United States 

Department o 

Agriculture 

Forest 

Service 

Northern 

Region 

200 East Broadway 

P.O. Box 7669 

Missoula, MT 59807 

Report 04-02 January 2004

Jerry Johnson Campground Hazard Tree Evaluation

September 2003

Susan K. Hagle, PhD, Plant Pathologist, 

USDA Forest Service, Northern Region 

Kristina Perry, Recreation Technician, 

USDA Forest Service, Northern Region, Lochsa Ranger District 

Rebecca Wiles, BA, SCEP-Recreation, 

USDA Forest Service, Northern Region, Lochsa Ranger District 

Summary 

Trees in and near camping sites, campground 

roads and other developed features of Jerry 

Johnson Campground were mapped and scored 

for damage, defect and hazard in September 

2003. A total of 24 camping unit or other 

developed sites were assessed. 843 trees were 

examined, 25 of which were dead. Nearly all of 

the trees were mature and some were very 

large. Grand fir was the most abundant species 

constituting 88% of the trees examined. 

Douglas-fir, lodgepole pine and ponderosa pine 

were also present. Root disease was moderate 

to severe in 33% of the trees and stem decay 

was rated moderate to severe in 5% of trees. 

Wounding, mostly recent, was seen in 30% of 

trees. 

Monitoring or removal was recommended for 

trees according to the severity of their damage 

or defect, the likelihood that a damage or defect 

may lead to tree failure, and the probability that 

a failed tree or part of tree would strike a 

structure or an occupied site. Removal was 

recommended for 169 trees (145 live trees). 

They ranged from less than 8 inches d.b.h. to 

nearly 37 inches. Most were grand fir or 

Douglas-fir and most had severe root disease, 

often with bark beetle or ambrosia beetle 

infestation as well. 

A yearly walk-through exam is recommended for 

this campground with another full assessment in 

5 years. The map and database we developed 

in this assessment should make re-assessment 

of these trees relatively easy. A vegetation 

management plan that includes regeneration of 

root disease resistant tree species is highly 

recommended. In should facilitate vegetation 

rehabilitation to compensate for continuing high 

rates of root disease-related tree removal. 
2 

General condition of trees in the 

campground 

Jerry Johnson Campground is located on Idaho 

State Highway 12 in the wild and scenic river 

corridor between the-Idaho Montana border and 

the confluence of Lochsa and Selway Rivers 

(approximately 75 miles upriver from Kooskia, 

Idaho). It is a historic use campground that has 

recently been expanded and renovated. Like 

nearly all of the forests along the Lochsa River, 

the stand in which Jerry Johnson campground is 

built is mostly mature grand fir/ Douglas-fir. Root 

disease caused by Heterobasidion annosum

(primarily), and some Armillaria ostoyae, is 

evident throughout. Butt rot, likely caused by H. 

annosum is a common occurrence in grand fir 

scattered throughout the campground. Fir 

engraver beetles (Scolytus ventralis) and 

ambrosia beetles were also seen in recently 

killed trees. There also are a few grand fir with 

conks of Echinodontium tinctorium, punk knots, 

seams and cracks in the stems, and other 

evidence of heartrot. Conks of Phellinus pini, a 

white pocket heartrot were evident on at least 

one lodgepole pine. Tree failures were observed 

in several locations in the campground area; 

most resulting from root decay. Heartrot and, in 

one case, a stem canker were contributing 

factors in some of the tree failures. Direct 

standing tree mortality caused by root disease 

and bark beetles appears to be far more 

common than tree failures in this campground. 

Root disease in Douglas-fir and grand fir is so 

common on Clearwater National Forest that it is 

rare to find stands of this age without significant 

damage. This makes management of 

campgrounds in these forest types difficult. 

While bark beetles are almost certainly selecting 

trees with advanced root disease, they will 

probably only kill a small proportion of the trees 

that have severe root loss. Therefore they are 

not good indicators of severely diseased trees. 

Roots are decayed slowly by fungi, and decline 

is a very slow process up until the last two or 

three years before a tree dies. For further 

discussion of root pathogen and heartrot biology 

and management, see Appendix A. Diligent 

monitoring of the campground trees and prompt 

removal of trees identified as potential hazards 

will minimize the probability of a tree failure 

leading to personal injury or property damage in 

Jerry Johnson Campground. To this end we 

tried to make this initial assessment as thorough 

as possible, providing a database and maps to 

expedite future re-evaluations of the trees. 

Assessment Methods 

We assessed the condition of all trees greater 

than 5 inches at breast height that were close 

enough to developed features of the 

campground to cause damage if they failed. The 

height of trees, projected to the ground, 

represented their potential hazard range. 

We concentrated on the trees around developed 

sites and campground roads. We did not 

evaluate trees around the helipad and water well 

above the campground, nor the trail that 

originates in unit 14. We were unable to 

determine the intended locations of outhouses 

so these sites were not specifically assessed. 

Mapping and scoring trees 

The fire ring was used as the map center for 

each site. All trees within target distance of any 

developed feature of the site were mapped and 

scored. Map blanks (Appendix B) were used 

which divided the site into quadrants beginning 

with true north aspect and proceeding clockwise 

around the fire ring. 

Species and diameter at breast height was 

recorded for each tree. They were scored for all 

significant damages and defects observed using 

six standard damage categories (Appendix C); 

decay, wound, canker, lean or sweep, branch or 

forking defects, root damage or disease. For 

each of these categories a severity range of 1-4 

was applied, to make a combined code such as 

D3 (decay, severity level 3). 

Where heartwood decay was suspected, trees 

were bored to determine the depth of sound 

rind. Trees with sound rind (outer xylem of the 

stem) depth of at least 60% of the radius of the 

stem are considered to be low hazard for failure 

due to the heartwood decay. Those with 60% to 

30% sound rind are considered moderate 

hazard, and those with less than 30% have a 

relatively high probability of failure. Therefore we 

used the graph in Figure 1 to determine the 

severity rating for trees with heartrot. 
3 

Root disease was by far the most common 

damage observed in the campground with 

virtually all grand fir and Douglas-fir showing 

some level of root disease effects. Therefore, we 

used the root damage ratings only to indicate 

trees with particularly severe root disease 

symptoms. A rating of R3 indicated trees with 

significantly deteriorated crown condition, 

presumably due to root disease. R4 indicated 

trees that were in the final stages of dying from 

root disease, usually with associated bark 

beetles or ambrosia beetles (in grand fir). Root 

damage ratings of 1 and 2 root used to indicate 

physical damages (wounding and severing), 

generally associated with campground 

construction. 

Wounds and leans were common as well. Most 

wounds were recent as a result of campground 

construction. Both were scored according to the 

table in Appendix C. 

Determining targets 

Many tree had more than one potential target. 

Standard target codes were as follows: 1 = 

occasional use such as trails or signs with no 

vehicle access (this code was not used in this 

assessment); 2 = intermittent use such as busy 

trails, the campground road and entry and day 

use areas; 3 = frequent use such as campsites, 

parking areas and permanent structures.

Trees with more than one target were assigned 

the highest code applicable. The exception was 

in the case of a lean value of 3 or higher. If the 

tree was leaning strongly away from the highest 

rated potential target, it was assigned the rating 

of the more likely target. 

Action recommendations 

Recommendation for removal was usually based 

on the probability of eminent death due to root 

disease or an unreasonably high probability of 

failure due to advanced heartrot or butt rot. We 

tried to identify only those trees most likely to die 

in the near future or those that had class 3 

targets as well as a high probability of failure. In 

a few cases a combination of moderate root 

disease and a lean toward a class 3 target, root 

disease combined with moderate heartrot (and a 

class 3 target) or similar combinations of 

conditions resulted in a recommendation for 

removal. Trees thus identified were tagged with 

metal number tags at breast height facing the 

reference fire ring. The nails used to attach the 

tags were aluminum to ensure there would be 

no risk of saw or planer damage should the nail 

fail to be removed before falling or milling. We 

also flagged each tree recommended for 

removal to make them easy to spot. 

Data handling 

Data were recorded on field sheets and entered 

into a Microsoft Excel sheet for analysis using 

Microsoft Access. The maps were converted 

from hand-drawn maps to slides in a Microsoft 

PowerPoint presentation. Hand-drawn maps 

were electronically scanned to retain relative 

positions of trees around the fire rings and 

standard mapping symbols were added as 

location markers for each tree with color-coding 

for easy reading (Figure 2). Both the database 

and maps should be easily updated from these 

products for future assessments of Jerry 

Johnson Campground. If kept current, they 

should provide for easy tracking of campground 

trees in the future. 

There were several campsites that were not 

assigned unit or spur numbers on the 

campground map we used as our reference in 

this assessment (Figure 3). Therefore we 

Figure 1. Thickness of sound rind based on 30% 

and 60% of radius (inside bark).

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

dbh

Rind thickness (inches)

60% 30%
4 

 assigned tentative numbers to these 

unmentioned units according to the nearest 

designated site. Units 9a, 9b and 12a were the 

new designations. A short stretch of roadside 

forest between units 3 and 4 was designated 

“unit” 3a, although there is no campsite. Also, 

the water fountain on the upper road was used 

as a map center and assigned a “unit” number 

50. In the process of analyzing the data in 

Access, we found it necessary to assign 

numbers to units 12a, 3a, and 9b. These appear 

in the database as 51, 52 and 53, respectively. 

The map number can be used to assure a 

correct match between the original unit numbers 

and numbers assigned in Access. 

Results of the assessment 

We assessed 843 trees in 19 designated units 

and 5 additional developed sites. Twenty two 

unit maps were developed (as seen in Figure 3). 

Grand fir was by far the most abundant species 

(Table 1), constituting 88% of the trees. 

Douglas-fir made up only about 9% of the forest 

but were nearly all large trees. The four 

ponderosa pines were clustered in the center of 

the campground and were all very large and 

relatively healthy. The lodgepole pines have 

small crown ratios and may survive only a 

decade or two more; they appear to be quite old 

for the species. 

Table 1. Tree condition and recommended actions by species. (Based on September 2003 assessment.)

Recommended Action 

Species Total Dead Average d.b.h. Monitor Remove 

Douglas-fir 75 7 20.9 8 33 (44%) 

Grand fir 746 16 18.6 38 131(18%) 

Lodgepole pine 17 2 14.8 0 5 (29%) 

Ponderosa pine 4 0 30.5 0 0 

Engelmann Spruce 1 0 8.5 0 0 

All species 843 25 46 169 (22%) 

N

5

4

1

17

3

8

12 19

6

16

21

23

25

24

26

27

9

10

13

15

2

14

Az 22

Az 170

Az 280 Az 75 Table

Az 308

7

2421

2422

2424

2426

2425

2423

2420 2500

11

20 22

18

Campground

Entrance

Campground road

Unit 1

28

Jerry Johnson C.G., Unit 1, Map 1 Date: (d/m/y) 11/9/03

2425

18

19

11

9

Legend

Live tree

Live tree-monitor

Live tree-remove

Dead tree

Dead tree-remove

Figure 2. Example of unit maps stored 

in Microsoft PowerPoint format. 
5 

Tree damages and defects 

Of the few live Douglas-fir left in the 

campground, 57% have moderate to severe root 

disease; 37% are recommended for removal 

because they will likely die within the year due to 

root disease (Table 2). Grand fir is fairing a little 

better with 32% coded as having moderate to 

severe root disease and only 9% recommended 

for immediate removal due to root disease. 

There was, however a fair amount of decay 

caused by both Indian paint fungus and butt rot 

from annosum root disease. Between the two 

causes, 5% (37 trees) have moderate to severe 

decay. In a few cases, Indian paint fungus conks 

were observed high on the stem of grand fir, 

producing a high stem decay rating even though 

it was not possible to bore the tree for sound 

rind measurement.

The high level of recent wounding (30%) 

undoubtedly will contribute greatly to increased 

decay rates in this species. Cambial wounds are 

known to increase the frequency and extent of 

stem decay within a few decades of wounding 

(Aho and Filip 1982). 

Heartrot caused by Phellinus pini was observed 

in one lodgepole pine in unit 12. There were 

numerous conks on the stem and the sound rind 

proved to be only 0.6 inches. 

Frequencies of damages varied greatly among 

the campground units (Table 3). Units 1, 3, 

6,14,15, 17 and 18 all border active root disease 

patches. The rates of mortality are especially 

high along the edges of these patches where 

fungus inoculum is abundant. Units 2, 6, 14 and 

15 have both H. annosum and A. ostoyae active 

which undoubtedly increases the rates of 

mortality. 

Figure 3. Map of Jerry Johnson Campground 

showing locations of unit map reference points. 
6 

Table 2. Moderate to severe damages or defects observed on live trees with target codes 2 or greater. 

(Based on September 2003 assessment.) 

Species Total live Root Disease Stem Decay Wounds Leans Other 

Sev 3 Sev 

4 

Sev 

3 

Sev 

4 

Sev 3 Sev 4 Sev 3 Sev 3 or 

4 

Douglas-fir 68 14 25 0 1 1 0 2 1 

Grand fir 731 163 68 13 24 34 5 9 12 

Lodgepole pine 15 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 3 

Ponderosa pine 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

All species 818 180 97 13 25 35 5 12 16 

Table 3. Severe damage codes assigned to live trees by unit. (Based on September 2003 assessment.) 

Recommended Action 

Unit Total live Root Disease Stem Decay Monitor Remove 

Sev 3 Sev 4 Sev 3 Sev 4 Trees Percent 

1 32 13 8 1 0 2 8 25 

2 99 15 13 1 1 12 16 16 

3 29 7 5 0 2 0 8 28 

3a 15 6 1 1 2 0 4 27 

4 44 17 2 0 2 1 6 14 

5 29 13 1 1 0 3 6 21 

6 41 22 10 3 2 2 15 37 

7 44 13 6 1 2 2 13 30 

8 20 1 0 1 1 1 4 20 

9 & 9a 37 2 1 0 0 1 1 3 

9b 43 5 1 0 0 5 1 2 

10 24 2 2 0 0 1 4 17 

11 39 1 8 2 2 0 11 28 

12 41 1 0 0 1 1 1 2 

12a 26 2 0 0 0 4 0 0 

13 38 6 6 0 2 4 7 18 

14 45 14 12 1 1 1 16 36 

15 25 6 3 0 1 0 3 1 

16 & 17 23 4 3 0 2 0 6 26 

17 &18 45 6 9 0 1 2 12 27 

19 52 7 3 0 1 1 3 6 

50 (fountain) 27 4 0 0 0 3 0 0 

All Units 818 167 94 12 23 46 145 18 

Recommended actions 

Overall, we recommended removal at this time 

for 22% (169) of the 843 trees we evaluated; 

18% of live trees evaluated. A few of the units 

were hard hit. We recommended 37% of trees in 

unit 6 and 36% of trees in unit 14 for removal. 

For most units we recommended one quarter or 

fewer of the trees to be removed at this time. 
7 

We noted a need to monitor a few trees 

specifically because they were likely to require 

removal in the near future. In reality, it is difficult 

to pick the trees likely to die next from root 

disease and bark beetles unless they are very 

close to death already. 

Most of the target codes assigned were in the 

highest class, 3 (Table 4). These were primarily 

the campsites themselves, including tent pads, 

tables, fire rings, and parking areas for the units. 

Of 843 trees evaluated, 88% were considered to 

have class 3 targets and as a result, 85% of the 

recommended removals are in class 3 target 

locations. 

Table 4. Recommended actions by target code. 

(Based on September 2003 assessment.) 

Recommended Action 

Target 

Code 

Total 

trees Monitor Remove 

1 7 0 0 

2 91 6 25 

3 745 40 144 

All 843 46 169 

There was little variation in average diameters of 

trees by unit (Table 5). Most units are dominated 

by at least a few very large grand fir or Douglasfir. Decay is also scattered through the 

campground but mortality is somewhat clustered 

at the edges of the root disease patches near 

units 1 and 3 and 14. High rates of mortality will 

likely continue in these units even after removal 

of the designated trees. Tree failures were noted 

in or near units 1, 3, 5, 6, 7, and 18. In all but 

three cases, the failure was due to root decay. 

Two trees near units 1 and 3 had failed because 

of advanced heartrot. One very large ponderosa 

pine near unit 6 had broken off high on the stem 

because of a gall rust canker. 

In two cases, relatively small, dead trees were 

not recommended for removal because they 

appeared to pose little threat to campground 

users or facilities and they were host to cavity 

nesting birds. The trees recommended for 

removal ranged from a few small trees to 

several very large trees, as much as 36 inches 

d.b.h. Table 6 provides a breakdown of 

recommended removals by species and 

diameter classes. Of the 169 trees 

recommended to remove, nearly 60% are at 

least 16 inches d.b.h. and 78% are grand fir. 
8 

Table 5. All trees assessed and recommended action in each campground unit. (Based on September 

2003 assessment.) 

Recommended Action 

Unit Total Dead Average d.b.h. Monitor Remove 

1 36 4 16.1 2 12 

2 102 3 17.8 12 19 

3 32 3 15.4 0 10 

3a 15 0 18.7 0 4 

4 46 2 18.8 1 8 

5 30 1 17.0 3 7 

6 43 2 17.7 2 17 

7 45 1 20.5 2 14 

8 21 1 16.6 1 5 

9 & 9a 37 0 16.7 1 1 

9b 43 0 17.0 5 1 

10 24 0 15.9 1 4 

11 39 0 14.6 0 11 

12 42 1 14.2 1 2 

12a 26 0 14.6 4 0 

13 40 2 15.0 4 9 

14 47 2 18.0 1 18 

15 26 1 17.5 0 4 

16 & 17 23 0 16.3 0 6 

17 &18 46 1 15.2 2 13 

19 52 0 14.1 1 3 

50 (fountain) 28 1 16.7 3 1 

All Units 843 25 46 169 

Table 6. Number of recommended removals by species. (Based on September 2003 assessment.) 

Diameter classes (inches at breast height) 

Species <8 8-11.9 12-15.9 16-19.9 20-23.9 24-27.9 >28 

Max 

d.b.h. Total 

Douglas-fir 1 3 5 5 8 6 5 36.7 33 

Grand fir 12 16 32 29 19 14 10 34.2 131 

Lodgepole pine 1 4 15.6 5 

All species 13 20 41 34 27 20 15 169 
9 

Management Recommendations 

Removal of highest hazard trees before 

campground is occupied 

These trees were mostly grand fir which, if they 

failed, would have tent or parking sites, tables, 

or fire pits as likely targets. They are trees that 

lean, show root heaving, or have heaviest 

crowns in the direction of one of these targets. 

Such trees have higher risk of causing property 

damage or injury in the case of failure. All trees 

have some risk of failure and trees with root 

disease are at an increased risk because of 

decay of structural roots. It is common practice 

in campground maintenance to remove trees 

with indicators of hazard (such as root disease 

or stem decay) with priority given to trees with 

human-inhabited targets. 

Additional mortality should be anticipated as the 

disease continues to progress in remaining 

grand fir. Thinning will not improve the condition 

of the grand fir trees and few are likely to survive 

more than one or two more decades. Annual 

evaluation of the site and removal of dead or 

dying trees is likely to be required. Revegetation 

with species resistant to S-type annosus and 

Armillaria root diseases will be necessary to reestablish tree cover and restore the aesthetic 

qualities of the site. 

Annual monitoring of all trees 

A walk-through exam including reassessment of 

trees previously noted as needing monitoring 

should be done each year. A thorough 

assessment should occur at least every 5 years, 

at which time the database and maps should be 

updated. This will be especially important as 

decay begins to develop behind the wounds 

produced in the recent construction of 

campground facilities. 

A vegetation management plan 

A comprehensive vegetation management plan 

is needed for this campground because of the 

high rate of loss of existing trees. Continued 

removal without providing for replacement of 

trees will eventually alter the character of the 

campground. A few ponderosa and lodgepole 

 pines are present near campsites. Both species 

are considered resistant (though not immune) to 

annosum and Armillaria root diseases as well as 

Indian paint fungus. The only regeneration 

observed in the campground in this assessment 

was grand fir. Few of these young trees have 

potential to reach maturity because of their 

susceptibility to root disease and the high levels 

of root pathogen activity on this site. Western 

larch is also resistant to root diseases and may 

be a suitable species for this campground. 

There are significant canopy openings in several 

units and if the recommended removals are 

done, there will be more. These openings may 

provide opportunities to plant disease-resistant 

trees. 

Native hardwood trees and shrubs are not 

susceptible to either root pathogen observed in 

Jerry Johnson campground and may be useful 

for providing temporary screening until young 

conifers are established. 

Selected References 

Hazard tree evaluation and management: 

Johnson, D. W. 1981. Tree hazards: recognition 

and reduction in recreation sites. Forest Pest 

Management, State and Private Forestry, 

Rocky Mountain Region, USDA Forest 

Service, Technical Report R2-1. 17 p. 

Mills, L. J., K. Russell. 1980. Detection and 

Correction of hazard trees in Washington’s 

recreation areas. A how-to guide for 

recreation site managers. Department of 

Natural Resources, State of Washington, 

DNR Report No. 42. 35 p. 

Robbins, R. 1986. How to Recognize and 

reduce tree hazards in recreation sites. 

Northeastern Area. USDA Forest Service, 

Report NA-FR-31. 28 p. 

Wallis, G. W., D. J. Morrison, D. W. Ross. 1980. 

Tree Hazards in Recreation Sites in British 

Columbia. Management Guidelines. British 

Columbia Ministry of Lands, Parks and 

Housing, Canadian Forestry Service, Joint 

report No. 13. 52 p. 
10 

Root disease biology and management: 

Cruickshank, M. G., D. J. Morrison, Z.K. Punja. 

1997. Incidence of Armillaria species in 

precommercial thinning stumps and spread 

of Armillaria ostoyae to adjacent Douglas-fir 

trees. Can. J. For. Res. 27: 481-490. 

Hagle, S. K., K. E. Gibson, S. Tunnock. 2003. 

Root Disease. Pp. 72-81. In: Field guide to 

diseases and insect pests of northern and 

central Rocky Mountain conifers. Northern 

and Intermountain Regions, USDA Forest 

Service. Publication Number R1-03-08. 197 

p. 

Hagle, S. K., Shaw, C.G., III. 1991. Chapter 11. 

Avoiding and reducing losses from Armillaria 

root disease. Pp157-173. In.: Armillaria root 

disease. USDA Forest Service, Agriculture 

handbook No 691. 233 p. 

Schultz, M. E., J. R. Parmeter, Jr. G. W. 

Slaughter. 1992. Long-term effect of treating 

true fir stumps with sodium tetraborate to 

control losses from Heterobasidion 

annosum. Western Journal of Applied 

Forestry 7(1): 229-231. 

Worrall, J. J., J. R. Parmeter, Jr., F. W. Cobb, Jr. 

1983. Host specialization of Heterobasidion 

annosum. Phytopathology. 73: 304-307. 

USDA Forest Service. 1998 (Update). Annosus 

Root Disease. In: Insect and Disease 

Management Handbook, Forest Health 

Protection, State and Private Forestry, 

Northern Region, USDA Forest Service. 8 p. 

Heartrot biology and management: 

Aho, P., J. Hadfield. 1975. How to estimate 

defect in grand fir in the blue mountains of 

Oregon and Washington.USDA Forest 

Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range 

Experiment Station. Pamphlet. 8 p. 

Etheridge, D. E., H. M. Craig. 1976. Factors 

influencing infection and initiation of decay 

by the Indian paint fungus (Echinodontium 

tinctorium) in western hemlock. Can. J. For. 

Res. 6: 299-318. 
11 

Appendix A 

Annosus root disease biology and 

management 

There are two types of Heterobasidion annosum

in Idaho that are distinguished on the basis of 

host range. The P-type, which causes its 

greatest damage in ponderosa pine, appears to 

be far less common in Idaho than the S-type. Stype, named for it’s significance as a pathogen 

of spruce species in Europe, is a very common 

and damaging pathogen of Douglas-fir, grand fir 

and subalpine fir in Idaho. Western redcedar is 

also a common host to H. annosum, though it 

seems to survive infections for many decades. 

Although we have not determined whether 

western redcedar is host to P-type or S-type, it is 

most likely to be S-type based the presence of 

root disease in Douglas-fir and grand fir growing 

in association with infected cedar. Pines, 

western larch and hardwoods are resistant to Stype H. annosum. 

The disease, as the name implies, mostly 

involves the roots. The fungus attacks the root 

cambium, girdling and killing roots. Once dead, 

the roots are decayed by H. annosum. The 

disease spreads throughout root systems and 

the fungus moves from tree to tree through root 

contacts and for short distances through soil or 

duff. In general, the disease kills Douglas-fir 

more rapidly than grand or subalpine firs. Thus, 

by the time grand or subalpine firs are visibly 

declining, the Douglas-fir component of stands 

has already been killed. Once established on a 

site the fungus is essentially a permanent 

feature of the site. They are long-lived 

organisms that can take advantage of the 

presence of hosts from one generation of trees 

to the next. They survive forest fires by slowly 

decaying root systems well below ground. 

Stump surface infection can be an important 

means of spread of P-type annosum so 

management recommendations often include 

treatment of stump surfaces to prevent spread of 

the disease. S-type annosum is does not 

provide this opportunity. High rates of root 

infection exist in most Douglas fir and grand fir 

stands which render stump infection 

inconsequential. Partial harvest, leaving 

Douglas-fir, grand fir or subalpine fir is 

discouraged because high rates of mortality of 

leave-trees generally result. Mortality rates 

between 3 and 7 percent per year are common if 

apparently healthy Douglas-fir and true firs are 

left after harvest. (Rates are higher if 

symptomatic trees are left.) 

Armillaria root disease biology and 

management 

Armillaria ostoyae is one of several pathogenic 

species of Armillaria. It is considered to be the 

only significant pathogen of conifers in the 

northern Rocky Mountains. All native conifers in 

this area are susceptible to A. ostoyae but some 

are far more resistant than others. By far the 

most susceptible is Douglas-fir. Grand fir and 

subalpine fir are also quite susceptible, 

especially when growing in association with 

Douglas-fir. Most other species are only 

significantly susceptible at a young age, 

generally less than 20 years. Exceptions are 

trees which are “off-site”, that is genetically 

unsuited to the site on which they have been 

planted. Western redcedar appears to be fairly 

susceptible at advanced ages or under stressful 

conditions. 

Armillaria ostoyae clones are thought to be the 

largest and oldest organisms on earth. They can 

extend hundreds of acres in size and are 

thought to be several thousand years old in 

some cases. They are adapted to survive 

generation after generation of forests on a site. 

Though they are though to invade site very 

slowly, expanding only a foot/year or less from 

established centers, they are tenacious; virtually 

impossible to remove from sites once 

established. 

Root disease patches typically have two or more 

species of root pathogens occurring at once, 

infecting the same trees and even the same 

roots. Armillaria ostoyae and H. annosum are 

common cohabitants of Douglas-fir, grand fir, 

and cedar forests in northern Idaho. Mortality 

rates from A. ostoyae are similar to those seen 

in H. annosum root disease. 
12 

Stem decay biology and management 

Indian paint fungus, Echinodontium tinctorium

and the white pocket rot, Phellinus pini, are 

thought to have similar biology. Infections are 

initially established in shade-killed branches. 

The fungus produces a “quiescent” infection in 

which it fails to progress much beyond the 

original point of establishment for some years. 

As the tree grows, the dead, infected branch 

stub is incorporated in the heartwood. Once 

surrounded by the no longer living, thereby no 

longer resistant, heartwood, the fungus begins 

to grow. It lives entirely by decaying the dead 

heartwood, never invading live sapwood. 

Decay caused by E. tinctorium can be especially 

extensive. A single young E. tinctorium conk 

may indicate a decay column extending 8 feet 

above and 8 feet below the conk. Larger, older 

conks may indicate 20 feet below and 21 feet 

above the conk. Two or more conks, widely 

separated on the stem, probably indicate that 

virtually the full length of the stem has a central 

column of decay. The longer the column is, the 

greater the width of the decay column. Phellinus 

pini decay is generally considered more limited 

in extent, extending about 3 feet in either 

direction from a conk. However, there are often 

many conks scattered throughout the length of 

the stem. 

Wounds that kill a patch of cambium are known 

to greatly accelerate the extent and perhaps the 

rate of decay caused by Indian paint fungus. It is 

thought the dead tissue, which essentially 

becomes a part of the heartwood by virtue of 

being dead, increases aeration of the heartwood 

and improves growing conditions for the fungus. 

Whatever the cause, wounds are a highly 

significant factor in predicting decay volumes in 

grand fir. Infected overstory grand fir with 

stagnated understory grand fir provides the ideal 

situation for development of Indian paint fungus 

infection.
13 

Appendix B 

N

Site: ______________________ Date: day ____, mo. , yr. Unit ___________ 

Location of trees with respect to fire pit in each unit. 
14 

Appendix C

INSTRUCTIONS: Find the description of defect that most closely describes an observed situation and enter the 

severity code on the evaluation form. If three or more defects of the same severity are recorded for a single tree 

(e.g., 3D, 3W, 3L), the overall severity rating for the tree may be increased by one level (column A on the 

evaluation form). Your situation may not be described or exactly fit a description; the descriptions are simply 

provided to assist you in assigning an appropriate severity level for each defect. Dead trees are automatically 

assigned a severity of 4.

SEV. 

CODE 

DECAY OR CAVITY: trees where significant decay is suspected should be increment bored to determine 

sound wood remaining (Rind) and excluding bark; severity may be influenced by tree species. 

1D Staining,, including wet wood, or incipient decay, but no advanced decay or fruiting bodies, no cavities. 

2D Advanced decay or cavities observed; sound wood (rind) >60% of radius; may have unusual pitch or watery 

slime seeping from cracks or openings. 

3D Advanced decay or cavities observed; sound wood (rind) 60-30% of radius (excluding bark); fruiting bodies 

may be present. 

4D Advanced decay or cavities observed; sound wood (rind) < 30% of radius; numerous conks or fruiting bodies 

or other defects. 

STEM DAMAGE AND WOUNDS: Lightning, frost cracks, mechanical, animal, human 

1W Cracks or wounds of any size but well-calloused or superficial, no decay

2W Minor structural damage involving <10% of circumference; small cracks, fire scars. 

3W Some structural damage and associated decay; 10-50% circumference; large fire scars; severe cracks 

extending through stem. 

4W Multiple cracks or wounds causing severe structural damage and associated decay in > 50% of 

circumference; or movement detected in major crack. 

CANKERS: Blister rust, gall rust, dwarf mistletoe, etc.

1C < 10% of bole girdled; burls of any size

2C 10-30% of bole girdled 

3C 30-75% of bole girdled 

4C >75% of bole girdled or associated with other defects.

LEAN/SWEEP: growth at the very top of the tree may indicate how long a tree has been leaning. 

1L Natural long-term lean <10%, fully compensated by growth (top of tree is vertical for many years).

2L Natural long-term lean 10-15 degrees, fully compensated by growth (top of tree is vertical for many years).

3L Lean 15-20 degrees or some indication of root movement (soil mounding, etc.), or associated with a canker.

4L Lean >20 degrees with evidence of failure (e.g., obvious recent soil movement, root wrenching); associated 

with decay or cracks. 

BRANCHES, FORKS, WITCHES BROOMS AND TOPS

1B Small dead or hanging branches or dead top <”; small witches brooms. 

2B Large brooms, dead or hanging branches or dead top 3-5”; unbalanced canopy due to poor pruning or 

multiple tops; codominant stems with no included bark. 

3B Dead or broken branches or dead top 6-9”; large condominant stems with included bark (weak union).

4B Dead or broken branches or dead top >9”.

ROOT DAMAGE, ROOT DISEASE

1R Minor exposed roots, not sprung, no decay

2R Exposed roots with minor damage or decay on small roots (<3”); no evidence of root disease. 

3R Substantial damage to roots >3” but <50% or root system affected; root disease suspected (slow growth, or 

other symptoms) but not obvious or confirmed. 

4R Exposed, decayed roots or substantial damage to roots >3” on >50% of root system; obvious root disease 

symptoms or signs (e.g., thinning, fading crown, stress cone crop, basal resinosus).