United States 

Department of 

Agriculture 

Forest 

Service 

Northern 

Region 

200 East Broadway 

P.O. Box 7669 

Missoula, MT 59807 

Report 04-15 November 2004

Weitas Creek Campground, Clearwater National Forest

August 2004

Susan K. Hagle, PhD, Plant Pathologist, 

USDA Forest Service, Northern Region 

Jennefer Parker, District Staff Officer, 

USDA Forest Service, Northern Region, Clearwater NF, North Fork Ranger District 

Greg Harris, PhD, GIS Analyst, 

USDA Forest Service, Northern Region, Clearwater NF, North Fork Ranger District

SUMMARY 

The Weitas site has been used as a 

campground for at least several decades. In 

fact there is some evidence that the site may 

have been used by indigenous people before 

recorded history. It continued to be a popular 

campground until the decision was made in 

2000 to close the area to camping until the 

problem of hazardous trees could be dealt with. 

Conversion of the site from western redcedar to 

grand fir and subsequent maturation of the 

grand fir, have lead to a serious root disease 

situation. Annosus root disease (Heterobasidion 

annosum), accompanied by fir engraver beetle 

(Scolytus ventralis), is the primary cause of tree 

death. These trees are especially hazardous 

because both roots and stems are compromised 

and either structure is likely to fail in both live 

and dead trees. 

The campground borders both the North Fork of 

the Clearwater River and Weitas Creek and is 

accessed using the Weitas Creek bridge 

connecting forest roads 105 and 105A. 

Protection of the riparian zone along the river 

and creek is among the stated objectives of this 

assessment. In addition to standard hazard tree 

evaluation, we looked for opportunities to 

minimize the necessity for hazard tree removal 

within the riparian protection zone. 

We mapped and measured a total of 917 trees 

in Weitas campground area. In the area 

between the 105A road and the riparian zone 

(the actual camping sites), 487 trees were 

mapped and measured. An additional 215 trees 

in the riparian zone were mapped and diameters 

were estimated. In the “adjacent zone” above, 

and within 150 feet of, the 105A road trees that 

were recommended for retention were 

measured and evaluated for root disease but not 

mapped. There were 215 trees included in this 

tally. 
2 

In the riparian protection zone, 8 percent of trees 

(17 trees) were recommended for removal as 

hazard trees, 6 of these were dead. In the 

camping area between the riparian protection 

zone and the 105A road, 57 percent were 

recommended for removal, 17 percent of these 

were dead. 

Where possible, clusters of trees were identified 

for retention to minimize the adverse effects of 

tree cutting on the site. The treatment will not 

significantly reduce the likelihood of root disease 

causing the death of remaining trees. Root 

disease mortality will be an ongoing source of 

hazard trees in Weitas campground as long as 

grand fir or Douglas-fir is present.

GENERAL CONDITION OF TREES IN THE CAMPGROUND

The campground has been used informally for 

several decades and a few physical 

improvements have been provided. Five of the 

sites have been provided with permanent tables 

and fire rings. There are two outhouses. The 

remainder of the campground shows evidence 

of informal fire rings, parking and tent sites. 

Trees throughout the campground, regardless of 

current campsite locations, were assessed and 

mapped to accommodate development of a 

formal campground plan. 

The Weitas site had been dominated by very 

large western redcedar in the 1920’s as 

evidenced in stumps found throughout the 

campground and surrounding area. Following 

harvest of the cedar tress in the 1930’s, grand fir 

developed as the primary species (figure 1). 

Figure 1: Cedar stumps are dispersed in the mostly 

grand fir forest in the campground and surrounding 

area. 

Today, there are few trees of any species other 

than grand fir. The forest in Weitas campground 

is mid seral with grand fir making up 93 percent 

of the mature tree component as well as roughly 

90 percent of the younger age classes. Western 

redcedar comprised 3 percent of the trees 

measured and Douglas-fir were less than 2 

percent. The trees are mostly about 60 years of 

age. They are dense in some parts of the 

campground. A distinct, large, old root disease 

center dominates the area near the center of the 

campground, adjacent to the outhouses. Tree 

death is common throughout the campground 

and tree root failures are in evidence in several 

places (figure 2). Fresh annosus conks were 

collected from hollow stumps in unit 5 near the 

outhouses (figure 3). 

Figure 2. Root decayed by H. annosum was the 

probable cause of this tree failure. 
3 

The disease, primarily annosus root disease 

(Heterobasidion annosum), is naturally occurring 

in the grand fir and is seen throughout the 

campground and surrounding area. The 

disease is progressive and has become severe 

in many trees and groups of trees (See 

Appendix A: Annosus Root Disease). Most show 

signs of decline, and some are dead (Figure 4). 

Thin crowns with branch dieback for most of the 

length of the crown, are typical symptoms of 

progressive dieback of grand fir caused by H. 

annosum. Many of the grand fir had signs of 

advanced heartrot caused by Indian paint 

fungus (Echinodontium tinctorium). A few older 

dead trees had been attacked by fir engraver 

beetles and some live trees were currently being 

attacked by the beetles. 

ASSESSMENT METHODS 

Three distinct zones in the campground were 

assessed using differing methods according to 

the objectives for each zone. 

Camping area between 105A road and riparian 

zone: We assessed the condition of all trees 

greater than 4 inches at breast height that were 

in the area between the 105A road and the 

riparian zone along the river and creek. As 

planning progresses, many of the existing units 

may be moved and additional units may be 

developed. Therefore, we mapped and 

measured all trees in the potential camping area 

rather than restrict the assessment to trees with 

known targets. 

Riparian protection zone: Trees within 75 feet of 

the North Fork River upstream from the bridge 

were mapped and their diameters were 

estimated to the nearest 5 inches. The slope 

break was used to designate trees as within or 

outside of the riparian protection zone 

downstream of the bridge and on Weitas Cr. For 

the most part, this extended the riparian zone 

considerably beyond 75 feet from the river. The 

exception was in the camp site designated unit 

1, adjacent to the bridge. The unit 1 table and 

fire ring are within 75 feet of the river. 

Above 105A road, within 150 feet of the road: 

Trees in this zone are generally close enough to 

require evaluation as a hazard to travelers on 

the 105A road. We opted to tally only those 

trees which we recommended for retention. 

They are distributed throughout the area above 

the road and will provide a reasonable estimate 

of the stocking after hazard tree removal. 

Mapping and scoring trees 

We developed 25 maps to cover the 

campground area between the main road and 

the North Fork River and Weitas Creek. Map 

blanks were used, which divided the site into 

quadrants beginning with true north aspect and 

proceeding clockwise around the fire ring, or 

other central map feature. Distance to at least 

two trees on each map was recorded to calibrate 

the map scale. 

Figure 3. Heterobasidion annosum was found in 

this hollow stump near the table in Unit 5. 

Figure 4. Crown symptoms of annosus root 

disease in Weitas Campground 
4 

Species and diameter at breast height was 

recorded for each tree. They were scored for all 

significant damages and defects observed using 

six standard damage categories (Appendix B); 

decay, wound, canker, lean or sweep, branch or 

forking defects, root damage or disease. For 

each of these categories a severity range of 1-4 

was applied, to make a combined code such as 

D3 (decay, severity level 3). 

Where heartwood decay was suspected, trees 

were bored to determine the depth of sound 

rind. Trees with sound rind (outer xylem of the 

stem) depth of at least 60 percent of the radius 

of the stem are considered to be low hazard for 

failure due to the heartwood decay. Those with 

60% to 30 percent sound rind are considered 

moderate hazard, and those with less than 30 

percent have a relatively high probability of 

failure. Therefore we used the graph in figure 5 

to determine the severity rating for trees with 

heartrot. 

Root damage ratings were used to indicate trees 

with root disease symptoms. A rating of R3 

indicated trees with significantly deteriorated 

crown condition, presumably due to root 

disease. R4 indicated trees that were in the final 

stages of dying from root disease. Root damage 

ratings of 1 and 2 were used to indicate physical 

damages (wounding and severing). 

Wounds, largely human-caused, were common 

in some sites. Wounds, leans and dead tops 

were scored according to the table in Appendix 

B. 

Determining targets 

Many trees had more than one potential target. 

Standard target codes were as follows: 

1 = occasional use such as trails or signs with 

no vehicle access (this code was not used in this 

assessment); 2 = intermittent use such as busy 

trails, the campground road and entry and day 

use areas; 3 = frequent use such as campsites, 

parking areas and permanent structures. Trees 

with more than one target were assigned the 

highest code applicable. The exception was in 

the case of a lean value of 3 or higher. If the tree 

was leaning strongly away from the highest 

rated potential target, it was assigned the rating 

of the more likely target. 

Action recommendations 

Many grand fir trees with advanced root disease 

or heartrot symptoms or signs, especially those 

near or leaning toward developed targets were 

designated for removal. Recommendation for 

removal was usually based on the probability of 

eminent death due to root disease or an 

unreasonably high probability of failure due to 

advanced heartrot or butt rot. A combination of 

moderate root disease and a lean toward a class 

3 target, root disease combined with moderate 

heartrot (and a class 3 target) or similar 

combinations of conditions resulted in a 

recommendation for removal. Trees thus 

identified were painted with orange paint at 

breast height. 

Most trees recommended for removal already 

had been identified and painted when the 

hazard trees were previously marked by a 

District crew. We recorded trees for which we 

changed the original marking. Trees that are 

marked for removal and then identified in this 

survey for retention were flagged. These trees 

were later un-marked (by painting over the 

orange with gray-brown paint to blend with the 

bark color). 

Figure 5. Thickness of sound rind based on 30% 

and 60% of radius (inside bark).

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

dbh

Rind thickness (inches)

60% 30%
5 

Data handling 

Data were recorded on field sheets and entered 

into a Microsoft Excel sheet for analysis using 

Microsoft Access. The maps were digitized for 

display using ArcMap and incorporated into a 

GIS database creating a UTM coordinate for 

each tree. GPS locations of map center points 

and azimuths and distances between center 

points allowed accurate mapping of trees 

throughout the campground area (see map 

below). Precise azimuths and distances were 

not measured for all trees, therefore, some tree 

map locations were adjusted based on tree 

crown positions shown on a digital orthophoto. 

Both the database and maps should be easily 

updated from these products for future 

assessments of Weitas Cr. Campground. If kept 

current, they should provide for easy tracking of 

campground trees in the future. 
6 

RESULTS OF THE ASSESSMENT

We assessed 917 trees in all (Table 1). Of 

these, 702 were mapped on 24 stem maps. Six 

of these were centered on improved campsites 

(with fire rings and picnic tables. The remaining 

215, which were identified as retention-trees in 

the 150 ft strip above the main road, were 

measured and evaluated for root disease 

severity. 

Table 1. Tree condition and average diameter 

at breast height by species of all trees evaluated 

in Weitas campground and surrounding area. 

(Based on July 2004 assessment.) 

Campground units and riparian zone 

between 105A road and the river 

This area includes trees on maps 1 through 24. 

Of the 702 trees in this area, 215 are within 

boundaries of the designated riparian area and 

53 trees area dead. 

Grand fir was by far the most abundant species 

(93 percent) evaluated (Table 2). Western 

redcedar and Douglas-fir (5 percent) comprised 

most of the remainder of the trees in the areas 

of interest. There were a few large Cascara 

buckthorn (Rhamnus purshiana DC) and birch, 

particularly in canopy openings caused by root 

disease. Several young western white pines also 

were found in these openings, though they were 

generally too small to be included in the 

assessment. 

Table 2. Tree condition and average diameter 

at breast height by species of all trees evaluated 

in Weitas campground and surrounding area. 

(Based on July 2004 assessment.) 

Nearly all grand fir and Douglas-fir had 

detectable symptoms of root disease. Of 683 

grand fir and Douglas-fir, 76 percent were 

recorded as having symptoms of root disease. 

The relative severity of symptoms varied greatly 

among trees from mild growth and crown density 

changes to complete morbidity. Young trees 

were proportionally less affected, as were trees 

in the riparian zone nearest the river. Only five 

Douglas-fir were outside of the riparian zone; 

these were all rated 2 or higher for root disease 

symptoms. 

Other significant damages included wounds, 

which were mostly human-caused, and stem 

decay (Table 3). Leans, dead tops and stem 

cankers were recorded for a few trees. Although 

sometimes severe, wounding and stem decay 

were seldom a primary cause for recommending 

tree removal. 

Species Total Dead 

Average 

d.b.h. 

Grand fir 855 53 14.9 

Western redcedar 28 0 10.1 

Douglas-fir 18 1 11.7 

Western white pine 5 0 14.8 

Buckthorn 5 0 4.5 

Birch 3 0 6.6 

Spruce, lodgepole, 

larch 

1 each 0 -- 

All species 917 1 

Species Total 

Avg. 

d.b.h. 

Avg 

rrsv* Dead

Grand fir 670 14.1 2.48 53 

Western 

redcedar 

3 9.4 0 0 

Douglas-fir 13 11.8 1.15 0 

Western white 

pine 

5 14.8 0 0 

Buckthorn 5 4.6 0 0 

Birch 3 6.6 0 0 

Spruce, 

lodgepole, 

larch 

1 

each 

NA 0 0 

All species 702 14.0 2.46 53 

* Average root disease severity 
7 

Table 3. Proportion of fully evaluated trees with moderate to severe damages or defects. (Based on July 

2004 assessment.) 

Species Root Disease Wounds Stem decay Other 

Damages 

Severity 2 3 4 2 3 4 2 3 4 3 or 4 

Grand fir .33 .46 .10 .15 .19 .02 .04 .03 .02 .05 

Douglas-fir .23 .23 .08 .08 .08 

Western redcedar .33 

Western white pine .33 .33 .33 

Hazard trees, by definition, pose a physical 

hazard to a known target. Targets are classes 

according to likelihood that a person, personal 

property or a physical improvement (such as 

table or outhouse) will be struck by a failing tree. 

Weitas campground was evaluated in part on 

the basis of known targets such as the existing 

fire rings and tables and in part with the 

expectation that many non-designated locations 

within the general camping area may be 

occupied. 

High hazard ratings in Weitas were mostly 

based on probability of imminent tree death. 

Trees with root disease severities of 3 or 4 were 

already dead or considered near death. 

Such trees are also more likely to fail than those 

with less severe crown symptoms because they 

generally will have more extensive root and butt 

decay. Even trees with relatively mild crown 

symptoms may have enough root decay to 

cause tree failure under the right circumstances. 

Wind and soil conditions can contribute to 

unpredictable failures. 

Many trees that would otherwise be removed as 

hazard trees were recommended for retention in 

the riparian zone with the intention of moving 

some of the campsite further away from the river 

to reduce the hazard without removing riparian 

trees. Therefore most trees recommended for 

removal were in the camping area above the 

riparian zone (Table 4). 

Table 4. Live tree damages and recommendations inside and outside riparian zone.

Area Campsite Riparian 

Total 

Live 

Root* 

disease 

Other* 

damage 

Removal 

Recommended 

Total 

Live 

Root* 

disease 

Other* 

damages 

Removal 

Recommended 

 Trees % Trees % 

Upstream** 128 55 35 86 67 121 NA NA 5 4 

Units 1-3 227 110 58 119 52 66 27 7 6 22 

Units 4-6 85 54 18 51 60 22 7 1 0 0 

Total 440 219 111 256 58 209 NA NA 11 5 

*Damage rated severity level 3 or greater. 

**Upstream from Weitas Cr. Bridge on the North Fork of the Clearwater River. See the map (Figure 2). 
8 

In general, trees recommended for removal 

were similar to, or slightly smaller than those to 

be retained (Table 5). Dead trees were 

recommended for removal unless they were in 

the riparian zone and did not pose a hazard to 

adjacent campsites. Mortality was heaviest in 

the upstream portion of the campground where 

root disease is particularly active. 

Most of the trees recommended for removal 

were, of course, grand fir. The diameter classes 

of trees marked for removal in the areas below 

the 105A road are included in Table 6. We 

recorded only retention trees in the adjacent 

zone above the 105A road.

Table 6. Number of recommended removals by diameter class. (Based on July 2004 assessment.) 

Adjacent Zone above 105A road 

Root disease was also very active in the 150 ft. 

zone above the 105A road. Here, we measured 

and evaluated the current root disease 

symptoms of only trees not marked for removal. 

Like the rest of the campground, grand fir makes 

up most of this stand. They are relatively larger 

trees and root disease a little more active up in 

this area than in the most of the campground 

(Table 7). For the most part, the marking 

previously completed accurately identified the 

trees most likely to die in the near future. Some 

adjustments were made. A few more western 

redcedar trees were found in this stand and they 

tended to be larger than those found in the 

camping units. 

Table 5. Size and condition of trees based on management recommendation (Retention or 

removal.) (July 2004 assessment). 

Retention Removal 

Location Live Dead 

Avg. 

d.b.h. Live Dead 

Avg. 

d.b.h. 

Upstream* 184 0 14.0 65 21 14.0 

Units 1-3 168 0 14.2 125 24 12.7 

Units 4-6 56 0 15.9 51 8 14.7 

All campground areas 408 0 14.3 241 53 13.5 

Adjacent Zone** 215 0 16.5 NA NA NA 

All areas 622 0 15.1 NA NA NA 

*Upsteam from Weitas Cr. bridge on the North Fork of the Clearwater River. See the map (Figure 2). 

** 150 ft. zone above main road in which tree failure could result in trees striking road. 

Diameter classes (inches at breast height) 

Species 8-11.9 12-15.9 16-19.9 20-23.9 24-27.9 

Max. 

d.b.h. Total 

Grand fir 93 104 57 15 3 27.3 292 

White pine 1 19.1 1 

Douglas-fir 1 24.3 1 
9 

Table 7. Trees intended for retention in the 

hazard tree removal area in the Adjacent Zone 

above the 105A road. 

MANAGEMENT RECOMMENDATIONS

Removal of highest hazard trees before 

campground is occupied 

These trees were mostly grand fir that, if they 

failed, would have tent or parking sites, tables, 

or fire pits as likely targets. They are trees that 

lean, show root heaving, or have heaviest 

crowns in the direction of one of these targets. 

Such trees have higher risk of causing property 

damage or injury in the case of failure. All trees 

have some risk of failure and trees with root 

disease are at an increased risk because of 

decay of structural roots. It is common practice 

in campground maintenance to remove trees 

with indicators of hazard (such as root disease 

or stem decay) with priority given to trees with 

human-inhabited targets. 

Additional mortality should be anticipated as the 

disease continues to progress in remaining 

grand fir (Table 8). Thinning will not improve the 

condition of the grand fir trees. Annual 

evaluation of the site and removal of dead or 

dying trees is likely to be required. Revegetation 

with species resistant to S-type annosus and 

Armillaria root diseases will be necessary to reestablish tree cover and restore aesthetic 

qualities of the site. 

Table 8. Root disease severity detail for grand fir 

in Weitas Campground that are expected to 

remain following hazard tree removal in 2004-5. 

Monitoring all trees 

A walk-through exam, including reassessment of 

trees previously noted as needing monitoring, 

should be done each year. A thorough 

assessment should occur about every 5 years, 

at which time the database and maps should be 

updated. Conditions are expected to continue to 

deteriorate in this campground with considerable 

mortality, particularly in grand fir, following the 

disturbances related to campground renovation. 

Diameter at 

breast height 

Species Trees 

Avg. 

Root 

Disease 

Min. Max. Avg.

Grand fir 185 1.7 4.9 31.3 17.5

Douglas-fir 5 2.2 6.1 19.0 11.5

Western 

redcedar 

25 0 5.2 18.5 10.3

All species 215 1.5 4.9 31.3 16.5

Area 

Root 

Disease 

Severity Trees 

Average 

d.b.h. 

Above 105A 0 1 13.1 

 1 66 18.3 

 2 99 17.5 

 3 19 14.9 

Camping area 0 27 8.7 

 1 22 20.5 

 2 124 17.0 

 3 37 12.0 

Riparian zone 0 26 10.0 

 1 2 24.5 

 2 20 16.7 

 3 28 14.0 

 N* 122 12.9 

* Root disease severity was not evaluated. 
10 

A vegetation management plan 

A comprehensive vegetation management plan 

should be developed for this campground. 

Cedar and white pine regeneration is present in 

small amounts but most small trees are grand fir 

and Douglas-fir which are not expected to 

survive to maturity. Root disease may expand in 

response to hazard tree removal and tree 

removals necessitated by campground 

renovation. Douglas-fir, and grand fir are highly 

susceptible (particularly Douglas-fir) and should 

be minimized in the target vegetation. Western 

redcedar, western white pine and western larch 

are resistant (though not immune) to most root 

pathogens and are suitable species for this site. 

Native hardwood trees and shrubs are immune 

to annosus root disease.

SELECTED REFERENCES

Hazard tree evaluation and management 

Johnson, D. W. 1981. Tree hazards: recognition 

and reduction in recreation sites. Forest Pest 

Management, State and Private Forestry, 

Rocky Mountain Region, USDA Forest 

Service, Technical Report R2-1. 17 p. 

Mills, L. J., K. Russell. 1980. Detection and 

Correction of hazard trees in Washington’s 

recreation areas. A how-to guide for 

recreation site managers. Department of 

Natural Resources, State of Washington, 

DNR Report No. 42. 35 p. 

Robbins, R. 1986. How to Recognize and 

reduce tree hazards in recreation sites. 

Northeastern Area. USDA Forest Service, 

Report NA-FR-31. 28 p. 

Wallis, G. W., D. J. Morrison, D. W. Ross. 1980. 

Tree Hazards in Recreation Sites in British 

Columbia. Management Guidelines. British 

Columbia Ministry of Lands, Parks and 

Housing, Canadian Forestry Service, Joint 

report No. 13. 52 p. 

Annosus Root disease identification, biology 

and management 

Hagle, S. K., K. E. Gibson, S. Tunnock. 2003. 

Root Disease. Pp. 72-81. In: Field guide to 

diseases and insect pests of northern and 

central Rocky Mountain conifers. Northern 

and Intermountain Regions, USDA Forest 

Service. Publication Number R1-03-08. 197 

p. 

Worrall, J. J., J. R. Parmeter, Jr., F. W. Cobb, Jr. 

1983. Host specialization of Heterobasidion 

annosum. Phytopathology. 73: 304-307. 

USDA Forest Service. 1998 (Update). Annosus 

Root Disease. In: Insect and Disease 

Management Handbook, Forest Health 

Protection, State and Private Forestry, 

Northern Region, USDA Forest Service. 8 p. 

Heartrot biology and management 

Aho, P., J. Hadfield. 1975. How to estimate 

defect in grand fir in the blue mountains of 

Oregon and Washington.USDA Forest 

Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range 

Experiment Station. Pamphlet. 8 p. 

Etheridge, D. E., H. M. Craig. 1976. Factors 

influencing infection and initiation of decay 

by the Indian paint fungus (Echinodontium 

tinctorium) in western hemlock. Can. J. For. 

Res. 6: 299-318. 
11 

APPENDIX A 

Annosus root disease biology and 

management 

There are two types of Heterobasidion annosum

in Idaho that are distinguished on the basis of 

host range. The P-type, which causes its 

greatest damage in ponderosa pine, appears to 

be far less common in Idaho than the S-type. Stype, named for its significance as a pathogen of 

spruce species in Europe, is a very common and 

damaging pathogen of Douglas-fir, grand fir and 

subalpine fir in Idaho. Western redcedar is also 

a common host to H. annosum, though it seems 

to survive infections for many decades. Although 

we have not determined whether western 

redcedar is host to P-type or S-type, it is most 

likely to be S-type based the presence of root 

disease in Douglas-fir and grand fir growing in 

association with infected cedar. Pines, western 

larch and hardwoods are resistant to S-type H. 

annosum. 

The disease, as the name implies, mostly 

involves the roots. The fungus attacks the root 

cambium, girdling and killing roots. Once dead, 

the roots are decayed by H. annosum. The 

disease spreads throughout root systems and 

the fungus moves from tree to tree through root 

contacts and for short distances through soil or 

duff. In general, the disease kills Douglas-fir 

more rapidly than grand or subalpine firs. Thus, 

by the time grand or subalpine firs are visibly 

declining, the Douglas-fir component of stands 

has already been killed. Once established on a 

site the fungus is essentially a permanent 

feature of the site. They are long-lived 

organisms that can take advantage of the 

presence of hosts from one generation of trees 

to the next. They survive forest fires by slowly 

decaying root systems well below ground. 

Stump surface infection can be an important 

means of spread of P-type annosum so 

management recommendations often include 

treatment of stump surfaces to prevent spread of 

the disease. S-type annosum is does not 

provide this opportunity. High rates of root 

infection exist in most Douglas fir and grand fir 

stands that render stump infection 

inconsequential. Partial harvest, leaving 

Douglas-fir, grand fir or subalpine fir is discouraged because high rates of mortality of 

leave trees generally result. Mortality rates 

between 3 and 7 percent per year are common if 

apparently healthy Douglas-fir and true firs are 

left after harvest. (Rates are higher if 

symptomatic trees are left.) 

Stem decay biology and management 

Indian paint fungus, Echinodontium tinctorium

and the white pocket rot, Phellinus pini, are 

thought to have similar biology. Infections are 

initially established in shade-killed branches. 

The fungus produces a “quiescent” infection in 

which it fails to progress much beyond the 

original point of establishment for some years. 

As the tree grows, the dead, infected branch 

stub is incorporated in the heartwood. Once 

surrounded by the no longer living, thereby no 

longer resistant, heartwood, the fungus begins 

to grow. It lives entirely by decaying the dead 

heartwood, never invading live sapwood. 

Decay caused by E. tinctorium can be especially 

extensive. A single young E. tinctorium conk 

may indicate a decay column extending 8 feet 

above and 8 feet below the conk. Larger, older 

conks may indicate 20 feet below and 21 feet 

above the conk. Two or more conks, widely 

separated on the stem, probably indicate that 

virtually the full length of the stem has a central 

column of decay. The longer the column is, the 

greater the width of the decay column. Phellinus 

pini decay is generally considered more limited 

in extent, extending about 3 feet in either 

direction from a conk. However, there are often 

many conks scattered throughout the length of 

the stem. 

Wounds that kill a patch of cambium are known 

to greatly accelerate the extent and perhaps the 

rate of decay caused by Indian paint fungus. It is 

thought the dead tissue, which essentially 

becomes a part of the heartwood by virtue of 

being dead, increases aeration of the heartwood 

and improves growing conditions for the fungus. 

Whatever the cause, wounds are a highly 

significant factor in predicting decay volumes in 

grand fir. Infected overstory grand fir with 

stagnated understory grand fir provides the ideal 

situation for development of Indian paint fungus 

infection.
12 

APPENDIX B 

INSTRUCTIONS: Find the description of defect that most closely describes an observed situation and enter 

the severity code on the evaluation form. If three or more defects of the same severity are recorded for a 

single tree (e.g., 3D, 3W, 3L), the overall severity rating for the tree may be increased by one level 

(column A on the evaluation form). Your situation may not be described or exactly fit a description; the 

descriptions are simply provided to assist you in assigning an appropriate severity level for each defect. 

Dead trees are automatically assigned a severity of 4.

SEV. 

C d

DECAY OR CAVITY: trees where significant decay is suspected should be increment bored to determine 

sound wood remaining (Rind) and excluding bark; severity may be influenced by tree species. 

1D Staining, including wet wood, or incipient decay, but no advanced decay or fruiting bodies, no cavities. 

2D Advanced decay or cavities observed; sound wood (rind) >60% of radius; may have unusual pitch or watery 

slime seeping from cracks or openings. 

3D Advanced decay or cavities observed; sound wood (rind) 60-30% of radius (excluding bark); fruiting bodies 

may be present. 

4D Advanced decay or cavities observed; sound wood (rind) < 30% of radius; numerous conks or fruiting bodies 

or other defects. 

STEM DAMAGE AND WOUNDS: Lightning, frost cracks, mechanical, animal, human

Cracks or wounds of any size but well-calloused or superficial, no decay

Minor structural damage involving <10% of circumference; small cracks, fire scars. 

3W Some structural damage and associated decay; 10-50% circumference; large fire scars; severe cracks 

extending through stem. 

4W Multiple cracks or wounds causing severe structural damage and associated decay in > 50% of 

circumference; or movement detected in major crack. 

CANKERS: Blister rust, gall rust, dwarf mistletoe, etc.

1C < 10% of bole girdled; burls of any size

2C 10-30% of bole girdled 

3C 30-75% of bole girdled 

4C >75% of bole girdled or associated with other defects.

LEAN/SWEEP: growth at the very top of the tree may indicate how long a tree has been leaning. 

1L Natural long-term lean <10%, fully compensated by growth (top of tree is vertical for many years). 

2L Natural long-term lean 10-15 degrees, fully compensated by growth (top of tree is vertical for many years).

3L Lean 15-20 degrees or some indication of root movement (soil mounding, etc.), or associated with a canker.

4L Lean >20 degrees with evidence of failure (e.g., obvious recent soil movement, root wrenching); associated 

with decay or cracks. 

1B Small dead or hanging branches or dead top <”; small witches brooms. 

2B Large brooms, dead or hanging branches or dead top 3-5”; unbalanced canopy due to poor pruning or 

multiple tops; codominant stems with no included bark. 

3B Dead or broken branches or dead top 6-9”; large codominant stems with included bark (weak union).

4B Dead or broken branches or dead top >9”.

1R Minor exposed roots, not sprung, no decay

2R Exposed roots with minor damage or decay on small roots (<3”); no evidence of root disease. 

3R Substantial damage to roots >3” but <50% or root system affected; root disease suspected (slow growth, or 

other symptoms) but not obvious or confirmed. 

4R Exposed, decayed roots or substantial damage to roots >3” on >50% of root system; obvious root disease 

symptoms or signs (e.g., thinning, fading crown, stress cone crop, basal resinosus).