U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey

Fact Sheet 2008–3034

April 2008

Hydrologic Droughts in Kansas—

Are They Becoming Worse?

By James E. Putnam, Charles A. Perry, and David M. Wolock

Printed on recycled paper

Introduction

Multi-year droughts have been a recurrent feature of the 

climate and hydrology of Kansas since at least the 1930s. 

Streamflow records collected by the U.S. Geological Survey 

(USGS) indicate that water years 2000 to 2006 (October 1, 

1999, through September 30, 2006) represent the sixth hydrologic drought during the past eight decades, and that corresponding streamflow levels in some parts of Kansas were lower 

than those during historic droughts of the 

1930s and 1950s, even though the 

precipitation deficit was not as 

severe. Record-low streamflows in water year 2006 

were recorded at USGS 

streamgages on the 

Republican, Smoky 

Hill, Solomon, Saline, 

upper Kansas, middle 

Arkansas, and Little 

Arkansas Rivers, as 

well as many tributary 

sites, and one tributary 

site of the Neosho River 

(fig. 1, table 1). 

Low streamflows during the hydrologic drought also 

resulted in record low levels at 

three Federal reservoirs in Kansas 

(fig. 1, table 2). An unprecedented number of administrative 

decisions were made by the Division of Water Resources, 

Kansas Department of Agriculture to curtail water diversions 

from rivers to maintain minimum desirable streamflows, and 

low flows on the lower Republican River in Kansas created 

concerns that Colorado and Nebraska were not complying with 

the terms of the 1943 Republican River Compact. 

Statewide Runoff and Streamflow 

Conditions

Daily streamflow data for water years 1900–2007 are used 

to estimate average annual runoff (streamflow per unit area) for 

all streamgages in Kansas (U.S. Geological Survey, 2006a). 

The median runoff for each water year is then determined. 

Statewide median runoff for Kansas for water years 1920–2006 

(fig. 2) indicates large departures from median runoff during 

five historic hydrologic droughts in Kansas that occurred during 

1929–41, 1952–57, 1962–72, 1974–82, and 1988–92 (Paulson 

and others, 1991). The severity of streamflow conditions during 

water years 2000–06 is apparent when 

comparing the departures from median 

annual runoff for that period with those 

during the historic droughts. Annual 

runoff in Kansas was below the median 

all years during 2000–06 except water 

year 2004, which was near the median. 

Water year 2006, the driest year during 

the 2000–06 hydrologic drought, had 

the second lowest annual runoff during 

1920–2006; the lowest annual runoff 

for Kansas occurred in water year 

1956. 

The streamflow effects of drought 

during water years 2000–06 were 

focused in northern Kansas on the 

Republican, Saline, Solomon, and 

Smoky Hill Rivers (fig. 1), whereas the 

1950s drought effect was focused more 

in southeastern Kansas on the Verdigris, Fall, and Neosho Rivers (Paulson 

and others, 1991). Average annual 

flows at four long-term streamgages 

(fig. 3) indicate that average annual 

streamflow during 2000–06 at each 

of the streamgages was less than the 

average annual streamflow during other 

historic droughts in Kansas. Furthermore, the average annual flow for all 

streamgages was less than 25 percent 

of long-term median annual flow during 2000–06, indicating the severity 

of the drought. For example, annual 

average streamflow for the Republican 

River at Clay Center (site 5, fig. 1, 

fig. 3A, table 1), in continuous operation since 1919, was less than the longterm median streamflow each water 

year since 2000 and was the lowest on record in water year 

2006. Moreover, five of the 10 lowest annual average flows for 

the Clay Center gage occurred during 2000–06 (U.S. Geological Survey, 2006b).
Current and Historic 

Precipitation

Meteorological conditions 

during the 2000–06 drought were 

different than those during previous severe droughts in the 1930s 

and 1950s. Statewide average 

annual precipitation for Kansas 

during water years 2000–06 

(fig. 4) was greater than that during all previous droughts except 

for the 1974–82 drought (National 

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2007a). Furthermore, 

statewide average annual precipitation for water years 2000–06 

was less than 1 inch below normal, whereas the average annual 

precipitation during one of the 

worst Kansas droughts, 1952–57, 

was nearly 6 inches below normal. 

The average statewide Palmer 

Figure 1. Drought conditions by hydrologic unit in Kansas, comparison of water year 2006 streamflows with all other annual streamflows, 

water years 1930–2006, and location of streamgage with record-low annual streamflow in water year 2006, and reservoirs with record-low 

elevations, water years 2000–06 (hydrologic units from Seaber and others, 1987; data for drought conditions from WaterWatch, 2006 

(U.S. Geological Survey, 2007a).

Figure 2. Statewide runoff showing annual departure of runoff from the statewide median of 1.63 

inches per year and a 5-year moving average line for water years 1920–2006. Wetter years plot above 

the median line and drier years plot below the median line, (data from U.S. Geological Survey, 2006a).

0 20 40 60 KILOMETERS

0 20 40 60 MILES

102° 101° 100° 99° 98° 97° 96°

95° 40°

39°

38°

37°

South

Fork

Republican

River

Creek

Little

Beaver

Beaver

Sappa Cr.

Prairie

Dog

Creek

North Fork

South

Fork

Saline River

Smoky

Hill

River

Ladder

Whitewoman

Creek

ARKANSAS

RIVER

Bear

Cimarron

Walnut

Pawnee

Cr.

River

Creek

River

North

Fork

Crooked

Creek

Cimarron

River

Rattlesnake

Creek

Medicine

Lodge

River

Chikaskia

River

North

Fork

South Fork Ninnescah

River

ARKANSAS

RIVER

Little

Arkansas

River

Walnut

River

Cottonwood

River

Verdigris

River

River

Fall

Neosho

River

Marais

des

Cygnes

River

Wakarusa R.

KANSAS

RIVER

Stranger

Creek

Delaware

River

Big

Blue

River

Republican

Little

River

White Rock Creek

Solomon

River

Saline

River

Smoky

Hill

River

MISSOURI

RIVER

Creek

Middle

Fork

Fork South

Milford

Lake

Kanopolis

Lake

Perry

Lake

A

B A

B

A

B

1

7

11

15

2 3

4

10 13 8

14

18

5

20

19

9

20

6

21

18

12

17

16

22

23

Base from U.S. Geological Survey digital data, 1:2,000,000, 1994

Albers Equal-Area Conic projection

Standard parallels 29°30' and 45°30', central meridian -96°00'

Streamgage with record-low annual

 average streamflow—Map index 

 number shown in table 1

Reservoir with record-low elevation—

 Map index number shown in table 2

Drought condition by hydrologic unit Drainage basin

 Missouri River Basin

 Lower Mississippi River Basin

Basin boundary

A

B

EXPLANATION

Below normal

Normal

Extreme

Severe

Moderate

-2

-1

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

19201925193019351940

19451950195519601965197019751980

198519901995200020052010

Annual departure from median annual runoff,

in inches per year

Annual

departure

5-year

moving 

average

1929–41 1952–57 1962–72

Water year

Period of hydrologic drought

1974–82 1988–92 2000–06

Median
Drought Severity Index (PDSI), one of the indices used to 

classify and assess long-term meteorological droughts (Hayes, 

2002), for water years 2000–06 was -0.03 (normal), whereas 

the average PDSI for the 1952–57 drought was -3.22, indicating 

a severe drought (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2007b). Statewide average precipitation during the 

five consecutive driest years of the 2000–06 drought also was 

greater than the statewide average precipitation during the five 

driest years of the 1930s and 1950s droughts (fig. 5); however, 

the annual statewide median runoff during the 2000–2006 

drought was near the low runoff levels that occurred in the 

1930s and the 1950s. Precipitation in the area of Kansas where 

most of the record-low streamflows occurred during water year 

2006 was generally about 75–90 percent of normal, not an indication of a significant lack of precipitation (National Oceanic 

and Atmospheric Administration, 2007a).

Runoff-Precipitation Relation

The Statewide relation between runoff and precipitation 

(fig. 5) does not indicate that there has been a significant change 

in runoff between past droughts and the 2000–06 drought when 

comparing the lowest five consecutive years of runoff in each 

drought. This statewide analysis, however, includes many areas 

of Kansas that were not even in drought conditions during 

much of 2000–06. The relation indicates that, generally, runoff 

increases as precipitation increases, an intuitive conclusion. 

However, if the same analysis is completed using median annual 

runoff for the four long-term sites in Kansas (fig. 3) that represent the worst drought-affected areas during the 2000s drought, 

the results appear different (fig. 6) because the regional affects 

of the 2000s drought are not smoothed by statewide averaging 

 

Table 2. Location of Federal reservoirs in Kansas with record low elevations during water years 2000–06.

[Data from Putnam and Schneider, 2003 and U.S. Geological Survey, 2006c; mi2, square miles; ft,feet]

Map index

number

(fig. 1)

Station name

Drainage 

area

(mi2)

Top of conservation pool

elevation (ft)

Lowest elevation and date

Percent

conservation

pool

Elevation (ft) Water Year

6 Milford Lake near Junction City 24,880 1,144.4 1,136.90 2003 68

9 Kanopolis Lake near Kanopolis 7,857 1,463 1,456.22 2006 55

20 Perry Lake near Perry 1,117 891.5 884.90 2003 64

Table 1. U.S. Geological Survey streamgages with record-low average annual streamflows during water year 2006.

[Data from U.S. Geological Survey, 2006b; mi2, square miles; ft3/s, cubic feet per second]

Map index

number

(fig. 1)

Station name Drainage 

area (mi2)

Long-term median 

annual average 

streamflow (ft3/s)

Water year 2006 

annual average 

streamflow (ft3/s)

Years of 

record

1 Prairie Dog Creek near Woodruff, KS 1,007 0.11 0.03 61

2 White Rock Creek near Burr Oak, KS 227 22.5 2.52 49

3 Republican River near Hardy, NE 22,401 380 19.2 74

4 Republican River at Concordia, KS 23,560 492 44.9 60

5 Republican River at Clay Center, KS 24,542 827 82.7 88

7 Big Creek near Hays, KS 549 18.4 .71 60

8 Smoky Hill River at Ellsworth, KS 7,580 151 24.2 94

10 Smoky Hill River near Mentor, KS 8,358 274 26.8 65

11 Saline River near Russell, KS 1,502 47.7 3.59 55

12 Saline River at Tescott, KS 2,820 120 14.1 86

13 Smoky Hill River at New Cambria, KS 11,730 398 60.3 44

14 North Fork Solomon River at Portis, KS 2,315 77.8 11.8 54

15 South Fork Solomon River at Osborne, KS 2,012 42.0 4.10 61

16 Solomon River at Niles, KS 6,770 328 72.0 95

17 Smoky Hill River at Enterprise, KS 19,260 1,139 191 72

18 Kansas River at Fort Riley, KS 44,870 2,019 418 42

19 Little Blue River near Barnes, KS 3,351 629 213 48

21 Cow Creek near Lyons, KS 728 53.4 7.42 58

22 Little Arkansas River at Alta Mills, KS 736 168 11.8 33

23 Lightning Creek near McCune, KS 197 131 10.7 55
as in figure 5. Streamflow records have been collected since 

the 1930s at Republican River at Clay Center (site 5, fig. 

1, table 1), Saline River at Tescott (site 12, fig. 1, table 1), 

Solomon River at Niles (site 16, fig. 1, table 1), and Smoky 

Hill River at Enterprise (site 17, fig. 1, table 1). Moreover, 

these sites are located at the downstream most location in the 

primary river basins that experienced record-low streamflows 

in water year 2006. Precipitation data for this analysis is from 

the PRISM group (PRISM, 2007), which provides precipitation 

data that are distributed over a delineated river basin. National 

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration divisional precipitation data (used in analysis in figure 5) is collected at nine 

nearly equal areas in Kansas, and does not provide data for a 

specific basin. In fact, these precipitation data may include data 

for parts of several river basins; therefore, it was not used. 

The relation between annual precipitation for the river 

basin, and averaged annual runoff for the four sites during the 

five driest consecutive years for each drought (same water years 

as those used in previous analysis) was much lower during the 

2000s drought than during the 1930s and 1950s drought, even 

though average precipitation was greater (fig. 6). This analysis 

indicates a change in the runoff-precipitation relation between 

earlier droughts and the current drought. 

The runoff ratio, the amount of precipitation that becomes 

streamflow, can be computed annually for each of the sites 

listed above by dividing the annual runoff by annual precipitation and multiplying by 100. A 5-year moving average was 

used to smooth the computed annual runoff ratios. For each 

site, the mid year of the five consecutive driest years during 

each drought was determined for each drought. For each site, 

the runoff ratio has decreased for each drought, and the more 

recent droughts have a lower runoff ratio, as shown in figure 

7. The runoff ratio for the 2000s drought was the lowest of all 

droughts.

Figure 4. Statewide average annual precipitation during water 

years 2000–06 compared with average annual precipitation 

during five historic droughts in Kansas (precipitation data from 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2007a).

Figure 3. Average annual streamflow at four selected 

streamgages in Kansas during five historic droughts and for water 

years 2000–06 (data from U.S. Geological Survey, 2006b).

Figure 5. Statewide relation between median annual runoff and 

average annual precipitation for 5 consecutive driest years during 

six hydrologic droughts in Kansas (precipitation data from National 

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2007a; runoff data from 

U.S. Geological Survey, 2006a).

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

1.2

1.4

19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28

Average annual precipitation, in inches per year

Average median runoff, in inches per year

1952−56

1936−40

1963−67

1988−92

2002−06

1977−81

D. Smoky Hill River at Enterprise (site 17, fig. 1, table 1, 72 years of record) 

0

500

1,000

1,500

1929–41 1952–57 1962–72 1974–82 1988–92 2000–06

Long-term median annual flow 1,139 ft3/s 

C. Solomon River at Niles (site 16, fig. 1, table 1, 95 years of record)

0

100

200

300

400

Average annual streamflow, in cubic feet per second (ft3/s) 

Long-term median annual flow 328 ft3/s

Period of hydrologic drought (water years)

B. Saline River at Tescott (site 12, fig. 1, table 1, 86 years of record) 

0

50

100

150

Long-term median annual flow 120 ft3/s

A. Republican River at Clay Center (site 5, fig. 1, table 1, 88 years of record) 

0

200

400

600

800

1,000

Long-term median annual flow 827 ft3

/s

1929–41 1952–57 1962–72

Periods of hydrologic drought (water years)

1974–82 1988–92 2000–06

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

Average annual precipitation, in inches

Normal precipitation

1920–2006 

(27.55 inches)

24.54

21.61

26.43

26.88

25.90

26.68
The decreases in runoff-precipitation ratio for the four 

sites in figure 7 indicate that less precipitation was contributed 

to streamflow during the 2000s drought then in the previous 

droughts, and that this change has occurred progressively with 

time. What may contribute to this change? One of the most 

significant water- and land-management changes in Kansas 

has been the construction of a large number of small lakes 

used for water supply and flood control. The number of small 

lakes in Kansas has increased from 12 in 1920 to 5,240 in 1995 

(USACE, 2007). For example, nearly 78 percent of the basin 

upstream from Solomon River at Niles (site 16, fig. 1, fig. 7C, 

table 1) is affected by impoundments (Putnam, 2003). These 

impoundments trap runoff that may be slowly released, or the 

water is lost by infiltration or evaporation, and never reaches a 

stream channel. Other conservation and farming practices, such 

as contour farming and terraces, also may contribute in part to 

the change in runoff ratio because these land-management practices trap runoff, allowing it to infiltrate slowly into the ground 

instead of flowing into streams. Other changes in land management, such as conversion of crop land to grassland (Conservation Reserve Program), also may affect the runoff-precipitation 

ratio. 

Demand for water has increased in Kansas and is expected 

to continue to increase. Changes in water use also may be a 

factor in the runoff ratio decrease. Increases in water demand 

become a management issue during periods of drought (Nace 

and Pluhowski, 1965). Water use in Kansas increased 200 

percent between 1955 and 1980 (Joan Kenny, USGS, written 

comm., 2007), largely because of the development of groundwater wells for irrigation in western Kansas. Water use in the 

State decreased from 6,600 million gallons per day in 1980 

to 3,670 million gallons per day in 2005 (Joan Kenny, USGS, 

written comm., 2007). In 2006, communities that receive their 

municipal water supply from alluvial wells connected to the 

Smoky Hill River experienced water shortages because of low 

streamflows. 

Many other factors in addition to those discussed in the 

preceding paragraphs, or a combination of factors, could be 

affecting the historical relation between runoff and precipitation, 

the change in runoff ratio, and the low streamflows documented 

during the 2000s hydrologic drought. A better understanding of 

the runoff ratio change and the contribution of each of the factors needs more study and is beyond the scope of this paper, but 

is critical to improved drought management.

Figure 6. Relation between annual runoff and annual precipitation 

for five consecutive driest years during six hydrologic droughts at 

Republican River at Clay Center, Saline River at Tescott, Solomon 

River at Niles, and Smoky Hill River at Enterprise (precipitation data 

from PRISM Group, 2007; runoff data from U.S. Geological Survey, 

2006b).

Figure 7. Runoff ratio at (A) Republican River at Clay Center, (B)

Saline River at Tescott, (C) Solomon River at Niles, and (D) Smoky 

Hill River at Enterprise for the mid-year of five consecutive driest 

years at six hydrologic droughts in Kansas (precipitation data from 

PRISM group, 2007; runoff data from U.S. Geological Survey, 2006b).

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

Median annual runoff, in inches per year

16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

Average annual precipitation, in inches per year

1952−56

1936−40

1963−67 1977−81

1988−92

2002−06

0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010

Runoff ratio, in percent

A. Republican River at Clay Center (site 5, fig. 1, table 1)

D. Smoky Hill River at Enterprise (site 17, fig. 1, table 1) 

C. Solomon River at Niles (site 16, fig. 1, table 1)

B. Saline River at Tescott (site 12, fig. 1, table 1) 

1938

1954

1965

1979

1990

2004

1938

1954

1965

1979

1990

2004

1938

1954

1965 1979

1990

2004

1938

1954

1965

1979

1990

2004
Effects of Low Streamflows in Kansas, 

Water Years 2000–06

•	 Record-low water levels at Milford Lake near Junction 

City (site 6, fig. 1, table 2) and Perry Lake near Perry 

(site 20, fig. 1, table 2) in water year 2003. Water elevations at Kanopolis Lake near Kanopolis (site 9, fig. 1, 

table 2) were below conservation pool all of water year 

2006.

•	 A water emergency in Salina because of extreme low 

streamflows in Smoky Hill River in July, 2006. Salina’s 

principle water supply is from alluvial wells in connection to the Smoky Hill River.

•	 A record number of minimum desirable streamflow 

(MDS) violations (State administers MDS at Kansas 

streams to maintain adequate streamflow for habitat 

and water supply; Katie Tietsort, Kansas Department 

of Agriculture, Division of Water Resources, written 

comm., 2007). This reflects degradation of stream habitat as well as the curtailment of many water users.

What Does the Future Hold?

Streamflow conditions during future droughts in Kansas 

may look more like those that occurred during 2000–06 on the 

Republican, Saline, Solomon, and Smoky Hill Rivers than those 

during the 1950s largely because of the factors noted earlier 

in this paper. In fact, if a sustained period of below-normal 

precipitation occurs, comparable to the 1950s, future hydrological droughts in Kansas probably will be much more severe 

than any previous droughts on record, and streamflows will be 

adversely affected. If climate change occurs and results in even 

more severe precipitation deficits during droughts, streamflow 

probably will be even more severe; therefore, State programs 

initiated to manage water supplies for users during drought 

that are based on the 1950s drought may need to be modified, 

or new programs may need to be developed to better reflect 

the lower streamflows that may occur in future droughts with 

similar, or even less amounts, of precipitation that occurred in 

the 1950s drought. More study also is needed to understand the 

historic change in runoff ratio and the factors that contribute to 

this change.

References 

Hayes, M.J., 2002, Drought indices, in What is Drought?: Lincoln, 

Nebraska, National Drought Mitigation Center, University of 

Nebraska, Information available on Web, accessed January 16, 

2007, at http://drought.unl.edu/whatis/indices.htm

Nace, R.L., Pluhowski, E.J., 1965, Drought of the 1950s with 

special reference to the mid-continent: U.S. Geological Survey 

Water-Supply Paper 1804, 88p.

Publishing support provided by:

Rolla Publishing Service Center

For additional information visit the USGS Web site at:

http://ks.water.usgs.gov/Kansas/waterwatch/drought/index.

shtml

or contact:

Director, USGS Kansas Water Science Center

4821 Quail Crest Place

Lawrence, Kansas 66049–3839

785–842–9909 or E-mail: dc_ks.usgs.gov

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2007a, 

National Climatic Data Center: Information available on Web, 

accessed May 9, 2007, at http://www1.ncdc.noaa.gov/pub/data/

cirs/drd964x.pcp.txt 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2007b, Palmer 

Drought Severity Index by division: Information available on 

Web, accessed February 19, 2007, at http://www1.ncdc.noaa.

gov/pub/data/cirs/drd964x.pdsi.txt

Paulson, R.W., Chase, E.B., Roberts, R.S., and Moody, D.W., 

1991, National water summary 1988–89—hydrologic events 

and floods and droughts: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply 

Paper, 2175, p. 289–294.

PRISM Group, Annual precipitation data, Information available 

on Web, accessed November 14, 2007 at http://www.prism.

oregonstate.edu/

Putnam, 2003, Trends in suspended-sediment concentration at 

selected stream sites in Kansas, 1970–2002: U.S. Geological 

Survey Water Resources Investigations Report 03–4150, 36 p.

Putnam, J.E., and Schneider, D.R., 2003, Water resources data, 

Kansas, water year 2003: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Data 

Report KS–03–1, 641 p.

Seaber, P.R., Kapinos, F.P., and Knapp, G.L., 1987, Hydrologic 

unit maps: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2294, 

63 p.

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 2007, National inventory of dams: 

Information available on Web, accessed September 7, 2007 at 

http://crunch.tec.army.mil/nidpublic/webpages/nid.cfm

U.S. Geological Survey, 2006a, Past streamflow conditions: 

Information available on Web, accessed November 17, 2006, at 

http://water.usgs.gov/waterwatch/?m=statesum&r=ks

U.S. Geological Survey, 2006b, Surface-water annual statistics 

for Kansas: Information available on Web, accessed May 10, 

2007, at http://waterdata.usgs.gov/ks/nwis/annual/?referred_

module=sw

U.S. Geological Survey, 2006c, Annual water data reports, 

Information available on the Web at http://wdr.water.usgs.gov/

wy2006/pdfs/06865000.2006.pdf

U.S. Geological Survey, 2007a, 2006, USGS Streamflow information on drought, Information available on Web, accessed 

August 2006 at http://water.usgs.gov/waterwatch/?m=pa07d_

dry&r=ks&w=pa07d_dwc%2Cplot

U.S. Geological Survey, 2007b, Streamflow information on 

drought-summary plot of below normal streamflow: Information 

available on Web, accessed May, 2007, at http://water.usgs.gov/

waterwatch/?m=pa07d_dry&r=ks&w=pa07d_dry%2Cplot