Wildland Fire Behavior & Forest Structure

Environmental Consequences

Economics

Social Concerns

RMRS-GTR-173

September 2006

Wildlife and Invertebrate 

Response to Fuel Reduction 

Treatments in Dry Coniferous 

Forests of the Western 

United States: A Synthesis

Wildlife and Invertebrate 

Response to Fuel Reduction 

Treatments in Dry Coniferous 

Forests of the Western 

United States: A Synthesis
The Authors _________________________________________

David S. Pilliod was a post-doctoral Ecologist with the USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain 

Research Station at the Aldo Leopold Wilderness Research Institute in Missoula, MT. He is 

currently an Assistant Professor in the Department of Biological Sciences, College of Science 

and Mathematics at California Polytechnic State University in San Luis Obispo, CA.

Evelyn L. Bull is a Research Wildlife Biologist, Jane L. Hayes is a Research Biological 

Scientist, and Barbara C. WalesLVD:LOGOLIH%LRORJLVWZLWKWKH86'$)RUHVW6HUYLFH3DFL¿F

Northwest Research Station in La Grande, OR.

Pilliod, David S.; Bull, Evelyn L.; Hayes, Jane L.; Wales, Barbara C. 2006. Wildlife and invertebrate 

response to fuel reduction treatments in dry coniferous forests of the Western United States: a 

synthesis. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-173. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest 

Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. 34 p.

Abstract ____________________________________________

This paper synthesizes available information on the effects of hazardous fuel reduction treatments on 

terrestrial wildlife and invertebrates in dry coniferous forest types in the West. We focused on thinning 

DQGRUSUHVFULEHG¿UHVWXGLHVLQSRQGHURVDSLQHPinus ponderosaDQGGU\W\SH'RXJODV¿UPseudotsuga

menziesiiORGJHSROHSLQHPinus contorta), and mixed coniferous forests. Overall, there are tremendous 

gaps in information needed to evaluate the effects of fuel reduction on the majority of species found in our 

focal area. Differences among studies in location, fuel treatment type and size, and pre- and post-treatment habitat conditions resulted in variability in species responses. In other words, a species may respond 

positively to fuel reduction in one situation and negatively in another. Despite these issues, a few patterns 

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species that are associated with early successional vegetation or that consume seeds and fruit appear 

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understory, and species that are closely associated with those habitat elements that may be removed or 

consumed by fuel reductions, will likely be negatively affected by fuel reductions. Some habitat loss may 

persist for only a few months or a few years, such as understory vegetation and litter that recover quickly. 

The loss of large-diameter snags and down wood, which are important habitat elements for many wildlife 

and invertebrate species, may take decades to recover and thus represent some of the most important 

habitat elements to conserve during fuel reduction treatments. Management activities that consider the 

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United States, wildlife

Cover inset photo: Black-backed woodpecker. Photo by Evelyn Bull.

You may order additional copies of this publication by sending your 

mailing information in label form through one of the following media. 

Please specify the publication title and number.

Telephone 

FAX 

E-mail rschneider@fs.fed.us

Web site http://www.fs.fed.us/rm

Mailing Address Publications Distribution

Rocky Mountain Research Station

240 West Prospect Road

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Foreword ______________________

This document is part of the Fuels Planning: Science

Synthesis and Integration Project, a pilot project initiated

by the USDA Forest Service to respond to the need for

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fuel (vegetation) treatment projects. The information

addresses fuel and forest conditions of the dry inland

forests of the Western United States: those dominated

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and dry lodgepole pine potential vegetation types.

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concepts and tools developed by the project may be

useful for planning fuel projects in other forests types.

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have direct applicability to fuel planning activities for

forests throughout the United States. As is the case

in the use of all models and information developed for

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understanding of their limitations and applicability.

 The science team, although organized functionally,

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and tools. It is the collective effort of the team members

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Wildlife and Invertebrate Response to Fuel Reduction

Treatments in Dry Coniferous Forests of the Western

United States: A Synthesis

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USDA Forest Service personnel:

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Acknowledgments _____________________________

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Contents ___________________________________

Page

Introduction......................................................................................................1

 )XHO5HGXFWLRQ3ODQQLQJ ..............................................................................2

 Thinning .......................................................................................................3

 Prescribed Fire.............................................................................................4

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 /LIH+LVWRU\&RQVLGHUDWLRQV ..........................................................................5

 *HQHUDO3DWWHUQV ..........................................................................................5

 'LUHFW0RUWDOLW\ .............................................................................................5

 Habitat Alterations ........................................................................................5

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 )RUHVW&DUQLYRUHV.........................................................................................8

 Ungulates .....................................................................................................9

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 Bats ............................................................................................................12

Species Implications—Birds..........................................................................13

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 &DYLW\1HVWLQJ%LUGV...................................................................................16

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Species Implications—Amphibians ...............................................................20

Species Implications—Invertebrates .............................................................22

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 Detritivores .................................................................................................22

 Predators....................................................................................................23

 Forest Herbivores and Pollinators..............................................................23

 %DUNDQG:RRG%RULQJ,QVHFWV...................................................................24

Summary .......................................................................................................24

English Equivalents .......................................................................................25

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USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-173. 2006 1

Introduction ____________________

 The National Fire Plan (USDA and USDI 2001) and the

Healthy Forest Restoration Act (HFRA 2003) mandate federal

land managers to restore forest habitats and to reduce risk

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urban interface. Restoration may include reducing fuels and

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(Graham and others 2004; USDA 2003). Hazardous fuels are

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and others 2005).

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 Fire regimes in dry coniferous forests of the West have

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Wildlife and Invertebrate Response

to Fuel Reduction Treatments in Dry

Coniferous Forests of the Western

United States: A Synthesis

David S. Pilliod

Evelyn L. Bull

Jane L. Hayes

Barbara C. Wales

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fuel reduction treatments should gradually result in favorable

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that use a mosaic of disturbed and undisturbed forest stands

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lose habitat through fuel treatments.

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dry coniferous forests of the Western United States. The

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erature on fuel reduction effects. We include some wildland

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Fuel Reduction Planning

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values and commitments and considering existing and future

ecological conditions (Peterson and others 2005; Wissmar

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amount and kind of background information available for

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ecological consequences of different fuel treatments (see Web

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structures and conditions which mimic natural disturbance

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and Schumann 2003).

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What is ecological restoration?

 “Ecological restoration is an intentional activity that

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The restored ecosystem may not necessarily recover its former

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and managing ecological restoration projects, 2nd edition.

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synthesis is a reduction in the density of understory trees

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for later harvest.

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Figure 1—Forest cover types of the western United States. National Atlas of the United States, March 5, 2003, 

http://nationalatlas.gov
4 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-173. 2006

Figure 22$QH[DPSOHRIDSUHVFULEHG¿UHWKDWUHVXOWHGLQWKH

retention of down wood providing cover for small mammals and 

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Prescribed Fire

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is to reduce surface and ladder fuels by eliminating live and

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is often the only way to reduce fuels effectively without thin

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of the down wood and snags. Stands generally have a range

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USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-173. 2006 5

Wildlife and Invertebrate Responses

to Fuel Reduction _______________

Life History Considerations

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are affected by fuel reduction (George and Zack 2001).

General Patterns

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research and much of this information has been summarized

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of fuel reduction in the future. The Fire and Fire Surrogate

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effects of alternative methods for fuel reduction and forest

restoration at 13 study sites across the United States (www.

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Direct Mortality

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thinning during the breeding season may result in mortality

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RIHDVWHUQJODVVOL]DUGVOphisaurus ventralis) found in

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Habitat Alterations

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the animal and the disturbance (or in this case treatment).

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the structural features of the fuels being removed (table 1).

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be detrimentally affected by fuel treatments that alter these

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and decreased tree density may be confounded by second

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immediate effect of fuel reduction will be a change in the

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6 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-173. 2006

Table 126WUXFWXUDOIHDWXUHVRIZLOGOLIHDQGLQYHUWHEUDWHKDELWDWVDOWHUHGE\IXHOUHGXFWLRQWUHDWPHQWV

Treatment

Habitat Element Thinning Prescribed Fire

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trees removed depends on method

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• Increased canopy base height

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• Regrowth within 1-10 years

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• Regrowth within 1-2 growing seasons

• Potential for invasive plants

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• Possible increase with mastication

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to recover

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treatment

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scatter

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• Mortality of small diameter trees

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• Increased canopy base height

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  5HGXFHGKDUGZRRGVDQGDVSHQV

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• Regrowth within 1-10 years

• Minimal mortality, mostly loss of aboveJURXQGELRPDVV

• Regrowth within 1-2 growing seasons

• Potential for invasive plants

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variable

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holding capacity, and other properties

• Variable heating to soils

• Possible erosion on steeper slopes

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• Many small-diameter snags created, most of 

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• Charring of snags may alter wildlife and 

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recover

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• Charring of down wood may alter wildlife 

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USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-173. 2006 7

and small trees increases the height to the crown base and

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Parks and others 2005). Grazing by both domestic and wild

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allow full recovery of herbaceous biodiversity and biomass

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could minimize the effects of fuel reduction treatments on

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diameter snags and down wood can take years to decades

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it is unclear if this includes both live and dead trees.

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8 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-173. 2006

Species Implications—

Mammals ______________________

Forest Carnivores

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forests in the West are the mountain lion (Felis concolor

bobcat (Lynx rufusZROI Canis lupusFR\RWH Canis latrans black bear (Ursus americanusJUL]]O\EHDUUrsus 

arctos horriblis ÀVKHU Martes pennanti DQG $PHULFDQ

marten (Martes americana). Wolverine (Gulo luscus) and

lynx (Lynx canadensis) may occasionally wander through

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forests at higher elevations. Although American marten are

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(Picea engelmanniiDQGVXEDOSLQHÀUAbies lasiocarpaLQ

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2005c). In WKLVV\QWKHVLVZHUHSRUWLQGHWDLORQEODFNEHDUV

because they are common inhabitants of dry forests across

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by fuel reduction.

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ants [CamponotusVSS LasiusVSTapinomaVSAphaenogasterVSFormicaVSS@DQG\HOORZMDFNHWV >VespulaVSS

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mostly selected larch trees 10 to 20 cm diameter at breast

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Fish and Wildlife.
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-173. 2006 9

Ungulates

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tain goats (Oreamnos americanusDQGELJKRUQVKHHSOvis 

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areas used for foraging and forested areas used for cover.

Some ungulates use dense thickets of shrubs and trees as

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remain within 200 m of foraging areas during summer (Edge

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for mule deer (O. hemionus)&KDPEHUVDQG*HUPDLQH

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and others 2004). Treatments occurring on the wintering

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nutritional quality of forage for elk within one to two years

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Dakota selected recently burned winter range (DePerno and

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Figure 52)XHOUHGXFWLRQVXVXDOO\LQFUHDVHWKHDPRXQWRIIRUDJHIRUXQJXODWHV3KRWRE\)UDQN9DQQL
10 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-173. 2006

Small Mammals

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habitat elements may have negative consequences for some

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establish after fuel reduction. Fisher and Wilkinson (2005)

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dominant in the later successional stages. When a decline in

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can be a result of changes in coarse woody debris and in the

herb and shrub layers (Fisher and Wilkinson 2005). A study

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heterogeneity (Sullivan and others 2001).

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voles (Clethrionomys gapperi) were most abundant in more

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mice (Peromyscus maniculatusDQG\HOORZSLQHFKLSPXQNV

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thinning designed as a fuels reduction treatment resulted in

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red squirrels (Tamiasciurus hudsonicusDQGVQRZVKRHKDUHV

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and thus may be adversely affected by thinning treatments.

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USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-173. 2006 11

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cinerea occidentalis) habitat in dry forests of eastern Wash

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mistletoe brooms and soft log cover. In dry mixed conifer

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and others 2005).

 Relatively few studies have examined small mammal re

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squirrels (Spermophilus VSS DUH IDYRUHG E\ GLVWXUEDQFHV

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12 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-173. 2006

Bats

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inferences can be made based on the known habitats used by

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intermediate in second growth stands with thinning (Humes

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not known if stands with fuel reductions will function in the

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of the West.

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USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-173. 2006 13

Species Implications—Birds ______

General

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to shrub nesters.

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ies observe an increase in bird abundance shortly after fuel

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observed at the stand scale may differ from those at the land

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the nesting season are more likely to result in high mortality

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others 2001). Shrubs and ground cover lost during treatment

will likely recover within a few years.

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14 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-173. 2006

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to increase in abundance after fuel reduction (DeGraaf and

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aging for these birds because there is greater access owing

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LQÁXHQFHVPRVWO\JUDQLYRURXVVSHFLHVDQGVRPHRPQLYRURXV

DQGFDUQLYRURXVVSHFLHVWKDWIHHGRQWKHJURXQG$UWPDQDQG

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and others 2002).

Figure 102*UHDWJUD\RZOVPD\EHQH¿WIURPWKHPRUHRSHQIRUHVW

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USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-173. 2006 15

Raptors

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forests and thus may avoid stands that have been treated

to reduce fuels. The removal of trees with dwarf mistletoe

brooms during thinning treatments will likely be detrimental

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great gray owl (Strix nebulosaORQJHDUHGRZOAsio otus

great horned owl (Bubo viginianus QRUWKHUQ VSRWWHG RZO

(Strix occidentalisQRUWKHUQJRVKDZN Accipiter gentilis

&RRSHU·V KDZN Accipiter cooperii DQG UHGWDLOHG KDZN

(Buteo jamaicensis%XOODQGRWKHUV

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LVUHFRPPHQGHGLQPRLVWIRUHVWVRQWKH2O\PSLF3HQLQVXODWR

achieve high crown base heights (>25 m) and low shrub cover

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(2003) recommend no restoration activities in the nest area

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IURPEHORZWRUHGXFHWKHULVNRIVWDQGUHSODFLQJÀUH

 %RWK0H[LFDQVSRWWHGRZOVStrix occidentalis lucida) and

QRUWKHUQVSRWWHGRZOVStrix occcidentalis caurina) are listed

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16 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-173. 2006

Cavity-Nesting Birds

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cavities in large trees and large snags. The value of and

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GRFXPHQWHGIRUWKHSLOHDWHGZRRGSHFNHUDryocopus pileatusKDLU\ZRRGSHFNHUPicoides villosusQRUWKHUQÁLFNHU

(Colaptes auratusDQG:LOOLDPVRQ·VVDSVXFNHUSphyrapicus thyroideusLQGU\IRUHVWVLQQRUWKHDVWHUQ2UHJRQ%XOO

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and others 2004).

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thinning and burning fuel treatments result in a decrease

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used for nesting and roosting. Preliminary results of a study

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forests (Saab and others 2005).

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snag loss was greatest in the large size classes and in the decay

classes (those with decayed heartwood) that contained nest

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Figure 11—The loss of down wood and snags in 

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on the burn intensity and dead wood characteristics (in other

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this study was greatest in the size (>50 cm dbh) and decay

classes that contained the most nest cavities.

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used for foraging due to an increase in bark beetles caused by

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GXFWHGRYHUODUJHDUHDVWKHUHPD\EHDVKRUWWHUPEHQHÀWWR

ZRRGSHFNHUVLQWKHPicoides genus which forage on recently

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GR QRW FRQVXPH ODUJH VQDJV PD\ LPSURYH SRQGHURVD SLQH

KDELWDWIRUEUHHGLQJ/HZLV·VZRRGSHFNHUVMelanerpes lewis)

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PD\EHEHQHÀFLDOIRUZKLWHKHDGHGZRRGSHFNHUVPicoides 

albolarvatusEHFDXVHWKLVVSHFLHVLVDWWUDFWHGWRRSHQDUHDV

LQROGHUPDWXUHIRUHVWVZLWKORZVKUXEFRYHULQSRQGHURVD

SLQHVWDQGVLQFHQWUDO2UHJRQ)UHQ]HOWKHRSHQDUHDV

PD\EHFUHDWHGE\VLOYLFXOWXUDOWUHDWPHQWVDOWKRXJKQHVWLQJ

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USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-173. 2006 17

Figure 122%ODFNEDFNHG ZRRGSHFNHUV

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woodboring beetles that invade the scorched 

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sites over time.

 7KHUHVSRQVHRIVHFRQGDU\FDYLW\QHVWHUVWRIXHOUHGXFWLRQ

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bluebird (Sialia mexicana D VHFRQGDU\ FDYLW\ QHVWHU GLG

not differ between control stands and stands thinned and

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*HUPDLQH%OXHELUGVKDGDKLJKHUSUREDELOLW\RIVXF

FHVVIXOO\ÁHGJLQJ\RXQJLQWUHDWHGVWDQGVEXWZLWKJUHDWHU

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$IWHUSUHVFULEHGÀUHLQSRQGHURVDSLQHIRUHVWVLQVRXWKHDVWHUQ

$UL]RQDQRUWKHUQÁLFNHUVDQGYLROHWJUHHQVZDOORZVTachycineta thalassina) decreased in abundance and mountain

chickadees (Parus gambeli) increased in abundance when

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RYHUWKHVDPHSHULRGV+RUWRQDQG0DQQDQ
18 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-173. 2006

Species Implications—Reptiles

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(Sceloperus occidentalisHDVWHUQIHQFHOL]DUGSceloporus 

undulatusVDJHEUXVKOL]DUGSceloporus graciosus ornate

tree lizard (Urosaurus ornatus ZHVWHUQ VNLQN Eumeces 

skiltonianus northern alligator lizard (Elgaria coerulea

garter snakes (Thamnophis VSS PRXQWDLQ NLQJ VQDNH

(Lampropeltis zonataUDFHUColuber constrictorJRSKHU

snake (Pituophis cateniferDQGZHVWHUQUDWWOHVQDNHCrotalus 

viridis).

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burned areas have generally been attributed to increases in

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reduction treatments that leave these habitat elements on site

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facilitate snake and lizard recolonization or use of burned

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USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-173. 2006 19
20 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-173. 2006

Species Implications—Amphibians

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because of the warmer and drier conditions created in the

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and toads) may be less affected by changes in environmental

conditions associated with fuel reduction because of their

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conditions unsuitable (Pilliod and others 2003).

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thesetreatmentsarecontrarytomostfuelreductiontreatments.

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USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-173. 2006 21

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sediment to streams because of increased surface runoff

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another study found toads in greater abundances in burned

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Semlitsch 2000; Schurbon and Fauth 2004). Although many

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and Fauth 2003).
22 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-173. 2006

Species Implications—Invertebrates

General

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western dry coniferous forests are likely to be as diverse as the

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forested habitats and have diverse functional roles including

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ground as immatures and above ground as adults or feed on

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increasing number of studies are examining mechanisms and

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ments on invertebrate communities and habitat dynamics. A

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health have long been considered one means of reducing the

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to achieve the combined goal of fuel and insect management

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and others 2003; Sanders 2004; Zettler and others 2003).

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can recolonize) is widely recommended to minimize the ef

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between these refugia.

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USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-173. 2006 23

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the effects of fuel reduction treatments on detritivores and

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be more buffered from the effects of treatments than those in

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thinned and unthinned stands (Peck and Niwa 2004).

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fuel reduction treatments (thinning alone and thinning with

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treatments can negatively affect invertebrates of the soil and

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changes in soil and litter invertebrates on ecosystem functions

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Predators

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invertebrates are likely to recoverfrom fuel reduction treat

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of recolonization from refugia. In another study conducted

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than 13 years following fuel treatments. They conclude that

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Forest Herbivores and Pollinators

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some life stage can be immediately affected through direct
24 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-173. 2006

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sity caused by fuel reduction treatments that increase the

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RISDQGRUDPRWKVColoradia pandora) (which feed as larvae

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emergence and egg hatch occurred seven to 10 days earlier

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richness were greater with a combination of thinning and

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(but see Forrester and others 2005).

Bark and Wood Boring Insects

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increase in abundance of some bark beetles and wood borers

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found bark and woodboring beetles (including scolytids:

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stands in the Sierra Nevadas resulted in a greater number of

trees attacked by bark beetles (Scolytinae: Dendroctonus and

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likely to be successfully attacked.

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followed tree mortality and beetle attacks for three years after

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found wood boring beetle colonization and bark beetle attacks

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burn and lowest in the fall burn. Wallin and others (2003) found

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levels of endemic bark beetles regardless of treatment history

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Summary ______________________

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differ according to a number of factors that may differ with

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USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-173. 2006 25

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with those habitat elements that will be removed or consumed

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at least in the short term.

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restoration of ecosystems (Allen and others 2002). This con

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of management activities that allow the retention of critical

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English Equivalents _____________

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References _____________________

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thinning on snowshoe hare habitat use during winter in

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United States Department of Agriculture

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North Central Research Station

Pacific Northwest Research Station

Pacific Southwest Research Station

Rocky Mountain Research Station