits to distinguish them from 

their “look-a-likes.” Use these traits to safeguard valuable native plants and for 

directing controls toward the appropriate invasive plant species.

Tallowtree, silktree, Chinese privet, Japanese honeysuckle, and cogongrass can comprise a 

new forest stand type.

Chinese wisteria, Chinese privet, Chinese lespedeza, and Japanese honeysuckle replace 

forest stands.
2

Invasive

TREES

Brazilian Peppertree

Steven T. ManningSteven T. Manning Michael Jordan

February February February

October October October October December December
3

TREES

Invasive

Brazilian Peppertree FL28

Forest and Kim Starr

Schinus terebinthifolius Raddi SCTE Anacardiaceae

Other common names: Brazilian pepper, Florida holly, Christmas berry

Plant. Evergreen shrub or small tree to 40 feet (12 m) in height often in dense infestations 

with many short trunks or arching stems of contorted branches. Drooping, odd-pinnately 

compound leaves that smell of turpentine when crushed. Female plants have many 

multi-branched clusters of small, whitish flowers in summer and fall that yield clusters 

of spherical, red and pepper-smelling fruit in winter. Caution: All parts of the plant 

can cause skin rash or airway irritation in sensitive people.

Stem. Twigs and root sprouts yellow green with V-shaped leaf scars, becoming smooth 

gray-brownish branches that become entangled and tend to droop. Older bark braided 

with grayish ridges and reddish-brown fissures.

Leaves. Evergreen and thick, alternate, 3 to 12 inches (8 to 30 cm) long having reddish, 

sometimes winged midribs, odd-pinnately compound with 3 to 13 sessile, ovate to elliptic 

leaflets, finely toothed, each 1 to 2 inches (2.5 to 5 cm) long, shiny and green above 

with light-green midveins and lateral veins and blade paler beneath. Often drooping 

and emit an aroma of pepper or turpentine when crushed. 

Flowers. September to November and other times. Axillary and terminal on new growth. 

Multi-branched clusters of many tiny flowers with 5 white petals and yellow centers. 

Male and female flowers on separate plants (dioecious).

Fruit and seeds. December to August. Berrylike, spherical drupes, 0.2 to 0.3 inch 

(6 to 8 mm) wide, in profuse clusters, light green ripening quickly to bright red and 

then dark red, fleshy and juicy becoming papery, containing 1 dark brown 0.1- inch 

(0.3 mm) long seed.

Ecology. Forms dense thickets, spreading by many root sprouts that yield entangled 

stems and branches with abundant foliage that contains allelopathic chemicals to 

exclude other plants and animals. Burns hot. Tolerant to a wide variety of growing 

conditions, but grows best in moist soils. Persists in shade with rapid growth in full 

sun. Producing seed as early as 3 years. Abundant seed are spread by birds, with 

seedlings able to establish in shade. Presently limited by cold, but spreading northward 

with warming trends.

Resembles the nonnative peppertree (S. molle L.) escaped in FL, TX, and CA, but 

its 19 to 40 leaflets are narrowly lance-shaped. Also might resemble another rash 

causing shrub, poison sumac [Toxicodendron vernix (L.) Kuntze] that frequents similar 

wet habitats and has jutting, odd-pinnately compound leaves with sharp-tipped leaflets 

and reddish petioles and stalks.

History and use. Native to South America and introduced in the 1840s to FL as an 

ornamental and widely sold and planted until recently.

Distribution. Extensive and dense infestations in FL and south TX.

June
4

Invasive

TREES

Callery Pear, Bradford Pear

May June November November

July November November July

May
5

TREES

Invasive

Pyrus calleryana Decne. PYCA80 Rosaceae

Plant. Deciduous tree to 60 feet (18 m) in height and boles 2 feet (0.6 m) in diameter, widely 

planted as an ornamental tree due to its uniform teardrop crown shape, early spring cover 

of white blossoms, and brilliant orange-to-red fall foliage. Leaves ovate and long-petioled, 

alternate and tufted on stubby thorned or nonthorned branchlets. Abundant (rarely few) 

small pears in fall and winter spread by birds and other animals, with varying seed fertility. 

Several commercial sterile varieties can cross-pollinate with certain other pear species in 

close proximity to produce fertile hybrids. Also, fertile varieties are commonly used as a 

rootstock for grafting most pear species and can dominate after grafted crowns are damaged. 

Major branches fork from trunk at narrow angles, often splitting at the juncture after wind 

and ice storms.

Stem. Twigs initially hairy, stubby, and tipped by a sharp thorn in escaped plants, being longer 

branched with few thorns in cultured, planted varieties. Terminal and lateral bud scales loose, 

gray-hairy and elongated to 0.5 inch (1.2 cm). Twigs reddish brown to gray with scattered or 

many light dots (lenticels) that elongate with age to form horizontal light lines on branches 

and boles. Bark of trunk increasingly vertically fissured, becoming cross-checked with age. 

Stems and boles often dappled with gray and green lichens.

Leaves. Alternate, often tufted on short branchlets. Initially circular and hairy, maturing to 

glossy and ovate or slightly cordate with a tapering tip, 1.5 to 3.5 inches (4 to 9 cm) long and 

wide, leathery with finely crenate and wavy margins sometimes having a pronounced tip. 

Dark green above and light green below, becoming brilliantly red, yellow, to maroon in fall. 

Thin petioles 1 to 2 inches (2.5 to 5 cm) long with thin stipules that shed early. 

Flowers. March to May. Large clusters of brilliantly white, 5-petaled flowers, 1 inch (2.5 cm) 

across with many jutting, maroon-tipped anthers, appearing with or before leaves, tufted 

often from midthorn, covering trees to make conspicuous invaders in early spring. Emit 

an unpleasant odor and can cause allergic sinus reactions.

Fruit and seeds. June to February. Persistent clusters of small pears (pomes), 0.3 to 0.5 

inch (8 to 12 mm) long and wide, green ripening to tan then maroon with numerous surface 

speckles, dangling on thin, 1-inch (2.5 cm) long stems. Fleshy, tart but edible, containing 

2 to 6 maroon seeds and numerous stone cells. 

Ecology. Rapid growing, forms thickets and dense stands by root sprouts. Tolerates partial 

shade and a variety of soils from wet to droughty. Hybridizes with other callery pear varieties 

and Asian pear (P. betulifolia Bunge). Pollinated by insects. Fertility and fruit production vary 

widely, but close colonies result in more viable fruit. Fruiting starting at 3 years. Spreads by 

prolific bird- and animal-dispersed seeds. Seeds require 60 to 90 days of cold to germinate, 

which can occur in the fruit. Widely invading over a large range due to cultivars that have 

been bred for cold hardiness.

Resembles leaves of both common pear (Pyrus spp.) that has larger fruit and Chinese 

tallowtree [Triadica sebifera (L.) Small] that has dangling spring flowers and clusters 

of white fruit in fall and winter. Also resembles flowers of another invasive, common 

pearlbush [Exochorda racemosa (Lindl.) Rehder] that blooms in early spring with similar 

bright white flowers that occur in racemes and leaves are elliptic and serrated above 

the middle.

History and use. Native to China, Korea, and Taiwan, the original “Bradford” cultivar was 

introduced into Maryland in 1908 for breeding resistance to fire blight disease into fruiting 

pears, although not successful. Since the 1950s about 20 ornamental cultivars have been 

developed and are still widely sold and planted. All capable of producing viable seeds.

Distribution. Found as single trees and some dense infestations throughout the region.

Callery Pear, Bradford Pear

May
6

Invasive

TREES

Camphortree 

December December

October October

June

November November

June

June

June

November November
7

TREES

Invasive

Cinnamomum camphora (L.) J. Presl CICA Lauraceae

Other common names: camphor laurel, shiu leaf, gum camphor, laurel camphor

Plant. Evergreen tree 60 to 100 feet (18 to 30 m) in height and boles up to 5 feet 

(1.5 m) in diameter, with a round spreading crown formed by large branches radiating 

from midtree. Also found in dense thickets from root sprouts and seedlings. Glossy, 

lanceolate leaves and slender, green to reddish-brown twigs having a camphor odor 

when crushed, cut, or bruised. Abundant clusters of spherical, black drupes in fall 

to winter.

Stem. Twigs slender, smooth, and green to yellowish green sometimes tinged with red, 

with scattered light dots (lenticels). Corky ridges encircle junctures of new growth with 

jutting leaf scars on prior year’s growth. Buds 0.5 inch (1.2 cm) long, sharp-pointed, with 

overlapping scales. Branches green eventually reddish, smooth and glossy, increasingly 

covered with gray corky ridges and plates that fissure with age. Bark light grayish brown 

and widely fissured, developing vertical plates with age.

Leaves. Alternate but more clustered at twig tips, evergreen, leathery and glossy with 

a camphor odor when crushed, lanceolate, ovate to obovate, 2 to 4 inches (5 to 10 cm) 

long and 0.8 to 2 inches (2 to 5 cm) wide. Burgundy when young turning dark green 

with light-green veins above, whitish green beneath with tiny, brownish glands in axils 

of main veins, also evident as light dots on the upper surface. Margins entire, yellowish 

green, and wavy. Petioles slender to 1 inch (2.5 cm) long.

Flowers. May. Slender, stalked, axillary panicles, 2 to 3 inches (5 to 7 cm) long with 

perfect tiny, greenish-white, fragrant flowers, with both male and female parts.

Fruit and seeds. July to February. Many fleshy, rounded drupes, 0.3 inch (0.7 cm) wide, 

dangling, green turning black with a funnel-shaped, green base.

Ecology. Rapid growing, forming thickets and dense stands in fencerows, disturbed 

sites, and adjacent upland forests. Grows in well-drained, acidic to basic soils and can 

withstand partial shade. Cannot tolerate extended cold temperatures below 20 °F (-6 °C). 

Colonizes by root sprouts and spreads by prolific animal- and water-dispersed seeds. 

Resembles another nonnative invasive, Chinese tallowtree [Triadica sebifera (L.) Small], 

which is deciduous and emits no camphor odor. Also resembles Carolina laurelcherry 

[Prunus caroliniana (Mill.) Ait.], considered an invasive native evergreen tree that has 

smooth, dark gray bark and leaves that emit an almond scent when crushed.

History and use. Introduced in 1727 from Japan, China, and Taiwan as an ornamental 

and herbal plant, although it is toxic to humans in large doses. The wood widely used 

in Asia for chests, panels, and lumber.

Distribution. Found as scattered plants or in dense infestations in southeast TX; south 

MS, AL, LA, and GA; east SC and NC; and central and north FL.

Camphortree 0858

May
8

Invasive

TREES

Chinaberrytree

May July November November January

July July November November July
9

TREES

Invasive

Chinaberrytree 0993

June

Melia azedarach L. MEAZ Meliaceae

Other common names: Persian lilac, pride-of-India, chinaberry

Plant. Deciduous tree to 50 feet (15 m) in height and 2 feet (60 cm) in diameter, much 

branched with multiple boles, lacy dark green leaves having a musky odor, and clusters 

of lavender flowers in spring yielding persistent, yellow berries. Caution: Fruit (berry) 

is poisonous.

Stem. Twigs stout, glossy greenish brown with light dots (lenticels). No terminal bud. 

Numerous broad, V-shaped, raised leaf scars with 3 bundle scars below a domed 

fuzzy bud. Bark dark brown and becoming increasingly fissured with age. Wood soft 

and white. 

Leaves. Alternate spiraled, bipinnately compound, 1 to 2 feet (30 to 60 cm) long and 9 

to 16 inches (23 to 40 cm) wide. Leafstalk lime green with base slightly clasping stem. 

Each leaflet lanceolate with tapering tips, 1 to 3 inches (2.5 to 8 cm) long and 0.5 to 

1.2 inches (1.2 to 3 cm) wide. Margins varying from entire to coarsely crenate to serrate 

and wavy. Glossy dark green with light-green midvein above and pale green with lighter 

green midvein beneath, becoming golden yellow in fall. 

Flowers. March to May. Showy panicles from lower axils of new stems. Five 

pinkish-lavender to whitish petals, stamens united in dark-purple tube. Five green 

sepals. Fragrant. 

Fruit and seeds. July to January. Berrylike spherical drupe 0.5 to 0.7 inch (1.2 to 

1.8 cm) wide persisting through winter and containing a stone with 1 to 6 seeds. 

Light green turning yellowish green then yellowish tan. Poisonous to humans 

and livestock. 

Ecology. Common on roadsides, fencerows, at forest margins, and around old 

homesites, but rare at high elevations. Somewhat shade and flood tolerant. Occurs 

from uplands to marshes. Viable seed can be produced by 4- and 5-year-old plants. 

Forms colonies from root sprouts, sprouts from root collars, and seedlings. Spreads 

by abundant bird-dispersed seeds. Germination suppressed under mature trees but 

seeds germinate following parent tree removal.

Resembles common elderberry [Sambucus nigra L. ssp. canadensis (L.) R. Bolli], a 

spreading crowned shrub with once pinnately compound leaves having leaflets with 

finely serrate margins and green to dark-purple berries in flat-topped clusters. 

History and use. Introduced in the mid-1800s from Asia. Widely planted as a traditional 

ornamental around homesites. Extracts potentially useful for natural pesticides. Though 

softer and less durable than many other members of the mahogany family, chinaberry 

wood has an attractive grain and takes a good finish for inexpensive cabinetry.

Distribution. Found throughout the region with the most frequent forest infestations in 

east TX; west LA; south to central MS, AL, GA, and SC; and north FL.

November November
10

Invasive

TREES

Chinese Parasoltree 

June June June

March March December December April
11

TREES

Invasive

Firmiana simplex (L.) W. Wight FISI2 Sterculiaceae Chinese Parasoltree 0998

Synonym: F. platanifolia (L. f.) Schott & Endl., Sterculia platanifolia L. f. 

Other common names: phoenix tree, varnish-tree 

Plant. Deciduous upright tree to 50 feet (16 m) in height and 2 feet (60 cm) in trunk 

diameter with stout alternate branches. Leaves dark green, large, 3- to 5-lobed 

resembling a maple leaf, and petioles almost as long as the leaf. Terminal clusters of 

tan and yellow flowers appear in midsummer to quickly yield unusual pods that split 

into 4 petal-like sections with pea-sized seeds attached to the upper margins. Leaves 

turn yellow in fall and branched showy fruit stalks remain during winter. 

Stem. Twigs and branches stout, glossy green when rapidly growing or dull green 

becoming grayish green from a wax coating. Buds large and round with numerous 

overlapping fuzzy scales, initially reddish turning maroon in late winter. Large leaf scars, 

raised rimmed and circular to oblong, topped by small linear stipule scars on both sides 

and a fuzzy rounded bud in winter. Pronounced rings of raised bud scars encircle twigs. 

Pith white, spongy, and continuous. Bark grayish tan, tight, with vertical green to orange 

shallow stripes in late winter becoming roughened with age. Pronounced eye-shaped 

branch scars occur along the trunk.

Leaves. Alternate, 8 to 12 inches (20 to 30 cm) long and somewhat wider and larger 

on vigorous young shoots, 3 to 5 shallow to deep lobes and tips, and a cordate base. 

Dark green with light-green palmate veins above a whitish patch where they join with 

the petiole and softly hairy beneath. Margins entire. Petioles slightly rough, 12 to 20 

inches (20 to 50 cm) long. Leaves turning yellow in the fall. 

Flowers. May to July. Large, branched panicles over 2 feet (60 cm) across of tan and 

yellow flowers, from the base of new growth. Branches green to pale green. Separate 

male and female flowers occur in each cluster and open at varying times. Slightly 

fragrant. Male flowers turn reddish pink before petals fall. 

Fruit and seeds. June to April. Quickly after flowering, 1 to 5 pea-size dry fruit appear 

along the upper margins of unique drooping petal-like curved sections, 2.5 to 3 inches 

(6 to 8 cm) long and 4 to 5 in a flower-like group, initially light green turning tan, thin and 

wafery. Panicle branches with fruit drop throughout winter leaving star-shaped woody 

flower bases at branch ends.

Ecology. Occasional ornamental plantings in the southern half of the region are a 

source of escaped plants in surrounding roadsides, riparian areas, and forest margins. 

Rapid early growth. Readily self-pollinates and self-seeds, and thus it is thought that a 

single, reproductive age tree can produce an entire colony. Nectaries in flowers suggest 

insect pollination. Spreads and forms infestations by wind- and water-dispersed seeds. 

The high fat seed has not been observed as spread by wildlife. Root sprouts have not 

been observed.

Resembles tungoil tree [Vernicia fordii (Hemsl.) Airy-Shaw], which has similar shaped 

leaves but has pairs of conspicuous dark glands where the petiole joins the leaf blade 

and white milky sap. 

History and use. Introduced in 1757 from China. Planted as an ornamental. The wood 

is used for the soundboards of several Chinese instruments.

Distribution. Found as escaped plants and small groups more frequently in the coastal 

States but throughout the region except in KY and north TN, with northward spread 

expected. June
12

Invasive

TREES

May June June

November November November November June

Steven T. Manning

Glossy Buckthorn

Richard Old

Leslie J. Mehrhoff

Gil Wojciech

January
13

TREES

Invasive

Frangula alnus Mill. FRAL4 Rhamnaceae

Synonym: Rhamnus frangula L. 

Other common names: alder buckthorn, glossy false buckthorn, 

columnar buckthorn, fen buckthorn 

Plant. Deciduous shrub with many sprouts from the base, or small tree, 6 to 24 feet (12 

m) in height, up to 10 inches (25 cm) in diameter with glossy bark (thus the common 

name), thornless stems and an oval, much-branched crown. Alternate, oval leaves 

appear early in spring and linger green into fall, dark green and glossy above with 

distinct parallel lateral veins. Stemmed clusters of tiny white flowers in summer yield 

spherical, green berrylike fruit that turn red then black in the fall.

Stem. Twigs alternate, initially reddish, and slightly gray fuzzy with scattered white dots 

(lenticels), becoming hairless and gray to brownish gray with light dots in lengthwise 

bands that become raised and eventually turn into lengthwise, shallow fissures on 

larger stems. Buds pointed and fuzzy. Leaf scars raised with 3 bundle scars. Cut twigs 

have yellow sapwood and pinkish to orange centers.

Leaves. Alternate, tardily deciduous, narrowly elliptic to oblong to obovate, 2 to 4 

inches (5 to 10 cm) long and one-half as wide with 8 to 9 pairs of parallel lateral veins 

curving upward at the ends to follow the margin. Margins entire and somewhat wavy. 

Shiny green above, paler and slightly hairy beneath, turning greenish yellow in the fall. 

Petioles reddish and hairy, 0.25 to 0.5 inch (6 to 12 mm) long.

Flowers. May to September. Axillary, stemmed clusters of tiny flowers with 5 whitish 

petals barely jutting from a bell-shaped green calyx, appearing on new growth after 

the leaves.

Fruit and seeds. May to November. Berrylike, spherical drupes, 0.3 to 0.4 inch (8 to 

12 mm) wide, light green ripening to red then black in late summer, fleshy, containing 

2 to 3 ovoid seeds.

Ecology. Tolerant of a wide variety of growing conditions from wet to dry and basic to 

acidic soils. Persists in shade with rapid growth in full sun to produce seed as early as 

year 3. Wide spreading with many sprouts, leafing out early in spring and retaining foliage 

late in fall leading to the exclusion of other forest plants. Abundant seed spread by birds, 

with seedlings able to establish in shade. Invades forest edges and understories. 

Resembles the native Carolina buckthorn [Frangula caroliniana (Walt.) Gray], but its 

leaf margins are finely serrated (serrulate) and leaves are 3 times as long as wide. 

Also resembles common buckthorn (Rhamnus cathartica L.), another invasive that 

has finely serrated leaf margins but with 3 to 5 pairs of curved lateral veins, thorn-tipped 

twigs, only 4 petals, and 3 to 4 seeds. Also resembles the native alderleaf buckthorn 

(R. alnifolia L’Hér.), a shrub to 6 feet (2 m) tall and wide with crenate-serrate margins, 

6 to 9 paired lateral veins, and hairless beneath.

History and use. Initially introduced from Eurasia and North Africa in the mid-1800s 

as an ornamental.

Distribution. Found as scattered plants or dense infestations in VA, TN, KY, and NC.

Glossy Buckthorn

September September
14

Invasive

TREES

June

July

November November

April

July

September September

Paper Mulberry

Amy Richard Gerald D. Carr Steven J. Baskauf

June

January April
15

TREES

Invasive

Broussonetia papyrifera (L.) L’Hér. ex Vent. BRPA4 Moraceae Paper Mulberry Synonym: Morus papyrifera L.

Plant. Deciduous, large shrub or tree to 50 feet (15 m) in height and boles to 2 feet (0.6 

m) in diameter with a round crown. Often appears as a shrub, forming thickets from 

root sprouts. Broad oval leaves, sometimes deeply lobed on rapidly growing stems, 

softly hairy on the lower surface and scruffy above. Downy gray twigs with scattered 

prominent orange dots (lenticels). Shallow rooted and prone to windthrow. Separate 

male and female plants (dioecious).

Stem. Twigs moderately stout, zigzagging, dark to light gray, sometimes greenish to 

reddish brown, covered with silvery down with distinct orange dots (lenticels) when 

young. Oval leaf scars have protruding rims with stipular scars of light lines on both 

sides and a hairy, domed flower bud in winter. Branches smooth and mottled gray (green 

with algae at times) increasingly with protruding orange-tan lenticels, leaf and stipular 

scars. Pith white with woody diaphragms at nodes. Bark light gray, braided with pale 

orange to light tan stripes, becoming yellowish with age. 

Leaves. Alternate, sometimes opposite or whorled, oval to heart shaped, 3 to 10 

inches (7.5 to 25 cm) long, sometimes with 1 to 6 deeply rounded sinuses. Dark green 

and sandpapery above, whitish and velvety below. Margins finely serrate to sharply 

toothed except near the base. Petioles 2 to 5 inches (5.0 to 12.5 cm) long, light green, 

and hairy. Stipules quickly shed.

Flowers. April to May. Male and female flowers appear on separate plants. Clusters of 

tiny male flowers are elongate, woolly, and drooping, 2.5 to 3 inches (6 to 8 cm) long. 

Female flowers globular, 1 inch (2.5 cm) wide. Both pale green turning purple.

Fruit and seeds. July to August on female plants (rare in Southeast). Globular and 

compound, orange turning reddish purple, 0.7 to 1 inch (1.8 to 2.5 cm) wide, with many 

embedded or protruding tiny, red seeds. 

Ecology. Rapid growing, forming thickets and dense stands in fencerows, disturbed 

sites, and forest edges. Colonizes by root sprouts and spreads by rarely produced 

animal-dispersed seeds. 

Resembles both the native red mulberry (Morus rubra L.) and the nonnative white 

mulberry (M. alba L.), which also have a mixture of lobed and unlobed shaped leaves but 

are not velvety hairy beneath and do not have rounded fruit (theirs are elongated). 

History and use. Introduced in the mid-1700s from Japan and China as a rapidly 

growing shade tree. Used in ancient times by the Chinese to produce fibrous paper 

(thus the common name “paper”).

Distribution. Found as scattered plants or scattered dense infestations throughout 

the region.

September September
16

Invasive

TREES

Princesstree, Paulownia

June June October October

October October June March June June
17

TREES

Invasive

April

Paulownia tomentosa PATO2 Paulowniaceae

 (Thunb.) Sieb. & Zucc. ex Steud. Synonym: P. imperialis Siebold & Zucc.

Other common names: royal empresstree, royal paulownia 

Plant. Deciduous tree to 60 feet (18 m) in height and 2 feet (60 cm) in diameter 

with large heart-shaped leaves, fuzzy hairy on both sides, showy pale-violet 

flowers in early spring before leaves, and persistent pecan-shaped capsules in 

terminal clusters in summer to winter. Abundant flower buds present on erect stalks 

over winter. 

Stem. Twigs and branches stout, glossy gray brown and speckled with numerous white 

dots (lenticels). No terminal bud. Lateral leaf scars raised, circular, and becoming larger, 

dark, and sunken. Bark light-to-dark gray, roughened, and becoming slightly fissured. 

Stem pith chambered or hollow and wood white. 

Leaves. Opposite, heart shaped and fuzzy hairy on both surfaces, 6 to 12 inches (15 

to 30 cm) long and 5 to 9 inches (13 to 23 cm) wide. Leaves larger on resprouts, 16 to 

20 inches (40 to 50 cm) across, with extra tips often extending from the end of veins. 

Petioles rough hairy, 2 to 8 inches (5 to 20 cm) long. 

Flowers. April to May. Covered with showy erect panicles of pale-violet flowers before 

leaves in early spring, tubular with 5 unequal lobes. Fragrant. Flower buds fuzzy, linear, 

becoming ovoid in summer, and persistent on erect stalks over winter. 

Fruit and seeds. June to April. Terminal clusters of pecan-shaped capsules 1 to 2 

inches (2.5 to 5 cm) long and 0.6 to 1 inch (1.5 to 2.5 cm) wide. Pale green in summer 

turning tan and eventually black in winter and persistent into spring. Capsules split in 

half during late winter, each releasing 1,000s of tiny winged seeds. 

Ecology. Common around old homes, roadsides, riparian areas, and forest margins 

in infested areas. Infrequently planted in plantations. One tree can produce 21 million 

seeds per year with 2,000 per capsule. Viable seed can be produced by 5- and 7-yearold plants. Spreads by wind- and water-dispersed seeds. In the mountains, seed can be 

dispersed up to 2 miles (3 km). Invades after fire, harvesting, and other disturbances. 

Forms colonies from root sprouts. 

Resembles southern catalpa (Catalpa bignonioides Walt.) and northern catalpa 

[C. speciosa (Warder) Warder ex Engelm.], which have leaves with sparsely hairy 

upper surfaces and rough hairy lower surfaces and long slender, persistent fruit. Also 

resembles the invasive paper mulberry [Broussonetia papyrifera (L.) L’Hér. ex Vent.] with 

somewhat smaller leaves, sandpapery feeling above and white velvety hairy below.

History and use. Introduced in the early 1800s from East Asia. Has been widely planted 

as an ornamental and grown in scattered plantations for speculative high-value wood 

exports to Japan.

Distribution. Found as escaped plants from ornamental plantings throughout the 

region and as scattered dense infestations along highways and roadsides to move into 

disturbed forests in MS, TN, KY, VA, and NC as well as AR and north GA.

Princesstree, Paulownia 0712
18

Invasive

TREES

Russian Olive

Patrick Breen

Patrick Breen

Patrick BreenPatrick Breen

Patrick Breen

Spring

Winter

Summer Winter Winter Gerorg Slickers

Summer

John M. Randall

Summer
19

TREES

Invasive

Summer

Elaeagnus angustifolia L. ELAN Elaeagnaceae

Other common name: oleaster

Plant. Deciduous, thorny tree or shrub to 35 feet (10 m) in height with single or multiple 

boles, many long narrow leaves, and many yellow fruit covered with minute silvery 

scales. Rare at present in the South while a widespread invasive elsewhere in the 

United States. Most often confused with autumn olive (E. umbellata Thunb.).

Stem. Twigs slender, thorny, and densely silver scaly in the first year becoming glossy 

and greenish. Branches smooth and reddish brown. Pith pale brown to orange brown. 

Bark dark brown and densely fissured. 

Leaves. Alternate, long lanceolate to oblanceolate measuring 1.5 to 4 inches (4 to 

10 cm) long and 0.4 to 1.2 inches (1 to 3 cm) wide. Margins entire (rarely toothed). 

Green to slightly silvery above with dense silver scales beneath. Petioles short 

and silvery. 

Flowers. April to July. Axillary clusters, each with 5 to 10 silvery-white to yellow flowers. 

Tubular with 4 lobes. Fragrant. 

Fruit and seeds. August to October. Drupelike, hard fleshy fruit 0.5 inch (1.2 cm) long, 

resembling an olive. Light green to yellow with silvery scales. One nutlet in each fruit. 

Ecology. Found as rare plants in city forests, disturbed areas near forests, and escapes 

from surface mine plantings. Thrives in sandy floodplains. Shade intolerant. Spreads 

by bird- and animal-dispersed seeds. A nonleguminous nitrogen fixer. 

Resembles silverthorn or thorny olive (E. pungens Thunb.), which is an evergreen with 

brown scaly and hairy twigs, flowers in late fall producing reddish silver-scaly drupes 

in spring. Also resembles autumn olive (E. umbellata Thunb.), a widespread invasive 

plant that has leaves with green nonscaly upper surfaces in summer and clusters of 

reddish, rounded berries in fall and early winter.

History and use. Native to Europe and Western Asia, a relatively recent (early 1900s) 

arrival in the upper part of the Southeast. Initially planted as a yard ornamental, for 

windbreaks, surface mine reclamation, and wildlife habitat. Widely escaped in the 

Western and Northeastern United States. 

Distribution. Found infrequently as escaped plants from ornamental planting throughout 

the region with the exceptions of MS and SC. Most common as escapes from surface 

mine reclamation plantings.

Russian Olive 0997

Chris Evans
20

Invasive

TREES

August November November June

June November November January February

Silktree, Mimosa
21

TREES

Invasive

June

Albizia julibrissin Durazz. ALJU Fabaceae

Other common names: silky acacia, Japanese mimosa 

Plant. Deciduous, leguminous tree 10 to 50 feet (3 to 15 m) in height with single or 

multiple boles, smooth light-brown bark, feathery leaves, and showy pink blossoms 

that continually yield dangling flat pods during summer. Some pods persistent 

during winter. 

Stem. Twigs slender to stout, lime green turning shiny grayish brown with light dots 

(lenticels). No terminal bud. Bark glossy, thin, light brown turning gray with raised corky 

dots and dashes.

Leaves. Alternate, bipinnately compound 6 to 20 inches (15 to 50 cm) long with 8 to 

24 pairs of branches and 20 to 60 leaflets per branch, feathery and fernlike. Leaflets 

asymmetric, 0.4 to 0.6 inch (1 to 1.5 cm) long, dark green, with midvein nearer and 

running parallel to one margin. Margins entire. 

Flowers. May to July (and sporadically to November). Terminal clusters at the base 

of current year twigs, each with 15 to 25 sessile flowers 1.4 to 2 inches (3.5 to 5 cm) 

long. Pompom-like with numerous filaments, bright pink feathery tufts with white bases. 

Fragrant. 

Fruits and seeds. June to February. Legume pods in clusters, flat with bulging seeds, 

each pod 3 to 7 inches (8 to 18 cm) long, splitting in winter along the edges to release 

5 to 10 oval seeds or disperse whole to float on water. Initially light green turning dark 

brown in fall and whitish tan in winter. 

Ecology. Occurs on dry-to-wet sites and spreads along streambanks, preferring open 

conditions but also persisting in shade. Can form dense stands on abandoned farmland 

and home sites. Negatively impacts wildlife dependent on native vegetation. Seldom 

found above 3,000 feet (900 m). Forms colonies from root sprouts and spreads by 

abundant animal- and water-dispersed seeds. Seeds remain viable for many years. 

Nitrogen fixer. 

Resembles honeylocust (Gleditsia triacanthos L.) and locusts (Robinia spp.), which 

have longer leaflets—1 to 2 inches (2.5 cm to 5 cm) long. Also resembles seedlings of 

partridge pea [Chamaecrista fasciculata (Michx.) Greene], an annual plant with once 

pinnately compound leaves, and littleleaf sensitive-briar (Mimosa microphylla Dryand.), 

a reclining legume with fine prickles. 

History and use. A traditional ornamental introduced from Asia in 1745. Potential use 

for forage and biofuel. 

Distribution. Found as scattered plants or dense infestations in forests and along 

highways and roadsides throughout the region.

Silktree, Mimosa 0345
22

Invasive

TREES

Ted Bodner

June

September September September September

November November September September

Tallowtree, Popcorntree

September September June
23

TREES

Invasive

Thomas Ellis, Jr.

May

Triadica sebifera (L.) Small TRSE6 Euphorbiaceae

Synonym: Sapium sebiferum (L.) Roxb. 

Other common name: Chinese tallowtree

Plant. Deciduous tree to 60 feet (18 m) in height and 3 feet (90 cm) in diameter, 

with broadly ovate leaves having extended tips. Dangling yellowish flower spikes in 

spring yield small clusters of 3-lobed fruit that split in fall and winter to reveal popcornlike seeds. 

Stem. Terminal clusters of flowers and fruits that drop in winter to result in whorled 

branching from lateral buds. Twigs lime green turning gray with scattered brownish dots 

(lenticels) later becoming striations. Numerous semicircular leaf scars becoming raised 

with age. Bark light gray and fissured. Sap milky. 

Leaves. Alternate distinctively wide ovate with a rounded wide angled base and a short 

or long attenuated tip. Blades 2 to 3 inches (5 to 8 cm) long and 1.5 to 2.5 inches (4 to 

6 cm) wide. Dark green with light-green mid- and lateral veins, turning yellow to red in 

fall. Hairless, lime-green petioles 1 to 3 inches (2.5 to 8 cm) long with 2 tiny glands on 

upper side of juncture between blade and petiole (requires magnification). 

Flowers. April to June. Slender, drooping spikes to 8 inches (20 cm) long of tiny 

flowers. Yellowish-green sepals but no petals. Female flowers at base and males along 

the spike. 

Fruit and seeds. August to January. Small terminal clusters of 3-lobed capsules 

(occasionally 4- to 5-lobed), each 0.5 to 0.75 inch (1.2 to 2 cm) across. Dark green 

in summer becoming black and splitting to reveal 3 white-wax coated seeds 0.3 inch 

(0.8 cm) long and 0.2 inch (0.5 cm) wide. Resemble popcorn and remain attached 

until winter. 

Ecology. Invades streambanks, riverbanks, lakesides, and wet areas like ditches, as well 

as grassland prairies and upland sites. Thrives in both freshwater and saline soils. Shade 

tolerant, periodic-flood tolerant, and allelopathic. Increasing widely through ornamental 

plantings. Plants can produce viable seed by 3 years and remain reproductive for 100 

years. Mature trees can produce 100,000 seeds per year. Spreading by bird- and waterdispersed seeds and colonizing by prolific surface root sprouts. Seeds remain viable 

in the leaf litter and soil for 2 to 7 years.

Resembles cottonwood (Populus spp.), which have leaves with toothed margins and 

flaking bark with fissured ridges. 

History and use. Introduced from China to South Carolina and Georgia in the 1770s 

and then in significant numbers to the Gulf Coast in the early 1900s. Plantings for 

seed oil recommended by the U.S. Department of Agriculture during 1920 to 1940. 

Ornamentals still sold and planted. Waxy seeds traditionally used to make candles. 

Honey plant for beekeeping. 

Distribution. Found in dense infestations in southeast TX; south and central LA; 

central and north FL; and the southern portions of AR, MS, AL, GA, and SC. Scattered 

infestations further north from ornamental plantings in cities and towns. The projected 

potential range includes all States within the region.

Tallowtree, Popcorntree 0994
24

Invasive

TREES

August July July

August August October October

Tree-of-Heaven

February
25

TREES

Invasive

July

Ailanthus altissima (P. Mill.) Swingle AIAL Simaroubaceae

Other common names: ailanthus, Chinese sumac, stinking sumac, 

paradise-tree, copal-tree

Plant. Deciduous tree to 80 feet (25 m) in height and 6 feet (1.8 m) in diameter from a 

shallow root system, with long, pinnately compound leaves and circular glands under 

small lobes on leaflet bases. Strong unpleasant odor emitted from flowers and other 

parts when crushed, sometimes likened to peanuts or cashews. 

Stem. Twigs stout, chestnut brown to reddish tan, smooth to velvety with light dots 

(lenticels) and large, heart-shaped leaf scars. Buds finely hairy, dome-shaped, and 

partially hidden by the leaf base. Branches light gray to dark gray, smooth and glossy, 

with raised dots becoming fissures with age. Bark light gray and rough with areas of 

light-tan fissures. 

Leaves. Alternate, odd- or even-pinnately compound, 10 to 41 leaflets on 1 to 3 foot 

(30 to 90 cm) long, light-green to reddish-green stalks with swollen bases. Leaflets 

lanceolate and asymmetric and not always directly opposite, each 2 to 7 inches (5 to 

18 cm) long and 1 to 2 inches (2.5 to 5 cm) wide. Long tapering tips and lobed bases 

with 1 or more glands beneath each lobe (round dots). Margins entire. Dark green 

with light-green veins above and whitish green beneath. Petioles 0.2 to 0.5 inch (5 to 

12 mm) long. 

Flowers. April to June. Large terminal clusters to 20 inches (50 cm) long of small, 

yellowish-green flowers, with 5 petals and 5 sepals. Male and female flowers on 

separate trees. 

Fruit and seeds. July to February. Persistent clusters of wing-shaped fruit with twisted 

tips on female trees, 1 inch (2.5 cm) long. Single seed. Green turning to tan, then brown. 

Persist on tree for most of the winter.

Ecology. Rapid growing, forming thickets and dense stands. Both shade and flood 

intolerant and allelopathic. Colonizes by root sprouts and spreads by prolific wind- and 

water-dispersed seeds. Viable seed can be produced by 2- and 3-year-old plants. A 

mature female tree can produce up to 300,000 wind-dispersed seeds per year that can 

be distributed up to 330 feet (100 m) away.

Resembles hickories (Carya spp.), butternut (Juglans cinerea L.), black walnut 

(J. nigra L.), and sumacs (Rhus spp.), which have pinnately compound leaves but no 

glands at leaflet bases. Hickories distinguished by braided bark, butternut and black 

walnut by their ridged mature barks, and all have large nuts. Sumacs often in a shrub 

shape, red or winged leaf stalks, and terminal conical flower and seed clusters.

History and use. Introduced in 1784 from Europe, although originally from Eastern 

China. Ornamental widely planted in cities due to pollution and drought tolerance.

Distribution. Found throughout the region with dense infestations in central VA, KY, 

TN, NC, and SC. Scattered occurrences southward from ornamental plantings. 

Tree-of-Heaven 0341
26

Invasive

TREES

October October

March

July

May March

Trifoliate Orange, Hardy Orange

March

March
27

TREES

Invasive

Poncirus trifoliata (L.) Raf POTR4 Rutaceae

Synonym: Citrus trifoliata L. 

Plant. Deciduous, small tree or shrub to 20 feet (6 m) in height with tufts of trifoliate 

(3-leaflet) leaves on densely packed stems with dangerously sharp axillary thorns. 

White flowers in spring cover plants to yield abundant small, fuzzy green orange-like 

fruit that turn yellow in fall. Root sprouts abundant around stems. 

Stem. Twigs flattened, glossy green and hairless, turning yellowish in drought and 

winter, becoming stout, chestnut brown to reddish tan, smooth to velvety with light 

dots (lenticels), heart-shaped leaf scars and sharp thorns jutting outward to 2 inches 

(5 cm). Buds finely hairy, dome-shaped, and partially hidden by the leaf bases. Branches 

dark gray with lengthwise lighter stripes and intervening green stripes that become an 

intricate braided network on the bark. Basal sprouts vinelike and green, climbing up 

through the crown into surrounding trees. 

Leaves. Alternate or tufts of trifoliate (3-leaflet) leaves in the axils of thorns, appearing at 

or just after the time of flowering in the spring. Leaflets unequal in size with the terminal 

1 to 2.5 inches (2.5 to 6.4 cm) long and 0.5 to 1 inch (1.2 to 2.5 cm) wide, obovate 

to elliptic, while the lateral leaflets are similar but smaller. Dark green and hairless, 

becoming yellowish in the fall. Blades merge into the winged leaf stalk (sometimes 

not winged). 

Flowers. March to early May. Showy clusters of white, 5-petaled flowers, 1.5 to 2 inches 

(3.8 to 5 cm) across that cover trees early on previous year’s branches. In the center of 

the flower are 8 to 10 projecting stamens that enclose a yellow, hairy stigma. 

Fruit and seeds. July to October and rarely persisting into winter. A hairy, bitter orange, 

green turning yellow to golden when ripe, up to 1.5 inches (3.8 cm) wide. Pulp is minimal 

and the multiple seeds are viable. 

Ecology. Moderate initial growth rate becoming rapid with establishment, forming 

dense, impenetrable thickets and stands. Prefers open areas or edges since shade 

intolerant and acidic, well-drained soils. Colonizes by basal sprouts and spreads by 

prolific animal-dispersed seeds. 

Resembles osage-orange [Maclura pomifera (Raf.) C.K. Schneid.], which has similar 

thorny stems, but larger, spherical yellowish fruit that are not hairy and leaves that are 

not trifoliate. 

History and use. Introduced as an ornamental in the 1850s from China and Korea.

Fruits are useful for extraction of acidic juice high in vitamin C. Used as a hearty 

rootstock for grafted citrus. Historically planted as a thorny hedge to confine livestock.

Distribution. Found in scattered dense infestations in TX, OK, AR, LA, and GA with 

occasional occurrences elsewhere throughout the region.

Trifoliate Orange, Hardy Orange 

November November July
28

Invasive

TREES

June

April November November February

June October October

June June

Tungoil Tree

October October
29

TREES

Invasive

August August

Vernicia fordii (Hemsl.) Airy-Shaw VEFO Euphorbiaceae

Synonym: Aleurites fordii Hemsl. 

Other common name: Chinese wood-oil tree

Plant. Deciduous tree (leaves fall with frost) to 40 feet (12 m) in height having a rounded 

crown with many alternate branches and basal sprouts. Sap is milky white. Leaves heart 

shaped, some with rounded sinuses, and long petioles with a pair of conspicuous dark 

glands where joining the blade. Clusters of showy, white and rose, flaring flowers in spring 

yield large spherical “nuts” in the fall. Caution: Leaves and nuts are poisonous.

Stem. Twigs moderately stout, often radiating outward in numbers from a swollen branch 

knot that terminates each year’s growth. The branch knot has multiple leaf and fruit stem 

scars along with numerous protruding light dots. Twigs light green, becoming mottled with 

a silvery-gray film and turning grayish to gray tan with whitish dots (lenticels) that turn to 

faint lengthwise stripes that increase with age. Buds overlapping, maroon, with multiple, 

leafy scales. Pith white and spongy. Leaf scars circular when whorled or oval when stacked 

together. Larger scars reveal 8 vascular bundle scars. Bark light tan to light gray, tight, 

covered with corky dots. 

Leaves. Alternate but more clustered at twig tips, heart shaped, 3 to 14 inches (7.5 to 35 

cm) long with 1 tip, or lobed with deep sinuses and 3 to 5 pointed tips and a cordate base. 

Two rounded, dark reddish-maroon glands occur where the petiole joins the blade. Glossy 

and dark green above with 5 prominent light-green veins radiating from the base, whitish 

silvery beneath. Petioles 3 to 6 inches (8 to 15 cm) long, green with a maroon tinge. Leaves 

turning yellow in the fall with showy maroon petioles and lower veins.

Flowers. March to April. Large, terminal branched clusters of separate male and female 

flowers appearing before leaves to cover the tree. Widely flared flowers about 1 inch (2.5 

cm) wide having 5 to 7 brilliant white petal lobes splashed with red to maroon within the 

throat radiating outward in lines, and protruding yellow floral parts. Stalks to 6 inches 

(15 cm) long, smooth, red to orange, the same color as the sepals.

Fruit and seeds. September to November. Large, spherical, woody nuts (drupes), 2 to 3 

inches ( 5 to 8 cm) wide, dark green turning maroon to finally brown, dropping whole to 

the ground or water to split into 3 to 7 wedged-shaped, fibrous sections each with a large 

brownish nut, about 1 inch (2.5 cm) long.

Ecology. Rapid growing in moist and well-drained soils, forming dense stands. When first 

introduced, fruit could not withstand freezing temperatures, until crop breeding yielded frosthardy varieties. Colonizes by stump sprouts and spreads by animal- and water-dispersed 

seeds. Viable seed can be produced at 3 years. 

Resembles paper mulberry [Broussonetia papyrifera (L.) L’Hér. ex Vent], southern catalpa 

(Catalpa bignonioides Walt.), northern catalpa [C. speciosa (Warder) Warder ex Engelm.], 

and princesstree [Paulownia tomentosa (Thunb.) Sieb. & Zucc. ex Steud.], which have similar 

shaped leaves but are velvety or rough hairy and have no petiole glands. Also resembles 

Chinese parasoltree [Firmiana simplex (L.) W. Wight], which has similar shaped leaves with 

sinuses but has no glands and no milky sap. 

History and use. Initially introduced in 1905 from China with further introductions to the 

lower Gulf Coast States for use in the tungoil industry, which collapsed by the 1950s due 

to freezes, hurricanes, and offshore competition. Sparingly planted as an ornamental for 

the showy flowers.

Distribution. Found in dense infestations in LA and the southern portions of MS, AL, and 

GA, and north FL. Scattered occurrence northward from ornamental plantings.

Tungoil Tree 0995

August October October August
30

Invasive

SHRUBS

December December

April

December December

April

April

Autumn Olive

April

October October

PA Dept. Conserv. Nat. Res. - Forestry Archive
31

Invasive

SHRUBS

June

Elaeagnus umbellata Thunb. ELUM Elaeagnaceae

Other common names: Russian olive, oleaster

Plant. Tardily deciduous, bushy and leafy shrub, 3 to 20 feet (1 to 6 m) in height, with 

scattered thorny branches. Leaves silver scaly beneath, with many red berries in fall. 

Stem. Twigs slender and silver scaly, spur twigs common, with some lateral twigs 

becoming pointed, like thorns. Branches and main stems glossy and gray green with 

scattered thorns and many whitish dots (lenticels), becoming light gray to gray brown 

with age and eventually fissuring to expose light-brown inner bark. 

Leaves. Alternate, elliptic, 2 to 3 inches (5 to 8 cm) long and 0.8 to 1.2 inches (2 to 

3 cm) wide. Margins entire and wavy. Bright green to gray green above with silver scaly 

midvein and densely silver scaly beneath. Petioles short and silvery. 

Flowers. February to June. Axillary clusters, each with 5 to 10 tubular flowers with 4 

lobes. Silvery white to yellow. Fragrant. 

Fruit and seeds. August to November. Round, juicy drupe 0.3 to 0.4 inch (8 to 10 mm) 

wide containing 1 nutlet. Red and finely doted with silvery to silvery-brown scales. 

Ecology. Prefers drier sites. Shade tolerant. Spreads by animal-dispersed seeds and 

found as scattered plants in forest openings and open forests, eventually forming dense 

stands. A nonleguminous nitrogen fixer. 

Resembles silverthorn or thorny olive (E. pungens Thunb.) and Russian olive 

(E. angustifolia L.). Silverthorn is an evergreen that has brown scaly and hairy twigs, 

flowers in late fall, and oval reddish-silver, scaly drupes in spring. Russian olive rarely 

occurs and has silver scaly twigs and leaves, leaves longer and more linear, flowers 

in early summer, and many yellow olives in fall and winter. Also resembles plum 

(Prunus spp.) when fruit is present, although plum leaves are not silvery beneath and 

fruit is much larger.

History and use. Introduced from China and Japan in 1830. Planted for wildlife food 

and surface-mine reclamation. 

Distribution. Found throughout the region with dense infestations more frequent in 

VA, east and west KY, and the Piedmont region of GA, SC and NC.

Autumn Olive 2038
32

Invasive

SHRUBS

Bush Honeysuckles

Sweet Breath 

of Spring

Sweet Breath 

Amur

Amur Amur

Patrick Breen Warner Park

September September

Sweet Breath of Spring

September September

Spring

Amur Amur

December December December December

Amur

December December May

Tatarian

John Schwegman

Spring

Amur
33

Invasive

SHRUBS

Tatarian Honeysuckle, Lonicera tatarica L. LOTA Caprifoliaceae

Amur Honeysuckle, L. maackii (Rupr.) Herder LOMA6

Morrow’s Honeysuckle, L. morrowii A. Gray LOMO2

Sweet-breath-of-spring, L. fragrantissima Lindl. & Paxton LOFR

Other common names: winter and fragrant honeysuckle, January jasmine

Bell’s Honeysuckle, L. x bella Zabel LOBE 

 (hybrid Morrow’s and Tatarian)

Plant. Tardily deciduous, upright, arching-branched shrubs to small trees. Amur to 30 

feet (9 m) in height and spindly in forests, Morrow’s to 6.5 feet (2 m) in height, Tatarian 

and sweet-breath-of-spring to 10 feet (3 m) in height, and Bell’s to 20 feet (6 m) in height. 

Much branched and arching in openings, multiple stemmed, dark-green opposite leaves, 

showy white to pink or yellow flowers, and abundant orange to red berries. 

Stem. Opposite branched, light tan with braided-strand appearance. Bark often flaking. 

Older branches hollow. 

Leaves. Opposite in 2 rows, ovate to oblong with rounded bases, 1.2 to 4 inches 

(3 to 10 cm) long. Persistent into winter. Margins entire. Amur tapering to a long slender 

tip; Bell’s to a medium tapering tip; and others with short pointed tips. Morrow’s with 

wrinkled upper surface and both Amur and Bell’s soft-hairy lower surface, others with 

hairless leaves. Petioles 0.1 to 0.4 inch (2.5 to 10 mm) long. 

Flowers. February to June. Axillary, bracted short-stemmed clusters, each with 1 to 

several white to yellow (some pink to red) flowers. Petals tubular flaring to 5 lobes in 2 

lips (upper lip 4-lobed, lower lip single-lobed). Five extended stamens. Fragrant. 

Fruit and seeds. June to March. Abundant spherical, glossy berries paired in leaf axils, 

each 0.2 to 0.5 inch (6 to 12 mm). Green becoming pink and ripening to red (sometimes 

yellow or orange). Usually persistent into winter and sometimes spring. 

Ecology. Often form dense thickets in open forests, forest edges, abandoned fields, 

pastures, roadsides, and other open upland habitats. Relatively shade tolerant. Colonize 

by root sprouts and spread by abundant bird- and other animal-dispersed seeds. Seeds 

long lived in the soil.

Resemble the woody vine, Japanese honeysuckle (L. japonica Thunb.) as far as 

leaves and flowers. Also resemble the native shrub American fly honeysuckle 

(L. canadensis Bartr. ex Marsh.), which has hairy-margined leaves, blue fruit, and is 

found at high elevation in mountains. Also resemble the native bush honeysuckles 

(Diervilla spp.), which have similar leaves but terminal flowers in cymes and capsules 

for fruit. 

History and use. All introduced from Asia in the 1700s and 1800s, and used as 

ornamentals and wildlife plants. Some still sold.

Distribution. Found throughout the region with dense infestations in KY, TN, central 

VA, north AR, and east TX. Species vary by states. 

Bush Honeysuckles 2105

Amur honeysuckle November November

Warner Park
34

Invasive

SHRUBS

May April

August January September September January

Chinese

privet

Chinese

privet

Glossy

privet

Glossy

privet

October October September September

Chinese / European / Border / California/Amur Privet

Chinese privet shown in all images

Ted Bodner

Ted Bodner

Ted Bodner
35

Invasive

SHRUBS

May

Chinese Privet, Ligustrum sinense Lour. LISI Oleaceae

European Privet, L. vulgare L. LIVU

Border Privet, L. obtusifolium Sieb. & Zucc. LIOB

California Privet, L. ovalifolium Hassk. LIOV

Amur Privet, L. amurense Carrière LIAM

Plant. Thin, opposite-leaved, evergreen, thicket-forming shrubs to 30 feet (9 m) in height 

that are multiple stemmed and leaning to arching with long, leafy branches. Much used as 

border shrubs. Chinese privet is one of the most widely invasive plants in the South, while 

other three are less frequent. It is difficult to distinguish between Chinese and European, 

with probable blurring due to hybridization. Caution: Fruit (berries) is poisonous.

Stem. Opposite, long slender branching that increases upward with shorter twigs projecting 

outward at near right angles. Brownish gray turning gray green and hairy or not with light 

dots (lenticels). Leaf scars semicircular with 1 bundle scar. Bark light gray to brownish 

gray and slightly rough (not fissured). 

Leaves. Thin and opposite in 2 rows at near right angle to stem. Chinese and European: 

ovate to elliptic with rounded tip (often minutely indented), 0.8 to 1.6 inches (2 to 4 cm) long 

and 0.4 to 1.2 inches (1 to 3 cm) wide, hairless beneath. Lustrous green above and pale 

green beneath with Chinese having a hairy midvein beneath. Border and amur: ellipticoblong, 1 to 2.2 inches (2.5 to 6 cm) long and 0.3 to 1 inch (0.8 to 2.5 cm) wide, hairless 

green above and hairy beneath or only on the midrib, while amur margins minutely hairy. 

California: oval to elliptic with wedge-shaped base, 1.2 to 2.4 inches (3 to 6 cm) long and 

half as wide, lustrous green above and yellow green beneath and hairless. Margins entire. 

Petioles 0.04 to 0.2 inch (1 to 5 mm) long. Leaves usually persistent during winter, while 

California privet is deciduous northward. 

Flowers. April to June. Abundant, terminal and upper axillary clusters on short branches 

forming panicles of white to cream flowers. Corolla 4-lobed, to 0.6 inch (1.8 cm) long, 

with stamens extending or within the corolla. Fragrance causing sinus irritation in many 

people, with California being the most unpleasant. 

Fruit and seeds. July to March. Dense ovoid drupes hanging or projecting outward, 0.2 

to 0.3 inch (6 to 8 mm) long and 0.16 inch (4 mm) wide, containing 1 to 4 seeds. Pale 

green in summer ripening to dark purple and appearing almost black in winter. 

Ecology. Aggressive and troublesome invasives, often forming dense thickets, particularly 

in bottomland forests and along fencerows, thus gaining access to forests, fields, and 

right-of-ways. Shade tolerant. Colonize by root sprouts and spread widely by abundant 

bird- and animal-dispersed seeds. 

Resemble Japanese privet (L. japonicum Thunb.) and glossy privet (L. lucidum), 

which have larger leaves and are further described in this book. Also resemble native 

swampprivet (Forestiera spp.), which have leaves on short twigs sparse axillary flowers, 

and few fruit.

History and use. Introduced from China and Europe in the early to mid-1800s. Traditional 

southern ornamentals. Variegated cultivars of Chinese privet are widely planted in the 

coastal South. Deer browse Chinese privet sprouts. 

Distribution. Chinese and European privets are found throughout the region in dense 

infestations along highways and roadside margins, parks and preserves, bottomland and 

interior forests with most frequent infestations in MS, AL, GA, and SC. Border privet in 

KY, VA, NC, and TN. California and amur privet in KY, VA, NC, AL, and FL, at present.

Chinese/European/Border/California/Amur Privet 2103
36

Invasive

SHRUBS

Hen’s Eyes, Coral Ardisia

February

David J. Morehead

February April February February

February

February February Ron Lance
37

Invasive

SHRUBS

Ardisia crenata Sims ARCR80 Myrsinaceae

Other common names: spiceberry, coralberry, Christmas berry

Plant. Evergreen, erect shrub, 2 to 6 feet (0.6 to 1.8 m) in height with short stems 

or multi-stemmed bushy clumps. Shiny green leaves with distinct thickened, wavy 

margins, drooping white to pink axillary flowers, and dangling, bright red berries in fall 

and through winter. No rhizomes. 

Stem. Twigs light green and shiny, projecting alternately outward from light brown, erect 

stems, becoming increasingly rough, with grayish bark. Leaf and stem scars broadly 

V-shaped with a raised bud at top. 

Leaves. Alternate, 4 to 8 inches (10 to 20 cm) long, elliptic to narrowly lanceolate or 

oblanceolate with a pointed tip, leathery with scalloped crenate margins (thus the 

scientific name, crenata) and raised callused notches. Shiny and dark green above with 

a paler midvein and pale green beneath, tapering to a short winged petiole. 

Flowers. April to October. Axillary clusters dangling below the leaves, with green to 

red stems, conical buds mixed with flowers having 4 to 5 white to pink petals, yellow 

centers and eventually an extending style. 

Fruit and seeds. November to March. Abundant, spherical 1-seeded drupes, 0.2 

to 0.3 inch (6 to 8 mm) wide, hanging down in fanned clusters often jutting outward 

on lower branch ends, green then ripening through shades of coral to finally 

bright scarlet. 

Ecology. Forms infestations in partial shade or full shade and grows best in moist, 

well-drained soils. Forms dense infestations to shade out ground flora. Spreads by 

animal-dispersed seed and produces fruit within 2 years.

Resembles only the related shoebutton (A. elliptica Thunb.), which does not have 

wavy margins and has fruit ripening to black, and only invasive in FL wetlands 

at present.

History and use. Native to Japan and Northern India and introduced into FL in 1900 

as an ornamental. Still being sold and planted in the Southeast, and worldwide by 

internet sales.

Distribution. Found as dense infestations throughout LA and FL and recently found 

in south GA.

Hen’s Eyes, Coral Ardisia FL11

February
38

Invasive

SHRUBS

Japanese/Glossy Privet

June

October October

July June June

Japanese 

privet

Japanese 

privet

Glossy 

privet

Glossy 

privet

Glossy 

privet

Glossy 

privet

Ted Bodner

December December

Glossy 

privet
39

Invasive

SHRUBS

Japanese Privet, Ligustrum japonicum Thunb. LIJA Oleaceae

Glossy Privet, L. lucidum Ait. f. LILU2 

Plant. Opposite, thick-leaved evergreens to 20 feet (6 m) in height for Japanese privet 

and 35 feet (10 m) in height for glossy privet, with spreading crowns, conical clusters of 

white flowers in spring, and green to purple-black fruit in summer to following spring. 

Stem. Twigs hairless and pale green becoming brownish to reddish tinged. Branches 

opposite and brownish gray with many raised corky dots (lenticels). Bark light gray and 

smooth except for scattered horizontal, discontinuous ridges.

Leaves. Opposite, leathery, ovate to oblong, bases rounded and tips blunt or tapering, 

often with a tiny sharp tip. Two to 4 inches (5 to 10 cm) long and 1 to 2 inches (2.5 to 5 

cm) wide. Margins entire and often yellowish rimmed, turned upward with glossy privet 

and slightly rolled under with Japanese privet. Upper blades lustrous dark green with 6 

to 8 pairs of light-green veins with glossy privet and 4 to 6 pairs of indistinct veins that 

protrude slightly from light green lower surfaces with Japanese privet. Petioles 0.4 to 

0.8 inch (1 to 2 cm) long and often reddish tinged for glossy privet and 0.2 to 0.4 inch 

(6 to 12 mm) long and light green for Japanese privet. 

Flowers. April to June. Loosely branching, terminal- and upper-axillary, conical clusters 

of many small white 4-petaled flowers. Fragrant. 

Fruit and seeds. July to February. Conical-shaped, branched terminal clusters of ovoid 

drupes, each 0.2 to 0.5 inch (5 to 12 mm) long and 0.2 inch (5 mm) wide. Pale green 

in summer ripening to blue black in winter. 

Ecology. Single plants or thicket-forming, occurring in the same habitats as Chinese 

privet, but generally not as abundant, depending upon location. Invade both lowland 

and upland habitats, but usually more prevalent in lowlands. Shade tolerant. Colonize 

by root sprouts and spread by abundant bird- and animal-dispersed seeds. 

Resembles Chinese privet (L. sinense Lour.), which has smaller and thinner leaves 

and is further described in this book. Also resembles red tip or photinia (Photinia spp.). 

and Carolina laurel cherry (Prunus caroliniana Ait.), which have similar evergreen, but 

alternate, leaves with finely toothed margins. 

History and use. Introduced from Japan and Korea in 1845 and 1794, respectively. 

Widely planted as ornamentals and escaped.

Distribution. Found in dense infestations and as scattered escaped plants throughout 

the region with the exception of south FL.

Japanese/Glossy Privet 2104

Glossy privet Glossy privet June
40

Invasive

SHRUBS

Japanese Barberry

Leslie J. Mehrhoff Barry Rice

October October

May

April April November November

April April
41

Invasive

SHRUBS

Berberis thunbergii DC. BETH Berberidaceae

Synonym: B. thunbergii DC. var. atropurpurea Chenault

Plant. Tardily deciduous, compact and spreading shrub, 2 to 4 feet (60 to 120 cm) 

in height and slightly wider, occasionally 6 to 8 feet (1.8 to 3 m) in height. Multiple 

alternate, slender and brown stems bear single slender spines at nodes, along 

with tufts of small paddle-shaped leaves ranging from green to reddish and turning 

orange and golden to crimson in early winter. Tiny, dangling clusters of white flowers 

in spring yield red, fleshy, oblong berries. Roots shallow, yellow inside as are stems. 

The plant traits are variable due to numerous cultivars that are still being sold 

and planted.

Stem. Twigs slender, reddish brown to gray, ridged to varying degrees, a single sharp 

spine to 0.6 inch (1.5 cm) long at each node, below a stubby, conelike stacked bud 

(evident in winter). Stems sometimes wavy in appearance owing to numerous alternate 

nodes. Alternate branching with bark becoming irregularly furrowed, light gray to tan, 

with scattered, stacked buds remaining. 

Leaves. Alternate in tight clusters, spatulate (paddle shaped) with entire margins 

and bases narrowing to the stem, with rounded or faintly pointed tips, variable due to 

cultivars, 0.5 to 1.5 inches (1.2 to 3.7 cm) long. Blue green to green to reddish above 

and pale to whitish below, turning orange and golden to red and crimson in winter. 

Appear early and remain late. 

Flowers. April to May. Dangling singly or in small clusters from most nodes, 6 white to 

yellowish-white to yellow petals, 0.2 to 0.3 inch (5 to 6 mm) wide with yellow centers.

Fruit and seeds. May and maturing by October, remaining until March. Dangling, eggshaped berries, red and shiny, fleshy, 0.3 to 0.4 inch (8 to 11 mm) long. Each containing 

1 brown, pitted seed, oblong, 0.08 to 0.20 inch (2 to 5 mm) long.

Ecology. Forms dense infestations under forest canopies, but prefers partial shade 

of edges, to exclude other plants. Seeds are dispersed by many wildlife species. Deer 

do not browse this species, resulting in release from surrounding browsed vegetation. 

Infestations intensify by root sprouts and rooting of drooping stems. Seeds remain viable 

for up to 10 years in the soil.

Resembles both the nonnative invasive common or European barberry (B. vulgaris L.) 

and the native American barberry (B. canadensis Mill.), while both have finely bristled 

leaf margins. Also resembles a rare escaped wintergreen barberry (B. julianae C.K. 

Schneid.) in the mountains that has leathery, evergreen leaves. 

History and use. Native to Japan and introduced into the U.S. as an ornamental in 

the mid-1870s. Numerous cultivars widely sold and planted with varying amounts of 

fruit production.

Distribution. Found as scattered plants and a range of infestation densities in GA, 

SC, NC, TN, KY, and VA.

Japanese Barberry

Steven T. Manning

Steven T. Manning Leslie J. Mehrhoff

May

November November

May
42

Invasive

SHRUBS

Japanese Knotweed 

September September

July

Steven T. Manning

June

June

July

September September

September September

October October November November

Leslie J. Mehrhoff Steven T. Manning
43

Invasive

SHRUBS

Polygonum cuspidatum Siebold & Zucc POCU6 Polygonaceae

Synonyms: Fallopia japonica (Houtt.) Dcne., Reynoutria japonica Houtt. 

Other common names: fleeceflower, Mexican bamboo

Plant. Tall perennial, herbaceous shrub 3 to 12 feet (1 to 3.5 m) high, freely branching 

in dense, often clonal, infestations. Reddish stems, hollow and jointed like bamboo, 

survive only 1 season while rhizomes up to 65 feet (20 m) long survive decades. 

Alternate leaves appear in spring on new sprouts, ovate with pointed tips and flat bases. 

In late summer, sprays of tiny, white flowers emerge along stalks at leaf axils, yielding 

abundant tiny-winged seeds. Dead plants remain upright or leaning during winter and 

burn hot to pose a severe fire hazard. 

Stem. Round, reddish brown to mottled with green, to about 1 inch (2.5 cm) in 

diameter, resembling bamboo although not woody, smooth with scattered to 

many tiny dots (scales), often ridged, having hollow internodes and swollen solid 

nodes with membranous sheaths clinging to the base of the nodes. Profuse red to 

green, slender branches grow upward and outward, and some drooping to form 

dense entanglements.

Leaves. Alternate and broadly ovate to oblong ovate, 4 to 6 inches (10 to 15 cm) long 

and 3 to 4 inches (8 to 10 cm) wide with distinctly pointed tips and straight wedge bases. 

Smooth and bright green above with whitish indented veins and dull green beneath 

with protruding veins. Petioles reddish, 0.5 to 1 inch (1.2 to 2.5 cm) long. Leaves turn 

bright yellow in fall. 

Flowers. May to September. Terminal and axillary, branched sprays (racemes) 3 to 6 

inches (8 to 15 cm) long, covered with tiny 5-petaled (sepaled) white to greenish flowers 

all having 3 styles and 8 to 10 stamens. Functionally male or female flowers can occur 

on different plants or within a raceme. 

Fruit and seeds. August to November. Many dangling, winged fruit that can contain 

1 triangular, shiny nutlet. Viability apparently variable but can be quite high in 

some stands.

Ecology. Tolerates a wide range of growing conditions from full sun to shade, to high 

salinity and drought, while it prefers wet soils in low places or along streams and rivers. 

Spreads along streams by stem and rhizome fragments and seeds to dominate extensive 

riparian habitat. Also spreads along highways and roads by similar means through 

maintenance mowing. A serious threat to native habitats since the dense infestations 

exclude all other plants and animals.

Resembles the nonnative invasive giant knotweed(P. sachalinense F. Schmidt ex 

Maxim.) a larger plant with greenish flowers and cordate leaves with tapering points, 

currently found in KY, VA, TN, NC, and LA. These invasives hybridize in the Northeast 

(NE). 

History and use. Introduced from China, Japan, and Taiwan in the late 1800s as an 

ornamental. An invasive in many parts of the world.

Distribution. Found in VA, KY, TN, and NC with scattered occurrences elsewhere 

except in TX and FL.

Japanese Knotweed 

July
44

Invasive

SHRUBS

Japanese Meadowsweet

September September June

June

September September

September September September September September September Great Smoky Mtns. NP Res. Mgmt. Archive
45

Invasive

SHRUBS

Spiraea japonica L. f. SPJA Rosaceae

Other common names: Japanese spiraea, maybush

Plant. Deciduous, erect shrub to 6 feet (1.8 m) high with multiple stems and alternate 

branches, slender and brown, intertwining within older shaded plants or arching outward 

on hillside infestations. Small, alternate, lanceolate leaves with irregular serrate margins 

and flat-topped clusters of tiny, rose-pink flower heads that festoon branch tips and turn 

into crowded clusters of lustrous brown seed capsules in midsummer. Plant traits are 

variable due to numerous escaped cultivars.

Stem. Twigs initially whitish green, slender and wiry, usually quite hairy, jutting upward, 

often terminated in flower or fruit clusters. Stems becoming brown to reddish brown, 

round in cross section, with increasing grayish to whitish lengthwise stripes of dotted 

cork and protruding circular leaf and branch scars surrounded by corky deposits. 

Multiple basal sprouts on older plants intertwine for support.

Leaves. Alternate, thin, elliptic to lanceolate, 1 to 3 inches (2.5 to 7.6 cm) long and less 

than half as wide, tips are pointed and bases wedge shaped, margins irregularly and 

sharply serrated but less so towards the base. Blue green to green above and lighter 

beneath. A short petiole connects to a pronounced whitish-green midvein with about 

10 lateral, curved veins that end at serrate tips and are hairy beneath.

Flowers. June to September. Terminal on new growth, multibranched, flat-topped 

clusters (corymbs) of many red to rosy, domed flower buds that open into tiny, whitishpink to rose (rarely white) flowers, 0.2 inch (5 mm) wide with 5 petals and an extended 

mist of anthers. Sepals and stalks hairy.

Fruit and seeds. July to November. Flat-topped heads of tiny star-shaped clusters of 5 

smooth and lustrous, tan to brown capsules that split on top at varying times to release 

1 minute golden seed, 0.09 to 0.1 inch (2 to 2.4 mm) long.

Ecology. Forms dense infestations of entangled stems and branches and produces 

abundant foliage to exclude other plants and impact animal habitat. Seeds are dispersed 

by gravity, water, and soil movement during road maintenance. Populations occur 

along streams, roads, and adjacent disturbed sites and move into forest gaps and 

understories. Infestations intensify by abundant basal sprouting. Tolerant of a wide 

variety of growing conditions. 

Resembles several native and nonnative spiraeas, but is unique in the flat-topped, pink 

to pink-rose flower clusters and brown fruit clusters, the hairy branchlets and flowers, 

and lanceolate leaves. It is the species most often found growing in dense infestations. 

The other nonnative spiraea species have yet to become so problematic.

History and use. Introduced from Japan, Korea, and China as an ornamental about 

1870. Several cultivars still sold and planted by unsuspecting gardeners.

Distribution. Found as scattered dense infestations in VA, KY, TN, NC, SC, and 

north GA.

Japanese Meadowsweet

September September
46

Invasive

SHRUBS

February

September September

April

February April

April

Nancy Loewenstein

Nancy Loewenstein Nancy Loewenstein

Nancy Loewenstein

Leatherleaf Mahonia
47

Invasive

SHRUBS

Mahonia bealei (Fortune) Carrière MABE2 Berberidaceae

Synonyms: Berberis bealei (Fortune) Carrière

Other common names: Beale’s barberry, Beale’s Oregon-grape

Plant. Evergreen shrub up to 10 feet (3 m) in height and branching to 4 to 8 feet (1.2 to 

2.4 m) wide, erect and gangly or multi-stemmed from a pronounced root crown (with 

shallow roots). Leathery, odd-pinnately compound leaves radiate outward from the 

stem on long stalks with spiny, holly-like leaflets. Terminal, radiating stems of fragrant, 

yellow flowers in late winter to spring yield robin’s egg blue fruit covered by whitish wax, 

maturing to bluish black. Wood and inner roots bright yellow. 

Stem. Terminal stem growth comprised of crowded and overlapping broad leaf bases, 

light green or purple on seedlings, soon developing thin, tan to gray, fissured bark. The 

clasping leaf bases remain greenish and spaced at intervals along stout stems.

Leaves. Odd-pinnately compound, over 1 foot (30 cm) long on purplish stalks, stiff and 

spiraling out at intervals from the main stem with 9 to 13 leathery leaflets, 1 to 4 inches 

(2.5 to 10 cm) long. Leaflets with 5 to 7 extremely sharp marginal spines, holly-like, 

with no petioles and the terminal leaflet being largest. Lustrous green above with a 

lighter midvein and pale green beneath. Seedlings initially have simple heart-shaped 

leaflets on long petioles with many spines around the margins and often very white 

waxy beneath. 

Flowers. January to April. Plants are topped with 6 to 12 unbranched, bluish to purplish 

stems with lateral dangling yellow fragrant flowers, opening from base to tip. 

Fruit and seeds. March to August. Many fleshy-skinned, egg-shaped berries, 0.4 to 

0.7 inch (1 to 1.8 cm) long, dangle from bracts on a purplish stalk. Berries white waxy 

coated, light green turning robin’s egg blue and ripening purplish black, each with 2 

to 3 seeds.

Ecology. Moderate in growth rate in a full range of soil textures and light conditions, 

but prefers moist soils. Tolerates cold, however, young plants can be damaged by 

late frosts. Pollinated by insects. Colonizes by basal sprouts and spreads by many 

bird-dispersed seeds from ornamental and escaped plants. Seed from ripe fruit can 

immediately germinate. Hybridizes with other mahonias.

Resembles native subshrubs hollyleaved barberry[M.aquifolium (Pursh) Nutt.] and 

Cascade barberry [M. nervosa (Pursh) Nutt.], which are small, low growing, and have 

6 to 13 spiny teeth around their leaf margins.

History and use. Introduced in 1845 from China, Japan, and Taiwan as an ornamental.

Still being sold and planted by unsuspecting gardeners.

Distribution. Found as scattered plants and new infestations in AL, GA, FL, SC, NC, 

and VA.

Leatherleaf Mahonia

Nancy Loewenstein

July
48

Invasive

SHRUBS

Nonnative Roses

May April

December December October October June

October October

Multiflora rose Multiflora rose

Multiflora rose Multiflora rose

Multiflora rose Multiflora rose

Macartney rose Macartney rose

Multiflora rose Multiflora rose

Multiflora rose Multiflora rose

May

September September

Multiflora rose Multiflora rose

Macartney rose Macartney rose

September September

April

Cherokee rose Cherokee rose

Cherokee rose Cherokee rose

September September

Macartney rose Macartney rose
49

Invasive

SHRUBS

Nonnative Roses 2160

May

Multiflora rose

Multiflora rose, Rosa multiflora Thunb. ex Murr. ROMU Rosaceae

Macartney rose, R. bracteata J.C. Wendl. ROBR

Cherokee rose, R. laevigata Michx ROLA

Other nonnative roses, Rosa spp.

Plant. There are 21 nonnative rose species loose in southern ecosystems and only 

8 natives. These descriptions are for some of the most invasive roses, but are not all 

inclusive. Evergreen (except multiflora) erect climbing, arching, or trailing shrubs to 10 

feet (3 m) in height or length. Clump forming. Pinnately compound leaves, frequent 

recurved and straight prickles, clustered or single white flowers in early summer, and 

red rose hips in fall to winter. 

Stem. Long arching or climbing by clinging using recurved or straight thorny prickles. 

Green with linear horizontal leaf and branch scars at nodes. Flower buds of multiflora 

often red in winter. Bark dark brown with streaks of light brown or green. 

Leaves. Alternate, odd-pinnately compound with 3 to 9 elliptic to lanceolate leaflets, 

each 1 to 3 inches (2.5 to 8 cm) long. Margins finely and sharply serrate. Leafstalk 

bases clasping, channeled, and often bristled on margins, with toothed hairs. 

Flowers. April to June. Terminal or axillary branched clusters or single flowers. Five 

white, pink, or red petals with many yellow anthers in center. 

Fruit and seeds. July to December. Rose hip, spherical, and fleshy, 0.25 to 0.4 inch 

(0.6 to 1 cm). Green to yellow and ripening to glossy red. 

Ecology. Form small-to-large infestations often climbing up into trees. Multiflora widely 

planted and often spreading along right-of-ways and invading new forests and forest 

margins. Colonize by prolific sprouting and stems that root, and spread by animaldispersed seeds.

Resemble native Carolina rose (R. carolina L.), swamp rose (R. palustris Marsh.), 

and climbing rose (R. setigera Michx.), all of which have pink flowers in spring and 

nonbristled leafstalk bases, but none forming extensive infestations except swamp 

rose in wet habitat. 

History and use. Introduced from Asia in the late 1800’s. Traditionally planted as 

ornamentals, livestock containment, and wildlife habitat. Multiflora widely planted for 

“living fences” or screening. Rose hips collected by herbalists for their high vitamin C 

content.

Distribution. Found throughout the region except in FL with dense and frequent 

infestations in TX, OK, AR, MS, AL, TN, KY, VA, NC, and west SC. Species vary by 

States.
50

Invasive

SHRUBS

December December August September September

May

Fred Nation

May September September December December

Sacred Bamboo, Nandina
51

Invasive

SHRUBS

March

Nandina domestica Thunb. NADO Berberidaceae

Other common name: heavenly bamboo

Plant. Evergreen erect shrub to 8 feet (2.5 m) in height, with multiple bushy stems that 

resemble bamboo, glossy bipinnately compound green (or reddish) leaves, white to 

pinkish flowers in terminal clusters, and bright-red berries in fall and winter. 

Stem. Large compound leaves resembling leafy branches with overlapping sheaths 

clasping the main stem, woody leafstalk bases persisting as stubby branches. Stubby 

branches whorled alternately up the stem and tightly stacked near terminals for a 

given year’s growth. The overlapping sheaths on the main stem give the appearance 

of bamboo (thus, the common name). Stem fleshy and greenish gray near terminal, 

becoming woody barked and tan to brown with fissures towards the base. Wood 

bright yellow. 

Leaves. Alternate spiraled, at branch tips, bipinnately compound on 1.5 to 3 feet (0.5 

to 1 m) long slender, often reddish tinged leafstalks, with joints distinctly segmented. 

Leafstalk bases clasping stems with a V-notch on the opposite side of attachment. 

Nine to 81 nearly sessile leaflets, lanceolate to diamond shaped, 0.5 to 4 inches (1.2 

to 10 cm) long and 0.4 to 1.2 inches (1 to 3 cm) wide. Glossy light green to dark green 

sometimes red tinged or burgundy. 

Flowers. May to July. Terminal (or axillary) panicles of several hundred flowers, 4 to 

10 inches (10 to 25 cm) long. Pink in bud, opening to 3 (2 to 4) lanceolate deciduous 

petals, white to cream, with yellow anthers 0.2 to 0.3 inch (6 to 8 mm) long. Fragrant. 

Fruit and seeds. September to April. Dense terminal and axillary clusters of fleshy, 

spherical berries 0.2 to 0.3 inch (6 to 8 mm). Light green ripening to bright red in winter. 

Two hemispherical seeds. 

Ecology. Occurs under forest canopies and near forest edges. Shade tolerant. Seedlings 

frequent in vicinity of old plantings. Varying leaf colors in the various cultivars, some of 

which do not produce viable seeds. Colonizes by root sprouts and spreads by animaldispersed seeds. 

History and use. Introduced from Eastern Asia and India in the early 1800s. Widely 

planted as an ornamental, now escaped and spreading from around old homes and 

recent landscape plantings. Sterile-seeded, reddish cultivars available. 

Distribution. Found throughout the region with dense infestations in TN and LA. 

Spreading from urban and suburban plantings.

Sacred Bamboo, Nandina
52

Invasive

SHRUBS

June January

July July

Shrubby Shrubby

Thunberg’s Thunberg’s

Thunberg’s Thunberg’s Thunberg’s Thunberg’s

Shrubby Shrubby

Shrubby Shrubby

Shrubby Nonnative Lespedezas 6052

June

June
53

Invasive

SHRUBS

August

Shrubby Lespedeza, Lespedeza bicolor Turcz. LEBI2 Fabaceae

Other common name: bicolor

Thunberg’s Lespedeza, L. thunbergii (DC.) Nakai LETH4

Plant. Perennial, erect, and much branched or ascending leguminous shrubs, 3 to 10 

feet (1 to 3 m) in height. Stems clustered at the base with Thunberg’s and single with 

bicolor. Trifoliate (3-leaflet) leaves, many small purple-to-white pea flowers, and singleseeded pods, from a woody root crown. Dormant brown plants remain upright most 

of the winter and may sprout at branches in the spring. Species probably hybridize to 

blur traits.

Stem. Arching branched, upright-to-ascending stems, 0.2 to 0.8 inch (0.5 to 2 cm) in 

diameter. Thunberg’s often purple when young and bicolor often light tan to gray green. 

Appressed hairy to hairless. 

Leaves. Alternate, 3-leaflet leaves. Thunberg’s leaflets mostly narrowly elliptic to 

oblong, 0.8 to 2 inches (2 to 5 cm) long, and shrubby broadly elliptic to oval, 0.8 to 1.2 

inches (2 to 3 cm) long, both with a hairlike tip. Lower surfaces lighter green than upper 

surfaces. Petioles 0.8 to 1.6 inches (2 to 4 cm) long. Stipules narrowly linear, 0.04 to 

0.3 inch (1 to 8 mm) long. 

Flowers. June to September. Clusters (racemes) 4 to 6 inches (10 to 15 cm) long growing 

from upper leaf axils—each cluster subtended by a tiny ovate bract—composed of 2 to 

15 well-spaced, pealike flowers, more drooping in Thunberg’s while shrubby are erect 

and extending beyond leaves. Each flower 0.3 to 0.6 inch (8 to 15 mm) long and beyond 

the upper leaves. Petals usually rosy purple in center and often grading to lighter shades, 

but can vary to white (many cultivars). Sepal teeth sharp with the lowest longer than 

the tube for Thunberg’s while rounded and shorter than the tube for shrubby. 

Fruit and seeds. August to March. Flat legume pod 0.2 to 0.3 inch (6 to 8 mm) long, 

broadly elliptic with pointed hairlike tip. Green becoming gray and densely appressed 

hairy, not splitting. Single seed 0.12 to 0.16 inch (3 to 4 mm) long, black for Thunberg’s 

and mottled purple on green for shrubby. 

Ecology. Planted widely in forest openings for wildlife food plots and soil stabilization 

to later encroach into adjoining stands. Reproduce and spread by abundant seed 

production even under a medium-to-dense overstory to exclude all other vegetation. 

Spread encouraged by burning that clears adjoining areas for seeding. Infestations 

seasonally changes from fire resistant in summer to hot burning in winter. Leguminous 

nitrogen fixers. Dense infestations hinder or stop recreational access, even 

by hunters.

History and use. Introduced from East Asia as ornamentals in the late 1800s. Later 

programs promoted uses for wildlife food and soil stabilization and improvement. Still 

sold even by States and planted for quail and whitetail deer food plots, while other birds 

and rodents do not eat the seed.

Distribution. Found throughout the region with scattered dense infestations in 

every State.

Shrubby Nonnative Lespedezas 6052

Shrubby Shrubby
54

Invasive

SHRUBS

Silverthorn, Thorny Olive 

Ted Bodner

March

April

October October April
55

Invasive

SHRUBS

Elaeagnus pungens Thunb. ELPU2 Elaeagnaceae

Other common names: spotted elaeagnus, thorny elaeagnus

Plant. Evergreen, densely bushy shrub 3 to 25 feet (1 to 8 m) in height, with scattered 

sharp stubby branches and long limber projecting shoots that scramble up into adjacent 

trees. Thick leaves, silver-brown scaly beneath. Often found near ornamental and wildlife 

plantings as escaped single plants from animal-dispersed seeds. 

Stem. Multiple stems and densely branched. Twigs brown, covered with brown scales, 

and hairy when young. Short shoots with small leaves become sharp-branched or 

unbranched thorns 0.4 to 1.6 inches (1 to 4 cm) long, and in second year produce leafy 

lateral branches, followed by flowers in fall. Lateral branches distinctly long, limber, and 

in late summer to spring extending beyond bushy crown and ascending into trees. Bark 

dark, drab and rough with projecting stubby thorns. 

Leaves. Alternate, oval to elliptic and thick, 0.4 to 4 inches (1 to 10 cm) long and 0.2 

to 2 inches (0.6 to 5 cm) wide. Irregular and wavy margins that may roll under. Blade 

surfaces silver scaly in spring becoming dark green or brownish green above and 

densely silver scaly with scattered brown scales beneath. Petioles 0.1 to 0.2 inch (4 to 

5 mm) long, grooved above. 

Flowers. October to December. Axillary clusters, each with 1 to 3 flowers, 0.4 inch 

(1 cm) long, silvery white to brown. Tubular with 4 lobes. Fragrant. 

Fruit and seeds. March to June. Oblong, juicy drupe, 0.3 to 0.6 inch (1 to 1.5 cm) long, 

containing 1 nutlet. Whitish ripening to red and finely dotted with silvery to silvery-brown 

scales. Persistent shriveled calyx tube at tip. 

Ecology. Fast-growing, weedy ornamental. Tolerant to shade, drought, and salt. Spreads 

by animal-dispersed seeds and occurs as scattered individuals, both in the open and 

under forest shade. Increases in size by prolific stem sprouts. Can climb into trees. 

Resembles autumn olive (E. umbellata Thunb.) and Russian olive (E. angustifolia L.), 

both of which are deciduous and are further described in this book. Autumn olive has 

thin leaves with silver scales (not silver brown) and abundant reddish rounded berries 

in fall and early winter. Russian olive has silver scaly twigs and leaf surfaces, and many 

yellow fruit in fall and winter. 

History and use. Introduced as an ornamental from China and Japan in 1830. Frequently 

planted for hedgerows and on highway right-of-ways and still used for landscaping. 

Mistakenly planted for wildlife to escape into nearby forests and pastures.

Distribution. Found as scattered plants or small infestations throughout the region.

Silverthorn, Thorny Olive 2037

October October
56

Invasive

SHRUBS

Tropical Soda Apple 

June

May

John Everest

Charles Bryson

Charles Bryson Charles Bryson

John Everest

June

May

May November November

July

May
57

Invasive

SHRUBS

Solanum viarum Dunal SOVI2 Solanaceae

Plant. Upright, thorny perennial subshrub or shrub, 3 to 6 feet (1 to 2 m) in height, 

with leaves shaped like northern red oak leaves, clusters of tiny white flowers, and 

green-to-yellow golf-ball size fruit. Fruit sweet smelling and attractive to livestock 

and wildlife. Remains green over winter in most southern locations. Caution: Fruit 

is poisonous.

Stem. Upright to leaning, much branched, hairy, covered with broad-based white to 

yellow thorns. 

Leaves. Alternate, 4 to 8 inches (10 to 20 cm) long and 2 to 6 inches (5 to 15 cm) wide. 

Margins deeply lobed (shaped like oak leaves). Velvety hairy with thorns projecting 

from veins and petioles. Dark green with whitish midveins above and lighter green with 

netted veins beneath. 

Flowers. May to August (year-round in Florida). Terminal small clusters of 5-petaled 

white flowers. Petals first extended, then becoming recurved. Yellow to white fused 

stamens projecting from the center. 

Fruit and seeds. June to November (year-round in Florida). Spherical, hairless, pulpy 

berry 1 to 1.5 inches (2.5 to 4 cm). Whitish then mottled green ripening to yellow. Each 

berry producing 200 to 400 reddish-brown seeds. 

Ecology. Occurs on open to semishady sites. Viable seed in green or yellow fruit but 

not in white fruit. Reaches maturity from seed within 105 days. Persists by root crowns 

or green stems in warmer areas. Rapidly spreading by cattle and other livestock 

transportation and by wildlife-dispersed seeds as well as seed-contaminated hay, sod, 

and machinery. 

Resembles horsenettle (S. carolinense L.), an 8- to 30-inch (20- to 80-cm) forb, which 

has similar but smaller fruit, long elliptic-to-ovate lobed leaves 3 to 5 inches (8 to 12 

cm) long and 1 to 3 inches (2.5 to 8 cm) wide, and prickly yellow spines on stems and 

lower leaf veins but not on upper leaf. Also resembles, in stature and habitat, the 

closely related nonnative sticky nightshade (S. sisymbriifolium) which has deeply lobed 

lanceolate leaves and bright-red ripe fruit initially enclosed in a prickly husk.

History and use. Native to Argentina and Brazil and introduced into FL in the 1980s. 

No known use. A Federal listed noxious weed with an eradication program underway.

Distribution. Found in dense infestations in FL, LA, and MS and the southern portions 

of AL, GA and SC with outlying infestations in west TX, west NC and central TN. Mainly 

occurs in pastures and moving into the forest margins and openings.

Tropical Soda Apple 6095

May
58

Invasive

SHRUBS

Winged Burning Bush 

May November November December December

April April April

October October
59

Invasive

SHRUBS

Euonymus alatus (Thunb.) Siebold EUAL8 Celastraceae

Other common names: winged wahoo, winged euonymus, burningbush

Plant. Deciduous, wing-stemmed, bushy shrub to 12 feet (4 m) in height, multiple 

stemmed and much branched. Canopy broad and leafy. Small obovate leaves green and 

turning bright scarlet to purplish red in fall. Paired purple fruit in fall on new growth. 

Stem. Four corky wings or ridges appearing along young lime-green squarish twigs with 

wings becoming wider with age. Numerous opposite branches, with bases encircled 

by corky rings. Larger branches and bark becoming light gray. 

Leaves. Opposite, obovate, and thin, 1 to 2 inches (2.5 to 5 cm) long and 0.4 to 0.8 

inch (1 to 2 cm) wide. Tips tapering to an acute point. Margins finely crenate. Both 

surfaces smooth and hairless. Dark green with whitish midvein above and light green 

beneath, turning bright crimson to purplish red in fall. Petioles 0.04 to 0.16 inch (1 to 

4 mm) long. 

Flowers. April to May. Axillary pairs of small flowers at the ends of a Y-shaped 1-inch 

(2.5-cm) stem. Flowers inconspicuous, 0.2 to 0.3 inch (6 to 8 mm) across, greenish 

yellow, 5 lobed, pistil elongating as fruit forms. 

Fruit and seeds. August to January. Dangling paired (or single) reddish capsules in 

leaf axils, turning purple and splitting in fall to reveal an orange fleshy-covered seed. 

Ecology. Shade tolerant and invading forest understories, pastures, and coastal shrub 

lands. Colonizes by root suckers and spreads by animal-dispersed seeds. 

Resembles the threatened and endangered native burning bush (E. atropurpureus

Jacq.), which has erect-hairy lower leaf surfaces and petioles 0.3 to 0.8 inch (8 to 20 

mm) long. Also resembles the larger-leaved species of blueberry (Vaccinium spp.), 

but their leaves are alternate. Possibly resembles rusty blackhaw (Viburnum rufidulum 

Raf.), which also has opposite leaves but distinguished by their larger size and leathery 

texture. Dormant twigs may resemble winged elm (Ulmus alata Michx.) and sweetgum 

(Liquidambar styraciflua L.), which are usually 2 winged instead of 4 winged. 

History and use. Introduced from Northeast Asia in the 1860s. Widely planted as an 

ornamental and for highway beautification. 

Distribution. Found throughout the region except AR and TX, with dense infestations 

in KY and VA. 

Winged Burning Bush 2042

April
60

Invasive

VINES

July

September September

November November

November November

November November November November November November

Amur Peppervine, Porcelain Berry

Leslie J. Mehrhoff

November November
61

VINES

Invasive

Ampelopsis brevipedunculata (Maxim.) Trautv. AMBR7 Vitaceae

Plant. Deciduous, woody vine of the grape family to 20 feet (5 m) long, running and 

climbing over shrub and tree crowns and rock faces by clinging tendrils, forming 

thicket and arbor infestations. Heart-shaped leaves with up to 6 deep lobes and 

toothed margins, axillary flat clusters of inconspicuous yellowish flowers in spring, and 

multicolored spherical fruit of white, green, or blue in the fall and winter. 

Stem. Woody vine to 4 inches (10 cm) diameter, climbing by tendrils with forked ends 

and fine hairs (tendrils not forked on native grapes). Tendrils occur on new growth, 

opposite leaves. New stems are whitish green, smooth to lightly hairy, slightly square with 

regularly spaced swollen nodes, increasingly with raised dots (lenticels) that become 

corky and reddish, eventually forming linear gray-reddish barky patches. Bark glossy 

light gray becoming gray and rough with persistent swollen nodes. Pith is white, while 

native grape pith is brown. 

Leaves. Alternate, simple and heart shaped in outline but variable in form from entire 

with 1 to 3 tips to those with multiple incised, rounded to scalloped lobes between 3 

to 5 prominent whitish veins radiating from the base. Margins coarsely toothed with 

distinctive fine whitish hair tips. Dark green to blue green, shiny above and fine hairy 

beneath, becoming yellow in fall. New leaves tiny at branch tips, progressively increasing 

up to 6 inches (15 cm) long and 4 inches (10 cm) wide. Petioles 2.5 inches (6 cm) long, 

light green and hairless, with greatly swollen bases. 

Flowers. June to August. Numerous tiny-branched clusters (cymes), with up to 40 

flowers, opposite new leaves and fruit in midsummer. Flowers tiny with 5 spreading 

white petals (grape petals touch at tips) and 5 yellow erect stamens (hand lens may 

be required). 

Fruit and seeds. July to January. Drupes in clusters, shiny, spherical, to 0.5 inch (1.2 cm) 

wide, green tipped with a persistent pistil and turning whitish, yellow, purple, turquoise, 

and porcelain blue (thus the common name), with all colors sometimes present. Each 

drupe contains 2 to 4 seeds. Persist in winter at most leaf axils.

Ecology. Occurs on a wide range of sites and grows rapidly to form exclusive infestations 

along forest edges. Found as scattered plants to extensive infestations in forest openings, 

margins, and roadsides as well as along stream margins and riverbanks. Areas from 

full sun to partial shade. Colonizes by prolific vine growth that roots at nodes. Seeds 

spread by birds and other animals, may be viable in the soil for several years.

Resembles grape vines (Vitis spp.) but can be distinguished by the whitish pith 

versus grape’s darker pith, and by peppervine’s variable colored fruit. Also resembles

the native heartleaf peppervine (A. cordata Michx.) with unlobed leaves and 

hairless stems. 

History and use. Introduced from Northeast Asia in the 1800s as a landscape plant 

for the uniquely colored berries. Varieties are still sold in the plant trade. 

Distribution. Found throughout the region except AR, TX, and OK with frequent dense 

infestations in KY, VA, TN, and NC.

Amur Peppervine, Porcelain Berry

Steven T. Manning

August
62

Invasive

VINES

Air Yam July Chinese Yam July Air Yam July Fred Nation

Air Yam December December Water Yam August Air Yam December December

Chinese Yam November November

Climbing Yams 
63

VINES

Invasive

Air yam, Dioscorea bulbifera L. DIBU Dioscoreaceae Climbing Yams 3030

Other common name: air potato

Chinese yam or cinnamon vine, D. oppositifolia L. DIOPO

Synonym: D. polystachya Turcz., D. batatas Decne.

Water yam, D. alata L. DIAL2 

Other common names: winged yam, white yam

Plant. Herbaceous, high climbing vines to 65 feet (20 m) long, infestations covering shrubs 

and trees. Twining and sprawling stems with long-petioled heart-shaped leaves. Spreading 

by dangling potato-like tubers (bulbils) at leaf axils and underground tubers. Monocots. 

Stem. Twining and covering vegetation, branching, hairless. Internode cross sections round 

for air yam to angled for Chinese and water yams. Water yam nodes winged and reddish. 

All stems dying back in winter leaving some bulbils attached. 

Leaves. Alternate (air) or combination of alternate and opposite (Chinese and water). Heart 

shaped to triangular with elongated tips, thin and hairless, 4 to 8 inches (10 to 20 cm) long 

and 2 to 6 inches (5 to 15 cm) wide. Long petioled. Basal lobes broadly rounded (air) or 

often angled (Chinese and water). Margins smooth. Veins curved and converging at tip and 

base. Dark green with slightly indented curved veins above (quilted appearance) and lighter 

green beneath. Chinese yam leaves turning bright yellow in fall. 

Flowers. May to August. Rare, small, panicles or spikes to 4.5 inches (11 cm) long in axils 

male and female flowers on separate plants (dioecious). Green to white. Fragrant, with 

Chinese yam having a cinnamon fragrance (thus the common name cinnamon vine). 

Fruit and seeds. June to September (and year round). One to 4 aerial tubers (bulbils) 

resembling miniature potatoes or yams occur at leaf axils, eventually dropping and sprouting 

to form new plants. Shape spherical to ovoid (air and Chinese) to oblong (water). Texture 

smooth with dimples (air) to warty (Chinese) to rough (water). Air yam to 5 inches (12 cm) long, 

Chinese yam to 1 inch (2.5 cm) long, and water yam to 4 inches (10 cm) long and 1.2 inches 

(3 cm) wide. Very rarely have capsules and winged seeds, which have questionable 

viability. 

Ecology. Rapid growing and occurring on open sites: water yams in FL, air yams extending 

from FL to adjacent States, and Chinese yams in all States except FL. All dying back during 

winter but able to cover small trees in a year, with old vines providing trellises for regrowth. 

Spread and persist by underground tubers and abundant production of aerial tubers (bulbils), 

which drop and form new plants and can spread by water. Chinese yam aerial tubers persist 

only 1 year.

Resemble greenbriers (Smilax spp.) with most having thorns and/or green-to-purple berries 

but no aerial potatoes. Also resemble several native Dioscorea species that do not form 

dense vine infestations nor have aerial tubers (bulbils): wild yam (D. villosa L.) with hairy 

upper leaf surfaces; native Florida yam (D. floridana Bartlett); and, only in Florida, nonnative 

Zanzibar yam (D. sansibarensis Pax.). Chinese yam leaves are a similar shape to the native 

vine, Carolina coralbead (Cocculus carolinus (L.) DC.), and morning-glory (Ipomea spp.) 

while their veins are not curved tip to base. 

History and use. Introduced from Africa (air) and Asia (Chinese and water) as possible 

food sources in the 1800s. Ornamentals often spread by unsuspecting gardeners intrigued 

by the dangling yams. Presently cultivated for medicinal use. 

Distribution. Chinese yam found scattered throughout the region, while air and water yam 

occur along the southern portions of the Gulf Coast States and throughout FL.

Air Yam October October
64

Invasive

VINES

Five-Leaf Akebia, 

Chocolate Vine

May September September Nancy Loewenstein

May

Steven T. Manning

May

May May Nancy Fraley

Steven T. Manning

August
65

VINES

Invasive

Akebia quinata (Houtt.) Decne. AKQU Lardizabalaceae 

Plant. Woody, semi-evergreen or evergreen vine to 40 feet (12 m) long, climbing by 

twining to dangle and sprawl in tree and shrub crowns and/or forming solid ground 

cover, up to 1 foot (30 cm) deep. Small, dark green, palmately compound leaves with 

5 elliptical leaflets on long petioles. Infrequent, showy, dangling purple flowers appear 

with leaves in spring with female flowers infrequently yielding sausage-shaped pods 

in fall. 

Stem. Woody, round, to 4 inches (10 cm) in diameter at the base, with numerous 

branching stems twining for support on plants or natural trellises or forming ground 

cover and rooting where nodes contact soil. Lime green and smooth, becoming dotted 

with many brownish dots (lenticels), then light and dark gray striated and finally light 

gray speckled with raised gray dots. Leaf scars circular and cleft, protruding alternately 

or in clusters along the stem. 

Leaves. Alternate, palmately compound, usually 5 leaflets, obovate to elliptic or oblong, 

1 to 3 inches (2.5 to 8 cm) long and 0.4 to 1.5 inches (1 to 4 cm) wide, terminal leaflet 

usually the largest. New leaves purple tinged turning dull blue green, midvein and 2 

lateral veins lighter above and leaflet whitish beneath. Margins entire, tip notched or 

blunt with tiny hair. Rachis (leaf stem) to 4 inches (10 cm) long, while leaflet stems 

(petiolules) shorter to only 1 inch (2.5 cm) long. Where deciduous, leaves appear early 

in spring with no color change before dropping in winter at the first frost. 

Flowers. March to April. Small purple-to-violet flowers of 3 sepals (no true petals) in 

long-stalked clusters of 2 to 5 that appear with leaves and can be unnoticed within the 

foliage. Fragrance likened to chocolate. Male flowers terminal in clusters, smaller, 0.5 

to 0.75 inch (1.2 to 1.6 cm) wide and female flowers, 1 to 1.5 inches (2.5 to 4 cm) wide, 

extend outward on long stalks. 

Fruit and seeds. May to ripening in October. Rarely fruiting. Dangling clusters of 1 to 5 

sausage-shaped, fleshy pods, 2 to 4 inches (5 to 10 cm) long, tipped like a banana and 

having a lengthwise suture along one side. Light green, turning pink to purplish with 

lighter speckles and a waxy coating. When ripe the skin splits to reveal a pulpy, edible 

inner core that splits further to expose many (100+) imbedded black seeds. 

Ecology. Occurs on a wide range of sites, somewhat drought tolerant but prefers moist 

soils, full sun to partial shade. The dense ground cover displaces native plants and 

wildlife while vigorous climbing vines cover and kill small trees and shrubs. Colonizes 

by prolific vine growth that root and sprout. Infrequent seeds spread by birds and 

other animals. 

Resembles bottlebrush buckeye (Aesculus parviflora Walt.) when young due to similar 

palmately compound leaves with 5 leaflets, but buckeye leaves have pointed tips and 

pronounced lateral veins.

History and use. Introduced from Eastern Asia in 1845 as an ornamental. Still sold in the 

plant trade with several varieties that produce fertile seeds when cross-pollinated.

Distribution. Found in scattered infestations throughout the region but not yet reported 

in TX and OK.

Five-Leaf Akebia, Chocolate Vine

March

Nancy Loewenstein
66

Invasive

VINES

Ted Bodner

Ted Bodner

May October October November November

May September September

Japanese Honeysuckle
67

VINES

Invasive

April

Lonicera japonica Thunb. LOJA Caprifoliaceae

Plant. Semi-evergreen to evergreen woody vine, high climbing and trailing to 80 feet 

(24 m) long, branching and often forming spotty to extensive arbors in lower and upper 

forest canopies and/or ground cover under canopies and in new forests, rooting at 

nodes along leaf-covered vines (stolons). 

Stem. Slender woody vine becoming stout to 2 inches (5 cm) in diameter, with crosssection round and opposite branching. Brown and hairy becoming tan barked, fissured, 

and sloughing with age. Rooting at low nodes.

Leaves. Opposite, broadly ovate to elliptic to oblong, base rounded, tips blunt pointed 

to round. Length 1.6 to 2.6 inches (4 to 6.5 cm) and width 0.8 to 1.5 inches (2 to 4 cm). 

Margins entire but often lobed in early spring. Both surfaces smooth to rough hairy, with 

undersurface appearing whitish. 

Flowers. April to August. Axillary pairs, each 0.8 to 1.2 inches (2 to 3 cm) long, on a 

bracted stalk. White (or pink) and pale yellow. Fragrant. Thin tubular, flaring into 5 lobes 

in 2 lips (upper lip 4 lobed and lower lip single lobed), with the longest lobes roughly 

equal to the tube. Five stamens and 1 pistil, all projecting outward and becoming curved. 

Persistent sepals. 

Fruit and seeds. June to March. Nearly spherical, green ripening to black, glossy berry 

0.2 inch (5 to 6 mm) on stalks 0.4 to 1.2 inches (1 to 3 cm) long. Two to 3 seeds. 

Ecology. Most commonly occurring invasive plant in the South, overwhelming and 

replacing native flora in all forest types over a wide range of sites or occurring as scattered 

plants. Often coexisting with other invasive plants. Occurs as dense infestations along 

forest margins and right-of-ways as well as under dense canopies and as arbors high 

in canopies. Shade tolerant. Persists by shallow, trailing woody rootstocks and spreads 

mainly by rooting at vine nodes and less by animal-dispersed seeds. Infrequently 

seeding within forest stands with very low germination. Seed survival in the soil is less 

than 2 years.

Resembles yellow jessamine [Gelsemium sempervirens (L.) W.T. Aiton], which has 

narrower leaves and hairless stems. Also resembles native honeysuckles (Lonicera 

spp.) that usually have reddish hairless stems and hairless leaves and do not form 

extensive infestations. 

History and use. Introduced from Japan through England in the early 1800s. Traditional 

ornamental, valued as deer browse, with some value for erosion control. Still planted 

in wildlife food plots to encroach on adjacent lands. 

Distribution. The most pervasive invasive plant throughout the region with the most 

frequent and dense infestations in east-central AL and sizeable numbers in central MS 

and eastern TN, as well as in the Piedmont of GA, SC, NC, and VA.

Japanese Honeysuckle 3101
68

Invasive

VINES

October October April Ted Bodner

Ted Bodner

July November November November November

Kudzu 

August

June
69

VINES

Invasive

Erwin Chambliss

July

Pueraria montana (Lour.) Merr. PUMOL Fabaceae

Synonyms: P. lobata (Willd.) Ohwi, P. montana var. lobata 

(Willd.) Maesen & S. Almeida 

Plant. Deciduous twining, trailing, deep mat-forming, ropelike woody leguminous vine, 

35 to 100 feet (10 to 30 m) long with 3-leaflet leaves. Large semiwoody tuberous roots 

reaching depths of 3 to 16 feet (1 to 5 m) with a knot- or ball-like root crown on top at 

the soil surface where vines originate. Leaves and small vines dying with first frost and 

matted dead leaves persistent during winter. 

Stem. Woody vines to 10 inches (25 cm) in diameter, round in cross section, with 

infrequent branching. Stems succulent and yellow green with dense, erect golden 

hairs and upward-matted silver hairs, aging to ropelike and light gray barked. Frequent 

unswollen nodes root when on the ground to form new plants when interconnecting 

vines die, eventually growing large with age to form root crowns 1 to 10 inches (2.5 to 

25 cm) wide. Mature bark eventually rough, rigid, and usually dark brown. 

Leaves. Alternate, pinnately compound 3-leaflet leaves, each leaflet 3 to 7 inches 

(8 to 18 cm) long and 2.5 to 8 inches (6 to 20 cm) wide. Usually slightly lobed (unless 

in shade) with a 2-lobed symmetric middle leaflet and two 1-lobed side leaflets. Tips 

pointed. Margins thin membranous and fine golden hairy. Leaflet stems (petiolules) 

swollen near leaftlets. Petrioles 6 to 12 inches (15 to 30 cm) long, long hairy, base 

swollen, with deciduous stipules. 

Flowers. June to September. Axillary slender clusters (racemes), 2 to 12 inches (5 to 

30 cm) long, of pealike flowers in pairs (or threes) from raised nodes spiraling up the 

stalk, opening from the base to top. Petals lavender to wine colored with yellow centers. 

Fragrant, often reported with the scent of grapes.

Fruit and seeds. September to January. Clustered dry, flattened legume pods (bulging 

above the seeds) each 1.2 to 3 inches (3 to 8 cm) long and 0.3 to 0.5 inch (8 to 12 mm) 

wide. Green ripening to tan with stiff golden-brown hairs. Falling whole or splitting on 

1 to 2 sides to release a few ovoid seeds. 

Ecology. Can grow 1 foot (30 cm) per day in spring and 60 feet (18 m) per year. Occurs 

in old infestations, along right-of-ways, forest edges, and stream banks. Forms dense 

mats over the ground, debris, shrubs, and mature trees forming dense patches by 

twining on objects less than 4 inches (10 cm) in diameter. Colonizes by vines rooting 

at nodes and spreads by wind-, animal-, and water-dispersed seeds. Seed viability 

variable by habitat and across the region. Leguminous nitrogen fixer. 

History and use. Introduced from Japan and China in the early 1900s with continued 

seed importation ending in the 1990s. Limited use for erosion control, livestock feed, 

and folk art. A sucking insect predator was first found in central GA in 2012, which 

decreases plant vigor and seeding. By 2013 the ‘kudzu bug’ (Megacopta cribraria) had 

spread to all states in the region east of MS and TN including KY and VA. This insect 

also predates other legumes, notably soybeans. 

Distribution. Found throughout the region with scattered dense infestations in every 

State. Especially frequent in MS, AL, GA, and northwest SC ending in the 1900’s.

Kudzu 3123
70

Invasive

VINES

English Ivy shown in all images

July July

June July July July January

Nonnative Ivies

July
71

VINES

Invasive

September September

English Ivy, Hedera helix L. HEHE Araliaceae

Atlantic Ivy or Irish Ivy, H. hibernica (G. Kirchn.) Bean HEHI12

Colchis Ivy or Persian Ivy, H. colchica (K. Koch) K. Koch HECO20

Plant. Evergreen woody vines climbing to 90 feet (28 m) by clinging aerial roots and trailing 

to form dense ground cover. Thick dark-green leaves with whitish veins and 3 to 5 pointed 

lobes when juvenile, colchis ivy with 3 slight tips and few sharp teeth. Maturing at about 10 

years into erect plants or branches with unlobed leaves and terminal flower clusters that yield 

blackish-to-purplish berries. Hundreds of cultivars vary in leaf size and color. Caution: Fruit 

toxic to humans, and plant contact triggers dermatitis in sensitive individuals. 

Stem. Woody slender vines when a ground cover and growing to 10 inches (25 cm) in diameter 

when climbing infested trees and rocks by many fine to stout aerial rootlets. Vines pale green 

(sometimes reddish tinged), rooting at nodes, becoming covered with gray-brown shiny bark, 

segmented by encircling and raised leaf scars, and roughened by tiny ridges. Bark light gray 

to brown, bumpy and gnarly, with aerial rootlets that exude a gluelike substance to tightly 

cling to vertical structures. Older vines sometimes grown together where crossed. 

Leaves. Alternate, with shapes varying according to age—typical juvenile plants having 3 

to 5 pointed lobes and mature plants broadly lanceolate (English and Atlantic) to cordate 

(colchis). English generally less than 3.3 inches (8 cm) wide, Atlantic up to 4 inches (10 

cm) wide, and colchis about 4 or more inches (10 cm) wide. All thick and waxy, dark green 

(some whitish variegated cultivars) with light-green veins radiating from the petiole and pale 

green beneath. Colchis dull green above, drooping, and fragrant when crushed. Hairs whitish 

on English, yellowish brown to rusty brown on Atlantic, and scalelike on colchis (requires a 

hand lens). Petioles to 6 inches (15 cm) long and pale green. 

Flowers. June to October. Terminal hairy-stemmed umbel clusters of small greenishyellow flowers on mature plants. Five thick and pointed petals, 0.1 inch (3 mm) long. Each 

petal radiating from a 5-sided domed green floral disk, 0.1 inch (3 mm) wide, tipped by a 

short pistil. 

Fruit and seeds. October to May. Clusters of spherical drupes, 0.2 to 0.3 inch (7 to 8 mm). 

Pale green in late summer ripening to dark blue to black in late winter to spring. 

Ecology. Thrive in moist open forests, but adaptable to a range of moisture and soil conditions, 

including rocky cliffs. Avoid wet areas. Shade tolerance allowing early growth under dense 

stands, but becoming adapted to higher light levels with maturity. Grow very aggressively once 

established. Amass on infested trees, decreasing vigor, and increasing chance of windthrow. 

Increased sunlight promotes flowering and fruiting. English serves as a reservoir for bacterial 

leaf scorch that infects oaks (Quercus spp.), elms (Ulmus spp.), and maples (Acer spp.). 

Spread by bird-dispersed seeds and colonization by trailing and climbing vines that root at 

nodes. Drupes mildly toxic, discouraging overconsumption by birds. Foliage consumed by 

some butterfly larvae. English rarely produces fertile seeds on the Gulf Coast.

Resemble grape (Vitis spp.) which has a leaf that is similarly shaped but not thick and 

often hairy. 

History and use. Introduced from England, Europe, and Asia in colonial times. 

Traditional ornamentals and still widely planted. English a source of varnish resin, dye, and 

tanning substances.

Distribution. English ivy found throughout the region with scattered dense infestations in 

every State. Especially frequent in urban forests. Currently Atlantic and colchis ivies only 

in NC and SC.

Nonnative Ivies 3071
72

Invasive

VINES

Ted Bodner

Ted Bodner

Ted Bodner

May March

September September May

Nonnative Wisterias 

July

American Wisteria
73

VINES

Invasive

Chinese wisteria, Wisteria sinensis (Sims) DC. WISI Fabaceae Nonnative Wisterias 3251

Japanese wisteria, W. floribunda (Willd.) DC. WIFL 

Plant. Deciduous high climbing, twining, or trailing leguminous woody vines (or cultured 

as shrubs) to 70 feet (20 m) long. Chinese and Japanese wisteria difficult to distinguish 

due to hybridization. 

Stem. Woody vines to 10 inches (25 cm) in diameter with infrequent alternate branching. 

Twigs densely short hairy. Older bark of Chinese wisteria tight and dark gray with light 

dots (lenticels) compared to white bark of Japanese wisteria. 

Leaves. Alternate, odd-pinnately compound 4 to 16 inches (10 to 40 cm) long, with 7 

to 13 leaflets (Chinese) or 13 to 19 leaflets (Japanese), and stalks with swollen bases. 

Leaflets oval to elliptic with tapering pointed tips, 1.6 to 3 inches (4 to 8 cm) long and 1 

to 1.4 inches (2.5 to 3.5 cm) wide. Hairless to short hairy at maturity but densely silky 

hairy when young. Margins entire and wavy. Sessile or short petioled. 

Flowers. March to May. Dangling and showy, stalked clusters (racemes) appearing 

when leaves emerge, 4 to 20 inches (10 to 50 cm) long and 3 to 3.5 inches (7 to 9 cm) 

wide. All blooming at about the same time (Chinese) or gradually from base (Japanese). 

Pealike flowers, corolla lavender to violet (to pink to white). Fragrant. 

Fruit and seeds. July to November. Flattened legume pod, irregularly oblong to 

oblanceolate, 2.5 to 6 inches (6 to 15 cm) long and 0.8 to 1.2 inches (2 to 3 cm) wide. 

Velvety hairy, greenish brown to golden, splitting on 2 sides to release 1 to 8 flat, round, 

brown seeds, each 0.5 to 1 inch (1.2 to 2.5 cm) in diameter. 

Ecology. Form dense infestations where previously planted. Occur on wet to dry sites. 

Colonize by vines twining and covering shrubs and trees and by runners rooting at 

nodes when vines covered by leaf litter. Seeds water-dispersed along riparian areas. 

Large seed size a deterrent to animal dispersal. 

Resemble native or naturalized American wisteria [W. frutescens (L.) Poir.], which 

occurs in wet forests and edges and sometimes forms large entanglements, flowers 

in June to August after leaves develop, and has 6-inch (15-cm) flower clusters, 9 to 15 

leaflets, thin hairless, papery pods, and slender old vines. Also may resemble trumpet 

creeper [Campsis radicans (L.) Seem. ex Bureau], which has leaflets with coarsely 

toothed margins and white-hairy prominent veins beneath. 

History and use. Introduced from Asia in the early 1800s. Traditional southern porch 

vines and still planted by mistaken gardeners. 

Distribution. Found throughout the region with scattered dense infestations in every 

State. Especially frequent in SC, western NC, and southwest AL.

Chinese wisteria April
74

Invasive

VINES

Oriental Bittersweet 

December December May

October October August December December November November October October October October

May October October
75

VINES

Invasive

Celastrus orbiculatus Thunb. CEOR7 Celastraceae

Other common name: Asian bittersweet

Plant. Deciduous, twining and climbing woody vine to 60 feet (20 m) in tree crowns, 

forming thickets and arbor infestations. Elliptic to round-tipped leaves, axillary dangling 

clusters of inconspicuous yellowish flowers in spring, and green spherical fruit that split 

to reveal 3-parted showy scarlet berries in winter. 

Stem. Woody vine to 4 inches (10 cm) diameter, twining and arbor forming, with many 

alternate drooping branches growing at angles and eventually becoming straight. 

Vigorous twigs with sharp bud scale tips. Reddish brown with many raised whitish 

corky dots (lenticels), often angular or ridged, becoming tan to gray. Branch scars of 

fruit clusters semicircular, each with a tiny corky shelf projection. Bark dark grayish 

brown with irregular netted ridges.

Leaves. Alternate, 1.2 to 5 inches (3 to 12 cm) long. Variable shaped, long tapering 

tipped when young becoming larger and round tipped when mature. Margins finely 

blunt toothed. Dark green becoming bright yellow in late summer to fall. Base tapering 

into 0.4- to 1.2-inch (1- to 3-cm) petiole. 

Flowers. May. Numerous tiny-branched axillary clusters (cymes), each with 3 to 7 

inconspicuous orange-yellow flowers. Five petals. Male and female flowers can occur 

on the same or different plants.

Fruit and seeds. August to January. Dangling clusters of spherical 0.5-inch (1.2 cm) 

capsules, tipped with a persistent pistil. Green turning yellow orange then tan. In autumn, 

splitting and folding upward to reveal 3 fleshy scarlet sections, each containing 2 white 

seeds. Persistent in winter at most leaf axils.

Ecology. Occurs on a wide range of sites mainly along forest edges. Found as scattered 

plants to extensive infestations in forest openings, margins, and roadsides as well as 

in meadows. Shade tolerant with high seed germination under canopies. Colonizes 

by prolific vines that root at nodes, and seedlings from prolific seed spread mainly by 

birds, possibly other animals and humans collecting and discarding decorative fruitbearing vines. 

Resembles American bittersweet (C. scandens L.), which has only terminal flowers 

and fruit, leaves usually twice as large but absent among the flowers and fruit, grayish 

and nonridged twigs, and blunt bud-scale tips. Hybridization occurs between the 2 

species. Also resembles grape vines (Vitis spp.) in winter but can be distinguished 

by persistent scarlet fruit versus grapes. 

History and use. Introduced from Asia in 1736. Very showy ornamental with berried 

vines that are traditionally collected as home decorations in winter, which promotes 

spread when inappropriately discarded. 

Distribution. Found throughout the region except FL, TX, and OK with frequent and 

dense infestations in east KY, west NC, and north VA. 

Oriental Bittersweet 3026

October October
76

Invasive

VINES

Vincas, Periwinkles 

Nancy Loewenstein

March

April May

April Summer

Barry Rice

Bigleaf periwinkle

Bigleaf periwinkle Bigleaf periwinkle Common periwinkle flower Common periwinkle flower Bigleaf periwinkle flower

Common periwinkle leaves Bigleaf periwinkle leaves
77

VINES

Invasive

Bigleaf periwinkle April

Common periwinkle, Vinca minor L. VIMI2 Apocynaceae

Bigleaf periwinkle, V. major L. VIMA 

Plant. Evergreen to semi-evergreen vines, somewhat woody, trailing or scrambling to 

3 feet (1 m) long and upright to 1 foot (30 cm). Violet pinwheel-shaped flowers. 

Stem. Slender (common periwinkle) to stout (bigleaf periwinkle), succulent becoming 

somewhat woody (tough to break) with flowering branches erect and jointed at axils. 

Hairless and smooth. Dark green at base to light green upward with a reddish tinge. 

Leaves. Opposite. Glossy and hairless, somewhat thick, with margins slightly rolled 

under. Common periwinkle narrow elliptic, 0.8 to 1.8 inches (2 to 4.5 cm) long and 0.4 

to 1 inch (1 to 2.5 cm) wide, with petioles 0.1 inch (1 to 3 mm) long. Bigleaf periwinkle 

heart shaped to somewhat triangular to elliptic, 1.5 to 2.5 inches (4 to 6 cm) long and 1 

to 1.5 inches (2.5 to 4 cm) wide, with petioles 0.2 to 0.4 inch (5 to 10 mm) long. Blades 

dark green with whitish lateral- and mid-veins above and lighter green with whitish 

midveins beneath. Some varieties variegated. 

Flowers. March to May (sporadically May to September). Axillary, usually solitary. Violet 

to blue lavender (to white), with 5 petals radiating pinwheel-like at right angles from 

the floral tube. Common periwinkle 1 inch (2.5 cm) wide with a 0.3- to 0.5-inch (8- to 

12-mm) long tube. Bigleaf periwinkle 1.5 to 2 inches (4 to 5 cm) wide with a 0.6- to 

0.8-inch (1.5- to 2-cm) long tube. Five slender lanceolate sepals, about 0.4 inch (1 cm) 

long, hairy margined. 

Fruit and seeds. May to July. Slender, cylindrical fruit to 2 inches (5 cm) long. Becoming 

dry and splitting to release 3 to 5 infertile seeds. 

Ecology. Found around old homesite plantings and scattered in open to dense canopied 

forests. Form mats and extensive infestations, even under forest canopies, by vines 

rooting at nodes.

Resemble partridgeberry (Mitchella repens L.), which has cordate leaves, twin 

white flowers, and red berries. Also may resemble yellow jessamine [Gelsemium 

sempervirens (L.) W.T. Aiton], which has wider spaced leaves and reddish stems, often 

white waxy. Also resembles winter creeper [Euonymus fortunei (Turcz.) Hand.-Maz.], 

which has stout light-green vines, leathery leaves, and no showy flowers.

History and use. Introduced from Europe in 1700s. Ornamental ground cover, 

commonly sold and planted by gardeners. 

Distribution. Found throughout the region with scattered dense infestations in 

every State. 

Vincas, Periwinkles 3211
78

Invasive

VINES

Winter Creeper 

May May

May May December December

December December August
79

VINES

Invasive

Euonymus fortunei (Tursz.) Hand.-Maz. EUFO5 Celastraceae

Synonym: E. hederaceus Champ. ex Benth. 

Other common names: climbing euonymus, gaiety 

Plant. Evergreen woody vine climbing to 70 feet (22 m) and clinging by aerial roots or 

rooting at nodes, or standing as a shrub to 3 feet (1 m) in height. Leaves thick and dark 

green or green- or gold-white variegated on green stems. The nonflowering juvenile 

climbing phase, upon reaching high enough into the crowns of trees, develops into a 

flowering phase that does not have climbing rootlets. Pinkish-to-red capsules splitting 

open in fall to expose fleshy orange seeds. 

Stem. Twigs stout, lime green, and hairless becoming increasingly dusted and streaked 

with light-gray reddish corky bark. Patches or lines of protruding aerial roots grow on 

lower surfaces or where touching supporting structures. Branches opposite, leaf scars 

thin upturned white crescents, and branch scars jutting and containing a light semicircle. 

Older stems covered with gray corky bark becoming fissured and then checked. 

Leaves. Opposite, broadly oval, moderately thick, with bases tapering to petiole. One 

to 2.5 inches (2.5 to 6 cm) long and 1 to 1.8 inches (2.5 to 4.5 cm) wide. Margins finely 

crenate, somewhat turned under, to wavy. Blades smooth glossy, hairless, dark green 

with whitish veins above and light green beneath. Some varieties variegated, with white 

or golden margins. Petioles 0.15 to 0.4 inch (0.4 to 1 cm) long. 

Flowers. May to July. Axillary clusters of small greenish-yellow inconspicuous flowers 

at the ends of Y-shaped stems, each flower 0.1 inch (2 to 3 mm) wide. Five petals. 

Pistils soon elongating with fruit. 

Fruit and seeds. September to November. Dangling paired or single pinkish-to-red 

capsules, 0.2 to 0.4 inch (5 to 10 mm) long, splitting to reveal 4 tightly clustered seeds 

with orange-to-red fleshy coats. 

Ecology. Forms dense ground cover and can climb trees, eventually overtopping them. 

Climbing vines produce fruit. Cold and shade tolerant, occurring under dense stands 

but avoiding wet areas. Colonizes by trailing and climbing vines that root at nodes, and 

fleshy-coated seeds spread by birds, other animals, and water. 

Resembles the larger-leaved species of blueberry (Vaccinium spp.) but their leaves are 

alternate. Also resembles native partridgeberry (Mitchella repens L.), a creeping vine 

with opposite oval or cordate leaves less than 1 (2.5 cm) inch long and wide, white twin 

flowers and red berries; and the nonnative vincas (Vinca spp.), trailing vines with similar 

opposite leaves but margins are rolled under and flowers violet-to-blue pinwheels.

History and use. Introduced from Asia in 1907. Ornamental ground cover. 

Distribution. Found throughout region except LA, with scattered dense infestations in 

every other State. Especially frequent in MS, AL, NC, KY, and central VA.

Winter Creeper 3042

October October
80

Invasive

GRASSES

Bamboos

July July July

July

July

July
81

Invasive

GRASSES

Golden bamboo, Phyllostachys aurea PHAU8 Poaceae

 Carr. ex A.& C. Rivière

Other invasive bamboos: Phyllostachys spp. and Bambusa spp. 

Plant. Perennial infestation-forming bamboos, 16 to 40 feet (5 to 12 m) in height, with 

jointed cane stems and whorls of branches at each node. Bushy tops of lanceolate 

leaves along branches, in fan clusters, often golden green. Plants arising from branched 

rhizomes. 

Stem. Solid jointed canes 1 to 6 inches (2.5 to 15 cm) in diameter. Hollow between 

joints. Golden to green to black. Branches wiry and projecting from joints. Lower shoots 

and branches with loose papery sheaths that cover the ground when shed. 

Leaves. Alternate, grasslike, often in fan clusters. Blades long and lanceolate, 3 to 

10 inches (8 to 25 cm) long and 0.5 to 1.5 inches (1.3 to 4 cm) wide. Often golden, 

sometimes green or variegated. Veins parallel. Hairless except for large hairs at base 

of petiole, which shed with age. Deciduous sheaths encasing stem. 

Flowers. Flowers very rarely. 

Seeds. Seeds very rarely. 

Ecology. Common around old homesites and now escaped. Colonize by rhizomes and 

less so by stolons with infestations rapidly expanding after disturbance. General dieback 

after period flowering and seeding (about every 7 to 12 years) resulting in standing 

dead canes and new shoots. 

Resemble switchcane [Arundinaria gigantea (Walter) Muhl. and other native Arundinaria 

spp.], the only native bamboolike canes in the South, distinguished by its persistent 

sheaths on the stem, short alternate branches or branch clusters, and its lower height 

—usually only 6 to 8 feet (2 to 2.5 m). Also resemble giant reed (Arundo donax L.), 

also described in this book. 

History and use. All native to Asia. Widely planted as ornamentals and for fishing 

poles. 

Distribution. Found throughout the region with scattered dense infestations in every 

State.

Bamboos 4130

December December
82

Invasive

GRASSES

September September November November

October October September September September September March

October October

Chinese Silvergrass 
83

Invasive

GRASSES

October October

Miscanthus sinensis Andersson MISI Poaceae

Plant. Tall, densely bunched, perennial grass, 5 to 10 feet (1.5 to 3 m) in height. Longslender upright-to-arching leaves with whitish upper midveins. Many loosely plumed 

panicles in late summer turning silvery to pinkish in fall. Dried grass standing with some 

seed heads during winter. Seed viability variable depending on cultivar. 

Stem (culm). Upright-to-arching, unbranched originating in tufts from base. Covered 

with overlapping leaf sheaths until stem appears with flower plume in late summer. 

Leaves. Alternate, long linear, upright-to-arching (persisting and curly tipped when 

dried) to 40 inches (1 m) long and less than 0.8 inch (2 cm) wide. Blades green to 

variegated (light green striped) with whitish collars. Midvein white above and green 

ridged beneath. Tufted hairs at throat, sheath margins, and ligule, but otherwise hairless. 

Margins rough. 

Flowers. August to November. Terminal, plumed panicles, much branched and drooping, 

4 to 15 inches (10 to 38 cm) long and 2 to 8 inches (5 to 20 cm) wide. Silvery to pinkish, 

showiest in fall. Stalk appressed-rough hairy. 

Seeds. September to January. Grain hidden, husks membranous, yellowish brown to 

slightly reddish, sparsely hairy, with twisted tip. 

Ecology. Forms extensive infestations by escaping from older ornamental plantings to 

roadsides, forest margins, right-of-ways and adjacent disturbed sites, especially after 

burning. Shade tolerant. Highly flammable and a fire hazard. 

Resembles giant reed (Arundo donax L.), which has wide cornlike leaves jutting from 

a central stalk and is described in this book. Also resembles Uruguayan pampas 

grass [Cortaderia selloana (Schult. & Schult. f.) Asch. & Graebn.], another nonative 

invasive grass and also commonly planted as an ornamental, which is usually larger 

in size with a tighter plume branched from a central stalk. Also resembles common 

reed [Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Steud.], which has a similar large hairy seed 

head, but fanned in a loose plume and not erect, and which occurs mainly near swamps, 

marshes and other wet habitats. Also resembles the native sugarcane plumegrass 

[Saccharum giganteum (Walter) Pers.] but its leaves are mainly on the lower stem and 

do not have a distinctive white midvein.

History and use. Introduced from Eastern Asia in the late 1950’s. Still widely sold and 

increasingly planted as an ornamental. Several varieties imported and sold. Cultivars 

vary widely in fertility and percent of seed viability. Different cultivars grown in close 

proximity tend to produce fertile seeds and plants.

Distribution. Found in scattered dense infestations in NC, west KY, south VA, east 

TN, and south GA with occasional infestations elsewhere throughout the region except 

TX, OK, and AR.

Chinese Silvergrass 4085
84

Invasive

GRASSES

Cogongrass

January

March May September September Nancy Loewenstein Nancy Loewenstein

May May Nancy Loewenstein

March

May

Charles Bryson

Ted Bodner

Flowering Seeding

Nancy Loewenstein Chris Evans

September September

Flower/seedhead

2-8 inches long

March to June

Flower/seedhead

2-8 inches long

March to June

Stem not apparent

Leaves arise near base

Stem not apparent

Leaves arise near base

New plants arise from

sharp-tipped rhizomes sharp-tipped rhizomes

Overlapping 

leaf sheaths

Overlapping 

Leaves

1⁄2-1 inch wide

1-6 feet long
85

Invasive

GRASSES

Imperata cylindrica (L.) P. Beauv. IMCY Poaceae

Synonym: I. cylindrica var. major

Other common names: japgrass, speargrass, Japanese blood grass 

(‘Red Baron’ and other red varieties) 

Plant. Aggressive, colony-forming dense perennial grass 1 to 6 feet (30 to 150 cm) in 

height, often leaning in mats when over 3 feet (90 cm) in height. Stemless tufts of long 

leaves, blades yellow green, with off-center midveins. Silver-plumed flower and seed 

heads in late winter (south) through early summer (north). Plants arising from branching 

sharp-tipped white-scaly rhizomes. Federal noxious weed.

Stem (culm). Upright to ascending, stout, not apparent, as hidden by overlapping leaf 

sheaths that are long hairy or not. 

Leaves. Mainly arising from near the base, long lanceolate, 1 to 6 feet (30 to 180 cm) 

long and 0.5 to 1 inch (12 to 25 mm) wide, shorter upward. Overlapping sheaths, with 

outer sheaths often long hairy and hair tufts near the throat. Blades flat or cupped inward, 

bases narrowing, tips sharp and often drooping. Most often yellowish green. White midvein 

on upper surface slightly-to-mostly off center (varies in an area). Margins translucent and 

minutely serrated (rough to touch). Ligule a fringed membrane to 0.04 inch (1.1 mm). Tough 

to break due to high silica content. Tan colored and persisting after winter dieback.

Flowers. February (FL) to May (mid-South) and sporadically (or year-round in FL). Terminal, 

silky spikelike panicle, 1 to 8 inches (2.5 to 20 cm) long and 0.2 to 1 inch (0.5 to 2.5 cm) 

wide, cylindrical and tightly branched on a reddish slender stalk. Spikelets paired, each 

0.1 to 0.2 inch (3 to 6 mm) long, obscured by tufts of silky silvery-white hairs to 0.07 inch 

(1.8 mm). 

Seeds. February (FL) to May (mid-South) and sporadically (or year-round in FL). Tiny 

oblong brown grain, 0.02 to 0.05 inch (0.5 to 1.3 mm) long, released within dense tufts of 

silvery hairy husks, often in clusters, for wind dispersal. Seeds matured after V-shaped 

stigma pair at grain tips shrivel and darken.

Ecology. Grows in full sunlight to partial shade, dry to wet soils, and, thus, can invade a 

range of stands and sites. Often in circular infestations through rapid growth of branching 

rhizomes that fill friable soils to a depth of 0.6 to 10 feet (0.1 to 3 m) to exclude most 

other vegetation. Aggressively invades right-of-ways, new forest plantations, open forests, 

old fields, and pastures. Absent in areas with frequent tillage, but promoted by burning. 

Colonizes by rhizomes and spreads by wind-dispersed seeds, seeds and rhizomes 

contaminating soil and hay, and hitchhiking rides on mowing, logging, and other equipment. 

Seed fertility highly variable across the region. Highly flammable and a severe fire hazard, 

burning extremely hot especially in winter. 

Resembles Johnsongrass, [Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers.], purpletop [Tridens flavus 

(L.) Hitchc.], silver plumegrass [Saccharum alopecuroides (L.) Nutt.] and sugarcane 

plumegrass [S. giganteum (Walter) Pers.]—all having a distinct stem and none having 

an off-center midvein. Also resembles longleaf woodoats [Chasmanthium sessiliflorum

(Poir.) Yates], which lacks off-center midveins and silky flowers, having tufts of spiked 

flowers and seeds along a slender stalk.

History and use. Introduced from Southeast Asia into FL, southern LA, southern AL, 

and southern GA in the early to mid-1900s. Initially for soil stabilization. Expectations for 

improved forage unrealized. Federal noxious weed.

Distribution. Found throughout FL, GA, AL, and MS with scattered infestations in SC, 

east TX, LA, TN and NC. The current distribution can be checked at www.cogongrass.org.

Cogongrass 4055

Stephen F. Enloe

February
86

Invasive

GRASSES

May June August

December December

May

July

Giant Reed
87

Invasive

GRASSES

Arundo donax L. ARDO4 Poaceae Giant Reed 4008

Plant. Giant reed grass, cornlike stems, thicket forming in distinct clumps to 20 feet 

(6 m) in height, with gray-green and hairless stems, long-lanceolate alternate leaves 

jutting from stems and drooping at the ends, and large plumelike terminal panicles. Seed 

infertile. Spreading from short tuberous rhizomes that form knotty, spreading mats that 

penetrate deep into the soil. Dried grass remains standing in winter and spring while 

low and sheltered plants may remain green. 

Stem (culm). Somewhat succulent and fibrous, with round cross section to 1 inch (2.5 

cm). Solid jointed every 1 to 8 inches (2.5 to 20 cm) and covered by overlapping leaf 

sheaths. Gray to yellowish green. Initially white pithed and becoming hollow between 

joints. Old stems sometimes persistent into the following summer. 

Leaves. Alternate, cornlike, long lanceolate with both surfaces hairless, clasping stem 

with conspicuous whitish base. Eighteen to 30 inches (45 to 76 cm) long and 1 to 4 

inches (2.5 to 10 cm) wide near base. Margins and ligule membranous (about 1 mm). 

Midvein whitish near base becoming inconspicuous towards tip. Veins parallel. Sheaths 

overlapping, hairless, and semiglossy. White and green variegated forms also escape 

from cultivation.

Flowers. August to September. Terminal erect dense plumes of whorled, stemmed 

flowers to 36 inches (1 m) long. Husks hairy, membranous with several veins, and 

greenish to whitish to purplish. 

Seeds. October to March. Dense terminal plume, spindle shaped, densely hairy. 

Grain infertile. 

Ecology. Occurs mainly on upland sites as scattered dense clumps along roadsides 

and forest margins, migrating from old home plantings by displaced rhizome fragments. 

Persistent infestations by dense branching tuberous rhizome growth. Probable spread 

by movement of stem and rhizome parts in soil or by road shoulder grading and by 

running water. Plants believed to be sterile and not producing viable seeds. 

Resembles golden bamboo (Phyllostachys aurea Carr. ex A. & C. Rivière), another 

large grasslike plant that is woody in character. Closely resembles common reed 

[Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Steud.], which has similar large hairy seed heads, 

but fanned in a loose plume and not erect, and which occurs mainly near swamps, 

marshes and other wet habitats. 

History and use. Introduced from Western Asia, Northern Africa, and Southern Europe 

in the early 1800s. Used as an ornamental and to make reeds for musical instruments 

(woodwinds).

Distribution. Found throughout the region with scattered dense infestations in every 

State along forest edges and around old homesites. 

October October
88

Invasive

GRASSES

Ted Bodner

Ted Bodner

Ted Bodner

Ted Bodner

July June November November

June June September September

Johnsongrass

June
89

Invasive

GRASSES

Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers. SOHA Poaceae

Synonym: Holcus halepensis L.

Plant. Erect, perennial, warm-season grass, 3 to 8 feet (1 to 2.5 m) tall, stout stemmed 

and branching from the base having long and wide green leaves with prominent wide, 

white midveins, from scaly rhizomes and prolific roots to form dense stands. Conicalshaped seed heads with whorled thin branches becoming shorter near the top, each 

terminated by multiple purplish spikelets. Caution: Plant toxic to grazing animals if 

fertilized heavily or drought stricken.

Stem (culm). Stout, hairless, light green, solid with pronounced whitish swollen nodes. 

Larger stems branch below midplant. 

Leaves. Alternate, long-lanceolate with a tapering tip, 8 to 32 inches (20 to 80 cm) long 

and 0.4 to 1.2 inches (1 to 3 cm) wide, green sometimes tinged maroon with a prominent 

wide white midvein and rough serrated margins, hairless except for occasional tufts 

within the flared throat of the whitish, clasping base. The ligule at the leaf base is a 

prominent white-fringed membrane, 0.25 inch (2 to 5 mm) long.

Flowers. April to November. Open, spreading panicles, 6 to 20 inches (15 to 50 cm) 

long, with numerous spaced whorls of projecting fine branches, being shorter in the 

upper portion. Flattened spikelets in pairs, crowded and overlapping at the end of finer 

branchlets, 1 spikelet stemless and ovoid, the other stemmed and narrow, 0.15 to 0.24 

inch (4 to 6 mm) long. Husks shiny and short hairy, green turning straw yellow to reddish 

brown when mature, tipped with a thread-like awn or not. Tiny stigmas and stamens 

project and dangle during flowering. 

Seeds. May to March. Grain shiny dark reddish brown turning black, 0.15 to 0.22 inch 

(4 to 5.5 mm) long, released within straw-colored husks or bare.

Ecology. Occurs as dense colonies in old fields and along field margins and rightof-ways to invade new forest plantations, open forests, and forest openings. Highly 

competitive with planted and natural tree seedlings, and excludes native plants. Persists 

and colonizes by rhizomes and spreads by seeds. New plants can produce seed in 

the first year and seed can remain dormant for many years. Each rhizome segment 

can sprout. Older plants flattened by running water or vehicles can sprout at each 

stem node. 

Resembles several stout grasses when young, while the seed head shape is more 

similar to the other sorghum species that are crops and the common native grass, 

purpletop tridens [Tridens flavus (L.) Hitchc.], whose leaves have only a thin whitish 

midvein, leaf base is often reddish tinged, ligule is a hairy fringe, and seeds are maroon 

on distinctly drooping panicle branches.

History and use. Introduced in the early 1800s and widely planted as a forage grass 

and still utilized in some locations. Multiple varieties developed that resulted in cold 

hardiness and a rapid spread northward.

Distribution. Found throughout the region with scattered dense infestations in every 

State. Especially frequent along highways, roadsides, and in pastures and hayfields to 

spread into forest margins and openings.

Johnsongrass 

July

Steven T. Manning
90

Invasive

GRASSES

May May

December December

September September

Ted Bodner

Ted Bodner

Chris Oswalt

Nepalese Browntop, Japanese Stiltgrass

June December December
91

Invasive

GRASSES

?

Microstegium vimineum (Trin.) A. Camus MIVI Poaceae

Other common names: Mary’s grass, basketgrass, microstegium 

Plant. Sprawling, annual grass, 0.5 to 3 feet (15 to 90 cm) in height. Flat, short leaf 

blades with offcenter veins. Stems branching near the base and rooting at nodes to 

form dense and extensive infestations. Dried whitish-tan grass may remain standing 

or matted in early winter. 

Stem (culm). Ascending to reclining, slender and wiry, up to 4 feet (120 cm) long, with 

alternate branching. Covered by overlapping sheaths with hairless nodes and internodes. 

Green to purple to brown. Aerial rootlets descend from lower nodes. 

Leaves. Alternate (none basal), projecting out from stem, lanceolate to oblanceolate, 

2 to 4 inches (5 to 10 cm) long and 0.07 to 0.6 inch (2 to 15 mm) wide. Blades flat, 

sparsely hairy on both surfaces and along margins. Midvein whitish and off center. 

Throat collar hairy. Ligule membranous with a hairy margin. 

Flowers. July to October. Terminal, thin and spikelike raceme, to 3 inches (8 cm) 

long. Unbranched or with 1 to 3 lateral branches on an elongated wiry stem. Other 

thin racemes of self-pollinating flowers enclosed or slightly extending from lower leaf 

sheaths and flower/seeding before terminal racemes. Spikelets paired, with the outer 

stemmed and inner sessile. 

Seeds. August to December. Husked grain, seed head thin, grain ellipsoid, 0.1 inch (2.8 

to 3 mm) long, with terminal seedstalks partially remaining during early winter. 

Ecology. Flourishes on alluvial floodplains and streamsides, mostly colonizing floodscoured banks, due to water dispersal of seed and flood tolerance. Also common at 

forest edges, roadsides and trailsides as well as damp fields, swamps, lawns and along 

ditches. Occurs up to 4,000 feet (1200 m) elevation. Very shade tolerant. Consolidates 

occupation by prolific seeding, with each plant producing 100 to 1,000 seeds that can 

remain viable in the soil for 3 years. Spreads on trails and recreational areas by seeds 

hitchhiking on hikers’ and visitors’ shoes and clothes. 

Resembles nonnative crabgrass (Digitaria spp.) and native nimblewill (Muhlenbergia 

schreberi J.F. Gmel.), both having broad short leaves, but distinguished from Nepalese 

browntop by branching seed heads and stout stems. Also resembles whitegrass 

(Leersia virginica Willd.), which is a native perennial with flat, compressed seed heads. 

Also resembles wavyleaf basketgrass [Oplismenus hirtellus (L.) P. Beauv.] (nonnative 

invasive) and basketgrass [O. hirtellus (L.) P. Beauv. ssp. undulatifolius (Ard.) U. Scholz] 

(native), which form dense stands of similar appearance in similar habitats, but have 

wavy leaves and widely branching seed heads.

History and use. Native to temperate and tropical Asia, and first identified near Knoxville, 

TN, around 1919. Ground cover with little wildlife food value.

Distribution. Found throughout the region with frequent and dense infestations in 

KY, VA, TN, and NC and spreading south through SC, MS, AL, GA, LA, and into the 

panhandle of FL. Also occurs in northeast OK.

Nepalese Browntop, Japanese Stiltgrass 4080

Chris Evans

June
92

Invasive

GRASSES

April May

May January July

Tall Fescue 

Ted Bodner

Ted Bodner
93

Invasive

GRASSES

Schedonorus arundinaceus (Schreb.) Dumort., nom. cons. SCAR7 Poaceae

Synonyms: Festuca arundinacea Shreb., F. elatior L. ssp. arundinacea (Schreb.) Hack., 

Lolium arundinaceum (Schreb.) S.J. Darbyshire, S. phoenix (Scop.) Holub. 

Other common names: meadow fescue, Kentucky 31 fescue 

Plant. Erect, tufted, cool-season perennial grass 2 to 4 feet (60 to 120 cm) in height, 

green in winter and spring during which it is the most common green bunchgrass. 

Dark-green leaves appearing in late winter, usually flowering in spring (infrequently in 

late summer). Semidormant during heat of summer, with whitish seedstalks persisting. 

Growth resuming in fall and continuing into winter. Many cultivars.

Stem (culm). Moderately stout, unbranched, hairless with round cross section and 1 

to 3 swollen light-green nodes widely spaced near the base. 

Leaves. Mostly basal and a few alternate, flat and long-lanceolate, 4 to 18 inches (10 

to 45 cm) long and 0.1 to 0.3 inch (3 to 8 mm) wide. Whitish to yellow-green flared 

collars, with collar backs often at an angle to the stem. Blades smooth to rough, with 

1 to 2 leaves along the stem, becoming smaller upward. Midvein not apparent. Ligule 

a tiny white membrane. 

Flowers. March to June (to October). Loosely branched terminal panicles, 4 to 12 inches 

(10 to 30 cm) long that are erect or nodding at tips, narrow and tight, then spreading in 

spring. Branches shorter upward, with 4 to 7 flowers per branch. Flowers greenish white 

and shiny becoming purplish with whitish stamens and stigma protruding. Spikelets 

spindle shaped, hairless, ellipsoid with a pointed tip. 

Seeds. May (to November). Husked grain, spindle shaped, 0.1 to 0.2 inch (3 to 5 mm) 

long. Whitish straw-colored husks, usually tipped with a short hair. 

Ecology. The predominant cool-season bunchgrass. Occurs as tufted clumps or small 

to extensive colonies along forest margins and right-of-ways, and widely escaped 

to invade new forest plantations, roads, openings and high-elevation balds. Grows 

on wet to dry sites. Spreads by expanding root crowns and less by seeds. Replaces 

warm-season grassland communities and prairies to the detriment of unique plants 

and birds. Certain varieties poisonous to livestock and wildlife by infecting them with 

an endophytic fungus. 

Resembles other grasses, especially other fescues and ryegrasses (Schedonorus 

spp.) but distinguished by forming extensive colonies (often planted on roadsides 

and pastures, to escape into infestations), and having long rounded stems with lower 

swollen nodes and whitish, flared collars at the base of leaves. Ryegrasses distinguished 

by producing alternate seed head tight clusters on opposite sides of seedstalks 

in spring. Other early spring grasses with tall white seed heads are the oatgrasses (Danthonia spp.) that may occur in small colonies but not infestations. 

History and use. Introduced from Europe in the early to mid-1800s. Recognized as a 

valuable forage grass in 1930s when the ecotype Kentucky 31 was discovered. Now 

widely distributed most everywhere in the world. Established widely for turf, forage, soil 

stabilization and wildlife food plots.

Distribution. Found throughout the region with frequent and dense infestations in KY, 

VA, TN, NC, MS, and the northern portions of SC and AR. Less frequently found in 

northeast OK, southwestern LA, and the panhandle of FL.

Tall Fescue 4051

May

Ted Bodner
94

Invasive

GRASSES

September September April John Randall

April

September September September September

Weeping Lovegrass 

November November
95

Invasive

GRASSES

Eragrostis curvula (Schrad.) Nees ERCU2 Poaceae

Other common name: African lovegrass

Plant. Densely clumping to up to 2.5 feet (75 cm) tall, perennial, warm-season grass 

formed from flattened, basally interconnected sprays of long, thin and wiry basal leaves 

that arch and droop in all directions almost touching the ground (thus the common 

name “weeping”). Tall laterally branched flower stalks in early summer to 6 feet (2 m) 

tall persist during the early winter with seed having varying fertility. Root system is large 

and fibrous. Evergreen or semi-evergreen in the southern Coastal Plain, while dormant 

whitish, wispy clumps are highly recognizable further north.

Stem (culm). Not apparent except for the flower/seedstalks. Leaves arise from a tightly 

packed, short, flattened group of stems hidden in hairy basal sheaths that persist 

over winter.

Leaves. Thin, less than a quarter of an inch (1 to 4 mm) wide, with margins often rolled 

inward, to several feet (1 m) long and arching over at midleaf to almost touch the ground. 

Originating from tightly packed, dense, flattened bundles of leaves, 6 to 12 inches (15 

to 30 cm) long encased by persistent sheaths, having scattered to dense hairs.

Flowers. June to July. Open spreading panicles, lavender-gray color, 8 to 10 inches (20 

to 25 cm) long, on stalks to 6 feet (1.9 m) tall, with numerous projecting or erect lateral 

branches, being shorter in the upper portion with numerous secondary branchlets that 

bear stacks of tiny, grayish-green, husked flowers.

Seeds. July to November. Husks light tan and the grain reddish brown, 0.15 to 0.22 

inch (4 to 5.5 mm) long, released within the husks.

Ecology. Still widely seeded for soil stabilization along highways, on surface mines, 

and around businesses and homes; increasingly escaping to dominate native plant 

communities throughout the United States. Tolerant of fire, drought, salinity, and bred 

for cold tolerance. Adapted to a wide range of habitats from moist to dry, hot to cold, 

and soils that are acid to basic. Prefers well-drained sandy loam soils and will not 

tolerate standing water. Clumps increase by basal shoots and infestations increase in 

density by seedfall. Seed dispersed by water, contaminated equipment and soil, and 

through planting. Occurs as dense colonies in old fields and along field margins and 

right-of-ways, where it invades new forest plantations, open forests, forest openings and 

special habitats like native prairies. Detrimental to wildlife, especially ground-nesting 

and foraging birds.

Resembles no other grasses due to its unique growth habit of tight clumps of “weeping” 

long and narrow leaves. Many other species of native and nonnative lovegrasses 

produce similar seedstalks.

History and use. Introduced into the U.S. in 1927 from South Africa and later from 

Tanzania for erosion control and for forage. Still widely sold and planted as an ornamental 

and for soil stabilization and forage.

Distribution. Found throughout the region with frequent and dense infestations in KY, 

VA, TN, and NC and the northern portions of AL, GA, and SC.

Weeping Lovegrass 

February
96

Invasive

FERNS

September September

September September January

Japanese Climbing Fern Chris Evans

Nancy Loewenstein Corrie Pieterson

August

July February

May

Ted Bodner
97

FERNS

Invasive

July

Lygodium japonicum (Thunb.) Sw. LYJA Lygodiaceae

Plant. Perennial viney fern, climbing and twining, to 90 feet (30 m) long, with lacy 

finely divided fronds along green to orange to black wiry vines or rachis, often forming 

infestations of shrub- and tree-covering mats. Tan-brown fronds persisting in winter, 

while others remain green in FL and in sheltered places further north. Vines arising as 

branches (long compound leaves) from underground, widely creeping rhizomes that 

are slender, dark brown, and wiry. 

Stem (rachis). Slender but difficult to break, twining and climbing, wiry. Green to straw 

colored or reddish. Mostly deciduous in late winter except in south FL. 

Leaves (fronds or pinnae). Opposite on vine, compound, once or twice divided, 

varying in appearance according to the number of divisions, generally triangular in 

outline. Three to 6 inches (8 to 15 cm) long and 2 to 3 inches (5 to 8 cm) wide. Highly 

dissected leaflets, appearing lacy, especially fertile ones. Light green turning tan to 

dark brown in winter. 

Flowers (sporangia). Fertile fronds have smaller segmented fingerlike projections 

around the margins, bearing sporangia (spore producing dots) in double rows under 

margins. 

Seeds. Late summer to fall (year-round in south FL). Tiny, wind-dispersed spores 

released from tiny domed circles that appear in rows on the underside of many divided 

leaflets. When present, care should be exercised during removal since spores can 

cling to clothing. 

Ecology. Occurs along highway right-of-ways, especially under and around bridges, 

invading into open forests, forest road edges, and stream and swamp margins. Scattered 

in open timber stands and plantations, but can increase in cover to form mats, especially 

after burns, smothering shrubs and trees. Creates “fire ladders” to carry fires upward to 

scorch and damage canopies of shrubs and trees. Persists and colonizes by rhizomes 

and spreads rapidly by wind-dispersed spores that are also transported in pine straw 

mulch and on clothing. Dies back in late winter in the more northern areas, with dead 

vines providing a trellis for reestablishment. 

Resembles Old World climbing fern [L. microphyllum (Cav.) R. Br.] and American 

climbing fern [L. palmatum (Bernh.) Sw.], both of which are distinguished by 5 to 

7 palmately lobed, fingerlike fronds. American climbing fern—a native occurring in 

swamps, streambeds, and ravines—does not spread beyond small areas to form 

extensive infestations. Old World climbing fern, also introduced, is a major invasive 

pest in mid- to southern FL and projected to migrate northward. 

History and use. Native to Asia and tropical Australia and introduced to FL from Japan 

in the 1930s. An ornamental still being spread by unsuspecting gardeners.

Distribution. Found in dense infestations in southeast TX; south and central LA; central 

and north FL; and spreading north through AR, MS, AL, and GA. Scattered infestations 

further north from ornamental plantings in cities and towns. 

Japanese Climbing Fern 5171
98

Invasive

FORBS

Alligatorweed

May July

July July April

July

July

July
99

FORBS

Invasive

Alternanthera philoxeroides (Mart.) Griseb. ALPH Amaranthaceae

Synonym: Achyranthes philoxeroides (Mart.) Standl. 

Other common name: alligator weed

Plant. Perennial, evergreen forb, with hollow round stems and opposite leaves at 

pronounced nodes. When erect, stem tips produce stalked white cloverlike flowers 

in upper axils during summer, but no fruit or seeds. Trailing or floating stems form 

entangled mats to 3 feet (90 cm) deep over hundreds of square feet (m) on water and 

adjoining land. Horizontal jointed stems up to 1 inch (2.5 cm) in diameter and 30 feet 

(10 m) long readily branch and root at nodes in water to 6.5 feet (2 m) deep or when 

next to soil yielding fibrous root mates in wet sites. 

Stem. Shiny, succulent and round, often reclining, hollow at internodes with a diaphragm 

at nodes. Pale green with whitish swollen nodes tinged pinkish to purplish to brownish 

above with age. Nodes topped with a hairy fringe when young, along with lengthwise, 

minute, hairy internodal grooves, becoming hairless with age. 

Leaves. Opposite from swollen nodes, somewhat succulent and shiny, long lanceolate in 

summer, 0.8 to 2.7 inches (2 to 7 cm) long and 0.4 to 0.8 inch (1 to 2 cm) wide, tapering 

to the stem with no petiole, being shorter and blunter in winter. Green to blue green 

above with pale-green midveins and fine hairs. Whitish green and hairless beneath. 

Flowers. April to October. Stalked, 0.5 to 3 inches (1.2 to 8 cm) long, in upper leaf axils, 

small white, rounded, cloverlike cluster of tiny flowers, 0.5 to 0.7 inch (13 to 18 mm) wide, 

each flower with 5 minute petals (actually sepals) and yellow centers of anthers. 

Fruit and seeds. None yet produced in the U.S.

Ecology. Forms mat infestations in shallow water, along shores, and spreading upland 

from marshes, lakes, rivers, streams, canals, ditches and wet agricultural soils. Grows 

in both fresh to slightly brackish waters and on sandy to clay soils. Produces deep 

mats that prevent other plants from germinating in the spring and overtops aquatic and 

upland plants to damage wetland wildlife habitats. It spreads rapidly by stem fragments 

moved by water and rooting at nodes.

Resembles other Alternanthera species, both nonnative and native, which have similar 

flowers but none are stalked like alligatorweed. Also resembles the many knotweeds 

that inhabit wet soils and shorelines that have alternate leaves. 

History and use. Native to South America and introduced into the U.S. about 1900. 

Invading from south to north.

Distribution. Found throughout the region with scattered dense infestations in wetlands 

of every State.

Alligatorweed

May
100

Invasive

FORBS

Big Blue Lilyturf, Creeping Liriope

July

November November September September

August

July

December December
101

FORBS

Invasive

Liriope muscari (Decne.) L.H. Bailey LIMU6 Liliaceae (Ruscaceae)

Synonym: Ophiopogon muscari Decne.

Creeping Liriope, L. spicata (Thunb.) Lour. LISP10 

Other common names: creeping lilyturf, monkey grass 

Plant. The 2 liriope species are similar and even confused in the ornamental trade, with 

big blue lilyturf being the more common invasive. Both species form dense, evergreen 

ground cover of crowded tufts of grasslike but thicker leaves, 6 to 18 inches (15 to 45 

cm) high and increasing with plant age. Stalked spikelike racemes of small lavender-tolilac flowers jut upward in early summer to yield stalks of small, green-to-black berrylike 

fruit in summer through winter. Aggressively spreads by radiating underground stems 

(rhizomes) that produce a spaced sequence of vertical, white plant initiates, being 

connected in a line for a time. Young plants have a filmy basal sheath around leaves and 

a swollen taproot that becomes fibrous and intertwining, eventually filling the upper 6 to 

12 inches (15 to 30 cm) of soil. Roots produce scattered small, fleshy, peanut-shaped 

corms that can sprout as well.

Stem. Grasslike tufts of initially interconnected plants lacking a central stem, except 

for the flower/fruit stalks. 

Leaves. Grasslike but fleshier, radiating from the soil surface in expanding tufted groups, 

2.5 to 7 inches (6 to 18 cm) long and 0.1 inch (2 mm) wide on new plants, up to 18 inches 

(45 cm) long and 0.4 inch (1 cm) wide on mature plants, widest at the middle and tapering 

to a blunt tip. Multiple lengthwise, parallel veins with a distinctly indented midvein and 

slightly thickened, very finely serrated margins. Glossy green being somewhat lighter 

beneath with whitish bases. Variegated varieties appear less aggressive. Leaf tips turn 

brown and die back in winter. New leaves grow from the base in spring. 

Flowers. June to August. Multiple slender flower stalks, 15 to 14 inches (6 to 36 cm) tall, 

with the terminal 1.5 to 4.5 inches (4 to 12 cm) having spaced clusters of tiny lavender 

or violet (to white) flowers, with yellow centers, opening at different times.

Fruit and seeds. August to February. Spherical, green, berrylike drupes turn blue 

ripening to black purple, 0.2 to 0.3 inch (6 to 8 mm) wide. Have grapelike skin and little 

to no pulp, contain a single spherical dark seed.

Ecology. Grow in full sun to shade and a range of soils, spread is most rapid on moist, 

highly organic soils. Many cultivars are widely planted as ornamental ground cover and 

can escape to nearby forests by seeds. Displace forest plants to form ground-layer 

monocultures. Pollinated by insects. Spread by bird- and animal-dispersed seeds and 

soil movement with rhizomes and corms. 

Resembles mondo grass (Ophiopogon spp.), a much smaller-leaved common 

ornamental. Can resemble tall nut-rush (Scleria triglomerata Michx.), a forest nut sedge 

that has similar clumps of leaves from the soil that are 16 to 24 inches (40 to 60 cm) 

long, angular flower/seed stalks tipped by brownish leafy bracts that yield tiny, smooth 

nutlets, white to gray. 

History and use. Native to China and Japan. Two of the most common ornamentals 

planted for ground cover, with both having several varieties.

Distribution. Found in LA, MS, AL, FL, GA, SC, and VA in scattered infestations.

Big Blue Lilyturf, Creeping Liriope

April
102

Invasive

FORBS

Chinese Lespedeza 

July February

September September

July July
103

FORBS

Invasive

Lespedeza cuneata (Dum. Cours.) G. Don LECU Fabaceae

Synonym: L. sericea (Thunb.) Miq., nom. illeg.

Other common name: sericea lespedeza

Plant. Perennial ascending-to-upright leguminous forb 3 to 6 feet (1 to 2 m) in height, 

with 1-to-many leafy slender stems often branching at midplant, 3-leaflet leaves, and 

tiny creamy white flowers. Plant arising from a woody root crown. Dormant brown plants 

remaining upright during most of the winter. 

Stems. Often gray green with lines of hairs along the stem. 

Leaves. Alternate, crowded and numerous, 3-leaflet leaves. Each leaflet oblong to linear 

with a hairlike tip, 0.4 to 0.8 inch (1 to 2 cm) long and 0.1 to 0.3 inch (3 to 8 mm) wide. 

Green above and dense whitish hairy to light gray green beneath. Hairy petioles 0.2 to 

0.6 inch (5 to 15 mm) long, absent for upper leaves. Stipules narrowly linear. 

Flowers. July to September. Clusters of 1 to 3 pealike flowers crowded in upper leaf 

axils. Flowers creamy white with purple marks, 0.1 to 0.3 inch (4 to 7 mm) long and 

shorter than leaves. Hairy 5-lobed calyx shorter than petals. 

Fruit and seeds. October to March. Flat ovate to round single-seeded legume pod 

0.12 to 0.15 inch (3 to 4 mm) wide. Pods clustered in terminal axils, scattered along 

the stem and clasped by persistent sepals. Green becoming tan with tiny hairs, with 

1 yellow-to-tan seed. 

Ecology. Occurs in new and older forest openings, dry upland woodlands to moist 

savannas, old fields, right-of-ways and cities. Flood tolerant. Forms dense stands by 

stems sprouting from root crowns, preventing forest regeneration and land access. Crossand self-pollinates. Spreads slowly from plantings by seeds that have low germination, 

but remain viable for decades. Nitrogen fixer. Shade intolerant.

Resembles slender lespedeza [L. virginica (L.) Britton] , a native, which grows in tufted 

clumps instead of infestations, has crowded clusters of pink-purple to violet flowers 

and somewhat larger leaflets 0.6 to 1.2 inches (1.5 to 3 cm) long, and brown stems. 

Leaflet tips are elongated while those of Chinese lespedeza are more blunt (cuneate, 

thus the sc. name) with a minute hair tip. Also resembles roundhead lespedeza (L.

capitata Michx.), also native, which has similar leaves and whitish flowers in roundtopped clusters. 

History and use. Introduced from Japan (contrary to the common name) in 1899, first 

near Arlington, VA, and soon afterwards in north-central TN. Benefited from government 

programs that promoted plantings for erosion control and forage. Still planted for 

quail food plots, soil stabilization, and grazing. Plant improvement breeding programs 

still underway.

Distribution. Found throughout the region with frequent and dense infestations in OK, 

TX, LA, AR, north MS and southwest TN, KY, northeast NC, northern SC, and central 

AL and GA. Not reported in the forests of central and south FL. Occurs along old forest 

roads, openings, and right-of-way margins.

Chinese Lespedeza 6053

July

Ted Bodner
104

Invasive

FORBS

Coltsfoot 

March

March May May July Leslie J. Mehrhoff Leslie J. Mehrhoff John Cardina Ohio State Weed Lab Archive

Ohio State Weed Lab Archive Chris Evans

Jan Samanek

April March
105

FORBS

Invasive

Tussilago farfara L. TUFA Asteraceae

Other common names: horsefoot, foalfoot, assfoot, coughwort, sowfoot

Plant. An unusual low-growing perennial forb from thick branching underground white 

rhizomes to 10 feet (3 m) deep. Several dandelion-like flower heads per plant sprout 

in early spring on stout and bracted woolly-haired stalks, then rosettes of colt-hoof 

shaped leaves appear after dandelion-like plumed seeds have dispersed. The reverse 

growth sequence of most asters. 

Stem. In early spring, several stout stems arise from rhizome tips to 2 to 6 inches (5 to 

10 cm) high, covered with woolly-white oppressed hairs and scattered green-to-purple 

leafy bracts when flowering begins. Stems reach 12 to 20 inches (30 to 50 cm) high 

by seed dispersal time. Later, leaves on short stems emerge.

Leaves. Arising on short to nonapparent stems near recent seeding stalks, rosettes of 

small, kidney-shaped leaves give way to long-petioled, flattened, broad heart-shaped 

leaves, deeply cleft at the base. Both surfaces and petiole initially covered in white, 

woolly hairs, later to become smooth and glossy on the upper surface, 2 to 7 inches (5 

to 18 cm) across and light to dark or bluish green. Many slightly sunken veins radiate 

from the petiole and extend to the toothed or wavy margin. Purplish-tipped green bracts 

cling along flower stalks.

Flowers. March to June. Yellow and golden composite heads, 1 to 1.3 inches (2.5 to 

3.3 cm) wide, grow on top of bracted stems, each with hundreds of flowers similar to 

dandelions, enclosed and supported by green-to-purplish tinged sepals (involucre), 

initially tight and cylindrical, later becoming fully arched back. The outside ring of ray 

flowers (fertile flowers) extend upward and arch outward turning golden tipped, while 

inner-disc, center flowers (sterile flowers) are recessed.

Fruit and seeds. June to October. Heads become white fluffy balls up to 1 inch (2.5 

cm) wide, dandelion-like, containing hundreds of tiny thin golden nutlets (achenes) 

topped with plumes of long white bristles. 

Ecology. A severe invasive spreading from the North to the South by wind-dispersed 

seeds that can travel for miles, although the range may be restricted by summer heat. 

Can rapidly colonize roadsides, streamsides, and disturbed lands, preferring wet sites 

but can grow on dry sites, to invade adjacent undisturbed prairies and rocky openings 

of special habitats to displace threatened species. Rhizomes and seeds can remain 

dormant in soil for long periods and are stimulated to germinate by disturbance. Seeds 

germinate throughout the growing season. 

Resembles common dandelion (Taraxacum officinale L.), which has a smooth flower/

seed stalk with white milky sap and long, toothed leaves. Foliage resembles ground 

ivy (Glechoma hederacea L.).

History and use. Introduced from Northern Europe and Asia by early settlers for 

multiple medicinal uses, although toxic in large doses. 

Distribution. Found in scattered infestations throughout TN, KY, NC, and VA.

Coltsfoot 

May

Robert Vidéki
106

Invasive

FORBS

Crownvetch 

June September September

June June September September

Summer

Steven J. Baskauf
107

FORBS

Invasive

Securigera varia (L.) Lassen SEVA4 Fabaceae

Synonym: Coronilla varia L. 

Other common names: purple crownvetch, trailing crown vetch 

Plant. Deciduous, perennial forb sprawling to form tangled mats to 3 feet (92 cm) 

high or scrambling over rocks, shrubs, and small trees. Feathery, pinnately compound 

leaves -similar to true vetch species (Vicia spp.) but lacking tendrils- alternate on 

slender reclining stems. In summer, a multitude of showy, stemmed heads of white 

and pink flowers jut above entangled plants that yield tufts of slender seedpods in 

fall. One plant can cover 15 square feet (1.5 m2

) or more in a year from underground 

stems (rhizomes) with taproots. Forms brown, “earth hugging” patches in winter that 

resprout quickly in spring or remain green in southern areas. Caution: All parts are 

poisonous to some degree.

Stem. Ascending to sprawling, green, slender and succulent but wiry, slightly angled, 

20 to 80 inches (50 to 200 cm) long, with leaves and flower/seed stalks arising along 

the stem at regular intervals. 

Leaves. Alternate, odd-pinnately compound, 2 to 4 inches (5 to 10 cm) long, arising 

immediately from the stem with 2 tiny stipules. Leaflets 11 to 25, dark green, oblong to 

obovate, 0.3 to 0.8 inch (0.8 to 2 cm) long with minute hairlike tips. 

Flowers. May to September. Small, multicolored pea-type flowers with pink and purple or 

rose upper petals and white to pinkish-white lower keel petals, 5 to 25 flowers clustered 

in cloverlike “crowns” about 1 inch (2.5 cm) wide, jutting upward on thin axillary stalks, 

2 to 6 inches (5 to 15 cm) long, above entangled plants. 

Fruit and seeds. Present May to July and maturing in October. Radiating clusters of 

slender, pointed seedpods (loments), 2 to 4 inches (5 to 10 cm) long, light green maturing 

to brown. Segmented to divide and release 3 to 12 flattened brown seeds.

Ecology. Nitrogen fixer and pollinated by insects. Grows in full sun to light shade and 

the range of conditions common to the South. Tolerates drought, heavy precipitation 

and cold temperatures. Planted on roadsides, surface mines and in gardens, escaping 

into forest edges, openings, streamsides and special habitats like rock outcroppings. 

Displaces plants to form monocultures. Spread by wildlife- and people-dispersed 

seeds while plant parts buried by sediment along streams can root and grow. Seeds 

can germinate immediately after release or remain viable in the soil for several years. 

While reportedly poisonous, especially to horses, it is used for livestock forage. Deer 

eat crownvetch and it provides cover for rabbits and ground-nesting birds.

Resembles the growth habit and leaves of vetches (Vicia spp.) that have tendrils at 

their leaf ends and scattered flowers, not in clusters like crownvetch. 

Distribution. Found in scattered infestations throughout the region.

Crownvetch 

June
108

Invasive

FORBS

Garlic Mustard 

John Randall

Chris Evans

Steven Katovich

Leslie J. Mehrhoff

April June May September September

May April May
109

FORBS

Invasive

Alliaria petiolata (M. Bieb.) Cavara & Grande ALPE4 Brassicaceae

Plant. Cool-season biennial, with a slender white taproot, found in small to extensive 

colonies. Basal rosettes of leaves in the first year remain green during winter and 

produce 1 to several 2- to 6-foot (60- to 180-cm) tall flower stalks in the second year, 

and then die after seed formation in midsummer. Dead plants remain standing as long 

slender seedstalks with many upturned thin seed capsules and a characteristic crook 

at the stalk base. A faint to strong garlic odor emitted from all parts of the plant when 

crushed, becoming milder as fall approaches. 

Stem. Erect, slightly ridged, light green, hairy lower and hairless above. One to several 

stems from the same rootstock. 

Leaves. Early basal rosette of kidney-shaped leaves and later alternate heart-shaped 

to triangular leaves, 1.2 to 3.6 inches (3 to 9 cm) long and 1 to 4 inches (2.5 to 10 cm) 

wide. Margins shallow to coarsely wavy toothed. Tips elongated on stem leaves. Petioles 

0.4 to 3 inches (1 to 8 cm) long and reduced upward. 

Flowers. April to May (sporadically to July). Terminal, tight clusters of small, white 

4-petaled flowers, each 0.2 to 0.3 inch (5 to 7 mm) long and 0.4 to 0.6 inch (10 to 14 

mm) wide. Flowering progressing upward as seedpods form below. 

Fruit and seeds. May to June. Four-sided, erect-to-ascending, thin pod, 1 to 5 inches 

(2.5 to 12 cm) long and 0.06 inch (1.5 mm) wide. Initially appearing to be stem branches, 

spiraled along the stalk. Green, ripening to tan and papery, exploding to expel tiny black 

seeds arranged in rows. 

Ecology. Occurs in small to extensive colonies on floodplains, at forest margins and 

openings, and less so under dense forest canopies. Shade tolerant while favoring 

forest edges. Litter disturbance not necessary for establishment. Capable of ballistic 

seed dispersal of up to 10 feet (3 m). Spreads by human-, animal-, and water-dispersed 

seeds, which lie dormant for 2 to 6 years before germinating in spring. Experiences 

year-to-year variations in population densities. Allelopathic, emitting chemicals that kill 

surrounding plants and microbes. 

Resembles violet (Viola spp.) in the rosette stage without stalks; and white avens 

(Geum canadense Jacq.) and bittercress (Cardamine spp.) that have similar small 

white flowers, but dissected leaves. None emit garlic odor like garlic mustard.

History and use. Introduced from Europe in the 1800s and first sighted as an escaped 

weed in 1868 on Long Island, NY. Originally cultivated for medicinal use but no known 

value now.

Distribution. Found throughout the region except LA, TX, OK, and FL. The most frequent 

and dense infestations are in northern KY and VA.

Garlic Mustard 6002

Chris Evans

May
110

Invasive

FORBS

June

Dan Tenaglia

June June June

June

Nodding Plumeless Thistle 
111

FORBS

Invasive

June

Carduus nutans L CANU4 Asteraceae

Other common names: musk thistle, nodding thistle

Plant. A variable biennial or annual herb characterized by sharp spines on leaves, 

branching stems, and bracts surrounding lavender flowers that sometimes nod to the 

side (thus the common name). Leafy rosettes first appear in either spring or fall, start 

forming a deep, hollow taproot (no rhizomes) and bolt within 6 months to 6 feet (2 m) 

high with midplant branches topped by 1 (to a few) composite flower heads that yield 

thousands of plumed seeds per plant. The plumes blow away on most, leaving the 

seed in the head (thus the common name “plumeless”). Spring seedlings can produce 

seeds in the same year while the more common fall rosettes overwinter to produce 

flower stalks the next spring. 

Stem. Round, fleshy, often covered with dense, white, weblike hairs (or not) towards 

the tops along with scattered spiny bracts, while spiny leafy ridges extend downward 

along the more stout and erect branched stems towards the leafy base.

Leaves. Seedling leaves in a rosette are oval to oblong with whitish midveins and 

margined with tiny spines. Larger rosettes follow with thick, dandelionlike leaves up to 

15 inches (40 cm) long, coarsely toothed with whitish, sharp spines extending from 

each vein. Dark green, hairless, and glossy above with a wide whitish midvein, and 

lighter green beneath. Similar sized leaves spiral out from the stems and decrease in 

size upward, becoming leafy spiny bracts scattered below the flower heads.

Flowers. May to September. Each branch topped by a domed flower bud covered with 

concentric rows of white spine-tipped bracts that part back and arch downward to form 

a spiny skirt for a showy pinkish to purplish-lavender thistle flower, 1.5 to 3 inches (4 to 

8 cm) wide. Each composed of hundreds of tiny perfect flowers, sometimes nodding to 

the side, and the tallest on a plant being the largest with the most flowers. 

Fruit and seeds. June to October. Tightly packed seed heads of tapered nutlets 

(achenes), each 0.1 to 0.2 inch (3 to 5 mm) long topped by whitish bristles that frequently 

blow away without the seed. Upwards to 120,000 seeds produced by a single plant in 

a year.

Ecology. Rosettes have buds that produce sprouts when disturbed. Flowers pollinated by 

insects, most being cross-pollinated, but self-pollination does occur. Seeds are equipped 

for dispersal by wind, water, livestock, human activity, and ants, with viability exceeding 

10 years in the soil. Most seeds dispersed near the plant and with seed head fall.

Resembles the invasive bull thistle [Cirsium vulgare (Savi.) Ten.] that has hairs on the 

upper leaf surfaces and the perennial Canada thistle [C. arvense (L.) Scop.] that has 

rhizomes, does not appear in the rosette form and only the most outer flower/seed 

head bracts are spiny.

History and use. Introduced from Southern Europe in the early 1900s as an 

ornamental. 

Distribution. Found throughout the region except FL.

Nodding Plumeless Thistle 
112

Invasive

FORBS

June July

April

Steve Dewey

Michael Shephard

John Cardina

July July July

June

Spotted Knapweed 

Taproot Taproot

Richard Old

July
113

FORBS

Invasive

Centaurea stoebe L. ssp. micranthos CESTM Asteraceae (Gugler) Hayek

Synonym: C. biebersteinii DC 

Other common name: bushy knapweed

Plant. A bushy, winter-hardy, upright perennial forb living 3 to 5 years or sometimes longer, 

often in dense infestations. A deep taproot supports an initial rosette of bluish-green, woolly, 

dandelion-like leaves. Stem leaves pinnately dissected becoming smaller and less dissected 

toward the tips of multiple woolly, hairy stems. Midplant branches topped by a few to many 

pink-to-lavender thistle flowers constricted below the plume by distinctively fringed bracts 

with black tips (thus the common name “spotted”) to produce thousands of tiny bristle-topped 

seeds. Dead tops remain in winter with new sprouts in spring. A severe invasive in much of 

the U.S. and now invading the South. 

Stem. Round, upright in multistemmed clumps, to 3.2 feet (1 m) tall, covered in dense woolly 

hairs and having ridges that extend downward from leaf bases. Upper stems wiry and slender 

with many alternate branches that end in flowers. Young plants may have only 1 stem with 

1 flower while older plants can have hundreds of flower-tipped branches.

Leaves. Rosette leaves bluish green, hairy and covered with shiny specks interspersed with 

translucent dots, 4 to 8 inches (10 to 20 cm) long decreasing in size above midstem, alternate, 

spiraling and jutting out and upward. Basal leaves deeply divided into elliptic or linear lobes 

that can appear like leaflets along a wide whitish-to-purplish midvein. Lobes become more 

slender and fewer on upper leaves, with simple leaves near the flowers.

Flowers. June to November. Each branch topped by an egg-shaped flower bud covered with 

overlapping rows of dry, fringed (not spiny) green bracts with black tips. Bracts eventually 

part at top to allow a constricted pinkish-to-lavender thistle plume to radiate out and up, 0.75 

to 1 inch (2 to 2.5 cm) wide and overall about 1 inch (2.5 cm) long, composed of hundreds 

of tiny perfect flowers with the outer ones being sterile. 

Fruit and seeds. June to February. Tightly packed seed heads of oblong, brownish, hairy 

nutlets (achenes), 0.1 inch (3 mm) long, topped by short stubby bristles. Hairs and bristles 

for clinging. Upwards of 1,000 seeds per plant.

Ecology. Rapidly colonizes roadsides and disturbed lands, especially dry and droughty sites, 

to invade adjacent undisturbed prairies and open forests. A severe invasive spreading into the 

South by seeds equipped for dispersal by wind, water, livestock, wildlife, and human activity, 

with viability in the soil for many years. Seeds germinate throughout the growing season. The 

roots secrete allelopathic chemicals to inhibit other plant seeds from germinating.

Resembles other thistles and knapweeds, but none have sharp spines, highly dissected 

leaves with narrow lobes or distinct black spots on the involucre.

History and use. Accidentally introduced from Europe into the Northwestern United States 

in the 1890s and later spread rapidly across the West and Midwest and into the Northeast 

and now the South. Listed in most Western States’ noxious weed laws. 

Distribution. Found throughout the region except OK and TX.

Spotted Knapweed 

June
114

Invasive Trees

Common Name: Scientific Name:

Earleaf acacia (FL) Acacia auriculiformis A. Cunn. ex Benth.

Amur maple Acer ginnala Maxim. 

Norway maple Acer platanoides L.

Woman’s tongue (FL and TX) Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth. 

Deviltree (FL) Alstonia macrophylla Wall. ex G. Don 

Edible fig Ficus carica L.

Chinese parasoltree Firmiana simplex (L.) W. Wight 

Paradise apple Malus pumila Mill. 

Melaleuca (FL and LA) FED Melaleuca quinquenervia (Cav.) Blake 

White mulberry Morus alba L.

Japanese black pine Pinus thunbergii Parl. 

White poplar Populus alba L.

Lombardy poplar Populus nigra L.

Sweet cherry Prunus avium (L.) L.

Cherry plum (TN) Prunus cerasifera Ehrh. 

Sour cherry Prunus cerasus L.

European plum (TX) Prunus domestica L.

Cherry laurel Prunus laurocerasus L.

Perfumed cherry, Maheleb Prunus mahaleb L.

Sawtooth oak Quercus acutissima Carruthers 

Rose myrtle (FL) Rhodomyrtus tomentosus(Aiton) Hassk. 

Octopus tree, schefflera (FL) Schefflera actinophylla (Endl.) Harms 

Peruvian peppertree Schinus molle L.

 (FL, AL, and TX)

Java plum Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels 

African tamarisk (TX, LA, and SC) Tamarix africana Poir. 

Russian tamarisk Tamarix aralensis Willd. 

Canary Island tamarisk Tamarix canariensis Lour. 

 (LA, GA, SC, and NC)

Five-stamen tamarisk Tamarix chinensis Lour. 

 (TX, OK, AR, and NC)

French tamarisk, salt-cedar Tamarix gallica L.

Smallflower tamarisk Tamarix parviflora DC.

Saltcedar, tamarisk Tamarix ramosissima Ledeb.

Four-stamen tamarisk (GA) Tamarix tetragyna C. Ehrenb. 

Siberian elm Ulmus pumila L.

Common jujube Ziziphus zizyphus Mill. 

Invasive Shrubs

Common Name: Scientific Name:

Butterfly bush Buddleja davidii Franch. 

Surinam cherry Eugenia uniflora L.

Rose of Sharon Hibiscus syriacus L.

Lantana Lantana camara L.

White leadtree Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit 

Puerto Rico sensitive-briar Mimosa asperata L. 

 (TX)

Lollipop mimosa, catclaw Mimosa pellita Kunth ex Willd. 

 mimosa (FL and TX)

Tree tobacco Nicotiana glauca Graham 

Guava (FL and LA) Psidium guajava L.

Scarlet firethorn Pyracantha coccinea M. Roem. 

Formosa firethorn Pyracantha koidzumii (Hayata) Rehder 

Common pear Pyrus communis L.

Jetbead Rhodotypos scandens (Thunb.) Makino 

Castorbean Ricinus communis L.

Wineberry, wine raspberry Rubus phoenicolasius Maxim. 

Linden arrowwood (VA) Viburnum dilatatum Thunb.

Invasive Vines

Common Name: Scientific Name:

Coral vine Antigonon leptopus Hook. & Arn. 

Sweet autumn virginsbower Clematis terniflora DC. 

Japanese hops Humulus japonicus Siebold & Zucc. 

Gloria de la manana Ipomoea carnea Jacq. ssp. fistulosa 

 (Mart. ex Choisy) D. Austin 

Redstar, red morning-glory Ipomoea coccinea L.

Ivyleaf morning-glory Ipomoea hederacea Jacq.

Tall morning-glory Ipomoea purpurea (L.) Roth 

Catclawvine Macfadyena unguis-cati (L.) A.H. 

 Gentry 

Stinkvine, skunk vine Paederia foetida L.

Jamaican feverplant Tribulus cistoides L.

 (FL and LA)

Puncturevine Tribulus terrestris L.

Other Nonnative Plants Invading Southern Forest And their Margins, Openings, Waterway Margins, Wetlands, and Stream, River, and Lake Banks According to http://www.invasive.org/south/ 

States where species occur in parentheses. Species on the Federal Noxious Weed List are denoted by “FED”. 
115

Invasive Grasses, Canes, and Grasslikes Invasive Grasses, Canes, and Grasslikes (continued)

Common Name: Scientific Name:

Jointed goatgrass Aegilops cylindrica Host

Crested wheatgrass Agropyron cristatum (L.) Gaertn.

Desert wheatgrass (TX) Agropyron desertorum (Fisch. ex Link) 

 J.A. Schult. 

Colonial bentgrass Agrostis capillaris L.

Redtop Agrostis gigantea Roth

Tall oatgrass Arrhenatherum elatius (L.) Beauv. ex 

 J. & K. Presl 

Basket grass, small carpgrass Arthraxon hispidus (Thunb.) Makino 

Animated oat, wild oat Avena sterilis L.

Hedge bamboo (FL) Bambusa multiplex (Lour.) Raeusch. ex 

 Schult. & Schult. f. 

Common bamboo (FL and SC) Bambusa vulgaris Schrad. ex J.C. 

Wendl. 

Yellow bluestem, King Ranch Bothriochloa ischaemum (L.) Keng var. 

 bluestem songarica (Rupr. ex Fisch. & 

 C.A. Mey.) Celarier & Harlan 

Field brome, Japanese brome Bromus arvensis L.

Rescuegrass Bromus catharticus Vahl 

Smooth brome Bromus inermis Leyss. 

Bald brome, meadow brome Bromus racemosus L. 

Rye brome Bromus secalinus L.

Cheatgrass Bromus tectorum L.

Japanese sedge Carex kobomugi Ohwi 

Bermudagrass Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. 

Yellow nutsedge Cyperus esculentus L. 

Umbrella plant Cyperus involucratus Rottb 

Purple nutsedge Cyperus rotundus L.

Orchardgrass Dactylis glomerata L.

Kleberg’s bluestem Dichanthium annulatum (Forssk.) Stapf 

Angleton bluestem Dichanthium aristatum (Poir.) C.E. 

 Hubbard 

African couchgrass Digitaria abyssinica (A. Rich) Stapf 

Southern crabgrass Digitaria ciliaris (Retz.) Koel 

Hairy or large crabgrass Digitaria sanguninalis (L.) Scop. 

Barnyardgrass Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) Beauv. 

Indian goosegrass Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn.

Quackgrass Elymus repens (L.) Gould 

Stinkgrass Eragrostis cilianensis (All.) Vign. ex 

 Janchen 

Centipede grass Eremochloa ophiuroides (Munro) Hack.

Limpograss Hemarthria altissima (Poir.) Stapf & C.E. 

 Hubbard 

Common velvetgrass Holcus lanatus L.

Darnel ryegrass Lolium temulentum L.

Rose Netal grass Melinis repens (Willd.) Zizka 

Silkreed (FL and GA) Neyraudia reynaudiana (Kunth) Keng 

 ex Hitchc. 

Rice Oryza sativa L.

Torpedograss Panicum repens L.

Dallisgrass Paspalum dilatatum Poir. 

Bahiagrass Paspalum notatum Flueggé 

Kodomillet (GA, AL, and TX) FED Paspalum scrobiculatum L. 

Vasey’s grass Paspalum urvillei Steud.

Buffelgrass Pennisetum ciliare (L.) Link 

African feathergrass (TX) FED Pennisetum macrourum Trinius. 

Crimson fountaingrass Pennisetum setaceum (Forsk.) Chiov. 

Timothy Phleum pratense L.

Japanese timber bamboo Phyllostachys bambusoides Siebold & 

 Zucc. 

Black bamboo Phyllostachys nigra (Lodd. ex Lindl.) Munro 

Common reed (native and Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex 

 introduced) Steud. 

Speargrass Poa annua L.

Canada bluegrass Poa compressa L.

Kentucky bluegrass Poa pratensis L.

Rough bluegrass Poa trivialis L.

Itchgrass FED Rottboellia cochinchinensis (Lour.) W.D. 

 Clayton 

Japanese bristlegrass Setaria faberi Herrm. 

Foxtail bristlegrass Setaria italica (L.) P. Beauv. 

Yellow bristlegrass Setaria pumila (Poir.) Roem. & Schult. 

Green bristlegrass Setaria viridis (L.) P. Beauv. 

Guineagrass Urochloa maxima (Jacq.) R. Webster 

Para grass Urochloa mutica (Forssk.) T.Q. Nguyen 

Panic liverseed grass Urochloa panicoides P. Beauv.

Other Nonnative Plants Invading Southern Forest And their Margins, Openings, Waterway Margins, Wetlands, and Stream, River, and Lake Banks According to http://www.invasive.org/south/ 

States where species occur in parentheses. Species on the Federal Noxious Weed List are denoted by “FED”. (continued)
116

Invasive Forbs Invasive Forbs (continued)

Common Name: Scientific Name:

Rosarypea Abrus precatorius L.

Japanese chaff flower Achyranthes japonica (Miq.) Nakai 

Russian knapweed Acroptilon repens (L.) DC. 

Common bugle Ajuga reptans L.

Wild garlic Allium vineale L. ssp. vineale

Sessile joyweed FED Alternanthera sessilis (L.) R. Br. ex DC. 

White moneywort Alysicarpus vaginalis (L.) DC. 

Thymeleaf sandwort Arenaria serpyllifolia L. 

Mugwort, common wormwood Artemisia vulgaris L.

Onionweed FED Asphodelus fistulosus L. 

Garden yellowrocket Barbarea vulgaris Ait. f.

Clubed begonia Begonia cucullata Willd. 

Corn gromwell Buglossoides arvensis (L.) I.M. 

 Johnston 

Basketplant Callisia fragrans (Lindl.) Woods 

Sacatrapo,Texasweed Caperonia palustris (L.) A. St.-Hil. 

Shepherd’s purse Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik. 

Hoary cress, whitetop Cardaria draba (L.) Desv. 

Spiny plumeless thistle Carduus acanthoides L. 

Garden cornflower Centaurea cyanus L.

White knapweed Centaurea diffusa Lam.

Brown knapweed Centaurea jacea L.

Maltese star-thistle Centaurea melitensis L.

Yellow star-thistle Centaurea solstitialis L.

Alpine knapweed Centaurea transalpina Schleich. ex DC. 

Lambsquarters (native and Chenopodium album L.

 introduced) 

Mexican tea Chenopodium ambrosioides L.

Rush skeletonweed Chondrilla juncea L.

Chicory Cichorium intybus L.

Canada thistle Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop. 

Bull thistle Cirsium vulgare (Savi) Ten. 

Blessed thistle Cnicus benedictus L.

Coco yam, taro Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott 

Benghal dayflower, tropical Commelina benghalensis (L.) Schott

 spiderwort FED

Asiatic dayflower, common Commelina communis L.

 dayflower 

Poison hemlock Conium maculatum L. 

Field bindweed Convolvulus arvensis L. 

Piedmont bedstraw Cruciata pedemontana (Bellardi) 

 Ehrend. 

Common crupina FED Crupina vulgaris Cass. 

Dodder (other than native or Cuscuta spp. 

 widely distrubuted spp.) 

Houndstongue, gypsyflower Cynoglossum officinale L.

Jimsonweed Datura stramonium L.

Queen Anne’s lace Daucus carota L.

Deptford pink Dianthus armeria L. 

Fuller’s teasel Dipsacus fullonum L.

Common teasel Dipsacus fullonum ssp. sylvestris 

 (Huds.) Clapham 

Cut-leaf teasel Dipsacus laciniatus L.

Indian strawberry Duchesnea indica (Andr.) Focke 

Redstem stork’s bill Erodium cicutarium (L.) L’Hér. ex Ait. 

Leafy spurge Euphorbia esula L.

Mullberrryweed, hairy crabweed Fatoua villosa (Thunb.) Nakai 

Sweet fennel Foeniculum vulgare P. Mill. 

Goatsrue Galega officinalis L.

South American mock vervain Glandularia pulchella (Sweet) Troncoso 

Fulva, common orange daylily Hemerocallis fulva (L.) L. 

Giant hogweed FED Heracleum mantegazzianum Sommier 

 & Levier 

Dames rocket Hesperis matronalis L.

Orange hawkweed Hieracium aurantiacum L. 

Meadow hawkweed Hieracium caespitosum Dumort.

Common St. Johnswort Hypericum perforatum L. 

Paleyellow iris Iris pseudacorus L.

Korean clover Kummerowia stipulacea (Maxim.) 

 Makino 

Japanese clover Kummerowia striata (Thunb.) Schindl.

Willowleaf lettuce Lactuca saligna L.

Prickly lettuce Lactuca serriola L. 

continued

Other Nonnative Plants Invading Southern Forest And their Margins, Openings, Waterway Margins, Wetlands, and Stream, River, and Lake Banks According to http://www.invasive.org/south/

States where species occur in parentheses. Species on the Federal Noxious Weed List are denoted by “FED”. (continued)
117

Invasive Forbs (continued) Invasive Forbs (continued)

Common Name: Scientific Name:

Henbit deadnettle Lamium amplexicaule L. 

Common nipplewort Lapsana communis L. 

Common motherwort Leonurus cardiaca L.

Oxeye daisy Leucanthemum vulgare Lam. 

Yellow toadflax Linaria vulgaris P. Mill. 

Bird’s-foot trefoil Lotus corniculatus L. 

Horehound Marrubium vulgare L.

Black medick Medicago lupulina L.

Burclover Medicago polymorpha L. 

White sweet clover Melilotus alba Ders. 

Yellow sweet clover Melilotus officinalis (L.) Lam. 

Melilotus, clover Melilotus spp. 

Miniature beefsteakplant Mosla dianthera (Buch.-Ham. ex Roxb.) 

 Maxim. 

Catnip Nepeta cataria L. 

Scotch thistle Onopordum acanthium L. 

Sleepydick, Star-of-Bethlehem Ornithogalum umbellatum L. 

Hellroot, small broomrape FED Orobanche minor Smith

Wild parsnip Pastinaca sativa L. 

Harmal peganum Peganum harmala L. 

Beefsteakplant Perilla frutescens (L.) Britt. 

Mascarene Island leaf-flower Phyllanthus tenellus Roxb. 

Chamber bitter Phyllanthus urinaria L. 

Narrowleaf plantain Plantago lanceolata L. 

Asiatic smartweed, Oriental Polygonum caespitosum Blume

 ladysthumb 

Asiatic tearthumb Polygonum perfoliatum L. 

Spotted ladysthumb Polygonum persicaria L.

Giant knotweed Polygonum sachalinense F. Schmidt ex 

 Maxim.

Sulfur cinquefoil Potentilla recta L.

St. Anthony’s turnip Ranunculus bulbosus L.

Fig buttercup, lesser celandine Ranunculus ficaria L. 

Wild radish Raphanus raphanistrum L.

Cultivated radish Raphanus sativus L.

Annual bastardcabbage Rapistrum rugosum (L.) All. 

Creeping yellowcress Rorippa sylvestris (L.) Bess. 

Britton’s wild petunia Ruellia caerulea Leonard 

Common sheep sorrel Rumex acetosella L. 

Curly dock Rumex crispus L.

Prickly Russian thistle Salsola tragus L.

Shrubby Russian thistle Salsola vermiculata L. 

South American skullcap Scutellaria racemosa Pers. 

Sicklepod Senna obtusifolia (L.) Irwin & Barneby 

Rattlebush, rattlebox Sesbania punicea (Cav.) Benth. 

London rocket Sisymbrium irio L. 

Twoleaf nightshade Solanum diphyllum L. 

Turkeyberry Solanum torvum Sw. 

Perennial sowthistle, field Sonchus arvensis L. 

 sowthistle 

Spiny sowthistle Sonchus asper (L.) Hill 

Common sowthistle Sonchus oleraceus L. 

Slender sowthistle Sonchus tenerrimus L. 

Bay Biscayne creeping-oxeye, Sphagneticola trilobata (L.C. Rich.) 

 wedelia Pruski 

Florida hedgenettle Stachys floridana Shuttlw. ex Benth. 

Common chickweed Stellaria media (L.) Vill. ssp. media

Common chickweed Stellaria media (L.) Vill. ssp. pallida 

 (Dumort.) Asch. & Graebn. 

Witchweed Striga asiatica (L.) Kuntze 

Cowpea witchweed Striga gesnerioides (Willd.) Vatke 

Common dandelion Taraxacum officinale G.H. Weber ex 

 Wiggers 

Spreading hedgeparsley Torilis arvensis (Huds.) Link 

Yellow salsify Tragopogon dubius Scop. 

Coatbuttons Tridax procumbens L.

White clover Trifolium repens L.

Clover Trifolium spp.

Stinging nettle (native and Urtica dioica L. 

 introduced) 

Common mullein Verbascum thapsus L. 

Purpletop vervain Verbena bonariensis L. 

Brazilian vervain Verbena brasiliensis Vell. 

Ivyleaf speedwell Veronica hederifolia L. 

Garden vetch Vicia sativa L.

Spiny cocklebur Xanthium spinosum L.

Other Nonnative Plants Invading Southern Forest And their Margins, Openings, Waterway Margins, Wetlands, and Stream, River, and Lake Banks According to http://www.invasive.org/south/

States where species occur in parentheses. Species on the Federal Noxious Weed List are denoted by “FED”. (continued)
118

Invasive Ferns

Common Name: Scientific Name:

Asian netvein hollyfern Cyrtomium fortunei J. Sm.

Japanese false spleenwort Deparia petersenii (Kunze) M. Kato 

Old world climbing fern Lygodium microphyllum (Cav.) R. Br. 

Narrow swordfern, Boston fern Nephrolepis cordifolia (L.) C. Presl

Chinese brake fern, ladder brake Pteris vittata L.

Aquatic and Wetland Plants, Ferns, and Algae

Common Name: Scientific Name:

Feathered mosquitofern Azolla pinnata R. Brown

 (NC, FL, and LA) FED

Brazilian water-hyssop Bacopa egensis (Poepp.) Pennell 

Pond water-starwort Callitriche stagnalis Scop. 

Water sprite Ceratopteris thalictroides (L.) Brongn.

Becket’s water trumpet Cryptocoryne beckettii Thwaites ex 

 Trimen.

Rock snot, didymo Didymosphenia geminata (alga) 

 (Lyngbye) M. Schmidt 

Brazilian egeria Egeria densa Planch.

Common water hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms 

Waterthyme, hydrilla FED Hydrilla verticillata (L. f.) Royle 

Water-poppy Hydrocleys nymphoides (Humb. & 

 Bonpl. ex Willd.) Buchenau 

Indian swampweed, miramar Hygrophila polysperma (Roxb.) T. 

 weed FED Anders. 

Yellow flag iris Iris pesudacorus L. 

Dotted duckweed, dotted Landoltia punctata (G. Mey.) D.H. Les &

 duckmeat D.J. Crawford 

Asian marshweed (FL, GA, Limnophila sessiliflora (Vahl) Blume 

 and TX) FED

Large-flower primrose-willow Ludwigia grandiflora (Michx.) Greuter & 

 Burdet spp. grandiflora

Creeping or six-petal water Ludwigia grandiflora (Michx.) Greuter & 

 primrose Burdet spp. hexapetala (Hook. & Arn.) 

 G.L. Nesom & Kartesz 

Moneywort, creeping Jenny Lysimachia nummularia L. 

Aquatic and Wetland Plants, Ferns, and Algae (continued)

Purple loosestrife Lythrum salicaria L.

European wand loosestrife Lythrum virgatum L.

 (VA only) 

Dwarf waterclover Marsilea minuta L.

Australian waterclover Marsilea mutica Mett. 

European waterclover Marsilea quadrifolia L. 

Peppermint Mentha ×piperita L. (pro sp.) [aquatica 

 × spicata] 

Asian spiderwort, marsh Murdannia keisak (Hassk.) Hand.-Maz.

 dewflower 

Parrots feather watermilfoil Myriophyllum aquaticum (Vell.) Verdc. 

Eurasian watermilfoil Myriophyllum spicatum L. 

Brittle waternymph Najas minor All. 

Watercress Nasturtium officinale Ait. f. 

Sacred lotus Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. 

Cape Blue water-lily Nymphaea capensis Thunb. 

Yellow floatingheart Nymphoides peltata (Gmel.) Kuntze 

Duck-lettuce FED Ottelia alismoides (Linnaeus) Pers. 

Cuban bulrush Oxycaryon cubense (Poepp. & Kunth) 

 Lye 

Common reed Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex 

 Steud. 

Water lettuce Pistia stratiotes L. 

Curly pondweed Potamogeton crispus L. 

Giant arrowhead Sagittaria montevidensis Cham. & 

 Schltdl. 

Waterspangles, common salvinia Salvinia minima Baker 

Kariba-weed, giant salvinia Salvinia molesta Mitchell 

Salvinia Salvinia spp. 

Bog bullrush Schoenoplectus mucronatus (L.) Palla

Bigpod sesbania Sesbania herbacea (Mill.) McVaugh 

Wetlands nightshade Solanum tampicense Dunal 

Exotic bur-reed FED Sparganium erectum L. 

Water chestnut Trapa natans L. 

European speedwell Veronica beccabunga L.

Other Nonnative Plants Invading Southern Forest And their Margins, Openings, Waterway Margins, Wetlands, and Stream, River, and Lake Banks According to http://www.invasive.org/south/.

States where species occur in parentheses. Species on the Federal Noxious Weed List are denoted by “FED”. (continued)
119

Books

Dirr, M.A. 1975. Manual of woody landscape plants. Revised. Champaign, IL: Stripes 

Publishing. 1187 p.

Godfrey, R.K. 1988. Trees, shrubs, and woody vines of northern Florida and adjacent 

Georgia and Alabama. Athens, GA: The University of Georgia Press. 734 p.

Kaufman, S.R.; Kaufman, W. 2007. Invasive plants; guide to identification and the 

impacts and control of common North American species. Mechanicsburg, PA: 

Stackpole Books. 458 p.

Langeland, K.A.; Burks, K.C., ed. 1998. Identification & biology of non-native plants in 

Florida’s natural areas. Gainesville, FL: University of Florida. 165 p.

Miller, J.H.; Miller, K.V. 2005. Forest plants of the Southeast and their wildlife uses. 

Athens, GA: The University of Georgia Press. 454 p.

Randall, J.M.; Marinelli, J., ed. 1996. Invasive plants: weeds of the global 

garden. Handb. 149. Brooklyn, NY: Brooklyn Botanic Garden. 111 p.

Weakley, A.S. 2006. Flora of the Carolinas, Virginia, Georgia, and surrounding areas 

(working draft of 17 January 2006). Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina 

Herbarium (NCU), North Carolina Botanical Garden, and the University of North 

Carolina at Chapel Hill. 1026 p.

Manuals

Smith, Tim E., ed. 1993. Missouri vegetation management manual. Jefferson City, MO: 

Missouri Department of Conservation, Natural History Division. 148 p.

Swearingen, J.; Reshetiloff, K.; Slattery, B.; Zwicker, S. 2002. Plant invaders of midAtlantic natural areas. Washington, DC: National Park Service; U.S. Fish & Wildlife 

Service. 82 p.

Tennessee Exotic Pest Plant Council. 1996. Tennessee exotic plant management 

manual. Nashville, TN: Tennessee Exotic Pest Plant Council, Warner Parks Nature 

Center. 118 p.

Articles and Reports

Bruce, K.A.; Cameron, G.N.; Harcombe, P.A.; Jubinsky, G. 1997. Introduction, impact 

on native habitats, and management of a woody invader, the Chinese tallow-tree, 

Sapium sebiferum (L.) Roxb. Natural Areas Journal. 17: 255−260.

Culley, T.M.; Hardiman, N.A. 2007. The beginning of a new invasive plant: a history of 

the ornamental callery pear in the United States. BioScience. 

57: 956−964.

Forseth, I.N.; Innis, A.F. 2004. Kudzu (Pueraria montana): history, physiology, ecology 

combine to make a major ecosystem threat. Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences. 23: 

401−413.

Miller James H.; Lemke Dawn; Coulston John. [in press]. Chapter 15. The invasion of 

southern forests by nonnative plants: current and future occupation with impacts, 

management strategies, and mitigation approaches. USDA Forest Service, Southern Research Station: Southern Forest Futures Project. http://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/

futures/technical-report/

Mueller, T.C.; Robinson, D.K.; Beller, J.E. [and others]. 2003. Dioscorea 

oppositifolia L. phenotypic evaluation and comparison of control strategies. Weed 

Technology. 17: 705−710.

Mullahey, J.J.; Colvin, D.L. 2000. Weeds in the sunshine: tropical soda apple (Solanum 

viarum) in Florida—1999. Gainesville, FL: University of Florida, Institute of Food and 

Agricultural Sciences. 7 p.

Schierenbeck, K.A. 2004. Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica) as an invasive 

species; history, ecology, and context. Critical Reviews in Plant 

Science. 23: 391−400.

Trusty, J.L.; Goertzen, L.R.; Zipperer, W.C.; Lockaby, B.G. 2007. Invasive 

wisteria in the Southeastern United States: genetic diversity, hybridization and role 

of urban centers. Urban Ecosystems. 10: 379−395.

Trusty, J.L.; Lockaby, B.G.; Zipperer, W.C.; Goertzen, L.R. 2007. Identity of naturalized 

exotic wisteria (Fabaceae) in the South-eastern United States. Weed Research. 47: 

479−487.

Vincent, M.A. 2005. On the spread and current distribution of Pyrus calleryana in the 

United States. Castanea. 70: 20−31.

Sources of Identification Information
120

Newsletters and Magazines

Florida Exotic Plant Pest Council. 1996−2013. Wildland weeds. Gainesville, FL. Quarterly.

Web Sites

Global

Global Invasive Species Database: http://www.issg.org/database/welcome/

An International Nonindigenous Species Database Network: http://www.nisbase.org/

nisbase/index.jsp

The Nature Conservancy’s Global Invasive Species Team: http://www.

invasive.org/gist/

National

Center for Invasive Species and Ecosystem Health: http://www.bugwood.org/index.cfm

Institute for Biological Invasion: http://invasions.bio.utk.edu/Default.htm

Invasive and Exotic Species: http://www.invasive.org/

National Association of EPPCs: http://www.naeppc.org/

NatureServe: http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/

Federal Government Agencies

Alien Plant Invaders of Natural Areas (PCA, National Park Service): http://www.nps.

gov/plants/alien/factmain.htm

APHIS: http://www.aphis.usda.gov/plant_health/plant_pest_info/weeds/index.shtml

ARS: Exotic & Invasive Weed Research: http://www.ars.usda.gov/main/site_main.

htm?modecode=53-25-43-00

CSREES Invasive Species (USDA Cooperative Extension Service): http://www.csrees.

usda.gov/invasivespecies.cfm

A Field Guide for Identification and Control, PLANTS National Database: http://plants.

usda.gov/

National Institute of Invasive Species Science: http://www.niiss.org/cwis438/websites/

niiss/About.php?WebSiteID=1

NBII Invasive Species Information Node: http://invasivespecies.nbii.gov/

Nonnative Invasive Plants of Southern Forests: http://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/gtr/

gtr_srs062/index.htm

Nuisance Species Task Force (ANS): http://www.anstaskforce.gov/default.php

Southern Region, Forest Service, Forest Inventory and Analysis Invasive Plants: http://

srsfia2.fs.fed.us/SNIPET/

The U.S. National Arboretum: www.usna.usda.gov/Gardens/invasives.html

U.S. Army Environmental Center (USAEC) Pest Management: http://el.erdc.usace.

army.mil/pmis/

USDA ARS Invaders Database System: http://invader.dbs.umt.edu/Noxious_Weeds/

USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

plants/

USDA Forest Service: http://www.fs.fed.us/foresthealth/programs/invasive_species_

mgmt.shtml

USDA Forest Service Invasive Species Program: http://www.fs.fed.us/invasivespecies/

index.shtml

U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service. 2008. Nonnative invasive species of 

southern forests and grasslands, compiled by a southern regional task force for the 

assessment of nonnative invasive species. http://www.invasive.org/south/ [Date accessed: November 17, 2015]

USDA National Invasive Species Information Center: http://www.invasivespeciesinfo.

gov/

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Invasive Species Program: http://www.epa.gov/

owow/invasive_species/

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Invasive Species Program: http://www.fws.gov/invasives/

Weeds Gone Wild: Alien Plant Invaders of Natural Areas: http://www.nps.gov/plants/

alien/

Regional

Cogongrass Web site, The University of Georgia: http://www.cogongrass.org

Flora of the Southeast: http://www.herbarium.unc.edu/seflora/species.htm

Invasive Plant Atlas of New England: http://www.invasive.org/weedcd/html/ipane.htm

Mid-Atlantic Exotic Pest Plant Council: http://www.ma-eppc.org/

Mid-West Invasive Plant Network: http://mipn.org/

Southeast EPPC: http://www.se-eppc.org/

State

NASDA (National Association of State Departments of Agriculture): http://www.nasda.

org/

State Exotic Pest Plant Councils: http://www.naeppc.org/

State Laws and Regulations: http://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/laws/statelaws.shtml

Texasinvasive.org: http://www.texasinvasives.org/
121

achene: a small, dry, nonsplitting fruit with a single seed, common to 

grasses, asters, and nut-rushes.

acute tip: terminating in a sharp or well-defined point, with more or less 

straight sides. 

allelopathic: referring to a plant known to emit chemicals that retard the 

growth or seed germination of associated plants. 

alternate leaves: one leaf at each node and alternating on sides of the 

stem or their points of attachment forming a spiral up the stem. 

annual: a plant that germinates, flowers, produces seed, and dies within 

one growing season. 

anthers: the pollen-producing portion of the stamen or male reproductive 

part of a flower. 

appressed: lying close to or flattened against. 

arbor: vine entanglement within the crowns of shrubs or trees. 

ascending: tending to grow upward, slightly leaning to somewhat erect. 

asymmetric: not identical on both sides of a central line. 

axil: the angle formed between two structures, such as between a leaf and 

the stem. 

axillary: located in an axil or angle. 

berry: a fleshy or pulpy fruit from a single ovary with one to many 

embedded seeds, such as tomato and grape. 

biennial: a plant that lives for about 2 years, typically forming a basal 

rosette in the first year, flowering and fruiting in the second year, and then 

dying. 

bipinnately compound: twice pinnately compound; a pinnately compound 

leaf being again divided. 

blade: the expanded part of a leaf. 

bract: a small leaf or leaflike structure at the base of a flower, inflorescence, 

or fruit. 

branch scar: a characteristic marking on a stem where there was once a 

branch. 

bud: an undeveloped flower, flower cluster, stem, or branch, often enclosed 

by reduced or specialized leaves termed bud-scales. 

bulbil: an aerial tuber. 

bunch grass: a grass species with a cluster-forming growth habit; a grass 

growing in an upright large tuft. 

bundle scar: tiny raised area(s) within a leaf scar, from the broken ends of 

the vascular bundles, found along a twig. 

calyx: the collective term for all of the sepals of a flower, commonly green, 

but occasionally colored and petallike or reduced to absent. 

calyx tube: a tubelike structure formed by wholly or partially fused sepals. 

cane: very tall grasses, for example, switchcane and bamboo; tall, stiff stem. 

capsule: a dry fruit that splits into two or more parts at maturity, for 

example, the fruit of tallowtree. 

clasping: base that partly or wholly surrounds another structure, such as a 

leaf base surrounding a stem. 

collar: the area of a grass leaf blade where it attaches to the sheath. 

colony: a stand or group of one species of plant, from seed origin or those 

connected by underground structures such as rhizomes. 

cordate: heart shaped. 

cordate base: a leaf base resembling the double-curved top of a heart 

shape. 

Glossary of Important Terms
122

corolla: the collective name of all of the petals of a flower. 

cotyledon: the initial leaves on a plant germinant. 

crenate: margin with shallow, rounded teeth; scalloped. 

cultivar: a form or variety of plant originating under cultivation. 

deciduous: falling off or shedding; not persistent; refers to leaves, bracts, 

stipules, and stipels. 

dioecous: plants with unisexual flowers and having male and female 

flowers on separate plants. 

drupe: a fleshy fruit, surrounding a stone (endocarp) that contains a 

single seed. 

ellipsoid: a three-dimensional ellipse; narrow or narrowly rounded at ends 

and widest in the middle. 

elliptic: oval-shaped; broadest at the middle and rounded and narrower at 

the two equal ends. 

entire: margins without teeth, notches, or lobes. 

even pinnately compound: a leaf with two or more leaflets arranged 

opposite along a leafstalk or rachis. 

evergreen: green leaves remaining present through winter. 

exotic: foreign; originating on a continent other than North America. 

fern: a broadleaf pteridophyte of the order Filicales, typically with muchdivided leaves and spore reproduction. 

filament: the long, slender stalk of a stamen that supports the anther. 

forb: a broad-leaved herbaceous (nonwoody) plant. 

frond: a large, once- or twice-divided leaf, here referring to fern leaves. 

gland: a structure which contains or secretes a sticky, shiny, or oily 

substance. 

grain: a grass seed. 

grass: plants of the family Poaceae, typically with narrow leaves and jointed 

stems. 

hairy: surface features of plants, many protruding filaments or glands that 

give texture; pubescent. 

herb or herbaceous: a plant with no persistent aboveground woody stem, 

dying back to ground level at the end of the growing season. 

hip fruit: the fruit of the genus Rosa that is ovoid, fleshy, and usually red 

when ripe. 

husk: the outer scalelike coverings of a grass seed. 

inflorescence: the flowering portion of a plant; the flower cluster; the 

arrangement of flowers on the stem. 

internode: the space on an herb or grass stem between points of leaf 

attachment. 

involucre: a whorl or collection of bracts subtending or enclosing a flower or 

flower cluster.

lanceolate: lance shaped; widest at or near the base and tapering to the 

apex. 

lateral: on or at the sides, as opposed to terminal or basal. 

leaflet: an individual or single division of a compound leaf. 

leaf scar: the scar or marking left on a twig after leaf fall. 

leafstalk: the main stem of a compound leaf, rachis. 

legume: a plant in the family Fabaceae; a dry, splitting fruit, one-to-many 

seeded, derived from a single carpel and usually opening along two 

sutures, confined to the Fabaceae. 

legume pod: the fruit of a legume. 

lenticel: a raised dot or short line, usually corky to white in color, on twigs 

and stems. 
123

ligule: a tiny membranous projection, often fringed with hairs, from the 

summit of the sheath (top of the throat), where the leaf attaches, in many 

grasses and some sedges. 

linear: long and narrow shaped with roughly parallel sides. 

lobed leaf: margins having deep indentations resulting in rounded-to 

pointed portions.

loments: linear seedpods of the legume family.

margin: the edge of a leaf blade or flower petal; the edge of a forest. 

marsh: a poorly drained portion of the landscape with shallow standing 

water most of the year, most extensive around intertidal zones. 

membranous: thin, filmy, and semitransparent. 

midvein: the central vein of a leaf or leaflet. 

milky sap: sap being opaque white and often of a thick consistency. 

monocot: the class of plants having one cotyledon (or monocotyledonous) 

and parallel leaf veins, including grasses, sedges, lilies, and orchids. 

mottled: spotted or blotched in color. 

node: the point of leaf or stem attachment, sometimes swollen on grass 

stems where the sheath is attached. 

nutlet: a small, dry, nonsplitting fruit with a woody cover, usually containing 

a single seed. 

oblanceolate: lance shaped with the widest portion terminal; inversely 

lanceolate. 

oblong: a shape two-to-four times longer than wide with nearly parallel 

sides. 

obovate: two-dimensional egg-shaped, with the attachment at the narrow 

end; inverted ovate. 

odd-pinnately compound: pinnately compound leaves with a terminal 

leaflet rather than a terminal pair of leaflets or a terminal tendril. 

opposite: leaves born in pairs at each node on opposite sides of the stem. 

ornamental: a plant cultivated for aesthetic purposes. 

oval: broadly elliptic in shape, with the width greater than half of the length. 

ovate: two-dimensional egg-shaped, with the attachment at the wider end. 

ovoid: three-dimensional egg-shaped, with the attachment at the wider end. 

palmate: like a hand with fingerlike leaflets or veins radiating outward.

panicle: an irregularly branched inflorescence with the flowers maturing 

from the bottom upward. 

pealike flower: irregular flower characteristic of sweet peas and beans in 

the family Fabaceae. 

perennial: any plant that persists for three or more growing seasons, even 

though it may die back to rhizomes or rootstock during the dormant period. 

petiole: a stalk that attaches the leaf blade to the stem. 

pinnately compound: a compound leaf with leaflets arising at intervals 

along each side of an axis or rachis (leafstalk).

pistil: the female reproductive portion of a flower, usually consisting of an 

ovary, style, and stigma. 

pith: the soft or spongy central tissue in some twigs and stems, sometimes 

absent making the stem hollow. 

plume: a tuft of simple or branched bristles. 

pod: an elongated dry fruit that usually splits open upon maturity, such as a 

legume. 

prickle: a spinelike structure protruding from a stem.

raceme: an elongated, unbranched inflorescence with stalked flowers 

generally maturing from the bottom upward. 

rachis: the main axis of an inflorescence or compound leaf.
124

recurved: gradually curved backward or downward.

rhizome: an underground stem, usually horizontal and rooting at nodes.

right-of-way: a narrow corridor of land in straight sections across the 

landscape, repeatedly cleared and kept in low vegetation, to accommodate 

roadway structures, poles and wire for electrical and telephone 

transmissions, and pipelines.

riparian: situated or dwelling on the bank or floodplain of a river, stream, or 

other body of water.

root collar: the surface area of a perennial where the stem and roots join.

rootcrown: the part of a perennial plant where the stem and roots join, 

often swollen.

root sprout: a plant originating from a root or rhizome that takes root at 

nodes.

rootstock: the part of a perennial plant near the soil surface where roots 

and shoots originate.

rosette (basal rosette): a circular cluster of leaves on or near the soil 

surface radiating from a rootcrown, as in dandelions.

scaly: covered with minute flattened, platelike structures.

semi-evergreen: tardily deciduous or maintaining green foliage during 

winter only in sheltered locations.

semiwoody plants: species that have mostly woody stems and deciduous 

leaves, usually shorter than shrubs.

sepal: a single unit of the calyx; the lowermost whorl of flower parts.

serrate: margin with sharp forward-pointing teeth.

sessile: attached without a stalk, such as a leaf attached without a petiole.

shade intolerant: a plant that cannot grow and reproduce under the canopy 

of other plants but needs direct sunlight.

shade tolerant: a plant that can grow and reproduce under the canopy of 

other plants.

sheath: a more or less tubular portion of a structure surrounding another 

structure, such as the tubular portion of leaf bases of grasses that surround 

the stem.

shrub: a wood plant, typically multistemmed and shorter than a tree.

simple: not compound; single; undivided; unbranched.

sinus: a rounded indention in leaves, often liken to mitten shapes.

smooth: not rough to the touch, usually hairless (or only finely hairy) and 

scaleless.

spherical: round in three dimensions, like a ball; synonymous with globose.

spike: an elongated, unbranched inflorescence with sessile or unstalked 

flowers along its length, the flowers generally maturing from the bottom 

upward.

sporangia: the case-bearing spores on ferns.

spore: a minute (almost not visible), one-celled reproductive body of ferns, 

asexual.

stamen: the male reproductive portion of a flower, usually consisting of an 

anther and filament.

stigma: tip of the female part of a flower where pollen lands and germinates 

to fertilize the ovary for seed production.

stipular: originating from stipules.

stipules: the pair of leaflike structures at the base of a leaf petiole in some 

species.

stone: a hard woody structure enclosing the seed of a drupe.

subshrub: a very short woody plant.

subtend: a structure just below another, such as flowers subtended by 

bracts.
125

succulent: fleshy or soft tissued.

swamp: a wooded or brushy area usually having surface water.

synonym: a discarded scientific name for a plant; another common name.

taproot: the main root axis; a long vertical, central root.

tardily deciduous: maintaining at least some green leaves into winter or 

early spring.

terminal: at the end.

thorn: a stiff, curved, sharply pointed modified stem, sometimes branched.

throat: the area inside a flower tube formed from fused petals; the upper 

side of a grass collar where the blade meets the sheath.

toothed: margin with outward pointed lobes; coarsely dentate.

trailing: running along the soil or leaf litter surface.

tuber: a thickened portion of a root or rhizome modified for food storage and 

vegetative propagation, such as a sweet potato.

tubular: a cylindrical structure, such as formed from fused petals or sepals.

twig: short leaf branch.

umbel: a compound flower with stems arising and radiating from one point 

of attachment.

variegated: marked with stripes or patches of different colors.

vine: a long trailing or climbing plant.

whorled: three or more leaves in a circular arrangement arising from a 

single node or radiating at different angles to the main stem.

wiry: thin, flexible, and tough.

yam: a tuber or potatolike organ. 
126

Miller, James H., Chambliss, Erwin B., and Loewenstein, Nancy J. 2010 (slightly revised 

2012, 2013, and 2015). A field guide for the identification of invasive plants in southern 

forests Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS–119. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest 

Service, Southern Research Station. 126 p.

Invasions of nonnative plants into forests of the Southern United States continue to go 

unchecked and only partially unmonitored. These infestations increasingly erode forest 

productivity, hindering forest use and management activities, and degrading diversity and 

wildlife habitat. Often called nonnative, exotic, nonindigenous, alien, or noxious weeds, they 

occur as trees, shrubs, vines, grasses, ferns, and forbs. This book provides information on 

accurate identification of the 56 nonnative plants and groups that are currently invading 

the forests of the 13 Southern States. It lists other nonnative plants of growing concern. 

Recommendations for prevention and control of these species are provided in a companion 

booklet, “A Management Guide for Invasive Plants of Southern Forests,” published by the 

Southern Research Station as a General Technical Report. Basic strategies for managing 

invasions on a specific site include maintaining forest vigor with minimal disturbance, 

constant surveillance and treatment of new unwanted arrivals, and finally, rehabilitation 

following eradication.

Keywords: Alien plants, exotic weeds, forest noxious plants, invasive exotic plants, invasive 

nonindigenous plants. 
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In accordance with Federal civil rights law and U.S. 

Department of Agriculture (USDA) civil rights regulations and 

policies, the USDA, its Agencies, offices, and employees, 

and institutions participating in or administering USDA 

programs are prohibited from discriminating based on race, 

color, national origin, religion, sex, gender identity (including 

gender expression), sexual orientation, disability, age, marital status, family/

parental status, income derived from a public assistance program, political 

beliefs, or reprisal or retaliation for prior civil rights activity, in any program or 

activity conducted or funded by USDA (not all bases apply to all programs). 

Remedies and complaint filing deadlines vary by program or incident.

Persons with disabilities who require alternative means of communication 

for program information (e.g., Braille, large print, audiotape, American Sign 

Language, etc.) should contact the responsible Agency or USDA’s TARGET 

Center at (202) 720-2600 (voice and TTY) or contact USDA through the 

Federal Relay Service at (800) 877-8339. Additionally, program information 

may be made available in languages other than English.

To file a program discrimination complaint, complete the USDA Program 

Discrimination Complaint Form, AD-3027, found online at http://www.ascr.

usda.gov/complaint_filing_cust.html and at any USDA office or write a letter 

addressed to USDA and provide in the letter all of the information requested 

in the form. To request a copy of the complaint form, call (866) 632-9992. 

Submit your completed form or letter to USDA by: (1) mail: 

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Office of the Assistant Secretary for Civil 

Rights, 1400 Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, D.C. 20250-9410; (2) 

fax: (202) 690-7442; or (3) email: program.intake@usda.gov.

USDA is an equal opportunity provider, employer, and lender.
Explanation of Codes and Conventions 

Used in Species Descriptions iv

Introduction 1

 Invasive Trees

Brazilian Peppertree 2

Callery Pear, Bradford Pear 4

Camphortree 6

Chinaberrytree 8

Chinese Parasoltree 10

Glossy Buckthorn 12

Paper Mulberry 14

Princesstree, Paulownia 16

Russian Olive 18

Silktree, Mimosa 20

Tallowtree, Popcorntree 22

Tree-of-Heaven 24

Trifoliate Orange, Hardy Orange 26

Tungoil Tree 28

 Invasive Shrubs

Autumn Olive 30

Bush Honeysuckles 32

Chinese/European/Border/California/Amur Privet 34

Hen’s Eyes, Coral Ardisia 36

Japanese/Glossy Privet 38

Japanese Barberry 40

Japanese Knotweed 42

Japanese Meadowsweet 44

Leatherleaf Mahonia 46

Nonnative Roses 48

Sacred Bamboo, Nandina 50

Shrubby Nonnative Lespedezas 52

Silverthorn, Thorny Olive 54

Tropical Soda Apple 56

Winged Burning Bush 58

 Invasive Vines

Amur Peppervine, Porcelain Berry 60

Climbing Yams 62

Five-Leaf Akebia, Chocolate Vine 64

Contents

Japanese Honeysuckle 66

Kudzu 68

Nonnative Ivies 70

Nonnative Wisterias 72

Oriental Bittersweet 74

Vincas, Periwinkles 76

Winter Creeper 78

 Invasive Grasses and Canes

Bamboos 80

Chinese Silvergrass 82

Cogongrass 84

Giant Reed 86

Johnsongrass 88

Nepalese Browntop, Japanese Stiltgrass 90

Tall Fescue 92

Weeping Lovegrass 94

 Invasive Ferns

Japanese Climbing Fern 96

 Invasive Forbs

Alligatorweed 98

Big Blue Lilyturf, Creeping Liriope 100

Chinese Lespedeza 102

Coltsfoot 104

Crownvetch 106

Garlic Mustard 108

Nodding Plumeless Thistle 110

Spotted Knapweed 112

Other Nonnative Plants Invading 

Southern Forests and Their Margins, 

Openings, Waterway Margins, 

Wetlands, and Stream, River, and 

Lake Banks 114

Sources of Identification Information 119

Glossary of Important Terms 121

Flower Parts, Flower Types, Inflorescences 125

Leaf Arrangements, Leaf Divisions, 

Shapes, Margins 126

Parts of a Grass Plant 126