John Cummings 

Certified Wildlife Biologist/Retired

Research Wildlife Biologist 

USDA-APHIS-Wildlife Services 

National Wildlife Research Center 

Fort Collins, Colorado 

Human-Wildlife Conflicts

Landscapes

Canada geese, snow geese, ducks, and 

American coots all have been implicated in 

agricultural crop and turf damage.

Canada geese and snow geese that graze 

on winter wheat and rye crops can reduce 

subsequent grain and vegetative yields. 

Canada geese also cause serious damage 

to sprouting soybeans in spring and to 

standing cornfields in the autumn. The 

most common damage to agricultural 

resources associated with geese results 

from consumption of crops. Other impacts 

involve unacceptable accumulations of 

feces in pastures, trampling of emerging 

crops, and increased erosion and runoff 

from fields where the cover crop has been 

grazed. Canada geese graze on a variety of 

crops, including alfalfa, barley, beans, 

corn, soybeans, wheat, rye, oats, spinach, 

and peanuts, sometimes resulting in 

significant reductions in yields.

Since the dramatic increase in snow goose 

populations, there has been extensive 

damage to their breeding habitat in the

Wildlife Damage Management 

Technical Series

U.S. Department of Agriculture

Animal & Plant Health Inspection Service

Wildlife Services

August 2016 Geese, Ducks and 

Coots

Figure 1. Canada geese (Branta candensis).

Quick Links

Human-Wildlife Conflicts 1

Damage Identification 3

Management Methods 3

Economics 11

Species Overview 12

Legal Status 17

Glossary & Key Words 18

Resources 19

Appendices 21
in the Arctic and tremendous grazing pressure on exposed 

crops and vegetation during the early spring migration. 

Most damage results from grubbing, trampling, and 

uprooting and occurs along the migration route on the 

eastern coastal areas, and in the mid-western and 

southern states. In addition, agricultural producers are 

concerned that geese spread noxious seeds to crop and 

pasture lands and reduce livestock forage.

During the fall, winter, and early spring, large flocks of 

ducks and American coots migrate into California where 

they damage small grains and alfalfa. Most damage is 

from grazing on alfalfa or sprouting grain. In the fall, large 

flocks of ducks and American coots alighting in unharvested rice fields trample and consume the crop. 

Prior to the 1990s, ducks and geese had been reported to 

cause as much as $6 million to $10 million in damages to 

grains that are swathed and laid on the ground before 

harvesting. Most of this damage occurred in the Canadian 

Provinces and Dakotas. However, changes in harvesting 

techniques in the 1990s from swathing to straight- or 

stripper-cutting have greatly resolved the problem. 

Migratory Canada geese, ducks, and American coots on 

their winter range have become acclimated to urban 

environments where they graze on domesticated grasses 

in parks, golf courses, highway rights-of-way, sport fields, 

and similar locations. Damage and economic costs at 

these locations varies by species, numbers, and 

concentrations, but can be substantial. For example, 

damage to putting greens by geese, ducks, or coots can 

cost thousands of dollars to repair or replace.

Human Health and Safety

Overabundant geese, ducks, and coots also can present 

human health and safety issues. A single Canada goose 

can defecate every 20 minutes, resulting in up to 1.5 

pounds of feces per bird each day. This problem is 

magnified when one considers that populations of resident 

geese have increased dramatically to about 3.75 million in 

2012. The accumulation of bird feces in reservoirs, at 

parks, on golf courses, or where people gather can present 

a health risk. Four hundred samples of feces collected over 

a 2-year period from Canada geese and ring-billed gulls 

(Larus delawarensis) contained significant numbers of 

fecal coliform bacteria (FC) per gram. The impact on the 

microbiological quality of the water is multiplied where 

hundreds or thousands of birds roost on the water surface, 

especially near intakes to aqueducts.

Geese, ducks, and coots present hazards to aircraft 

depending on the location, time of year, and habitat on or 

near airfields. In 1995 Canada geese caused one of the 

worst military bird strikes ever recorded when a E-3 AWACS 

aircraft struck a flock of geese on take-off at Elmendorf Air 

Force Base in Alaska, resulting in total destruction of the 

aircraft and the loss of all 24 crew members. In 2009, US 

Airways Flight 1549 taking off from John F. Kennedy 

International Airport ingested Canada geese at 3,000 feet 

above ground level, destroying both engines. Fortunately, 

the crew safely landed the airplane in the Hudson River 

and evacuated all passengers. 

On November 8, 2000, a Saab 340 Turbo-prop plane 

landing at Aberdeen, South Dakota, flew through a flock of 

200 snow geese at 600 feet above ground level. One 

goose hit the windscreen and dislodged the wiper arm, 

which then hit the propeller. The propeller then threw the 

wiper arm parts into the fuselage at three locations, 

causing more serious damage. One piece of the wiper arm 

came through the fuselage and embedded in the thigh of a 

passenger. 

Figure 2. Snow goose (Chen caerulescens).

Page 2 WDM Technical Series—Geese, Ducks and Coots
Generally, goose, duck, and American coot damage to 

crops, vegetation and aircraft can be difficult to identify. 

Usually the damage to crops or vegetation shows signs of 

being clipped, torn, or stripped (Figures 3,4). Tracks, feces, 

or feathers found neat the damage can be used to help 

identify the species. Damage to aircraft is obvious if the 

bird is recovered, but if not, and only bird parts are recovered, a scientific analysis is required. 

Auditory Frightening Devices

Gas-Operated Cannons

Gas-operated cannons, generally referred to as propane 

cannons, are commonly used to disperse geese, waterfowl, 

and coots from a number of locations, including agricultural crops, wastewater ponds, and airfields (Figure 5). These 

devices produce loud (120-decibel [dB]), intermittent explosions at 1- to 30-minute intervals, and are effective on 

areas up to 120 acres. New versions emit up to three explosions in rapid succession and in various directions. 

Some units allow for remote activation. Although more expensive, these units reduce habituation because they are 

activated remotely by people only when birds are present. 

Propane cannons used to disperse waterbirds at Naval Air 

Station North Island and Naval Outlying Landing Field Imperial Beach, California, have worked when the cannons 

were moved every 2 to 3 days and supplemented with other hazing tools. The effectiveness of propane cannons to 

deter molting sea ducks, mostly long-tailed ducks 

(Clangula hyemalis), was tested in the Beaufort Sea. The 

cannon was mounted on a raft anchored in the center of 

an experimental plot and operated at a volume of approximately 120 dB, and at a firing interval of approximately 5 

minutes. On the first day of operation, the scaring radius 

for sitting birds was 3,000 feet. The number of birds remaining within 3,000 feet of the cannon was less than 

10% of the original number present. That scaring radius 

decreased to 1,800 feet by the second day and the density 

of birds increased. By the third day, the number of birds in 

the general area increased to a level higher than the average numbers present during control periods, indicating the 

effectiveness of the cannon significantly decreased.

In another study in coastal areas near Vancouver, British 

Columbia, a propane cannon was anchored on a raft in an 

intertidal zone, and another in a drifting boat in open water 

habitat. The propane cannons were usually set for one 

Page 3

Figure 3. Goose, duck and coot damage to crops or vegetation typically 

involves plants being clipped, pulled and trampled. Feces left behind can 

carry noxious weed seeds.

Figure 4. Damage to newly planted wheat by Canada geese.

U.S. Department of Agriculture

Damage Identification

Management Methods
explosion every 20 to 25 minutes. The firing interval was 

decreased to one every 5 minutes. Explosions were 

approximately 125 dB at 600 feet from the source over 

water under optimum conditions. The raft-mounted 

propane cannon kept all waterfowl away up to a 600-foot 

radius. It was especially effective on mallards, pintails, teal, 

and widgeon. 

The propane cannon also effectively dispersed waterfowl 

feeding at night, and it appeared that the effective range 

was at least the same at night as in daylight. The response 

distance to the propane cannon for the 31 species of 

waterbirds recorded varied from 30 to 750 feet. 

Habituation was observed in most of the major groups of 

waterbirds tested. Some bird species, such as the northern 

shoveler (Anas clypeata) and teal (Anas spp.) became 

tolerant to blasts after 4 hours of continuous firing. The 

estimated cost of a typical propane cannon such as the 

Zon Standard, single-fire propane cannon, is $240. The 

Zon Electra, a multiple-fire propane cannon, is $650.

The advantages of propane cannons are that they are 

portable, effective day or night, are inexpensive to operate, 

and are especially effective in deterring dabbling ducks 

and geese. Disadvantages are that they must be moved 

every 2 to 3 days to prevent habituation, regular 

maintenance is required, they have limited effectiveness 

on American coots, and the explosions may be a nuisance 

to nearby residents.

Pyrotechnics

Pyrotechnics include various devices fired from shotguns, 

starter pistols, and flare pistols, or specialized launchers 

(Figure 6). Pyrotechnics include banger/whistler cartridges, 

shell crackers, flares, firecrackers, cartouche anti peril 

aviaire (CAPA) cartridges, and rockets, that produce a loud 

blast or scream accompanied by smoke and a flash of 

light. The most common pyrotechnics used for bird 

dispersal are 15-millimeter (mm) bangers, 15-mm 

whistlers, 12-gauge shell crackers, and 18-mm CAPA 

cartridges. Pyrotechnics travel 75 to 900 feet before 

emitting a blast, flash, or bright light. Some emit a 

screaming or whistling sound during flight. The 15-mm 

bangers and whistlers have a range of approximately 150 

to 200 feet. The 12-gauge shell crackers have a range of 

approximately 200 to 300 feet. The 18-mm CAPA cartridge 

has the greatest range, shooting an exploding rocket to a 

distance of 1,000 feet with a report of approximately 150 

dB. Operators should wear eye and ear protection at all 

times. Pyrotechnics can be very useful in hazing birds in a 

variety of situations, when used in combination with other 

hazing techniques.

For safety reasons, only trained personnel should fire 

pyrotechnics. The launching device should be an openchoked, single-shot, 12-gauge shotgun (for shell crackers) 

or a pyrotechnics pistol (for bangers and whistlers) that 

Figure 5. Gas-operated cannons, generally referred to as propane cannons, 

are commonly used to disperse geese, waterfowl, and coots. 

Page 4

Figure 6. a) 15mm pistol, banger (red) and whistler (yellow) cartridges, (b) 

18mm CAPA pistol and cartridge, (c) shotgun used to launch 12-guage shell 

crackers, (d) firing a pyrotechnic device. 

WDM Technical Series—Geese, Ducks and Coots
allow for easy inspection of the barrel. Other safety 

precautions that should be taken in any program using 

pyrotechnics include the following:

 operators should wear eye and ear protection at all 

times

 check gun barrels for obstructions after each firing as 

shell crackers may misfire

 clean guns each day after use, as shell crackers are 

corrosive

 pyrotechnics must be fired from pyrotechnics pistols 

only

 take necessary fire precautions, as pyrotechnics can 

be a fire hazard

 do not fire pyrotechnics from inside a vehicle

If used correctly, pyrotechnics provide one of the most 

effective methods to disperse geese, waterfowl, and 

American coots from crops and open water. Pyrotechnics 

can effectively haze waterfowl at distances up to 3,000 

feet. They are effective day or night and are relatively 

inexpensive. The disadvantages of pyrotechnics are they 

can be labor intensive, geese, waterfowl, or American coots 

may habituate to them, especially if they are used 

improperly (used too frequently). There is some degree of 

fire hazard associate with these devices when used during 

dry conditions, and they may be a nuisance to people living 

nearby. 

Visual Frightening Devices

Visual dispersal techniques include hawk kites, hawk 

silhouettes, lights, eyespot balloons, flags, Mylar® 

reflective tape, effigies, scarecrows (human or predator), 

and lasers. Most of these devices are effective for a short 

period before birds become habituated to them because 

they learn that the devices pose no danger. Geese and 

waterfowl seem to respond to some of these devices more 

than others, especially during hunting seasons.

Flagging 

White flags and black flags made from 30-inch x 60-inch 

garbage bags have been shown to significantly and 

effectively deter snow geese from agricultural fields. Flags 

are typically placed on 4-foot stakes at one flag per acre. 

Cost of each flag and stake is about $0.30.

Lasers

Lasers have shown promise for dispersing some waterfowl, 

geese, cormorants, and other waterbird species (Figure 7). 

Lasers are most effective before dawn or after dusk, when 

red or green beams are clearly visible. Bright sunlight will 

wash out a laser beam, rendering it ineffective, but the 

green beam is most visible in brighter situations. Although 

bird vision differs from that of humans, a laser beam is 

visible to some species and results in the birds dispersing. 

The effectiveness of low-powered lasers varies with the 

bird species and the context of the application, likely due 

to differences in eye structure among bird species. 

The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulates laser 

devices because of safety concerns due to radiation 

emissions and potential tissue damage. The FDA standard 

for unregulated lasers is generally less than 5.0 milliwatts 

(mW) of power. Lasers using more than 5.0 mW of power 

require a variance (permit) from FDA. 

Canada goose numbers were successfully reduced by 85% 

at sites used consistently for foraging, loafing, and 

roosting. The reduction followed a 5-day treatment period 

where geese at each site were hazed for a 30-minute 

period each night. The Avian Dissuader red laser was used 

at night to disperse waterfowl (Anatidae spp.), herons 

U.S. Department of Agriculture Page 5

Figure 7. Avian Dissuader laser for dispersing birds.
(Ardeidae spp.), and egrets (Ardeidae spp.) from wetlands. 

Roosting flocks of waterfowl, herons, and egrets were 

dispersed to other areas after repeated hazing for less 

than 30 minutes. Monitoring on following nights indicated 

that none of the hazed species returned to their original 

roosting areas. The estimated cost of the Avian Dissuader 

is $1,400-$2,000 per unit. Advantages of the laser is that 

it can be used to disperse birds from long distances 

(effective up to 2,600 feet), is effective on most bird 

species, (especially waterfowl), is easy to operate, requires 

minimal training, and is considered safe when used 

properly. The disadvantages are that it is only effective at 

night and dusk, and not effective on all bird species. 

Avian Systems Corporation (ASC) 7500 Rotating Laser 

System

The Avian Systems Corporation (ASC) 7500 Rotating Laser 

System is a stationary device that can be mounted on a 

stand on land or in water. The relatively compact unit can 

be transported easily to different locations. The unit has a 

drive system for a low-intensity laser beam that can be 

programmed to scan 360 degrees and also up or down, as 

needed. The laser beam also can be programmed to stop 

or reverse field, or be used in a random mode. The laser 

beam is either red or green, and approximately 3 inches in 

diameter. The operational distance for the beam is up to 

1,500 feet. The unit can be set to operate at designated 

times, or a radar system can be integrated with the system, 

activating the laser when bird activity is detected. The 

system is powered by a 12-volt gel battery, but can be 

converted to solar power or a marine battery. The battery 

life depends on use; a marine battery operating at 12 

hours per day could keep the system functioning for 4 to 5 

days. The laser is considered non-harmful to humans.

The effectiveness of the ASC 7500 was tested on Canada 

geese at several nighttime roosting sites near small golf 

course water impoundments, using an on-off test design 

(ASC personal communication). After one night of laser 

operation, geese dispersed to other locations. After the 

unit was removed, geese reestablished within 48 hours. 

The unit was effective over a multiple-week test period. No 

habituation to the laser unit was observed. In another 

study conducted under a controlled situation in large pens, 

a motion-detection device activated the laser unit when 

geese entered the treated area. The unit reduced Canada 

goose use of a treated roosting area by 83% to 92% during 

20 nights of operation. 

The ASC 7500 was evaluated on a 320-acre pond. The 

system was effective in flushing and moving dabbling 

ducks at approximately 1,000 feet, but had no effect at 

longer distances. There was no effect on diving ducks, 

such as coots, at ranges over 100 feet (J. Cummings, 

unpublished data).

The estimated cost of the ASC 7500 system without radar 

is $5,000-$7,000 per unit. This system uses low power, 

rotates, and can disperse birds at long distances. It uses 

either red or green lasers, which increases its 

effectiveness, especially on waterfowl. The beam is 3 

inches in diameter. The disadvantages are that the system 

is expensive and effective only at night. It is not effective 

on all birds, such as diving ducks, and there could be 

power issues when operating for prolonged periods.

Coyote Predator Models

Coyote models (Figure 8) have successfully deterred 

geese, waterfowl, and coots from using agriculture crops 

and areas on airfields. The more realistic the coyote 

predator model, the more effective it is in dispersing birds. 

As for any device, habitation can occur, so moving the 

Figure 8. Coyote models or decoys are used to deter geese and other 

waterfowl.

Page 6 WDM Technical Series—Geese, Ducks and Coots
coyote predator model will extend its effectiveness. These 

devices are relatively inexpensive, about $100 per model, 

and associated labor costs are low. Coyote models 

sometimes attract rather than repel birds, a potential issue 

especially on airfields. 

Auditory-Visual Frightening Devices

Radio-Controlled Model Aircraft, Helicopters and Boats

Radio-controlled model aircraft, helicopters, and boats 

provide both visual and auditory cues, and have shown 

varying degrees of success. The effectiveness of radiocontrolled devices depends on the level of operator 

experience. 

Radio-controlled boats combine two key features for hazing 

birds: a visual and auditory (engine noise) stimulus. Radiocontrolled boats require little experience to operate and 

can cover the area within 1,000 feet of the operator, or 

about 35 acres. These boats have been shown to 

successfully haze waterfowl from ponds and lakes. 

Gas-powered, radio-controlled helicopters were used 

successfully at the Reno Airport to move Canada geese. 

Geese did not habituate to the helicopter, and in most 

cases, dispersed upon the start of the engine. Operators of 

these devices should ensure that the radio frequencies are 

compatible with other electronics in the area. The 

estimated cost is about $1,000 per unit, including 

peripherals.

When properly equipped, these devices are an inexpensive 

way to disperse a wide range of species at long distances 

with precision. They can be used during the day or night. 

Some skill is required to operate and maintain the devices.

Dogs

Using dogs to harass geese from an area has become a 

popular and successful method. Highly trained border 

collies generally are used but just about any athletic, 

medium-large dog capable of obeying commands can be 

effective in hazing geese, waterfowl, and coots. Control of 

the dog is vital because dogs used in this manner are 

legally considered an extension of your hand and must not 

be allowed to catch, injure, or kill Canada geese, waterfowl, 

or coots. 

Typically, a handler and a dog will enter an area occupied 

by unwanted geese, waterfowl, or coots. On command, the 

dog is allowed to chase after the birds. Generally, birds will 

seek refuge from the dog in a nearby body of water. If this 

is the case, let the dog enter the water. To make this 

method more effective, use a boat or pyrotechnics to 

further harass the birds. Harassment should continue and 

be repeated until the birds leave the area permanently.

Consult with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS), 

state, and local agencies regarding authorization and 

permits for use of dogs to haze geese, waterfowl and 

coots.

Repellents

Anthraquinone and methyl anthranilate are two chemical 

compounds registered as bird repellents with the U.S. 

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). These compounds 

are sold under several product names for use in various 

agriculture, airfield, and urban situations.

Anthraquinone (AQ) is a naturally-occurring compound 

found in many plant species, and was first patented in 

1944 as a bird repellent. The mechanism of repellency for 

AQ is not well understood. Ingestion of AQ-treated food by 

birds can produce vomiting, presumably through irritation 

of the gut lining. 

Two AQ products, Flight Control Plus® and Avipel® are 

registered with EPA. Flight Control Plus can be used in all 

states except California. It is generally applied on turf or 

grass areas used by geese, specifically Canada geese. It 

cannot be used on food crops. Avipel has two product 

labels, one for use as a goose repellent similar to Flight 

Control Plus® and the other as a product designed to 

protect newly-planted seed from birds. 

Methyl anthranilate is a compound derived from concord 

grapes, approved for human consumption by the FDA, and 

has been found to be offensive to birds. It produces a 

negative response in most birds by affecting the trigeminal 

receptors in the mouth. 

U.S. Department of Agriculture Page 7
Several methyl anthranilate products are registered with 

EPA as bird repellents for geese, waterfowl, and coots. 

Products include Rejex-it Migrate®, Rejex-it Fog Force® (TP

-40), Liquid Fence Goose Repellent®, and Bird Shield®. 

The mode of action is similar among products, but 

formulations, concentrations, and application rates vary. 

Repellents can be costly, due to the large quantities 

needed to be effective, and the need to reapply after 

periods of precipitation. Frequent reapplication on crops 

and/or turf-grass areas is necessary to ensure adequate 

coverage during the growing season, especially in turf 

areas where the turf is mowed. Cost for Rejex-it Migrate is 

approximately $600 per acre, Flight Control Plus is 

approximately $200 per acre, and Avipel is approximately 

$10 per acre of treated seed. 

Nest Removal and Treatment

Nest removal and treatment of eggs generally is authorized 

by USFWS for resident or non-migratory Canada geese 

through a permit. Consult with the USFWS regarding 

authorization and permits for special situations concerning 

migratory geese, waterfowl, and coots. 

Nest treatment usually involves manipulating eggs so they 

do not develop. Methods include addling (shaking), oiling 

with corn oil (Figure 9), puncturing, chilling, and replacing 

eggs. Returning treated eggs to the nest encourages adult 

birds to remain on the nest beyond the expected hatching 

date, which reduces or prevents the potential for renesting.

Fertility Control

None is available.

Toxicants

None are available.

Trapping and Relocation

Trapping and relocation generally is authorized by permit 

from the USFWS for resident or non-migratory Canada 

geese, waterfowl, and coots. Consult with the USFWS 

regarding authorization and permits for special situation 

concerning migratory geese, waterfowl and coots. 

Shooting

Hunting is the primary method for managing Canada 

goose, waterfowl, and coot populations. Hunting can have 

an area-deterrent effect on these species, but hunters are 

restricted to established bag limits. Shooting permits 

outside of regulated hunting seasons may often be 

obtained by USFWS for migratory, resident or non-migratory 

Canada geese, waterfowl, and coots. This method can 

solve very localized problems. 

Habitat Modification

Ponds, lakes and sloughs adjacent to agricultural areas 

and airfields can attract large numbers of geese, 

waterfowl, and coots for foraging, nesting, loafing, and 

resting. Changing the adjacent habitat at these sites can 

help to reduce bird use. However, these species are very 

adaptable and habitat changes in a rural setting can be 

environmentally challenging. Federal and state laws govern 

draining or channelizing wetlands, ponds, or lakes and 

introducing less attractive vegetation might not be 

compatible with current water and farming practices or 

airfield maintenance. 

Habitat modification is better suited for suburban and 

urban areas such as parks, golf courses, residential areas, 

and airports. Consider the following when modifying 

habitat for geese, waterfowl, and coots.

 Install vertical, sight-limiting components, such as 

trees, shrubs, or aquatic vegetation (cattails). This can 

disrupt an unobstructed line of sight and help deter 

them from grazing or walking readily from the water 

source.

 Limit and reduce the palatability of adjacent habitat by 

avoiding planting preferred foods such as succulent 

grasses.

 Maintain grass height at 8 or more inches.

 Plant water lilies or other non-invasive emergent 

Page 8 WDM Technical Series—Geese, Ducks and Coots
aquatic vegetation to prevent waterfowl movement 

and use on the pond or lakes.

 In colder climates, turn off water aerators in ponds, 

and allow the water to freeze.

 In some cases, plant a lure crop to attract birds away 

from where they are not wanted.

 Remove and modify nest sites such as platforms, 

structures, and other waterfowl nest supports.

Cultural Control

Waterfowl damage to agricultural crops typically occurs 

during spring planting and fall harvest. A small number of 

geese, waterfowl, or coots can cause damage during postplanting periods to a variety of crops, such as corn, 

soybeans, and small grains. In rice crops, laser-leveled 

fields require less water height for planting, making fields 

less attractive. Delaying planting until after most migratory 

birds have departed the area can reduce damage. 

Historically, geese and waterfowl have caused severe 

damage to swath grains, although advances in breeding 

programs for cereal crops now allow most grain crops to be 

straight-combined, alleviating swathing. Where swathing 

and migratory waterfowl overlap, birds will cause damage 

through direct consumption, contamination by feces, and 

trampling swaths. Waterfowl trample as much as five times 

more grain than they consume. One Canadian researcher 

estimated Canadian prairie-wide losses of $6 to $10 

million annually, mainly from waterfowl. 

Diversionary feeding with lure or decoy crops has proven 

successful for controlling crop depredations. Two 

approaches can be used: (1) grow or purchase lure crops 

where geese, waterfowl, or coots can feed unmolested and 

away from other commercial crops, or (2) use bait stations 

or field baiting for the same purpose. These programs have 

been used on and near wildlife refuges and waterfowl 

management areas that provide protection, food, water, 

and cover; and help to keep birds onsite while crops are 

susceptible to damage.

Currently, one of the most common methods to reduce use 

of airfields by geese, waterfowl, and coots is to maintain 

vegetation height at 7 to 14 inches. Long grass restricts 

the line of sight for birds, making them vulnerable and 

nervous about unseen predators. In some cases, however, 

long-grass management attracts other granivorous birds 

that may move onto runways. An alternative approach is to 

establish less preferred vegetation that is unpalatable to 

geese, waterfowl, and coots and has minimal seed 

production. In addition to requiring little maintenance, the 

vegetation also should be relatively non-flammable, 

drought resistant, unattractive to invertebrates and 

rodents, and exclude the establishment of other plants.

Page 9

Figure 9. Oiling goose eggs with corn oil prevents them from developing and 

reduces the potential for re-nesting.

U.S. Department of Agriculture
Structural Modification

Discourage geese, waterfowl, and coots from using existing 

ponds by straightening the banks vertically up to 30 

inches. Placing large boulders or rip-rap along the edge of 

a pond makes it more difficult, but not impossible for these 

birds to enter and exit the water. 

Exclusion

Fencing

Barrier and energized fencing can help keep geese, 

waterfowl, and coots out of agriculture crops and areas on 

airfields where they have walking access, especially during 

the molting season. Construct barrier fences from woven 

wire, poultry wire, plastic snow fence, chain link, netting, 

pickets, or strands of wires. To be effective in these 

situations, barrier fences should be at least 30 inches high 

and made of durable material with openings no larger than 

2 to 3 inches. 

Energized fences with triple-strand wires strung 3, 10, and 

15 inches above the ground with minimal amperage will 

exclude birds without harming them. Components of an 

energized triple-strand fence are (1) an energizer, either 

battery powered or 120 volts (low impedance energizers 

which deliver a short electrical pulse of at least 4,000 volts 

once every second are safe and effective); (2) either 1⁄2-

inch wide polyethylene fibers interwoven with conductive 

wires, or 17-gauge electric fence conductive wire; and (3) a 

grounding system composed of a series of 6-foot 

galvanized-steel rods driven into the earth at 12-foot 

intervals for the length of the protected area. The rods are 

connected in series with the wire, which is connected to 

the ground terminal on the energizer. 

Geese, waterfowl, or coots that touch an energized fence 

receive an uncomfortable but harmless shock that they 

learn to avoid.

Nets

Nets are not economical for most agricultural crops where 

geese, waterfowl, or coots are involved, but can be used to 

cover ponds on airfields. 

Netting is available in a variety of materials (nylon, 

polyethylene, polypropylene), mesh sizes (0.5-inch to 10-

inch), and dimensions. Nets should be resistant to 

ultraviolet (UV) light or coated to make them UV-resistant. 

With all factors being equal, nylon is the strongest material, 

followed by polyethylene and polypropylene.

Netting is ideal for covering small ponds (e.g., 150 feet by 

200 feet) but also can be used on larger areas if the 

support structure and weather conditions allow. The type of 

external structure needed depends on the netting material; 

mesh size; twine size; geographic location; and wind, ice, 

and snow loads. Steel anchor poles for the netting around 

a pond perimeter must be at least 5 feet high so netting 

will not sag into the pond. Support cables also help 

alleviate net sag. Inspect netting periodically for rips, tears, 

or evidence of contact with the pond, especially after heavy 

precipitation events. 

In areas with high wind or ice and snow loading, smalldiameter twine and large mesh size netting reduces 

accumulation of ice and snow. Depending on the wildlife 

species present, lightweight polypropylene-knitted netting 

can be used successfully in arid regions. The estimated 

cost of the material is approximately $0.06 to $0.16 per 

square foot depending on the type, mesh size, and twine 

size. 

If netting is properly installed, it provides 100% exclusion. 

With a proper support system, netting can cover a large 

area. It is lightweight and durable for up to 10 years. 

However, it is expensive, labor-intensive to install, 

vulnerable to high winds, and birds can become tangled in 

netting that is not properly maintained. 

Wire Grid System

These systems (Figure 10) are composed of multiple 

parallel lines of steel, Kevlar, or stainless-steel wire 

Page 10 WDM Technical Series—Geese, Ducks and Coots
stretched 1 to 2 feet above the surface of the water to 

prevent birds from landing. Wire grid systems do not 

present an actual physical barrier, but are designed to 

interfere with birds’ flight patterns. 

UV-resistant lines, ranging in thickness from 10-to 28-

gauge, and constructed as a grid with 10-foot spacing, will 

deter most birds. Generally, large birds are more 

challenged by wire grid systems than small birds. If access 

to the pond is needed, the grid can be elevated to 

accommodate vehicles or boats. Kevlar wire has several 

advantages over steel, galvanized-steel, or stainless-steel 

wires. Kevlar is stronger at smaller diameters, will not sag 

over long distances, and is lightweight. Monofilament line 

is not as durable or resistant to UV radiation, is more prone 

to sagging, and requires constant maintenance. 

Floating Membrane Covers

Floating membrane covers set on the surface of the water 

and rise and fall with changing water levels. Covers are 

made of high-density polyethylene (HDPE) combined with 

baffle floats and anchored to the perimeter of 

impoundments. Floating membrane covers are considered 

semi-permanent, creating limited access unless the cover 

is removed. The covers also reduce evaporation by 95%. 

Estimated cost of materials is approximately $1.75 per 

square foot, with an installation charge of $1.10 per 

square foot. It has similar advantages and disadvantages 

as netting.

Plastic Balls or Spheres

Plastic balls or spheres approximately 4 inches in diameter 

can be placed in water impoundments to fully cover the 

water surface. It is believed that birds do not recognize the 

sphere-covered area as a water body. The density of the 

balls also prevents access to the water surface. The 

spheres are effective for water impoundments with 

fluctuating levels (e.g., from rain or snow) because they 

rise and fall with the water level. A sufficient quantity of 

spheres must be used to cover the water impoundment, 

taking into account any increase in surface area from rising 

water levels. This method is expensive, but is easy to install 

and virtually maintenance free. For areas with winds 

greater than 45 mph, heavier water-filled floating balls 

have proven effective. The estimated cost is $2.45 per 

square foot for unweighted balls and $3.45 per square 

foot for weighted balls. The balls automatically adjust to 

fluctuating water levels and reduce evaporation. 

Migratory Canada geese, snow geese, waterfowl, and 

American coots are responsible for significant damage to 

agricultural crops and aircraft.

Crop Damage

While damage to crops by geese, waterfowl, and coots has 

been difficult to quantify, surveys of agricultural producers 

indicate that it may be severe in some areas, resulting in 

substantial economic losses. One study reported $6 to 10 

million in annual damage to swath grains by ducks and 

geese in Canadian provinces. Damage probably is similar 

in the northern Great Plains, but the economic impact has 

not been well documented. Goose damage to sprouting 

soybeans and corn represented less than 2% and 3% of 

the damage reported by farmers on a questionnaire in 

Indiana. In another case, damage by Canada geese to 

commercial crops surrounding Horicon National Wildlife 

Page 11

Figure 10. Wire grid systems are composed of multiple parallel lines of wire 

stretched above the surface of the water to prevent birds from landing.

Economics

U.S. Department of Agriculture
Refuge in Wisconsin over an 8-year period during the 

1950s averaged $10,000 annually. When waterfowl 

populations in California were at peak numbers in the 

1960s, damage to rice was estimated at $1 million 

annually. South Dakota Game, Fish and Parks instituted a 

program in 1996 to reduce crop damage (mainly 

soybeans) caused by Canada geese. More recent 

economic loss figures for geese, waterfowl and coots to 

agriculture crops are not available mainly because of the 

logistics involved to collecting the data. However, in 2012, 

farmers in California and Louisiana rice-producing areas 

reported 80 to 100% loss in some newly planted fields due 

to waterfowl and coots. 

In Oregon’s Willamette Valley, wintering Canada geese 

cause extensive damage to winter wheat and rye grass. An 

Oregon State University study showed that goose damage 

reduced yields by 25%, and a survey of Oregon Farm 

Bureau members in 2010 described goose damage 

totaling $1.5 million. Individual crop seed producers report 

losses of $171,000. In addition, the Oregon Department of 

Fish and Wildlife distributed over $212,000 in 2011 to 

2012 to producers to allow goose hunting on their farms. 

Breeding snow geese cause extensive destruction of Arctic 

habitat. Large numbers of migrating snow geese exert 

tremendous grazing pressure on exposed agricultural crops 

in early spring, contributing significantly to economic 

losses. 

Aviation Hazards

Canada geese, snow geese, waterfowl, and American coots 

have been implicated in 4,338 strikes with aircraft 

between 1990 and 2013, resulting in millions of dollars in 

damage, loss of life, down plane time, and delayed flights.

Ducks have caused over $100 million in damage to 

aircraft. Northern mallard strikes alone accounted for over 

$5 million in damage and 528 strikes during 1990-2009. 

Identification

The Canada goose (Branta canadensis, Figure 1), family 

Anatidae, has a black head and neck, white patches on the 

face, and a brownish-gray body. It exhibits marked 

morphological variation, perhaps the most extreme 

intraspecific variation in body size among birds, with some 

subspecies among the largest and other subspecies 

among the smallest of all geese. 

The snow goose (Chen caerulescens, Figure 2), family 

Anatidae, has two color plumage morphs, white (“snows”) 

and gray/blue (“blues”). Growing populations of blues in 

midcontinent breeding and wintering populations have 

adversely affected their own habitat, that of other wildlife 

species, the economic interests of agriculture producers, 

and human safety. 

Ducks is a general term used for several species within the 

family Anatidae (Figure 11). They sometimes cause 

localized damage to agricultural crops. These include 

mallards (Anas platyrhynchos), northern pintails (A. acuta), 

and black-bellied whistling duck (Dendrocygna 

Page 12 WDM Technical Series—Geese, Ducks and Coots

Species Overview

Figure 11. Mallard (Anas platyrhnchos).
autumnalis]). Commercial aquaculture interests, such clam 

beds, are impacted by surf scoter (Melanitta perspicillata), 

while urban parks and golf courses are damaged by 

American wigeon (A. americana).

The American coot (Fulica americana, Figure 12) has a 

slate-colored body, blackish head and neck, a small 

reddish-brown forehead shield, and a whitish bill with dark 

band near the tip. It is commonly mistaken to be a duck, 

but is classified in a distinct family, Rallidae. They are 

mainly responsible for damage to water-grown crops, such 

as rice, but also can cause significant damage to grass at 

parks and golf courses. 

Physical Description

Canada goose size varies considerably among subspecies, 

from the largest goose (Branta canadensis maxima) in the 

South, to one of the smallest (B. c. minima) in the North. 

Body measurements include: mass 9 to 20 pounds, overall 

length 21 to 43 inches, folded wing 13 to 21 inches, and 

bill length 1 to 2 inches. Plumage coloration between 

subspecies varies with palest birds in the East, to darkest 

birds in the West. Sexes are alike, although males are 

slightly larger. There is no seasonal variation in size or 

plumage.

Snow geese are divided into two subspecies based on size 

and geography. The smaller subspecies, the lesser snow 

goose (Chen c. caerulescens) lives from central northern 

Canada to the Bering Straits. The lesser snow goose 

stands 25 to 31 inches tall and weighs 4.5 to 6.0 pounds. 

The larger subspecies, the greater snow goose (Chen c. 

atlanticus), nests in northeastern Canada. It averages 

about 7.1 pounds and 31 inches, but can weigh up to 9.9 

pounds. The wingspan for both subspecies ranges from 53 

to 65 inches. Blue-morph birds are rare among the greater 

snow geese, and among eastern populations of the lesser 

snow geese. The adult white morph is completely white 

except for gray primary-coverts and black primaries. 

Occasionally rusty-orange staining on head and upper neck 

is associated with feeding in mud containing iron oxides. 

Feet and legs are dark pink; the bill is rose-pink with a pale 

pink or white nail.

A North America bird identification guide will contain 

descriptions of mallards, northern pintails, American 

widgeons, black-bellied whistling ducks, black and surf 

scoters, and other ducks that are implicated in damage. 

The American coot measures 13–17 inches in length and 

has a wing-span of 23–28 inches. Adults have a short, 

thick, white bill and white frontal shield, which usually has 

a reddish-brown spot near the top of the bill between the 

eyes. Males and females look alike, but females are 

smaller. Body mass of females ranges from 1 to 1.4 

pounds and males from 1.3 to 1.9 pounds. Juvenile birds 

have olive-brown crowns and a gray body. They become 

adult-colored around 4 months of age. 

Range

Canada geese breed in pairs or in localized groups over a 

wide range of habitats throughout north temperate, 

subarctic, and arctic regions of North America. Breeding 

was originally thought to be restricted to areas north of 

35°N and south of about 70°N, but because of 

introductions and translocations, Canada geese now nest 

in every Canadian province and all 48 continental states in 

the U.S. Winter range extends from southeast Alaska to 

Mexico and from California to Florida. Winter distribution 

has shifted northward in the past several decades in about 

Page 13

Figure 12. American coot (Fulica americana).

U.S. Department of Agriculture
half of North America’s management populations. These 

shifts have been attributed to availability of waste grains 

during late fall and winter, hunting pressure, social ties, 

and weather. For example in the Central Flyway, Canada 

geese, which once wintered in the thousands in southern 

Colorado, now spend their winters primarily in northern 

Colorado’s agricultural areas. 

Snow geese are divided into three populations (western, 

mid-continent, and eastern) that breed in colonies of 

various sizes north of the tree line from north Alaska east 

along the arctic coast and islands of arctic Canada to 

northeast Ellesmere Island, Nunavut Territory, and south to 

Southampton Island and along both coasts of Hudson Bay 

to mid-James Bay. Winter range for most populations is 

south of an east/west line across the U.S., with megapopulations wintering in Texas and Louisiana. The 

northward shift of snow geese wintering areas is attributed 

to factors similar to those for Canada geese. 

The primary North American breeding ground for ducks is 

the Prairie Pothole Region of Alberta, Saskatchewan, 

Manitoba, Montana, North and South Dakota, and 

Minnesota. The Prairie Pothole Region is the core of what

was once the largest expanse of grassland in the world, the 

Great Plains of North America. The potholes are rich in 

plant and aquatic life, and support globally significant 

populations of breeding waterfowl. Most ducks spend the 

winter south of east/west line across the U.S., with 

concentrations in the Missouri, Arkansas, Louisiana and 

southern California.

American coots breed over a wide range, from southern 

Quebec to the Pacific coast and south into northern South 

America. They often are year-round residents where water 

remains open in the winter. The number of birds that 

remain year-round near the northern limit of the species' 

range seems to be increasing. (See Appendix 2 for range 

maps)

Sign

Web-footed birds such as geese and ducks generally leave 

only a web and three-toe print in soft surfaces. Geese 

tracks vary in size from 3 to 5 inches long, whereas duck 

and coot tracks are usually from 1 to 3 inches long. All 

tracks have a fan shape when viewed on a mud surface. 

Coots do not have webbed feet like those of ducks. 

Instead, each one of the coot’s long toes has broad lobes 

of skin that help it kick through the water (Figure 13). The 

broad lobes fold back each time the bird lifts its foot, so 

they do not impede walking on dry land, although they 

support the bird’s weight on mucky ground. Feces from 

geese, ducks, and coots ranges from 1 to 3 inches long, 

are straight and slightly curved, and vary in color from dark 

brown to light green.

Voice and Sounds

The repertoire of Canada geese calls includes honking, 

“hucka,” snore, and cackle. Canada geese are noted for 

honking in flight.

Snow geese probably are the noisiest of all waterfowl. 

Primary vocalization is a loud nasal monosyllabic “whouk” 

or “kouk” uttered by both sexes from about 1 year of age. 

Most duck species quack, however they make a variety of 

other sounds. Northern pintails make wheezy mewing 

notes. Black-bellied whistling ducks make a high-pitched, 

soft wheezy whistle of 4 to 6 notes, accented on second or 

third syllable. American wigeons make a high whistle that 

resembles a squeaky toy. Black scoters make a whistling 

noise with their wings during flight. Males give clear whistle 

in courtship. Females give a grating "kraaa."

Page 14 WDM Technical Series—Geese, Ducks and Coots

Figure 13. American coot’s long toes have broad lobes of skin that help it 

kick through the water.
American coots make a variety of grunting, croaking, and 

squawking noises; the most common is a short singlenoted “krrp” or “prik.”

Reproduction

Canada geese are monogamous, with life-long pair bonds 

usually formed during the second year. Depending on the 

location, eggs are laid in ground nests from March to June. 

Renesting occurs at lower latitudes in the event of nest/

clutch loss. Clutch size varies by subspecies, location, and 

year. A clutch usually has 2 to 8 eggs, with each egg laid at 

30- to 40-hour intervals. Only the female incubates the 

eggs, and it ranges from 25 to 27 days after the last egg is 

laid. Eggs hatch at about the same time (relatively 

synchronously). Goslings are precocial and leave the nest 

site within 24 hours, by which time they can walk, swim, 

feed, and dive. Offspring remain with their parents 

throughout the first year of life, traveling together in large 

flocks of family groups. 

Snow geese are monogamous. Individuals in mixed 

populations of snows and blues breed by choosing mates 

according to the color morph of the family in which they 

were raised. Snow geese nest on the ground. Egg laying 

starts on the breeding grounds soon after the snow melts, 

generally in May to June. Incubation is by the female only. 

The clutch of 2 to 6 eggs hatches within an average of 23 

days. Goslings are precocial and have an exceptionally high 

growth rate. At 35 days of age, a few days before they can 

fly, the average weight is 2.9 pounds (1.3 kg) for males 

and 2.6 pounds (1.2 kg) for females, which is about 60-

65% of their adult weight. Young accompany parents 

throughout the first winter. Families break up upon 

returning to the breeding area.

Ducks are monogamous. Depending on the location and 

species, most nest on the ground in upland habitat from 

April to July. Clutch size is from 2 to 8 eggs, and incubation 

from 23 to 31 days. Females provide parental care for 

varying lengths of time depending on the species. For 

example, mallard family groups stay together for about 60 

days, whereas black scoter chicks are on their own after 

21 days. 

American coots are monogamous. Nests almost always are 

built on floating platforms over water, and almost always 

are associated with dense stands of living or dead 

vegetation such as reeds (Poaceae spp.), cattails 

(Typhaceae spp.), bulrushes (Typhaceae spp.), sedges 

(Cyperaceae spp.), and grasses (Poaceae spp.). Nesting is 

usually during March to June depending on location. Early 

season nests contain an average of 9 eggs per clutch while 

late clutches contain an average of 6.4 eggs per clutch. 

American coots are persistent re-nesters that will replace 

lost clutches within 2 days of clutch-loss during deposition. 

One study showed that 68% of destroyed clutches were 

eventually replaced. Replacement clutches typically are 1 

to 2 eggs smaller than original clutches. Both sexes 

incubate eggs, which take about 21 days to hatch. Chicks 

are precocial and independent within 60 days. 

Mortality

Canada goose annual survival rates for adults vary from 

46% for B. c. moffitti to as high as 90% for B. c. hutchinsii. 

Pre-fledging is a high mortality period, estimated 28-49%. 

In environments with few predators, gosling survival was 

82% and 76% in Connecticut. Hunting followed by 

predation were the main causes of mortality.

The annual survival rate for adult snow geese during 1970 

and 1987 was 78 to 88%; in the 1990s was 94%, and 

during 2003-2006 was 96% for the midcontinent 

population. Natural mortality of the midcontinent 

population was estimated at 5 to 10% annually. Hunter-kill 

was 15% annually in 1970, but declined to 3-5% in the 

1990s. Survival of goslings to 1 year is about 40%. Most 

mortality was attributed to hunting. Red and arctic foxes 

(Vulpes vulpes and V. lagopus) were main predator on 

breeding grounds.

Mortality rates for adult female dabbling ducks during the 

breeding season are often as high as 40%. This probably is 

a major cause of different sex ratios common among duck 

species. Clutch mortality rates for most ducks were 

generally greater than 50% and, in some major waterfowlproducing areas, commonly average greater than 80%. 

Estimated mortality rates for ducks is over 50%. Most 

mortality occurred during the first 2 weeks after hatching. 

U.S. Department of Agriculture Page 15
Duck mortalities were attributed mainly to ground 

predators. 

The mortality rate for American coot adults was 51% 

annually, 56% for juveniles, and 55% overall. Avian 

predators such as great horned owls (Bubo virginianus), 

bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus), and northern 

harriers (Circus cyaneus) prey on adults and juveniles. 

American crows (Corvus brachyrhynchos) and black-billed 

magpies (Pica hudsonia) prey on eggs.

Population Status

In the early 1900s, Canada geese were nearly eliminated 

in most parts of their range by unrestricted harvesting of 

eggs, commercial hunting, and drainage of wetlands. 

Through management efforts, goose populations have 

rebounded to record numbers (Fig. 14) and are now 

frequently implicated in habitat destruction, crop 

depredation, bird-aircraft collisions, water contamination, 

and nuisance problems.

Breeding populations of most temperate-nesting Canada 

geese were at or near record highs in 2012. Winter counts 

for 15 goose populations also increased, from 5.38 million 

in 2002 to 5.64 million in 2012. The overall population is 

increasing, mostly because of a 15.6-fold increase in the 

population of resident geese (from 0.25 to 3.85 million), 

especially during the 1990s, when the population 

increased at a mean annual rate of 12.7%. From 2000 to 

2012, the resident population stabilized, fluctuating 

between 3.36 and 3.85 million birds.

Winter populations of snow geese increased from 3.43 

million birds in 2002 to 5.23 million birds in 2012. The 

midcontinent population showed the greatest growth (65%) 

during this period.

The breeding populations of 10 species of duck increased 

from 31.1 million in 2002 to 48.5 million in 2012. The 

populations of individual species fluctuated during this 

period.

Habitat

Canada geese use a broad range of habitats during 

breeding, including treeless and forested areas, prairies 

and parklands, flats, featureless arctic coastal plains and 

high mountain meadows, a variety of managed refuges, 

and areas of human habitation. Nests are usually in areas 

with a clear view in all directions and nearby permanent 

Page 16 WDM Technical Series—Geese, Ducks and Coots

Figure 14. Canada goose population estimates from 1970-2012.
water. Brood and molting habitat includes ponds, rivers, 

lakes, and sloughs where forage is abundant. Spring, 

migration, and winter habitats are similar to those above, 

but include agriculture areas for foraging.

Snow geese are similar to Canada geese but breed in 

colonies in subarctic and arctic tundra. Spring, migration, 

and winter habitat use is similar to Canada geese, and also 

includes agriculture areas for foraging.

The most important breeding habitat for ducks is the 

Prairie Pothole Region of the U.S. and Canada. Dotted with 

millions of shallow wetlands, the area encompasses more 

than 250,000 square miles, and supports more than 50% 

of the continent's ducks in most years. In some portions of 

the region, potholes and their associated prairie uplands 

support over 100 breeding pairs of ducks per square mile. 

Post-breeding ducks depend on open water sources for 

foraging, loafing and roosting. Most dabbling ducks forage 

in agriculture areas during winter and spring migration.

American coots breed in a wide variety of freshwater 

wetlands. Two features generally characterize all bodies of 

water where coots breed: a heavy stand of emergent 

aquatic vegetation along at least some portion of the 

shoreline, and at least some standing water within the 

vegetation. In some locations, wintering American coots 

make extensive use of parks, golf courses, and agriculture 

fields, especially if these areas are flooded or are adjacent 

to wetlands. Most American coots migrate from breeding 

areas to large lakes to molt. In wintering areas, coots use a 

variety of wetlands.

Behavior

Canada geese, snow geese, ducks, and American coots are 

well adapted to both terrestrial and aquatic habitats. All 

are considered herbivores, but also consume aquatic 

organisms, insects, and agriculture grains. All are most 

active during daylight hours, but activity varies with 

seasonal changes. During migration, geese and ducks 

forage, loaf and roost in open agriculture fields throughout 

the day and night. American coots generally migrate at 

night and forage during the day.

During breeding, all except ducks are highly territorial and 

very aggressive toward intruders such as avian and ground 

predators and humans. Ducks rely on cryptic coloring and 

seclusion to elude predators. Outside the breeding period, 

all tend to avoid predators and humans, especially during 

hunting seasons.

Food Habits

The diets of Canada geese, snow geese, and ducks consist 

of a wide variety of plant species and plant parts, including 

sprouting agricultural crops such as wheat, corn, and rice. 

Depending on the season and location, diets can be 

exclusive to native plants, whereas during migration and 

on wintering areas, agricultural grains represent a high 

percentage of the diet.

American coots forage mainly on aquatic vegetation and 

organisms. In one study, plant material comprised 89% of 

the stomach contents of 777 adult and 15 juvenile 

American coots.

Canada geese, snow geese, ducks, and American coots are 

federally protected by the Migratory Bird Treaty Act (MBTA), 

which stipulates that, unless permitted by regulation, it is 

unlawful to “pursue, hunt, take, capture, kill, possess, sell, 

barter, purchase, ship, export, or import any migratory 

birds alive or dead, or any part, nests, eggs, or products 

thereof.” Penalties may include fines up to $15,000 per 

person or organization, and up to 6 months imprisonment. 

The MBTA does not have an "incidental take" provision.

A migratory bird nest is defined as any readily identifiable 

structure built, maintained, or occupied for incubating and 

rearing of offspring for protected species. Only active nests 

that contain eggs or young are protected. 

Generally, geese, ducks, and coots can be hazed without a 

federal permit in order to prevent damage to agriculture 

crops and property with a variety of scare techniques. In 

most cases, live ammunition cannot be used. 

Page 17

Legal Status

U.S. Department of Agriculture
Page 18

Acknowledgements

Figure 1. Photo by U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

Figure 2. Photo by Dave Menke, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

Figure 3. Photo by John Cummings, USDA-APHIS-WS

Figure 4. Photo by John Cummings, USDA-APHIS-WS

Figure 5. Photo by John Cummings, USDA-APHIS-WS

Figure 6. Photos by Paul Gorenzel, University of California-Davis

Figure 7. Photo by John Cummings, USDA-APHIS-WS

Figure 8. Photo by National Institutes of Health

Figure 9. Photo by USDA-APHIS

Figure 10. Photo by Tom Seamans, USDA-APHIS-WS

Figure 11. Photo by Cameron Rognan, The Cornell Lab of Ornithology website 

Figure 12. Photo by Greg Bishop, The Cornell Lab of Ornithology website 

Figures 13. Photo by Ohio Department of Natural Resources website

Figures 14. Graphic by Richard Dolbeer, USDA-APHIS-WS

Key Words

American coot, bird aircraft strikes, Canada goose, control 

techniques, crops, damage, economic damage, mallard, 

management, rice, rye grass, snow goose, soybeans, wigeon, and winter wheat.

Disclaimer

Wildlife can threaten the health and safety of you and others in the area. Use of damage prevention and control 

methods also may pose risks to humans, pets, livestock, 

other non-target animals, and the environment. Be aware 

of the risks and take steps to reduce or eliminate those 

risks. 

Some methods mentioned in this document may not be 

legal, permitted, or appropriate in your area. Read and follow all pesticide label recommendations and local requirements. Check with personnel from your state wildlife agency and local officials to determine if methods are acceptable and allowed. 

Mention of any products, trademarks, or brand names 

does not constitute endorsement, nor does omission constitute criticism. 

WDM Technical Series—Geese, Ducks and Coots

A migratory bird depredation permit to take migratory birds 

causing crop damage, and/or safety and health concerns 

can be obtained from the USFWS. When depredation 

problems occur, check with federal, state, and local 

government agencies for current laws and regulations 

concerning depredating federally protected birds, and local 

ordinances for the discharge of hazing devices. The 

USFWS has issued a number of federal migratory bird 

depredation permits for taking geese, ducks and coots in 

different situations. 

Glossary

Granivorous: Seed-eating 

Molt: To shed old feathers to make way for new growth; 

molting renders waterfowl flightless until new feathers 

grow in 

Pyrotechnics: Flares or cartridges fired from a gun or 

launcher that produce a loud blast or scream accompanied 

by smoke and a flash of light. 
Page 19

Resources

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Andelt, W.F., T.P. Woolley, and S.N. Hopper. 1997. Effectiveness of barriers, pyrotechnics, flashing lights, 

and Scarey Man® for deterring heron predation on fish. Wildlife Society Bulletin 25(3):686-694.

Biggs, W.G., S.F. Sverre, and M.P. Boisvert, 1978. The field-testing of exploding devices for use in deterring 

and dispersing waterbirds from oil spill sites. Prepared for Petroleum Association for Conservation of the 

Canadian Environment. Pace Report Number 78. 

Blokpoel, H. and G.D. Tessier. 1984. Overhead wires and monofilament lines exclude Ring-billed Gulls 

from public places. Wildlife Society Bulletin 12(1):55-58. 

Brisbin, I.L., Jr., H.D. Pratt, and T.B. Mowbray. 2002. American coot (Fulica Americana) and Hawaiian coot 

(Fulica alai) in The Birds of North America, No. 697 (A. Poole and F. Gill, eds.). The Birds of North America, 

Inc., Philadelphia, PA.

Cummings, J.L., D.L. Otis, J.E. Davis Jr. and K.A. Crane. 1991. Potential repellents for reducing Canada 

goose depredations. Proc. Int. Canada Goose Symp., pp. 104–105. Milwaukee, Wisconsin.

Cummings, J. L., D.L. Otis and J. E. Davis. 1992. Dimethyl and methyl anthranilate and methiocarb deter 

feeding in captive Canada geese and mallards. Journal of Wildlife Management 56: 349-355. 

Dolbeer R. A., J.L. Seubert and M.J. Begier. 2014. Population trends of resident and migratory Canada 

geese in relation to strikes with civil aircraft. Human-Wildlife Interactions 8(1):88-99.

Dunning, J.B., Jr. 1984. Body weights of 686 species of North American birds. Western Bird Banding Association, Monograph No. 1. Eldon Publishing, Cave Creek, Arizona.

Fledger, E.J., Jr., H.H. Prince, and W.C. Johnson. 1987. Effects of grazing by Canada geese on winter wheat 

yield. Wildlife Society Bulletin 15:402-405. 

Holevinski, R.A, P.D. Curtis, and R.A. Malecki. 2007. Hazing of Canada geese is unlikely to reduce nuisance populations in urban and suburban communities. Human-Wildlife Conflicts 1:257-264.

Mason, J. R. and Clark, L. (1994b) Evaluation of plastic and mylar flagging as repellents for snow geese 

(Chen caerukscens). Crop Protect. 13. 531-534.

Mowbray, T.B., F. Cooke, and B. Ganter. 2000. Snow goose (Chen caerulescens) in The Birds of North 

America, No. 697 (A. Poole and F. Gill, eds.). The Birds of North America, Inc., Philadelphia, PA.

Mowbray, T.B., C.R. Ely, J.S. Sedinger, and R.E. Trost. 2002. Canada goose (Branta Canadensis) in The 

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PA.

U.S. Department of Agriculture
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Pochop, P.A., Cummings, J.L., Wedemeyer, K.L., Engeman, R.M. and Davis, J.E. Jr. 1999. Vegetation preferences of captive Canada geese at Elmendorf Air Force Base, Alaska. Wildlife Soc. Bull. 27, 734–740. 

The Wildlife Techniques Manual. 2012. Nova J. Silvy, Editor. Johns Hopkins University Press. Baltimore, 

Maryland, USA 

York, D., J. Cummings and K. Wedmeyer. 2000. Movements and distribution of radio-collared Canada 

geese in Anchorage, Alaska. Northwestern Naturalist 81-11-17.

Internet Center for Wildlife Damage Management http://icwdm.org Accessed 31 October, 2014.

National Wildlife Control Training Program http://wildlifecontroltraining.com Accessed 31 October, 2014.

WDM Technical Series—Geese, Ducks and Coots
Appendix 1

Damage Management Methods for Geese, Ducks and Coots

 

 

Type of Control 

 

Available Management Options 

Exclusion  Fences

 Netting

 Wire grids

 Floating membrane covers, and plastic balls or spheres

Fertility Control None registered

Frightening Devices  Propane cannons

 Pyrotechnics

 Flagging

 Lasers

 Radio-controlled aircraft; helicopters and boats

 Trained dogs

Habitat Modification  Change pond configurations, water depth, bank slope, and /or pond vegetation

 Limit or reduce availability or palatability of food in adjacent habitat

 Increase visual barriers around ponds

 Plant lure crops or vegetation, adjust planting time, or manage vegetation heights

Repellents  Anthraquinone (Flight Control® PLUS and Avipel®)

 Methyl anthranilate (Rejex-it® MigrateTM, rejex-it Fog ForceTM, Liquid Fence Goose Repellent, and 

Bird Shield®)

Shooting During the hunting season or for resident or non-migratory Canada geese, waterfowl, and coots at other 

times of the year

Toxicants None registered

Trapping U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service permit required to trap resident Canada geese, waterfowl, and coots

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Range Maps for Common Waterfowl. Map by Cornell Lab of Ornithology. Data by NatureServe.

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Appendix 2