United States Government Accountability Office

GAO Testimony 

Before the Subcommittee on Aviation, 

Committee on Transportation and 

Infrastructure, House of Representatives

FEDERAL AVIATION 

ADMINISTRATION 

Efforts to Hire, Staff, and 

Train Air Traffic Controllers 

Are Generally on Track, but 

Challenges Remain 

Statement of Gerald L. Dillingham, Ph.D. 

Director, Physical Infrastructure Issues 

For Release on Delivery

Expected at 2:00 p.m. EDT

Wednesday, June 11, 2008 

 

GAO-08-908T 
What GAO Found

United States Government Accountability Office

Why GAO Did This Study

Highlights

Accountability Integrity Reliability

June 11, 2008

FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION

Efforts to Hire, Staff, and Train New Air Traffic 

Controllers Are Generally on Track, but Challenges

Highlights of GAO-08-908T, a testimony to Remain 

the Subcommittee on Aviation, Committee 

on Transportation and Infrastructure, 

House of Representatives

Each day, the Federal Aviation 

Administration (FAA) controls the

take-offs, landings, and flights of 

over 50,000 aircraft. To accomplish 

this mission safely and efficiently, 

FAA must have a sufficient number

of adequately trained air traffic

controllers working at its air traffic 

control facilities. Over the next 

decade, FAA will need to hire and 

train nearly 17,000 controllers to 

replace over 15,000 current 

controllers, most of whom will be

retiring. This massive hiring effort

will occur as FAA begins to 

implement the next generation air

transportation system (NextGen),

which will integrate new 

technologies and procedures into 

air traffic operations and

fundamentally change the role of

air traffic controllers from 

controlling individual aircraft to 

managing air traffic flow. Hence,

FAA will need to train experienced 

controllers to use the new 

technologies at the same time that

it hires and trains new controllers 

to operate both the current and the 

new technologies. 

This testimony addresses FAA’s 

progress and challenges in hiring,

staffing, and training air traffic

controllers in the current air traffic 

control system and in preparing 

them for NextGen. It is based on 

prior GAO work, updated with 

reviews of FAA documents and

interviews with FAA officials, 

controller union representatives, 

and other stakeholders.

To prepare for the projected departure of over 15,000 air traffic controllers 

between 2008 and 2017, FAA began significantly increasing the number of new 

hires in fiscal years 2006 and 2007, when it hired 1,116 and 1,815 controllers, 

respectively. By contrast, in fiscal years 2002 through 2005, it had hired an 

average of 467 controllers per year. Retirements are taking place sooner than 

FAA expected. As a result, FAA has had to adjust its hiring targets upward—

from 1,420 in fiscal year 2008 to 1,877, for example. While FAA has met its 

hiring targets so far and is on track to meet its target for fiscal year 2008, it has 

had to expand its applicant pool, in large part because fewer military 

controllers have sought civilian employment since the Department of Defense 

began to offer reenlistment bonuses of up to $60,000. 

As FAA brings new controllers on board, it faces the challenge of ensuring 

that its control facilities are adequately staffed to meet their unique traffic 

demands. In 2007, FAA established staffing ranges for each facility based on 

facility-specific information, such as air traffic operations, productivity trends, 

expected retirements, and number of controller trainees. However, FAA’s 

staffing is not aligned with the new ranges at about half of its facilities. While 

overstaffing will provide trained replacements as retirements occur, 

understaffing has potential safety and efficiency implications. As the 

proportion of new hires increases over time, FAA will face further challenges 

in balancing the numbers of trainees and fully certified controllers at each 

facility. Furthermore, with fewer fully certified controllers and greater on-thejob training demands, controllers may work more overtime hours. Overtime 

can lead to fatigue, and many controllers routinely work overtime, raising 

safety concerns. Both GAO and the National Transportation Safety Board

have found that controllers’ work schedules can contribute to fatigue and 

have made recommendations to mitigate it. FAA is taking steps to address 

these recommendations.

In the training area, FAA faces the dual challenge of certifying its new hires to 

operate today’s air traffic control system as quickly as possible and of 

preparing to train both experienced controllers and new hires to operate 

NextGen technologies. Through training improvements, scheduling 

efficiencies, and greater use of simulators, FAA has, it says, reduced the 

amount of time controllers remain in trainee status; however, attrition among 

controllers in developmental training is increasing. It will be important for 

FAA to monitor the attrition and ensure that performance problems are 

addressed as early as possible to avoid unnecessary costs. Preparations for 

NextGen training are still in the early stages—as FAA observes, it is difficult 

to develop training for systems that have not yet been defined. However, 

GAO’s work has shown that further research is needed to determine what 

training will be required to support the transition to NextGen—a transition 

that will involve changes in the roles and responsibilities of air traffic 

controllers as well as changes in technologies. To view the full product, including the scope 

and methodology, click on GAO-08-908T. 

For more information, contact Gerald L. 

Dillingham at (202) 512-2834 or 

dillinghamg@gao.gov. 
Mr. Chairman and Members of the Subcommittee: 

Thank you for the opportunity to testify today on air traffic controller 

staffing. The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) is responsible for 

managing the national airspace system and ensuring the safe and efficient

movement of air traffic. Each day, FAA controls the take-offs, landings, 

and flights of over 50,000 aircraft. To accomplish this mission, FAA must 

have a sufficient number of adequately trained air traffic controllers 

working at its air traffic control facilities. Over the next decade, FAA will 

need to hire and train nearly 17,000 controllers to replace over 15,000 

current controllers who are expected to retire from or leave the agency.1

 

As FAA brings these new employees on board, it will be important for the 

agency to manage the process carefully and expeditiously and to maintain

the highest levels of safety in the national air space system. Furthermore, 

FAA will be dealing with this massive hiring need at the same time that it

transforms the current air traffic control system into the next generation 

air transportation system (NextGen), which will integrate new 

technologies and procedures into air traffic operations and fundamentally 

change the role of air traffic controllers from controlling individual aircraft 

to largely managing air traffic flow. Hence, FAA will need to train existing 

controllers to use the new technologies at the same time that it hires and 

trains new controllers to operate both the existing and the new 

technologies. 

My testimony today focuses on FAA’s progress and challenges in hiring, 

staffing, and training air traffic controllers in the current air traffic control 

system as well as preparing them for NextGen. This statement is based on

prior GAO studies and work we conducted in May and June 2008, 

including reviews of FAA’s annual controller workforce plans and other 

key documents; discussions with senior FAA officials and representatives 

of FAA’s controllers union—the National Air Traffic Controllers 

Association (NATCA)—and aviation industry groups; and updates of the 

results of prior GAO studies. We conducted all of our work in accordance 

with generally accepted government auditing standards. Those standards 

require that we plan and perform the audit to obtain sufficient, appropriate 

evidence to provide a reasonable basis for our findings and conclusions 

 1

In 1981, over 11,000 air traffic controllers went on strike and were subsequently fired by 

President Ronald Reagan. Between 1982 and 1990, FAA hired thousands of individuals to 

permanently replace the fired controllers. Most of this hiring took place between 1982 and 

1986. Many of these controllers, as well as those controllers who did not participate in the

strike, are now eligible or will soon be eligible to retire from FAA. 

Page 1 GAO-08-908T 
based on our audit objectives. We believe that the evidence obtained 

provides a reasonable basis for our findings and conclusions based on our 

audit objectives. 

During the coming decade, FAA will be challenged to continue hiring 

thousands of air traffic controllers to replace those who will retire and 

leave for other reasons. In March 2008, FAA projected that between 2008 

and 2017, it will lose a total of 15,483 controllers through retirement and 

other reasons, and our analysis of FAA data indicates that about 

63 percent of the current controller workforce will become eligible for 

retirement by 2017. However, FAA’s data indicate that more controllers 

are retiring sooner than FAA anticipated. As table 1 shows, the percentage 

of controllers retiring within 2 years of eligibility has increased from about 

33 percent in 2005 to 42 percent in 2007. For fiscal year 2006, FAA 

estimated that 467 controllers would retire, but 583 actually retired—about 

25 percent more than planned. For fiscal year 2007, FAA anticipated 700 

controller retirements, while 828 controllers actually retired—an 18 

percent increase over anticipated retirements. 

FAA Is Making 

Progress in Hiring Air 

Traffic Controllers, 

but New Hires May 

Have Less Experience 

Than in Prior Years 

Table 1: Years beyond Earliest Retirement Eligibility in Which Retirement Occurred, 

2005 through 2007

Percentage of controllers retiring

Number of years 

beyond earliest 

retirement eligibility 

2005 

retirementsa 

2006

retirementsb 

2007

retirementsc 

0-1 23.4 % 24 % 28.9 %

1-2 9.3 % 11 % 12.7 %

Total 32.7 % 35 % 41.6 %

Source: GAO analysis of FAA data. 

a

Based on 2005 data. b

Average annual percentage based on 2005 and 2006 data. c

Based on 2007 data.

To replace these controllers, FAA started making significant increases in 

controller hiring in fiscal years 2006 and 2007, when it hired 1,116 and 

1,815 controllers, respectively. (By comparison, during fiscal years 2002 

through 2005, FAA hired an average of 467 controllers each year.) FAA 

plans to hire about 16,980 new controllers during fiscal years 2008 through 

2017. FAA anticipates hiring 1,877 controllers in fiscal year 2008, which 

would bring the total number of air traffic controllers to 15,130. Figure 1 

shows the estimated numbers of losses and planned hires for fiscal years 

Page 2 GAO-08-908T 
2008 through 2017. FAA projects the total number of controllers will 

gradually increase from 15,130 in fiscal year 2008 to 16,371 in fiscal year 

2017.

 2

Figure 1: FAA’s Projected Air Traffic Controller Losses and Hiring, Fiscal Years 2008-2017 

Number of controllers

0

200

400

600

800

1,000

1,200

1,400

1,600

1,800

2,000

2,200

2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

Source: FAA.

Fiscal year

Planned hires

Estimated losses

1,877 1,914

1,621 1,608

1,871

1,599

1,840

1,648 1,665

1,764 1,733

1,624 1,616 1,562 1,498 1,460 1,458 1,394 1,409

1,302

FAA incorporates each year’s retirement numbers into its plans for future 

years and has increased its hiring to compensate for the larger-thanexpected numbers of retirements. For example, the 1,877 controllers that 

FAA plans to hire in fiscal year 2008 represent a 28 percent increase over

the 1,420 hires for 2008 that the agency planned for a year ago. According

to FAA data, the agency is on track to meet its hiring target for fiscal year 

2008. As of May 30, 2008, it had hired 1,290 controllers—about 62 percent 

of the planned hires. FAA recognizes that some of these increases in 

retirements may be attributable to recent labor disputes and 

disagreements over the contract that went into effect in 2006. 

 2

Although air traffic is expected to increase significantly over the next decade, FAA expects

that NextGen technologies and procedures will allow air traffic controllers to be more

productive. Thus, FAA does not currently plan for any dramatic increases in overall 

controller staffing through 2017. 

Page 3 GAO-08-908T 
To keep on track with hiring controllers, in 2007 FAA expanded its 

applicant pool to include the general public. Previously, FAA had generally

limited its hiring to individuals with prior FAA or Department of Defense 

(DOD) air traffic control experience and graduates of FAA’s Air Traffic 

Collegiate Training Initiative (AT-CTI) program. The agency began looking 

farther afield, FAA officials said, because fewer military controllers have 

been seeking civilian employment since DOD established incentives to 

retain its controllers. For example, in 2007, the Air Force began offering

reenlistment bonuses of up to $60,000 for military air traffic controllers, 

and the Marine Corps offers reenlistment bonuses of up to $40,000. By 

comparison, FAA offers recruitment incentives of up to $20,000 for air 

traffic controllers with experience and retention incentives of up to 

$24,000 for controllers who have submitted papers indicating that they

plan to retire. To further expand its hiring pool, in October 2007, FAA 

added nine new colleges and universities to AT-CTI, bringing the total

number of schools to 23. Students who have successfully completed 

aviation-related programs of study from these schools are an increasing 

source of FAA hires. The number of AT-CTI graduates hired as controllers 

increased from 195 in fiscal year 2005 to 1,019 in fiscal year 2007, or 56 

percent of hires. 

As FAA brings new controllers on board, it faces the challenge of ensuring

that its control facilities are adequately staffed to meet their unique traffic 

demands. In 2007, the agency established staffing ranges for each facility 

that considered facility-specific information, such as air traffic operations, 

productivity trends, expected retirements, and the number of controllers 

in training. These new ranges are an improvement over FAA’s historical 

approach, which was to compute the number of controllers needed 

systemwide and negotiate the distribution of these totals to the facility 

level. In 2007, we found that FAA’s staffing was not aligned with the new 

ranges at 104 facilities—about one-third of FAA’s 314 facilities. At that 

time, 93 facilities were overstaffed and 11 were understaffed.3

 Our review 

of updated staffing ranges and on-board levels contained in FAA’s 2008 

controller workforce plan indicates that staffing is not aligned at 45 

percent of the facilities. As of April 2008, 145 facilities are overstaffed and 

12 are understaffed. According to FAA, the agency is purposefully 

Hiring a Large 

Number of 

Controllers Presents a 

Staffing Challenge for 

FAA 

 3

GAO, Federal Aviation Administration: Key Issues in Ensuring the Efficient 

Development and Safe Operation of the Next Generation Air Transportation System, 

GAO-07-636T (Washington, D.C.: Mar. 22, 2007). 

Page 4 GAO-08-908T 
overstaffing facilities with new hires so that they are trained and ready to 

replace retiring controllers over the next few years. However, the 

understaffing at some facilities has potential safety and efficiency 

implications. 

Within the next several years, the balance of experienced and newly hired 

controllers will shift dramatically, adding a layer of complexity to FAA’s 

determination of proper controller staffing levels for its air traffic control

facilities. Although the projected number of new hires each year 

represents a relatively small proportion of the total controller workforce—

about 12 percent per year—in a few years, the cumulative effect of hiring 

at that rate on the experience level of the workforce can be large. 

According to FAA, about one quarter of the controller workforce had less 

than 5 years of experience at the end of fiscal year 2007. Our analysis of 

FAA’s hiring and retirement projections indicates that by 2011, up to 59 

percent of the controller workforce will have less than 5 years of 

experience and by 2016 that percentage will remain over 50 percent. With

such a high percentage of newly hired controllers, fewer experienced 

controllers will be available to provide on-the-job instruction to trainees

and more time may be needed to train and certify newly hired controllers, 

according to FAA. In addition, newly certified controllers may be less 

efficient than experienced controllers in handling the large volume of 

traffic that occurs at large and congested airports. However, the current 

and forecasted decline in air traffic that is being attributed to the rising 

cost of aviation fuel, the subsequent rise in costs to passengers, and the 

nation’s general economic condition may provide a window of opportunity 

for hiring new controllers and providing experience in a less congested 

environment. 

Managing air traffic safely and effectively while training new controllers 

will require balancing the numbers of trainees and fully certified 

controllers at each facility. Fully certified controllers have completed their 

training and are qualified to control traffic at all positions at their assigned

location, and those who are fully certified for at least 6 months can 

become on-the-job instructors for new controllers. Our analysis of staffing 

at the 50 busiest airports showed that the percentage of fully certified 

controllers at each facility ranged from 56 percent to 94 percent. (See app.

I.) The facilities with the lowest percentage of fully certified controllers 

include William P. Hobby Airport (Houston) (56 percent fully certified 

controllers), LaGuardia Airport (61 percent), Dallas-Ft. Worth Airport (62 

percent), and Cleveland Hopkins Airport and Tampa Airport (both 63 

percent). Facilities with the highest percentage of fully certified 

controllers include St. Louis Airport (94 percent), San Francisco Airport 

Page 5 GAO-08-908T 
(93 percent), Portland Airport and Logan Airport (both 92 percent), and 

Minneapolis/St. Paul Airport(90 percent). 

FAA recognizes the importance of balancing the numbers of trainees and

fully certified controllers. Historically, trainees have accounted for less 

than 35 percent of the controller workforce, but the agency is working to 

determine target ranges for the number of trainees that individual facilities 

can accommodate. These ranges are likely to depend on factors such as 

the size and workload of the facility. The speedy development and 

verification of these data will help to ensure that facilities have a sufficient 

number of fully certified controllers to instruct trainees and to safely and

efficiently manage air traffic. For transparency, it will be important for 

FAA to include such data in its annual controller workforce plan. 

To the extent that retirement rates and the proportion of trainees at 

individual facilities leads to greater use of overtime, the potential for 

fatigue can increase, raising safety concerns. We previously reported4

 that 

air traffic controllers at some of the nation’s busiest airports were 

regularly working 6-day weeks because of staffing shortages, raising 

questions about the extent to which this situation may cause fatigue. In

November 2007, we identified controller fatigue as an issue affecting 

runway safety and recommended that FAA develop a mitigation plan for 

addressing controller overtime by adopting strategies to attract controllers

to facilities with high volumes of air traffic and high rates of controller 

overtime. In response to our recommendation, FAA has established a 

working group to develop a mitigation plan and identify recruitment and 

retention tools. FAA has already taken positive steps toward implementing 

the mitigation plan by offering pay and relocation incentives of up to 

$25,000 to controllers who volunteer to relocate to facilities that are shortstaffed. FAA’s initial offerings have had generally positive results; 

volunteers accepted FAA’s relocation offer for 11 locations but 1 location

had no volunteers. It remains to be seen whether future planned offerings 

will be successful in achieving the needed staffing levels. 

In addition, the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) has cited 

controller work schedules as contributing to fatigue and raising safety 

concerns. Since 1990, NTSB has placed efforts to address fatigue on its list 

 4

Aviation Runway and Ramp Safety: Sustained Efforts to Address Leadership, 

Technology, and Other Challenges Needed to Reduce Accidents and Incidents, GAO-08-29 

(Washington, D.C.: Nov. 20, 2007). 

Page 6 GAO-08-908T 
of “most wanted” transportation safety improvements, citing safety 

concerns about the effects of fatigue on air traffic controllers and other 

persons performing critical functions in the aviation industry. NTSB noted 

in 2007 that about 61 percent of controllers work rapidly rotating 8-hour 

shifts5

 with progressively earlier start times (see fig. 2), and about 40 

percent of the controllers in this group (about 25 percent of all 

controllers) are assigned at least one midnight shift per week. Many 

controllers in this latter group work what is commonly referred to as a 

“2-2-1” schedule, which consists of two afternoon shifts, followed by two 

day shifts, followed by one midnight shift. For controllers, this schedule 

provides a longer weekend, eliminates the need to work more than one 

midnight shift in a single week, and allows a long recovery period after 

that one midnight shift. However, NTSB found that the schedule is 

problematic because it typically includes short rest periods of just 8 or 9 

hours between shifts, allows minimal time for sleep when other necessary 

daily activities are taken into account, and may include rest periods during 

daytime hours when quality sleep may be difficult to obtain. 

Figure 2: Example of “2-2-1” Rotation Schedule

12 AM 12 PM 12 AM 12 PM 12 AM 12 PM 12 AM 12 PM 12 AM 12 PM 12 AM 12 PM 12 PM 12 AM 12 AM

Work day 1 Work day 2 Work day 3 Work day 4 Work day 5

3-11PM 2-10PM 7AM - 3PM 6AM - 2PM 10PM - 6AM

On duty

Off duty

Source: GAO analysis.

9 hours off duty 8 hours off duty 81 hours off duty

(continued through 3PM on Work day 1)

15 hours off duty 15 hours off duty

Off day 6 Off day 7

8

hours

8

hours

8

hours

8

hours

8

hours

NTSB has recommended that FAA mitigate air traffic controller fatigue by

working with NATCA to revise controller work-scheduling policies and 

practices so controllers will have enough sleep and to modify shift 

rotations to minimize sleep disruptions for controllers. The 

recommendation was jointly addressed to NATCA because NTSB found 

that the contract between NATCA and FAA stipulated certain scheduling 

practices, such as shift swapping, that had not been evaluated for their 

effect on controller fatigue. In addition, NTSB recommended that FAA 

develop a fatigue awareness and countermeasures training program for 

controllers and for the personnel involved in scheduling their work. In 

 5

Rapidly rotating shift schedules are characterized by varying start and stop times that 

change too rapidly for circadian rhythms to adapt. 

Page 7 GAO-08-908T 
supporting its recommendation, NTSB cited four instances from 2001 

through 2006 when tired controllers made errors while performing their 

duties that resulted in serious runway incursions.6

 In each case, NTSB 

linked controller fatigue to the work schedule. NTSB said that FAA 

regulations and policies do not adequately consider the potential effect of

work scheduling on fatigue and performance.7 

To address NTSB’s recommendations, FAA plans to develop and 

implement a fatigue awareness and countermeasures training program. 

The agency also plans to convene a working group that includes NATCA to 

develop shift rotation and scheduling guidelines. However, NATCA and 

FAA disagree on the level of cooperation that is taking place between 

them on this initiative. It is critical that FAA and NATCA work together on

this issue to mitigate the potential effects of fatigue on controller 

performance and aviation safety. 

Quickly training the newly hired controllers will be critical to FAA’s ability 

to expeditiously replace the retiring controllers. FAA trains controllers in 

stages, starting with classroom training at its academy in Oklahoma City. 

Upon graduation from the academy, controllers are assigned to an air 

traffic control facility as “developmental” controllers, where they receive 

on-the-job training for specific air traffic control positions. Fully certified

controllers conduct this training by observing and instructing the trainee. 

Controllers receive certification for each position as they progress through 

the training program. 

According to FAA’s 2008 controller workforce plan, the agency has been 

making progress in reducing the amount of time controllers remain in 

trainee status, which includes time spent at the academy and in a 

developmental role. In fiscal year 2005, it took 3 to 4 years to train an air 

traffic controller. In fiscal year 2007, it took about 1.9 years at terminal 

facilities and about 3.1 years at en route facilities, according to FAA’s 2008 

Training Program Has 

Expedited 

Certification of New 

Controllers, but 

Potential Hurdles 

Could Affect Further 

Progress in Training 

for New Controllers 

and Training for 

NextGen 

 6

A runway incursion is any incident involving an unauthorized aircraft, vehicle, or person

on a runway. 

7

FAA regulation (14 CFR § 65.47) allows tower controllers to be scheduled for up to 10

consecutive hours of operational duty and requires that they be given a rest period of at 

least 8 hours between shifts and be provided at least 1 full 24-hour day off per week. An

FAA order (7210.3) requires that controllers be provided a rest period of at least 12 hours

after a midnight shift. 

Page 8 GAO-08-908T 
controller workforce plan.8

 The agency attributes this reduction in training 

time to improved training and scheduling processes and increased use of

simulators. However, as of May 2008, about 2,700 controllers were in 

trainee status, and it is too early to tell how the length of their training will 

be affected by factors discussed previously in this statement, such as the 

decreasing proportion of fully certified controllers available to provide onthe-job training. 

Figure 3: Air Traffic Controller 

Source: FAA.

 8

Terminal facilities include air traffic control terminals at airports and terminal radar 

approach control (TRACON) facilities, which provide radar-control service to aircraft

arriving or departing a primary airport and adjacent airports and to aircraft transiting the

terminal’s airspace. En route facilities provide air traffic control service to aircraft 

operating during the en route phase of flight. 

Page 9 GAO-08-908T 
While trainees appear to be moving through the training program faster, 

attrition among developmental controllers is increasing, from about 6 

percent of new hires in fiscal year 2006 to about 9 percent in fiscal year 

2007. According to FAA’s projections, developmental attrition will rise to 

14 percent in fiscal year 2008. As of May 2008, the attrition rate for the year 

for developmental controllers was about 7 percent. FAA has incorporated 

this information into its hiring forecasts, but a high attrition rate has 

budgetary implications for FAA—FAA projects that the average cost of a

developmental controller will be $78,095 in fiscal year 2008. It will be 

important for FAA to monitor the attrition rate, track the reasons for 

attrition, and release poor performers as soon as possible to avoid 

unnecessary costs. 

To achieve further efficiencies in training controllers, FAA has initiated a

contracting effort—called the Air Traffic Control Optimum Training 

Solution (ATCOTS). ATCOTS would consolidate two existing contracts—

one with the University of Oklahoma, which provides controller training at 

FAA’s training academy in Oklahoma City, and the other with Washington

Consulting Group (WCG), which provides controller training throughout 

the country at air traffic control facilities. FAA plans to award the contract 

in June 2008 and have it implemented by the end of fiscal year 2008.

According to FAA, the consolidated contract will allow for more 

consistent training and potential improvements and efficiencies in the 

training. During the first year of the 10-year contract, FAA’s training 

program is to remain unchanged. After the first year, the contractor may 

suggest changes to increase the efficiency of the training program. These 

changes would require FAA’s approval, according to FAA officials. FAA’s 

transition plans for the ATCOTS contract allow for 3-month extensions of 

the University of Oklahoma contract and 1-month extensions of the WCG 

contract to cover any gaps between the end of the current contracts and 

the start of ATCOTS. 

FAA employees and other stakeholders have raised concerns about 

ATCOTS. According to FAA employees at the training academy, FAA has 

not addressed how current academy employees would be used under 

ATCOTS or determined what cost and time efficiencies could be achieved

through the contract. An industry stakeholder maintained that ATCOTS 

will not provide a sufficient change from the current training and said it 

was not clear how the program would meet FAA’s training needs over the

next 10 years, especially any unique needs arising from FAA’s 

Page 10 GAO-08-908T 
implementation of NextGen. In addition, because of concern that FAA has 

not sufficiently examined the costs and benefits of ATCOTS, a provision in

FAA’s fiscal year 2008 appropriation legislation9

 prohibits FAA from using 

any money in fiscal year 2008 for ATCOTS to displace, reassign, reduce the 

salary of, or take any other action that would result in a reduction in force 

for employees at FAA’s academy or a discontinuation of the academy as 

the primary training facility for controllers. According to FAA, ATCOTS 

will not affect FAA personnel at the academy in any of these ways. FAA 

also does not anticipate much change in the contractor personnel at the 

academy, since the agency anticipates they would be retained by the 

ATCOTS awardee. With the current training contracts scheduled to expire 

in July and September 2008, the contract extensions that FAA has in place 

will be important in case the ATCOTS contract is delayed. If ATCOTS is 

delayed or cannot meet its objectives, FAA’s workforce plan may not be 

achievable. 

Both New and 

Experienced Controllers 

Will Need Training for 

NextGen, and Further 

Human Factors Research 

Is Needed to Support the 

Transition 

Further work is needed to develop training for both new hires and fully 

certified controllers to deal with the paradigm shift that will come with 

NextGen. That paradigm shift calls for an increased reliance on 

automation and changed roles for both air traffic controllers and pilots 

under NextGen. In a more automated environment, controllers will be less 

responsible for controlling air traffic—that is, for directing specific aircraft

movements—and more responsible for managing air traffic—that is, for 

monitoring conditions as pilots control their aircraft to maintain safe 

separation and perform other tasks now performed by controllers. Human 

factors10 will be an important aspect of training air traffic controllers to 

handle both the old and the new equipment as the new systems are 

gradually brought online. Our past work has shown that when human 

factors are not adequately addressed, delays and cost overruns have 

occurred in implementing new air traffic control technology.11

While some industry stakeholders told us it was too early to begin training 

for NextGen systems that are not close to coming online, others said that it 

 9

§ 110-161. 

10Human factors refers to what is known about people, their abilities, characteristics, and 

limitations in the design of the equipment they use, the environments in which they

function, and the jobs they perform. 

11GAO, National Airspace System: FAA Has Made Progress but Continues to Face 

Challenges in Acquiring Major Air Traffic Control Systems, GAO-05-331 (Washington,

D.C.: June 10, 2005). 

Page 11 GAO-08-908T 
was time to begin developing the training to prepare FAA personnel and 

others for the paradigm shift that will be required to implement NextGen. 

Furthermore, a change of this magnitude and complexity will require 

adequate lead time. For example, one stakeholder noted that the 

educational community needs to be engaged now so that it can design

training and be prepared to teach future air traffic controllers and pilots. 

In response to these issues, FAA told us that it is difficult to develop 

training for systems that are not yet fully defined. However, according to 

FAA, it is in the early stages of talking to the educational community. Also, 

the simulation laboratories currently used to train controllers can be 

modified to reflect changes as NextGen technologies are deployed, 

according to FAA. In addition, in fiscal year 2008, FAA began a strategic 

analysis to determine how the controller’s job will be expected to change 

as a result of NextGen. In fiscal year 2009, FAA expects that this effort will 

include an identification of changes to training for the existing workforce 

and for new controllers. It will be important for FAA to complete this 

effort expeditiously, because NextGen technologies and procedures are 

already being implemented. Furthermore, it remains to be seen how this 

effort will be affected by the lack of human factors research needed to 

support it. 

In prior work, we have identified human factors research as a critical 

research need for NextGen.12 The changes in roles and responsibilities for 

air traffic controllers that will be central to NextGen technology raise 

significant human factors issues for the safety and efficiency of the 

national airspace system. According to FAA, verbal communication is a 

human factors area that requires further research and development. 

Currently, air traffic controllers primarily rely on verbal communication to 

direct aircraft. Because NextGen will rely on automated communications, 

controllers will require training in both understanding and operating in an 

automated communication environment. The research to support such 

training has not been conducted, according to FAA. In addition, several 

stakeholders that we interviewed expressed concern that NextGen plans 

do not adequately address human factors research. Although the National 

Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) has historically been a 

primary resource for human factors and other aeronautical research and

development, its ability to provide human factors research for NextGen 

 12GAO, Next Generation Air Transportation System: Status of the Transition to the 

Future Air Traffic Control System, GAO-07-784T (Washington, D.C.: May 9, 2007).

Page 12 GAO-08-908T 
will be limited because it recently lost a significant proportion of its 

human factors staff, according to a NASA official. Understanding what 

skills air traffic controllers will need will help FAA develop an appropriate

training curriculum for them. 

In conclusion, a safe and efficient national airspace system is an essential 

part of the nation’s critical infrastructure. It is a key element for domestic 

mobility and participation in the global economy. The steps and initiatives 

that have been initiated by FAA’s Air Traffic Organization management 

team to ensure that there is an adequate and competent air traffic 

controller workforce show progress and are commendable. Going 

forward, it is imperative that both FAA management and the bargaining

unit find ways to improve their ability to work together to ensure that the 

steps and initiatives are sustained, monitored, and periodically revised to 

ensure progress for years to come. 

Mr. Chairman, this concludes my prepared statement. I would be pleased

to respond to any questions from you or other members of the 

Subcommittee. 

For further information on this testimony, please contact Dr. Gerald L. 

Dillingham at (202) 512-2834 or dillinghamg@gao.gov. Individuals making 

key contributions to this testimony include Teresa Spisak, Kevin Egan, 

Bess Eisenstadt, Bert Japikse, Taylor Reeves, and Richard Scott. 

GAO Contact and 

Staff 

Acknowledgments 

Page 13 GAO-08-908T 
Page 14 GAO-08-908T 

Facility name 

Number of 

fully certified

controllers 

Number of 

controllers

Percentage of

fully certified

controllers

Lambert-St. Louis International Airport 29 31 94

San Francisco International Airport 27 29 93

General Edward Lawrence Logan 

International Airport 36 39 92

Portland International Airport 22 24 92

Minneapolis/St. Paul International 

Airport 38 42 90

San Diego International Airport - 

Lindbergh Field 17 19 89

Baltimore-Washington International 

Airport 25 28 89

Phoenix Deer Valley Airport 16 18 89

Orlando/Sanford Airport 16 18 89

John Wayne Airport-Orange County 

Airport 21 24 88

Centennial Airport 19 22 86

Salt Lake City International Airport 29 34 85

Metropolitan Oakland International 

Airport 22 26 85

Washington Dulles International Airport 34 41 83

Seattle/Tacoma International Airport 26 32 81

Covington/Cincinnati International 

Airport 62 77 81

Philadelphia International Airport 69 87 79

Tucson International Airport 15 19 79

Los Angeles International Airport 36 46 78

Charlotte/Douglas International Airport 61 79 77

Honolulu Control Facility 64 83 77

McCarran International Airport 26 34 76

Miami International Airport 66 87 76

Chicago Midway Airport 25 33 76

The William B. Hartsfield Atlanta 

International Airport 37 49 76

Phoenix Sky Harbor International 

Airport 30 40 75

Detroit/Wayne County International 

Airport 27 36 75

Appendix I: Additional Information on 

Controller Staffing 
Facility name 

Number of 

fully certified

controllers 

Number of 

controllers

Percentage of

fully certified

controllers

Newark/Liberty International Airport 27 36 75

Memphis International Airport 51 68 75

Fort Lauderdale/Hollywood

International Airport 21 28 75

Raleigh/Durham International Airport 33 44 75

Denver International Airport 28 38 74

Dallas/Love Field 19 26 73

George Bush Intercontinental Airport 29 40 73

Mesa/Falcon Field 13 18 72

Daytona Beach International Airport 40 56 71

Ronald Reagan - Washington National 

Airport 21 30 70

Ted Stevens Anchorage International 

Airport 16 23 70

David Wayne Hooks Memorial Airport 9 13 69

Chicago O'Hare International Airport 47 68 69

John F. Kennedy International Airport 24 35 69

Long Beach/Daugherty Field Airport 18 27 67

Orlando International Airport 50 75 67

Van Nuys Airport 15 23 65

Boeing Field/King County International 

Airport 15 23 65

Tampa International Airport 44 70 63

Cleveland Hopkins International Airport 40 64 63

Dallas/Ft. Worth International Airport 37 60 62

La Guardia International Airport 22 36 61

William P. Hobby Airport 14 25 56

Source: GAO analysis of FAA data. 

Page 15 GAO-08-908T (540178) 
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