United States 

Department of 

Agriculture 

Forest Service 

Pacific 

Southwest 

Region 

Six Rivers 

National Forest 

March 2000 

Horse Linto, Mill and 

Tish Tang Creek 

Watershed Analysis 

Version 1.0 

Watershed Analysis

For

Horse Linto, Mill, and Tish Tang Creeks

Version 1.0

Six Rivers National Forest

Forest Service

U.S. Department of Agriculture

For additional information: Six Rivers National Forest 

1330 Bayshore Way 

Eureka, CA 95501 

(707) 442-1721 Text (TTY) 

(707) 442-1721 Voice 

www.r5.fs.fed.us/sixrivers 
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits discrimination in all its programs and 

activities on the basis of race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political beliefs, 

sexual orientation, or marital or family status. (Not all prohibited bases apply to all programs.) 

Persons with disabilities who require alternatives means for communication of program information 

(“Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact USDA's TARGET Center at (202) 720-2600 

(voice and TDD). 

To file a complaint of discrimination, write USDA, Director, Office of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, 

Whitten Building, 1400 Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, D.C. 20250-9410 or call (202) 

720-5964 (voice and TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity provider and employer. 
Preparers 

LIST OF PREPARERS

Interdisciplinary Analysis Team Members 

John Larson, District Ranger

Julie Ranieri, co-team leader

Laura Chapman, co-team leader

Corinne Black, Hydrologist

Carolyn Cook, Hydrologist

Jean Hawthorne, Recreation Officer

Kathy Heffner-McClellan, Social Analyst

Lisa Hoover, Botanist

Tom Jimerson, Ecologist

Bill Jones, Silviculturist

Tom Keter, Archaeologist

Lee Morgan, Fisheries Biologist

Shirley Rech, Forester/Economics

Lucy Salazar, Fuels Specialist

Fernando Sanchez, Landscape Architect

Craig Simonsen, Transportation Planner

Mark Smith, Geologist

Janice Stevenson, Resource Officer

Katherine Worn, GIS Specialist

Ken Wright, Forest Analyst

Quentin Youngblood, Wildlife Biologist

With Assistance From: 

George Albert, GIS Specialist

Anita Bowen, Fishieries/GIS

Clarence Hostler, Forester

Jeff Jones, Vegetation Mapper

Ben Kozlowicz, Americorps

Mike Martischang, GIS Specialist

Rob McClelland, Fire and Fuels Specialist

John McClure, GIS Intern

John McRae, Botanist

Carol Molitoris, Range Conservationist

Jessie Plumage, Wildlife Biologist

Mark Sieben, Forestry Technician

Debbie Whitman, Forester

Ken Wilson, Archaeologist

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

i 
Table of Contents 

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction.................................................................................................................................I-1

The Purpose of Watershed Analysis....................................................................................I-1

Focus of This Watershed Analysis.......................................................................................I-2

Previous Watershed Analyses..............................................................................................I-2

Public Participation.................................................................................................................I-3

Format of the Document........................................................................................................I-3

Chapter 1: Characterization of the Watershed .......................................................................1-1

Introduction ............................................................................................................................1-1

Location ................................................................................................................................1-1

Land Allocations and Management Direction ....................................................................1-1

Late-Successional Reserve ..................................................................................................1-6

Wilderness ............................................................................................................................1-6

Partial Retention ...................................................................................................................1-6

General Forest......................................................................................................................1-6

Riparian Reserves ................................................................................................................1-6

Tier 1 Key Watershed...........................................................................................................1-7

Roadless Area.......................................................................................................................1-7

Research Natural Area..........................................................................................................1-8

Hoopa Valley Indian Reservation Land Allocations...............................................................1-8

Physical Setting.....................................................................................................................1-8

Climate and Hydrology..........................................................................................................1-8

Geology and Landforms........................................................................................................1-9

Human Uses, Values, and Expectations.............................................................................1-9

Communities .........................................................................................................................1-9

Land Ownership..................................................................................................................1-11

Transportation System........................................................................................................1-11

Recreation Resources ........................................................................................................1-13

Terrestrial System...............................................................................................................1-13

Vegetation...........................................................................................................................1-13

Plant Species of Concern ...................................................................................................1-16

Noxious Weeds...................................................................................................................1-17

Fire and Fuels.....................................................................................................................1-17

Wildlife Species...................................................................................................................1-18

Riparian and Aquatic Systems...........................................................................................1-22

Riparian Corridor Condition ................................................................................................1-22

Riparian-Dependent Species..............................................................................................1-22

Fish Species and Habitats ..................................................................................................1-22

Water Quality ......................................................................................................................1-24

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

ii
Table of Contents 

Chapter 2: Issues and Key Questions.....................................................................................2-1

Terrestrial System.................................................................................................................2-1

Issue 1: Long-Term Health and Recovery of Vegetation ......................................................2-1

Issue 2: Long-Term Health and Recovery of Terrestrial Species .........................................2-2

Issue 3: Fire, Fuels, and Air Quality................................................................................2-3

Riparian and Aquatic System...............................................................................................2-4

Issue 4: Long-Term Health and Recovery of Riparian/Aquatic Systems/Species ..........2-4

Social System ........................................................................................................................2-5

Issue 5: Human Uses, Values, and Expectations ...........................................................2-5

Chapter 3: Current and Reference Conditions .......................................................................3-1

Human Uses, Values, and Expectations.............................................................................3-1

Heritage Resources ..............................................................................................................3-1

Social and Human Uses.........................................................................................................15

Transportation and Access .................................................................................................3-35

Recreation...........................................................................................................................3-41

Roadless Area.....................................................................................................................3-51

Visual Quality ......................................................................................................................3-60

Terrestrial System...............................................................................................................3-66

Vegetation...........................................................................................................................3-66

Insects.................................................................................................................................3-85

Plant Species of Concern ...................................................................................................3-86

Noxious Weeds...................................................................................................................3-92

Research Natural Area........................................................................................................3-94

Fire Occurrence ..................................................................................................................3-95

Fire Hazard ..........................................................................................................................101

Air Quality..........................................................................................................................3-116

Wildlife Species.................................................................................................................3-119

Riparian and Aquatic Systems.........................................................................................3-133

Hydrologic Context within Klamath-Trinity River Basin.....................................................3-133

Erosion Processes............................................................................................................3-133

Water Quality and Hydrologic Processes .........................................................................3-147

Watershed Restoration .....................................................................................................3-152

Riparian Corridor Conditions.............................................................................................3-159

Riparian Species and Habitats..........................................................................................3-166

Aquatic Species and Habitats ...........................................................................................3-169

Chapter 4: Synthesis and Interpretation .................................................................................4-1

Terrestrial System.................................................................................................................4-1

Issue 1: Long-Term Health and Recovery of Vegetation................................................4-1

Issue 2: Long-Term Health and Recovery of Terrestrial Species.................................4-11

Issue 3: Fire, Fuels, and Air Quality..............................................................................4-17

Riparian and Aquatic System.............................................................................................4-28

Issue 4: Long-Term Health and Recovery of Riparian/Aquatic Systems/Species ........4-28

Social System ......................................................................................................................4-38

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

iii
Table of Contents 

Issue 5: Human Uses, Values, and Expectations .........................................................4-38

Chapter 5: Management Recommentations............................................................................5-1

Introduction ............................................................................................................................5-1

Opportunities and Possible Management Practices.........................................................5-2

Opportunity 1 Reduce fuel levels in strategic locations ......................................................5-3

Opportunity 2 Protect remaining mature and old growth stands .........................................5-9

Opportunity 3 Accelerate the development of late-successional habitat...........................5-10

Opportunity 4 Protect adjacent communities from future wildfires ....................................5-11

Opportunity 5 Restore watershed functions......................................................................5-15

Opportunity 6 Mitigate impacts on Tribal trust resources and uses..................................5-18

Opportunity 7 Provide safe access for the public and forest employees ..........................5-20

Opportunity 8 Contribute to local economies through fire recovery efforts .......................5-21

Opportunity 9 Minimize the introduction and spread of noxious weeds ............................5-22

Opportunity 10 Monitor and further analyze habitat conditions and trends.........................5-23

Opportunity 11 Protect heritage resource sites affected by the fire....................................5-24

Opportunity 12 Cattle grazing and meadows/riparian areas ...............................................5-25

Opportunity 13 Restore recreational facilities and opportunities affected by the fire..........5-26

Opportunity 14 Learn from the Fire.....................................................................................5-28

Appendix A: Literature Cited...................................................................................................A-1

Appendix B: Acronyms............................................................................................................B-1

Appendix C: Roadless Characteristics...................................................................................C-1

North Portion............................................................................................................................1

Central Portion.........................................................................................................................3

Southern Portion......................................................................................................................6

Appendix D: Plant Species of Concern ......................................................................................1

APPENDIX E: Wildlife Species of Concern................................................................................1

Forest Service Sensitive Species..........................................................................................1

Special Status Species ............................................................................................................4

Herpetofauna.............................................................................................................................5

Management Indicator Species ..............................................................................................6

APPENDIX F: LSR 305 NSO Habitat Assessment .....................................................................1

APPENDIX G: Fire Effects ...........................................................................................................1

General Fire Effects .................................................................................................................1

Fire Effects by Species............................................................................................................2

Appendix H: Minimum Suppression Tactics..............................................................................1

Suppression.............................................................................................................................1

Logistics...................................................................................................................................2

Aviation Management...............................................................................................................3

Hazardous Materials ................................................................................................................4

Fire Rehabilitation....................................................................................................................4

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

iv
Table of Contents 

Demobilization..........................................................................................................................5

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

v
1

2

3

4

5

6

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

Table of Contents 

LIST OF TABLES

1- Six Rivers National Forest Land Allocations by Watershed..............................................1-1

1- Land Ownership by Watershed in the HLMTT Area.......................................................1-10

1- Burn Severity Mapping Codes and Categories ..............................................................1-14

1- Vegetation Series in the HLMTT Watersheds................................................................1-15

1- Known Occurrences of TES and Forest Service Sensitive Wildlife Species..................1-18

1- Known Occurrences of Survey and Manage Wildlife Species........................................1-19

3- Allotment Information from 1947 .....................................................................................3-11

3- Recorded Heritage Resource Sites in the Analysis Area................................................3-12

3- Traditional Plants of Special Concern ............................................................................3-21

3- Abundant Traditional Plants ...........................................................................................3-22

3- Significant Populations of Traditional Species in the Long Ridge Compartment............3-22

3- Significant Populations of Traditional Species in South Tish Tang Compartment .........3-22

3- Significant Populations of Traditional Species in Box Camp Salvage Sale Area............3-23

3- Hoopa Traditional Species of Concern...........................................................................3-24

3- Heritage Resource Sites in the Burned Area..................................................................3-28

3- Grazing Allotment Season of Use and AUMs .................................................................3-30

3- Miles of Roads (All Jurisdictions) by Watershed and Surface Type...............................3-37

3- Trails in the HLMTT Area...............................................................................................3-42

3- Facilities and Species Recreation Designations in the HLMTT Area.............................3-44

3- The HRV for Primary Vegetation Series in the Central Zone of the Forest ....................3-67

3- Harvest History (not including blowdown treatments).....................................................3-68

3- Blowdown Harvest Acres................................................................................................3-68

3- Distribution of Primary Vegetation Subseries .................................................................3-70

3- Distribution of Seral Stages by Vegetation Series..........................................................3-71

3- Harvested Seral Stages by Vegetation Series................................................................3-72

3- Distribution of Size Classes for Vegetation Series..........................................................3-72

3- Canopy Closure Classes for all Vegetation Series.........................................................3-73

3- Plantations within the Watersheds .................................................................................3-73

3- Fire Severity Classes for All Vegetation Series ..............................................................3-76

3- Fire Severity by Forested Vegetation Series ..................................................................3-77

3- Fire Severity by Vegetation Seral Stage.........................................................................3-77

3- Fire Severity by Slope Percent Class.............................................................................3-78

3- Burn Severity by Slope Position .....................................................................................3-78

3- Burn Severity Comparison between Blowdown vs. non-Blowdown Areas .....................3-79

3- Burn Severity Comparison between Areas Logged with Fuel Treatments .....................3-80

3- Desired Ranges of Snags and Logs per Acre ................................................................3-83

3- Changes in Seral Stage due to the Fire .........................................................................3-90

3- Number and Acres of Fires on SRNF Lands in the HLMTT Area...................................3-96

3- June and August Fuel Conditions.................................................................................3-102

3- ROS and FL Grouping with Suppression Effectiveness Assessments.........................3-102

3- Percentage of LSR/Watersheds with High to Extreme ROS and FL ............................3-103

3- Percent of SRNF HLMTT Area by Projected Fire Behavior .........................................3-107

3- Acres and Percent of Area with High to Extreme Predicted Fire Behavior ...................3-111

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

vi
1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

Table of Contents 

LIST OF TABLES

3-38 Percent of Area in Mortality Classes.............................................................................3-111

3-39 PM 10 Production by Tons/Acre of Fuel Consumed.....................................................3-117

3-40 Northern Spotted Owl Habitat before the Megram Fire ................................................3-120

3-41 Assessment of Habitat in NSO Activity Centers before the Megram Fire .....................3-120

3-42 Acres of Suitable NSO Habitat around Known Activity Centers before the Fire...........3-122

3-43 Northern Spotted Owl Suitable Habitat after the Megram Fire .....................................3-123

3-44 Acres of Suitable NSO Habitat around Known Activity Centers after the Fire..............3-125

3-45 Comparison of Suitable Habitat around Activity Centers before/after the Fire .............3-126

3-46 Estimated Pre-Fire Surface Erosion Rates...................................................................3-138

3-47 Landslide Trends and Estimated Sediment Delivery....................................................3-139

3-48 Landslide Delivery by Management Influence ..............................................................3-140

3-49 Landlside Delivery by Management Influence and Year...............................................3-140

3-50 Active Landslides by Geologic Unit in Tish Tang, 1944-1998......................................3-140

3-51 Active Landslides by Geologic Unit in Horse Linto, 1944-1998....................................3-141

3-52 Burn Severity by Slope Position ...................................................................................3-142

3-53 Burn Severity by Slope Class.......................................................................................3-142

3-54 Estimated Increased Erosion Risk in Burned Areas .....................................................3-143

3-55 Estimated Surface Erosion Rates, Post-Fire ................................................................3-143

3-56 Pre- and Post-Fire Surface Erosion Estimates.............................................................3-145

3-57 Estimated Increase in Mass Wasting Sediment Delivery..............................................3-145

3-58 Comparison of Sediment Delivery from Floods and the Megram Fire ..........................3-146

3-59 Pre- and Post-Fire Flows for 2 and 10-Year Occurrence Intervals...............................3-150

3-60 Road Restoration Summary in the Horse Linto Creek Watershed ...............................3-154

3-61 Current Road Miles/Density in the Horse Linto Creek Watershed ...............................3-154

3-62 Road Restoration Summary in the Tish Tang Creek Watershed .................................3-155

3-63 Current Road System Miles/Density in the Tish Tang Creek Watershed.....................3-155

3-64 Road Restoration Summary in the Mill Creek Watershed ............................................3-156

3-65 Current Road System Miles/Density in the Mill Creek Watershed................................3-155

3-66 Summary of Suppression Rehabilitation Activities........................................................3-156

3-67 Extent of Past Harvesting within IRRs ..........................................................................3-161

3-68 Burn Severity within Interim Riparian Reserves............................................................3-162

3-69 Perennial and Intermittent/Ephemeral Stream Miles by Burn Severity .........................3-164

3-70 Environmental Baselines for Anadromous Fish Habitat before the Fire .......................3-174

4- Acres and Percent of Late-Successional Forest after the Megram Fire ...........................4-7

4- Late-Successional Forest Acres by Seral Stage after the Megram Fire...........................4-7

4- Fire Risk Ratings and Values .........................................................................................4-18

4- Risk Values and Ratings for the SRNF Portion of the HLMTT Area ..............................4-18

4- Comparison of Salvage Value and Volume oer Time .....................................................4-42

4- Potential Post-Salvage Opportunities.............................................................................4-43

4- Estimated Timber Volume and Value for Fuel Reduction Treatments ............................4-44

4- Plantation Re-establishment Opportunities ....................................................................4-45

4- Megram Fire Burn Severities for Cultural Resource Sites..............................................4-52

5-1 Possible Management Practices to Meet Opportunities 1, 2, 3, and 4.............................5-4

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

vii
1

2

3

4

5

6

Table of Contents 

LIST OF TABLES

5-2 Possible Management Practices to Meet Opportunity 2...................................................5-9

5-3 Possible Management Practices to Meet Opportunity 3.................................................5-10

5-4 Possible Management Practices to Meet Opportunity 4.................................................5-12

5-5 Possible Management Practice Summary for Opportunities 1, 2, 3, and 4.....................5-13

5-6 Possible Management Practices to Meet Opportunity 5.................................................5-15

5-7 Possible Management Practices to Meet Opportunity 6.................................................5-18

5-8 Possible Management Practices to Meet Opportunity 7.................................................5-19

5-9 Possible Management Practices to Meet Opportunity 9.................................................5-21

5-10 Possible Management Practices to Meet Opportunity 10...............................................5-22

5-11 Possible Management Practices to Meet Opportunity 13...............................................5-26

D-1 Known and Potential Vascualr Plant Species of Concern ...............................................D-1

D-2 S&M Plant Species Requiring Management and Surveys...............................................D-2

E-1 Management Indicator Species .......................................................................................E-7

E-2 Snag and Downed Log Densities by Series and Seral Stage .........................................E-9

F- NSO Habitat before the Megram Fire in LSR 305 ...........................................................F-1

F- Assessment of Habitat around NSO Activity Centersbefore the Fire...............................F-2

F- Acres of Suitable NSO Habitat around Activity Centers before the Fire..........................F-3

F- NSO Habitat after the Megram Fire in LSR 305 ..............................................................F-4

F- Assessment of Habitat around NSO Activity Centers after the Fire.................................F-4

F- Acres of Suitable NSO Habitat around Activity Centers after the Fire.............................F-5

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

viii
1

2

3

4

5

6

7

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

Table of Contents 

LIST OF FIGURES

1- Vicinity Map of HLMTT Watersheds.................................................................................1-2 

1- The Megram Fire in Relation to the HLMTT Watersheds ................................................1-3 

1- Six Rivers National Forest Management Areas ................................................................1-4 

1- Geologic Units, Landslide Deposits, and Glaciated Areas ...............................................1-9 

1- Land Ownership within the HLMTT Watersheds............................................................ 1-11 

1- Existing Roads within and Adjacent to the HLMTT Watersheds .................................... 1-13 

1- Distribution of Anadromous and Resident Fish............................................................... 1-21 

3- The De-No-To National Register District........................................................................ 3-13 

3- Orleans Mountain “C” Roadless Area Boundary History ................................................ 3-53 

3- Trails, Roads, and Harvest Areas Associated with the Roadless Area .......................... 3-55 

3- Features, Firelines, and Intensity Levels in the Roadless Area...................................... 3-56 

3- Areas where Impacts Have Occurred to Roadless Characteristics ................................ 3-58 

3- Visual Quality Objectives in the HLMTT Watersheds..................................................... 3-61 

3- Recreation Opportunity Spectrum Classification ............................................................ 3-65 

3- Photographs of Adjacent Treated and Untreated Areas................................................. 3-82 

3- Fire Locations within and Adjacent to SRNF Lands in the HLMTT Area........................ 3-97 

3- Human-Caused Fire Starts in the Vicinity of the HLMTT Watersheds ........................... 3-99 

3- Megram Fire Progression in the Blowdown Area with Lethal Mortality.........................3-104 

3- Areas with August High to Extreme Predicted Fire Behavior – Year 1 .........................3-108 

3- Areas with August High to Extreme Predicted Fire Behavior – Years 5-7 ....................3-109 

3- Areas with August High to Extreme Predicted Fire Behavior – Years 10-12 ................3-110 

3- Modeled August Tree Mortality – Year 1......................................................................3-112 

3- Modeled August Tree Mortality – Years 5-7.................................................................3-113 

3- Modeled August Tree Mortality – Years 10-12.............................................................3-114 

3- Suitable Northern Spotted Owl Habitat before the Fire ................................................3-121 

3- Suitable Northern Spotted Owl Habitat after the Fire ...................................................3-124 

3- Suitable Marbled Murrelet Habitat before the Fire........................................................3-128 

3- Suitable Marbled Murrelet Habitat after the Fire...........................................................3-129 

3- Special Habitats in the HLMTT Area............................................................................2-131 

3- Geomorphic Units and Bedrock Geology .....................................................................3-135 

3- Burned Areas with Increased Erosion Risk...................................................................3-144 

3- Location of Watershed Restoration Projects in the Analysis Area................................3-153 

3- High and Moderate Burn Severity Areas in Relation to the Road System....................3-157 

3- Redd and Carcass Totals from 1991 to 1999 for Horse Linto Watershed....................3-171 

3- Fish Habitat and the Megram Fire ................................................................................3-173 

4-1 Proposed Fuel Treatment Areas.....................................................................................4-29 

4-2 Hazard Trees along Roads in the HLMTT Area.............................................................4-56 

5-1 Remaining Early and Mid-Mature Stands with Fuel Treatment Areas..............................5-5 

5-2 Remaining Late Mature/Old Growth Stands with Fuel Treatment Areas..........................5-5 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

ix 

Introduction 

INTRODUCTION

The Purpose of Watershed Analysis 

Watershed analysis (WA) is a procedure used to characterize the human, aquatic, riparian, and 

terrestrial features, conditions, processes and interactions (collectively referred to as “ecosystem 

elements”) within a watershed. It provides a systematic way to understand and organize 

ecosystem information. In doing so, watershed analysis enhances our ability to estimate direct, 

indirect and cumulative effects of our management activities and guide the general type, location 

and sequence of appropriate management activities within the watershed. 

Watershed analysis is essentially ecosystem analysis at the watershed scale that provides the 

watershed context for fishery protection, restoration and enhancement efforts. The understanding 

gained through watershed analysis is critical to sustaining the health and productivity of natural 

resources. Healthy ecological functions are essential to maintain current and create future social 

and economic opportunities. 

Watershed analyses are conducted by a team of journey-level specialists who follow the six-step 

process outlined in “Ecosystem Analysis at the Watershed Scale – Federal Guide for Watershed 

Analysis”. This process is issue driven. Rather than attempting to identify and address 

everything in the ecosystem, teams focus on seven core analysis topics along with watershedspecific problems or concerns. These problems or concerns may be known or suspected before 

undertaking the analysis or may be discovered during the analysis. Analysis Teams identify and 

describe ecological processes of greatest concern, establish how well or poorly these processes 

are functioning and determine the conditions under which management activities should and 

should not be taken. The process is incremental, meaning that new information from surveys, 

inventories, monitoring reports or other analyses can be added at any time. 

Watershed analysis is not a decision-making process. Rather it is a stage-setting process. The 

results of watershed analysis establish the context for subsequent decision-making processes. 

The results of watershed analysis can be used to: 

• Assist in developing ecologically sustainable programs to produce water, timber, recreation 

and other commodities. 

• Facilitate program and budget development by identifying and setting priorities for social, 

economic and ecological needs within and among watersheds. 

• Establish consistent, watershed-wide context for project level National Environmental Policy 

Act (NEPA) analyses. 

• Establish a watershed context for evaluating management activity and project consistency 

given existing plan objectives. 

• Establish consistent, watershed-wide context for implementing the Endangered Species Act. 

• Establish a consistent, watershed-wide context for local government water quality efforts and 

for protection of beneficial uses identified by the states and tribes in their water quality 

standards under the Federal Clean Water Act. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

I-1 
Introduction 

Focus of This Watershed Analysis 

On August 23, 1999, dry lightning storms ignited the Megram and Fawn Fires in the Trinity Alps 

Wilderness on the Shasta-Trinity National Forest. These two fires burned together during the 

second week of September and became the Megram Fire. On September 27, high northeast 

winds pushed the fire across the control lines and onto the Six Rivers National Forest. The fire 

made major runs within the Horse Linto Creek and Tish Tang Creek drainages. Another northeast 

wind on October 16 blew the fire out of Red Cap Creek into Mill Creek. By the time the Megram 

fire was controlled on November 4, it had burned through a total of 125,000 acres: 59,220 acres 

on the Six Rivers National Forest; 63,340 on the Shasta Trinity National Forest; 1,680 acres on 

the Hoopa Valley Indian Reservation; and 800 acres on private lands. 

The focus of this watershed analysis is to assess the affects the Megram Fire had on the physical, 

biological and human processes within the Horse Linto Creek, Mill Creek and Tish Tang Creek 

Watersheds. The WA will provide information on the current condition in these watersheds as 

well as the desired condition based on the Land and Resource Management Plan (LRMP) and the 

Forest-wide Late-Successional Reserve Assessment (LSRA). It will also identify opportunities and 

possible management practices that could be implemented to meet the following objectives: 

1. Recovery of high intensity burned areas 

2. Recovery of burned plantations 

3. Watershed restoration in Tish Tang, Mill, Horse Linto and Red Cap drainages 

4. Fuels management for community protection and protection of the Late Successional 

Reserve (LSR) 

5. Long term health and recovery of the LSR 

Note: the Red Cap watershed is being analyzed in a separate effort. 

This watershed analysis will focus primarily on the lands within these three watersheds that are 

administered by the Six Rivers National Forest. Lands on the Hoopa Valley Indian Reservation 

and other private lands will be addressed when they influence the management of Six Rivers 

National Forest lands, or to provide the context for analysis. 

Previous Watershed Analyses 

This is not the first watershed analysis of these watersheds. The Forest completed a watershed 

analysis for the Horse Linto Creek watershed in 1994 that focused on watershed restoration. The 

Lower Trinity Ranger District performed focused watershed analyses for all three watersheds in 

1996 to address a large-scale blowdown event that occurred in the winter of 1995/1996. The 

Hoopa Tribe has performed watershed analyses on both the Mill and Tish Tang Creek 

watersheds; these analyses focus on watershed management issues. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

I-2 
Introduction 

Public Participation 

One important component of watershed analysis is public input. Briefings and field trips have 

been held for the Klamath and Coastal Province Advisory Committees, Congressional 

representatives, other elected officials, National Marine Fisheries Service, U. S. Fish and Wildlife 

Service, local tribal representatives, the news media and the general public. Information about the 

severity of the fire, the rehabilitation work accomplished so far and future plans was provided. 

This dialogue has continued at several follow-up public meetings in the communities of Willow 

Creek, Hoopa and Eureka. These meetings have been well attended by individuals representing 

the full spectrum of interest groups. Valuable input about land management activities that may be 

appropriate to restore the fire area has been gathered. Formal consultation with local tribal 

governments has also been conducted. 

Format of the Document 

This document is organized into five chapters. 

Chapter 1 – Characterization of the Watershed: This chapter provides an overview of the 

dominant physical, biological and human processes or features of the watershed that affect 

ecosystem functions or conditions. The relationships among these ecosystem elements and 

those occurring in the river basin or province are briefly described. It also includes the most 

important land allocations, Forest Plan objectives and regulatory constraints that influence 

resource management in the watersheds. The watershed context is used to identify the primary 

ecosystem elements that will be analyzed in detail. 

Chapter 2 – Issues and Key Question: This chapter provides the key elements of the 

ecosystem that are most relevant to the management questions or objectives, human values, or 

resource conditions within the watersheds. These issues and key questions are developed by the 

team, considering input received from the public. 

Chapter 3 – Current and Reference Conditions: This chapter addresses in detail the dominant 

physical, biological and human processes or features of the watershed that affect ecosystem 

functions or conditions (more detailed than the characterization in chapter 1) relevant to the issues 

and key questions identified in Chapter 2. The current range, distribution and condition of these 

ecosystem elements are documented. This chapter also explains how ecological conditions have 

changed over time because of human influence and natural disturbances. Reference conditions 

are developed for subsequent comparison with current conditions over the period that the system 

evolved and with key management plan objectives. 

Chapter 4 – Synthesis and Interpretation: This chapter compares existing and reference 

conditions of specific ecosystem elements and explains significant differences, similarities or 

trends and their causes. It also discusses the interrelationships among ecosystem components to 

ensure that management recommendations are based on interdisciplinary considerations. The 

capability of the system to achieve key management plan objectives is also provided. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

I-3 
Introduction 

Chapter 5 – Recommendations: This chapter brings the results to conclusion, focusing on 

management recommendations that are responsive to ecosystem processes identified in the 

preceding synthesis and interpretation. Specifically, it summarizes the opportunities to resolve 

issues and move from existing conditions to the desired conditions identified in the Forest Plan or 

LSRA. It also includes possible management practices that could be implemented to meet each 

opportunity. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

I-4 
Characterization of the Watershed 

CHAPTER 1

CHARACTERIZATION OF THE WATERSHEDS

Introduction 

This chapter provides an overview of the Horse Linto Creek, Mill Creek and Tish Tang a Tang 

Creek (HLMTT) watersheds in terms of the dominant physical, biological and human processes 

and features of the watershed and their effect on ecosystem function or condition. It also relates 

these features and processes with those occurring in the river basin, and provides the watershed 

context for identifying elements that need to be addressed in this analysis. 

Location 

The watershed analysis area encompasses approximately 91,990 acres: 42,090 acres in the 

Horse Linto Creek watershed; 30,740 acres in the Mill Creek watershed; and 19,160 acres in the 

Tish Tang a Tang (Tish Tang) Creek watershed. The HLMTT watersheds are located in 

northeastern Humboldt County, California, primarily on the Lower Trinity Ranger District of the Six 

Rivers National Forest and the Hoopa Valley Indian Reservation (see Figure 1-1). They are 

situated near the downstream end of the Trinity River basin. Nearby communities include Hoopa 

and Willow Creek. The Megram Fire of 1999 affected large portions of these watersheds; Figure 

1-2 shows the Megram Fire boundary in relation to the watersheds. 

Land Allocations and Management Direction 

Planning direction for the Six Rivers National Forest is covered in the 1995 Six Rivers National 

Forest Land and Resource Management Plan (LRMP). The LRMP incorporated the direction in 

the Record of Decision for Amendments to Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management 

Planning Documents within the Range of the Northern Spotted Owl, or ROD, as it is commonly 

known. Figure 1-3 shows the land allocations within the HLMTT watersheds. Table 1-1 shows 

the land allocations by watershed. 

Table 1-1. Six Rivers National Forest Land Allocations by Watershed in HLMTT Area 

Management Area Horse Linto Mill Creek Tish Tang Total 

Wilderness 9,960 2,000 2,840 13,800 

LSR 305 31,830 11,050 7,950 50,830 

Roadless 4,880 1,850 5,770 12,500 

Roaded 26,950 9,210 2,180 38,340 

Partial Retention 0 560 0 560 

General Forest 360 0 0 360 

Grand Total 42,150 13,610 10,790 65,550 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

1-1 
Chapter 1 

Figure 1-1. Vicinity Map of HLMTT Watersheds: 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

1-2
Characterization of the Watershed 

Figure 1-2. The Megram Fire in Relation to the HLMTT Watersheds: 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

1-3
Chapter 1 

Figure 1-3. Six Rivers National Forest Management Areas: 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

1-4
Characterization of the Watershed 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

1-5
Chapter 1 

Late-Successional Reserve 

A large portion of the HLMTT area (50,830 acres) is located within Late-Successional Reverse 

(LSR) 305. Late-Successional Reserves are to be managed to protect and enhance conditions of 

late-successional and old growth forest ecosystems, which serve as habitat for late-successional 

and old-growth related species. These reserves are designated to maintain a functional, 

interacting, late-successional and old growth forest ecosystem. 

The Six Rivers Forest-wide LSR Assessment was approved by the Regional Ecosystem Office in 

March 2000. The LSR assessment outlines the management strategy for the LSRs and provides 

information to decision-makers who are managing to achieve LSR goals and objectives. 

Wilderness 

A portion of the Trinity Alps Wilderness is within the HLMTT area (13,800 acres). Wilderness 

areas are managed according to the Wilderness Act of 1984, the California Wilderness Act of 

1984, and regulations pursuant to those acts and the Forest Service Manual. The Forest’s 

wilderness areas are managed to preserve the integrity of the wilderness resources to meet the 

purposes described in the Wilderness Act to protect and preserve natural conditions so that the 

wilderness: 1) generally appears to have been affected primarily by the forces of nature, with the 

imprint of man’s work substantially unnoticeable; and 2) has outstanding opportunities for solitude 

or primitive and unconfined recreation. 

Partial Retention 

A small portion of the Mill Creek watershed (560 acres) that is located in the foreground of Road 

10N02 is classified as partial retention in the Forest Plan. The goal for this management area is 

to maintain the area in a near-natural appearing condition, where management activities are 

visually subordinate to the character of the landscape. The partial retention management area is 

part of the matrix, and is managed for a programmed, sustained harvest of forest products in areas 

that are suited for timber management. 

General Forest 

A small portion of the Mill Creek watershed (360 acres) is within the general forest management 

area. This management area is part of the matrix, and includes forested land programmed for 

commercial timber management. The primary goal for this area is to produce a sustained yield of 

timber, and silvicultural treatments are designed to help achieve the recommended management 

ranges identified in the Forest Plan for each vegetation series and seral stage. 

Riparian Reserves 

Riparian Reserves are interspersed throughout the analysis area. Riparian Reserves are to be 

managed to provide benefits to riparian associated species, enhance habitat conservation for 

organisms that are dependent on the transition zone between upslope and riparian areas, improve 

travel and dispersal for many terrestrial animals and plants, and provide for habitat connectivity 

within the watershed. The Riparian Reserves also serve as corridors to connect Late 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

1-6 
Characterization of the Watershed 

Successional Reserves. Interim widths of the five categories of riparian reserves have been 

established in the LRMP. These interim widths are designed to provide a high level of fish habitat 

and riparian protection until watershed and site analysis can be completed. Riparian Reserves 

are intended to maintain and restore riparian structures and functions to five categories of water 

bodies: 1) fish-bearing streams, 2) permanently flowing nonfish-bearing streams, 3) constructed 

ponds and reservoirs, and wetlands greater than 1 acre, 4) lakes and natural ponds, and 5) 

seasonally flowing or intermittent streams, wetlands less than 1 acre, and unstable and potentially 

unstable areas. 

Standards and guidelines prohibit and regulate activities in Riparian Reserves that retard or 

prevent attainment of the Aquatic Conservation Strategy objectives. The Aquatic Conservation 

Strategy was developed to restore and maintain the ecological health of watersheds and aquatic 

ecosystems contained within them on public lands. The strategy protects salmon and steelhead 

habitat on federal lands managed by the Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management within 

the range of northern spotted owl. 

Tier 1 Key Watershed 

Horse Linto Creek is a Tier 1 Watershed. Tier 1 Key Watersheds serve as refugia for maintaining 

and recovering habitat for at-risk stocks of anadromous salmonids and resident fish species. This 

designation recognizes the presence of habitat for threatened or endangered species, the 

importance of the watershed for maintaining anadromous fish stocks, and carries with it the 

requirement that watershed analysis be completed prior to implementing significant projects. They 

also have a high potential of being restored as part of a watershed restoration program. Horse 

Linto Creek was a properly functioning refugia for anadromous salmonids prior to the Megram 

Fire. 

Roadless Area 

The 27,290-acre Orleans Mountain “C” Roadless Area is located within Horse Linto, Mill and Tish 

Tang watersheds. This roadless area was evaluated for wilderness suitability during the Forest 

Service Roadless Area Review and Evaluation process (RARE II) in 1979 and again during the 

development of the California Wilderness Act in 1984. Based on the results of the evaluation and 

legislation, some portions (11,760 acres) of the Orleans Mountain “C” Roadless Area were 

designated as part of the Trinity Alps Wilderness, while other portions (15,530 acres were 

designated non-wilderness and made available for multiple use. 

In 1995, the LRMP analyzed former RARE II areas that were previously designated nonwilderness (see Appendix C of the FEIS for the LRMP). As a result of the analysis, the Orleans 

Mountain “C” Roadless Area was not recommended for inclusion in the National Wilderness 

Preservation System. The LRMP also determined that the southernmost portion of the area 

(3,030 acres) had been developed to an extent that it no longer retained roadless characteristics. 

The boundary of the roadless area was subsequently adjusted to exclude the southernmost 

portion from the roadless area, and the area is now 12,500 acres in size (10 of these acres were 

transferred to the Hoopa Valley Indian Reservation in the recent boundary adjustment). The 

remaining portions of the Orleans Mountain “C” Roadless Area are within LSR 305, and are 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

1-7 
Chapter 1 

managed to protect and enhance conditions of late-successional and old-growth forest 

ecosystems. 

Research Natural Area 

Research Natural Areas (RNAs) are part of a national network of areas that, when complete, will 

identify and preserve a representative array of major North American ecosystems. The North 

Trinity Alps RNA was established to study a white fir ecosystem; this 420-acre area lies entirely 

within the Trinity Alps wilderness. RNAs are designated for nonmanipulative research, 

observation and study, and to contribute to maintaining biological diversity on National Forest 

System lands. RNAs are intended to serve as outdoor laboratories for students and researchers; 

they are not designated for general public recreation use. 

Hoopa Valley Indian Reservation Land Allocations 

The Hoopa Valley Indian Reservation (HVIR) Forest Management Plan provides direction for the 

management of Tribal lands in these watersheds. There are a number of land allocations in these 

watersheds, each with its own standards and guidelines. There are three cultural sites in the Tish 

Tang watershed directly west of lands managed by the Forest Service: Box Camp, the Denoto 

Trail Corridor, and the South Tribal Reserve. Both Tish Tang Creek and Mill Creek watersheds 

contain timberlands and noncommercial woodlands. Portions of both watersheds also contain 

geologically unstable and inaccessible lands, wildlife activity centers and wildlife travel corridors. 

A variety of land allocations guide management activities near the confluence of both creeks with 

the Trinity River, including valley viewshed, the Trinity Wild and Scenic River corridor 

(recreational designation), and urban use areas. 

Physical Setting 

Climate and Hydrology 

The climate of the Horse Linto, Mill Creek and Tish Tang watersheds is hot and dry in the summer 

with temperatures commonly above 100o

F, and cold and wet in the winter with temperatures often 

below freezing. Snow frequently accumulates above 4,000 feet elevation during the winter 

months. Elevations between 3,000 feet and 4,000 feet are frequently subjected to rain on snow 

events. Mean annual precipitation varies from 70 to 80 inches with Mill Creek having the highest 

precipitation and Tish Tang Creek the lowest. About 90 percent of the precipitation falls between 

October and April. However, snow usually remains at higher elevations through May or June. 

The Horse Linto, Mill Creek, and Tish Tang watersheds drain into the Trinity River sub-basin. The 

yearly runoff for Horse Linto, Tish Tang and Mill Creek watersheds is 157,151 acre-feet, 38,373 

acre-feet, and 62,986 acre-feet respectively. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

1-8 
Characterization of the Watershed 

Geology and Landforms 

The analysis area lies on the western side of the Klamath Mountains physiographic province. It is 

crossed by the Orleans thrust fault that separates Galice metasedimentary rocks on the west from 

the Ironside Mountain diorite and both sedimentary and volcanic rocks of the Triassic-Paleozoic 

Belt (TRpz) on the east (see Figure 1-4). Each of these principal rock units has distinctive 

expression in the terrain. Areas underlain by Galice bedrock are moderately steep with many 

ancient landslide deposits. The two narrow zones of TRpz bedrock contain fairly rugged terrain, 

while the diorite occupies most of the upper watersheds and forms both steep and gentle terrain. 

The steeper areas contain many rockslide zones and headwall areas, and glacial processes have 

formed some of this steep terrain. Glacial deposits are scattered across the gentler uplands. 

The major streams have cut deep canyons in the middle and lower parts of these watersheds due 

to persistent geologic uplift of the regional landscape. Historic landslides are widespread on these 

lower slopes, especially where inner gorges are present, and they have delivered much fine and 

coarse sediment to streams. Mass wasting has been most intense on the weaker and erodible 

Galice metasediments and ancient landslide deposits in the lower watersheds. Considerable 

coarse sediment has also been generated and delivered from the steeper, rocky slopes along 

these canyons. 

Human Uses, Values, and Expectations 

Communities 

Humans have inhabited these watersheds for over 5,000 years. There are numerous prehistoric 

and historic sites documenting human use of the HLMTT area 

The community of Willow Creek, the Hoopa Valley Indian Reservation and dispersed neighbors 

are within the influence of the analysis area. The population of the area is about 3,000 according 

to the 1995 Census. The main industries are service, tourism associated with recreation, 

agriculture, forest products, local branches of state, county, and federal agencies, and the Hoopa 

tribal government. The Hupa Tribe is a federally recognized tribe, and as such, the federal 

government has trust responsibilities towards them. 

The Hupa are located on the Hoopa Valley Indian Reservation, comprising 144 square miles of 

Tribal lands. The Trinity River flows through the center of the reservation. There are several 

small businesses, three of which are part of larger chain businesses, a major bank branch, several 

industries, a small cattle industry, and tribal government offices and enterprises, including a 

development corporation that runs tribal business enterprises. The Tribe manages its lands 

administering timber, fisheries, wildlife, cultural plants and sites, and other natural resource-based 

programs. They have trust resources that are affected by off-reservation management, such as 

fish and water. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

1-9 
Chapter 1 

Figure 1-4. Geologic Units, Landslide Deposits, and Glaciated Areas: 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

1-10
Characterization of the Watershed 

The community of Willow Creek is located on Highway 299. The community has several small 

businesses, a major bank branch, service businesses, forest products industry, and government 

agencies, which comprise the mainstay of the economic base for the community. 

Water quality is a significant value held by all segments of the various communities. Water quality 

is a rallying point and is viewed as an economic necessity, and the desire to improve fisheries is 

associated with this value. Domestic and environmental water quality is viewed as key to 

achieving economic success. 

Land Ownership 

Currently, less than 1 percent of the analysis area (300 acres) is in private ownership, 28 percent 

(26,150 acres) is within the boundary of the Hoopa Valley Indian Reservation, and the remaining 

71 percent (65,540 acres) is public land (see Figure 1-5). All of the public lands are managed by 

the Six Rivers National Forest. Table 1-2 displays the land ownership by watershed. 

Table 1-2. Land Ownership by Watershed in the HLMTT Area 

Ownership Horse Linto 

Acres 

Mill 

Acres 

Tish Tang 

Acres 

Total 

Acres 

Six Rivers NF 40,790 13,960 10,790 65,540 

Hoopa 1,000 16,780 8,370 26,150 

Other 300 0 0 300 

Transportation System 

The transportation system in the analysis area is made up of roads and trails that provide access 

for motorized and non-motorized vehicles, livestock, and foot traffic. Since most trails are typically 

used for recreational purposes, trails are described under the “Recreation” headings throughout 

this document; roads are discussed in the “Transportation System” sections. 

The road system in these three watersheds consists of two arterial routes, several collector 

routes, and a series of local spur roads. The major routes (arterial and collectors) are part of the 

transportation network that links the analysis area to State Highway 96 to the west and State 

Highway 299 to the south. In general, these roads extend from the lower reaches of the drainages 

to the higher elevations by following major ridge systems. Most of the stream crossings occur at 

tributaries to the main drainages in the middle to upper reaches of these watersheds. Shorter 

local roads spur off the major routes, providing access to specific sites or limited land areas. The 

arterial and collector roads generally offer improved surfaces and can accommodate passenger 

vehicles. The local roads tend to be low standard, and typically were designed and maintained 

only for high clearance vehicles. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

1-11 
Chapter 1 

Figure 1-5. Land Ownership within the HLMTT Watersheds: 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

1-12
Characterization of the Watershed 

Road densities are highly variable within the analysis area, but overall are fairly low. Much of the 

HLMTT watersheds are roadless, including the wilderness area where trails offer the only 

developed access. The HLMTT watersheds within the Hoopa Valley Indian Reservation contain a 

well-developed road network, but only a few of the roads cross the Reservation - National Forest 

boundary. Figure 1-6 shows existing roads within the analysis area, as well as some of the 

adjacent arterial and collector routes. 

Recreation Resources 

There are a variety of recreational opportunities in the area, many of which occur along the Trinity 

River (which have Wild and Scenic River designation) and other creeks. These river oriented 

opportunities include rafting, kayaking, canoeing, sunbathing, swimming and fishing. Other 

opportunities in the area include camping, hiking, backpacking, mountain biking, picnicking, 

hunting, scenic driving, OHV, snow play, cross-country skiing and wildlife observation. A small 

contingent of outfitter/guides provides guided fishing, hunting, rafting and wilderness pack trips. 

Special events regularly held include a mountain biking rally, a Society for Creative Anachronism 

campout, river clean-up days, Bigfoot Days, and selected tribal cultural events open to the public. 

Developed recreation facilities in the area consist of federal, local and privately sites. These 

include campgrounds, trailheads, a park, trails, and river access sites. Trailheads are the main 

access points into the Trinity Alps Wilderness, a wilderness area jointly managed by the Six 

Rivers and Shasta-Trinity National Forests. The Trinity Scenic Byway crosses from east to west 

along Highway 299; another proposed scenic byway, the Bigfoot Scenic Byway, would follow 

Highway 96 to the north. 

A partnership was developed in the early 1990s among the Willow Creek Municipal Service 

District, the Hupa Tribe and the Six Rivers National Forest to promote the area and work 

cooperatively to develop tourism and recreation opportunities. Recreation and tourism are 

important economic stimuli and contributors to the local area’s sustained economic health; many 

opportunities exist to improve them. 

Terrestrial System 

Vegetation 

Vegetation Data 

The vegetation data used in this analysis come from the ecology program on the Six Rivers 

National Forest. One of the main roles of the ecology program in Region 5 is the classification of 

potential natural plant communities. This classification is based on a hierarchical system that 

provides environmental variables as indicators of ecosystem process and function at each level. 

This hierarchy includes series, sub-series and plant association. The vegetation series represent 

the dominant overstory and regenerating species in a stand. The sub-series represents the subdominant tree species or the shrub species that reflect environmental 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

1-13 
Chapter 1 

Figure 1-6. Existing Roads within and Adjacent to the HLMTT Watersheds: 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

1-14
Characterization of the Watershed 

relationships. The plant association is the lowest level of classification and represents the 

indicator species or the herb or shrub species that exist in a stand due to specific 

microenvironment conditions. Each level of the hierarchy is distinguished from the others by 

differences in species composition, soils, productivity, physiography, and expected response to 

management (Allen, 1987). The potential natural vegetation sub series, along with their seral 

stages, are mapped and have been used for this analysis. 

Five seral stages, along with various modifiers, were used in this analysis. These seral stages 

are: shrub/forb, pole, early mature, mid-mature, late mature, and old growth. Several modifiers 

were also used to define the land use or habitat potential associated with these seral stages. An 

‘H’ was added if a stand had been harvested, either clearcut or selection cut. An ‘A’ was added if 

a stand had a pre-dominant overstory or a remnant stand of older trees that could be potential 

habitat for the marbled murrelet. A ‘B’ was added if a stand with pre-dominant trees had been 

harvested. Modifiers were also added for stands that had been burned, or burned and then 

salvage logged. 

The 1999 Megram Fire had a significant impact on the vegetation of these watersheds. In order to 

assess the impacts, the fire severity was mapped and classified by fire severity classes. These 

seven severity classes are described in Table 1-3 and can be lumped into low, moderate and high 

severity. 

Vegetation Distribution and Structure 

The HLMTT watersheds, like most of the area in the central part of the Forest, are dominated by 

conifer forests and mixed conifer/hardwood forests (94 percent of the watershed), with 

interspersed alder stringers (2 percent) and mountain meadows (2 percent). The white fir series 

is the dominant conifer type (Table 1-4), followed by the tanoak series. White fir and red fir 

dominate on upper elevation sites. The mid and lower slope positions throughout the area are 

dominated by Douglas-fir and tanoak. Steep rocky slopes covered by canyon live oak are also 

scattered throughout the area. 

Table 1-3. Burn Severity Mapping Codes and Categories 

Burn Code Burn Severity Definition 

0 No burn No burn 

1 Low Low severity; < 25% vegetation cover killed 

2 Moderate Low-moderate severity; 25-40% vegetation cover killed 

2a Moderate Moderate severity; 40-60% vegetation cover killed 

3 Moderate High-moderate severity; 60-70% vegetation cover killed 

4a High High severity; > 70% vegetation cover killed 

4b High High severity; > 70% (closer to 100%) vegetation cover killed 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

1-15 
Chapter 1 

Table 1-4. Vegetation Series in the HLMTT Watersheds 

Series Acres Percent of Watershed 

White fir 27,829 41 

Tanoak 26,250 39 

Douglas-fir 4,848 7 

Red fir 4,430 7 

Alder 1,210 2 

Canyon live oak 1,096 2 

Mtn. meadow 508 1 

White oak 91 < 1 

Riparian 77 < 1 

Black oak 3 < 1 

Non-vegetated 1,370 2 

Total 67,711 100 

The primary disturbance agents in these watersheds have been fire, logging, flood, wind, insects 

and disease, cattle grazing and recreation. Fire has by far had the greatest effect in shaping the 

vegetation seral stages of the area. Prior to the Megram Fire, the old growth seral stage was 

most abundant (26 percent of the HLMTT watersheds). It was followed by the mid-mature (21 

percent), early mature (18 percent) and late mature (18 percent) seral stages. The early and mid 

mature seral stages appear to have resulted from stand-replacing fires that occurred throughout 

the area in the late 1860s and early 1910s. Shrub/forb and pole stands comprise 16 percent of 

the watershed; a majority of these are the result of timber harvesting. 

During the winter of 1995-1996, a powerful windstorm caused extensive blowdown of timber, 

which created fuel loadings that were significantly higher than background levels. This was 

followed in 1999 by the Megram Fire, which burned with variable intensity in these watersheds. 

These two events have had a major impact on the seral stage distribution within the HLMTT area. 

Plant Species of Concern 

The analysis area supports known locations of Forest sensitive plants, special interest species 

(SIS), species considered rare by the California Native Plant Society (CNPS), and survey and 

manage (S&M) plant species. Habitats for species of concern include late seral stage conifer 

forests, meadows, grasslands, and outcrops. Suitable habitat for threatened and endangered 

plant species is not present in the analysis area. 

Of the sensitive plants there is one occurrence of bensoniella (Bensoniella oregana). Bensoniella 

is also a member of the survey and manage species list (S&M). Meadows, riparian settings and 

seeps characterize bensoniella’s habitat. SIS, CNPS rare plants and S&M species occur in a 

variety of habitats in the analysis area, including rocky ridges, grasslands, meadows, riparian 

areas, micro-habitats in coniferous forests, and outcrops. In addition to the aforementioned known 

occurrences of species, potential habitat for other plant species of concern occurs within the 

analysis area. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

1-16 
Characterization of the Watershed 

Relative to the fire, the conditions of plant occurrences and plant habitats have been differentially 

affected by the Megram Fire. Depending on the plant species and burn severity, the effects could 

be detrimental (short or long-term) or beneficial. It is reasonable to assume that stands which 

burned with high severity (complete loss of crown and duff layer) were so significantly altered than 

any species of concern no longer exist there. Stands that burned at low to moderate severities 

could still support plant species of interest and their habitats. 

Noxious Weeds 

Noxious weeds are species that are not native to a given area and tend to dominate a site to the 

exclusion of other species. Most of the noxious weeds on the Forest are native to the 

Mediterranean or Asia. Once introduced and established, noxious weeds have the potential to 

displace native plant species and entire plant communities. 

The composition and distribution of noxious weeds in the analysis area is poorly known. Scotch 

broom (Cystisus scoparius), ripgut brome (Bromus diandrus), and bull thistle (Cirsium vulgare) 

have been observed in the area but specifics are lacking. 

Noxious weeds are particularly well adapted to establishment in areas that have been recently 

disturbed. Some species, such as scotch broom, are associated with road banks or slide areas, 

whereas ripgut brome occurs in areas subject to grazing. Depending on burn intensity (i.e. 

complete canopy removal versus a mosaic burn in the understory), the fire and subsequent 

ground disturbance related to fire suppression may have created conditions which promote the 

introduction and spread of noxious weeds, including those which can disperse seed over many 

miles (e.g. yellow star thistle, Centaurea solstitialis). 

Fire and Fuels 

Wildfires are a critical component in the development and maintenance of western ecosystems, 

especially within the interior West (GAO/RCED-99-65, April 1999). Forests within this dry, inland 

portion of the western United States (which includes the entire Six Rivers National Forest) were 

shaped by distinct ecological processes that were driven largely by climate and topography. 

Historically, frequent low-intensity wildfires played a major role in determining the dispersion and 

succession of tree stands in the interior west. A lack of rainfall in this area also slowed the 

decomposition of dead and downed trees and woody material. 

As part of a dry, terrestrial physiographic province (FSEIS/ROD, 1994) within the interior west, the 

Horse Linto, Mill, and Tish Tang watersheds have experienced highly variable fire frequencies. 

Fire frequency studies conducted in the general vicinity of these watersheds showed an average 

interval of 16.2 years in mixed evergreen forests (Adams and Sawyer 1980) and 36 years in white 

fir forests (Stuart 1997). Lightning is a significant cause of wildfires within these watersheds, with 

multiple wildfires commonly generated from the same lightning storm. Human are the predominant 

cause within the Hoopa Valley Indian Reservation. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

1-17 
Chapter 1 

The most extensive and serious problem related to the health of national forests in the interior 

west is the over-accumulation of vegetation, which has caused an increasing number of large, 

intense, uncontrollable, and catastrophically destructive wildfires (GAO/RCED-99-65, April 1999). 

The recent Megram wildfire of 1999 burned into these watersheds and was lightning-generated. It 

was the sixth largest wildland fire in California since 1930 and burned the largest acreage on the 

Six Rivers National Forest since records began in 1910. Analysis conducted after the 1995/1996 

blowdown event predicted a wildfire of this type and size would occur. This wildfire displayed a 

wide variety of fire behavior and resultant effects, mainly depending on weather, topography, and 

fuel loading and distribution. Air quality was severely degraded for the majority of this wildfire 

event, which burned for over 70 days. These and other factors within and adjacent to the HLMTT 

area present future challenges to fire and fuels management. These factors include: large areas 

of wilderness and limited access (either due to topography or roadless designation), proximity to 

the Hoopa Valley Indian Reservation, adjacent public inholdings, and mortality and fuel 

succession following the Megram Fire. 

Wildlife Species 

Threatened and Endangered Species 

There are three federally threatened or endangered wildlife species that are known or suspected 

to occur within or near the watershed analysis area. These include the bald eagle (Haliaetus 

leucocephalus), northern spotted owl (Strix occidentalis caurina) and marbled murrelet 

(Brachyramphus marmoratus). Designated Critical Habitat Units (CHUs) for the northern spotted 

owl and marbled murrelet are located within and/or adjacent to the watershed analysis area, and 

LSR 305 overlaps these three watersheds. 

There are records of federally threatened bald eagles within the watershed analysis area. 

However, there are neither designated bald eagle network territories nor suitable nesting habitat 

designated within the watershed analysis area. Approximately 99 percent of the HLMTT 

watersheds are contained within the Marbled Murrelet Zone 2, but marbled murrelets have not 

been detected. There are 33 northern spotted owl activity centers (pairs or territorial singles) on 

Forest Service lands and 8 activity centers on Hoopa Valley Tribal lands in the watersheds. 

Table 1-5 provides a list of wildlife species of concern and known occurrences within the HLMTT 

watersheds. The list includes threatened, endangered and proposed species as well as Forest 

Service sensitive species listed in the LRMP. 

Forest Service Sensitive Species 

Peregrine falcons (Falco peregrinus anatum) are known to occur within the watershed analysis 

area. The two historic nesting territories include the Horse Linto Creek and Mill Creek nesting 

Territories. There are six designated northern goshawk (Accipiter gentilis) territories within the 

HLMTT watersheds. In 1994 and 1995, a Forest-wide goshawk survey and habitat-use study was 

initiated in selected areas of the Forest. The only confirmed sightings from that study were on the 

Lower Trinity Ranger District; two active goshawks sites were found. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

1-18 
Characterization of the Watershed 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

1-19
Chapter 1 

Table 1-5. Known Occurrences of TES and Forest Service Sensitive Wildlife Species 

Common Name Scientific Name Status Status in HLMTT 

Bald eagle Haliaetus leucocephalus Threatened No nesting territories 

Northern spotted owl Strix occidentalis caurina Threatened Present 

Marbled murrelet Brachyramphus marmoratus Threatened No survey detections 

Peregrine falcon Falco peregrinus anatum FS sensitive Present 

Northern goshawk Accipiter gentilis FS sensitive Present 

Great gray owl Strix nebulosa FS sensitive No recorded presence 

Willow flycatcher Empidonax trailli FS sensitive Present 

American marten Martes americana FS sensitive No recent detections 

Pacific fisher Martes pennanti FS sensitive Present 

California wolverine Gulo gulo luscus FS sensitive No recent detections 

Pacific big-eared bat Plecotus townsendii 

townsendii 

FS sensitive No known records 

Northwestern pond turtle Clemmys marmorata 

marmorata 

FS sensitive No known records 

Foothill yellow-legged 

frog 

Rana boylii FS sensitive Present 

Northern red-legged frog Rana aurora aurora FS sensitive No known records 

Southern torrent 

salamander 

Rhycotriton variegatus FS sensitive Present 

The Forest has records of Pacific fisher (Martes pennanti), American marten (Martes americana) 

and California wolverine (Gulo gulo luscus) within the analysis area. There have been four recent 

Pacific fisher detections, but no recent detections of the American marten or California wolverine 

in these watersheds. 

There are numerous sightings of the Foothill yellow legged frog (Rana boylii) within the analysis 

area. Known detections include Horse Linto Creek and its drainages. There are three records for 

the southern torrent salamander (Rhycotriton variegatus), all of which are located within the Horse 

Linto drainage. 

Survey and Manage Wildlife Species 

A number of survey and manage or wildlife protection buffer species are known or suspected to 

occur in the watershed analysis area. 

Del Norte salamanders (Plethodon elongatus) are associated with deep, rocky substrates and 

occur through the analysis area. Ancotrema voyanum is a mollusk species that may be affected 

by grazing and requires protection of known sites from grazing. It has been detected south of 

Horse Linto Creek. However, no active range allotments occur within the known sites for this 

species. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

1-20 
Characterization of the Watershed 

Numerous survey and manage species have been detected during project specific surveys in the 

analysis area. Table 1-6 summarizes the current information on these species. 

Table 1-6. Known Occurrences of Survey and Manage Wildlife Species 

Common Name Scientific Name S&M Category HLMTT Watersheds 

Del Norte Salamander Plethodon elongatus 1 and 2 Present 

Oregon shoulderband 

Snail 

Helminthoglypta herteini 1 and 2 Present 

Klamath shoulderband 

Snail 

Helminthoglypta talmadgei 1 and 2 Present 

Church’s sideband Snail Monadenia churchi 1 and 2 Present 

Pressley hesperian Snail Vespericola pressleyi 1 and 2 Present 

Shasta chaparral Snail Trilobopsis ropri 1 and 2 No known records 

Tehama chaparral Snail Trilobopsis tehamana 1 and 2 No known records 

Papillose tail-dropper Slug Prophysaon dubium 1 and 2 Present 

Long-eared myotis Myotis evotis Protection buffer No known records 

Fringed myotis Myotis thysanodes Protection buffer No known records 

Long-legged myotis Myotis volans Protection buffer No known records 

Silver-haired bat Lasionycteris noctivigans Protection buffer No known records 

Pallid bat Antrozous pallidus Protection buffer No known records 

Flammulated owl Otus flammeolus Protection buffer Present 

White-headed 

woodpecker 

Dendrocopos albolarvatus Protection buffer Present 

Other Special Status Species 

The Redwood Creek black-tailed deer herd utilize habitat within the HLMTT area. The summer 

range is generally characterized by habitat over 4,000 feet in elevation. Key fawning areas 

include portions of the Horse Linto, Mill, and Tish Tang drainages. Only one wintering area has 

been identified within the analysis area. The Tish Tang Deer Wintering Area lies within the 

southeast corner of the Hoopa Valley Indian Reservation and portions of this wintering area lie 

within the SRF boundary 

There have been several incidental sightings of Roosevelt elk in recent years. The analysis area 

is within close proximity to several established herds (the Marble Mountain Herd and the Trinity 

Alps Herd) and expansion of the herds within the area in the near future is probable. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

1-21 
Chapter 1 

Riparian and Aquatic Systems 

Riparian Corridor Condition 

The riparian corridors were greatly affected by the 1964 flood and past management actions such 

as road building and logging. Substantial habitat recovery has occurred during the last few 

decades. Prior to the Megram Fire, the riparian areas provided good connectivity for bryophytes, 

lichens, and vascular plants and for wildlife dispersal. The Megram Fire had varying effects on 

the riparian corridor based on the fire intensity. In some areas all vegetation was killed, in other 

areas little vegetation was damaged. The majority of the true riparian vegetation, such as 

dogwood and willow, survived the fire, but the overstory canopy trees were killed or damaged 

along many miles of stream corridors in the headwaters of the analysis area. This change may 

alter the microclimate and habitat values along those streams for several decades. 

Riparian-Dependent Species 

Foothill yellow-legged frogs and southern torrent salamanders are known to exist within the 

analysis area. Both species are in decline in parts of their range and are designated as Forest 

Service sensitive species. 

Fish Species and Habitats 

Figure 1-7 shows the known distribution of resident and anadromous fish within the analysis area. 

The fishes include anadromous fall chinook salmon, coho salmon, and winter steelhead trout and 

resident brook and rainbow trout. Recreational fishing for resident fish is allowed within part of the 

analysis area, but no angling for salmon and steelhead is allowed within these three watersheds. 

This restriction is in place to protect spawning adult fish and rearing juvenile fish prior to their 

outmigration. 

Fish habitat, especially anadromous habitat, in all three watersheds was greatly degraded in the 

1964 flood, which affected the analysis area and most anadromous habitat in California. 

Substantial habitat recovery has occurred since the 1964 flood, but wild anadromous fish 

populations have generally not recovered in the Klamath basin. The coho numbers in the analysis 

area are extremely low. Coho salmon and their habitat have been listed under the Endangered 

Species Act (ESA). All three watersheds contain designated critical habitat for the threatened 

Southern Oregon/ Northern California Evolutionary Significant Unit (ESU) of coho salmon. Due to 

the long-term decline of chinook and steelhead runs in the Trinity sub-basin, the Pacific 

Southwest Region of the Forest Service has put them on a regional sensitive species list to help 

ensure that Forest Service activities do not result in a trend towards listing them under the ESA. 

There are many causes for the general decline of anadromous salmonids in California and 

scientists are not all in agreement as to which causes are most deleterious to the different fish 

stocks. Although it is recognized that many problems exist at larger scales than the analysis area, 

it is beyond the scope of this document to focus on fisheries problems outside the analysis area. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

1-22 
Characterization of the Watershed 

Figure 1-7. Distribution of Anadromous and Resident Fish: 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

1-23
Chapter 1 

The Megram Fire overlapped both anadromous and resident fish habitat, but it did not directly 

affect the habitat equally. Most of the anadromous habitat was left unburned. Generally, the fire 

burned hottest in the headwater reaches which contained no fish or only resident fish. However, it 

is certain that some degree of indirect effects will trickle down to all anadromous and resident fish 

habitat where upstream headwaters experienced high or medium severity wildfire. 

Horse Linto Creek 

Horse Linto Creek was a properly functioning refugia for anadromous salmonids prior to the 

Megram Fire. Chinook and steelhead numbers are strong compared to many other streams in the 

Trinity River sub-basin. The fishes in Horse Linto benefited from many instream restoration 

projects and several watershed restoration projects. The chinook population in the watershed 

had been greatly boosted by a cooperative small-scale hatchery, which propagated native Horse 

Linto chinook. This hatchery is now closed to test whether the chinook numbers in Horse Linto 

would stay elevated without the benefit of the hatchery. The Horse Linto watershed contains 

about 14 miles of fish habitat where anadromous fish are present and about another 33 miles of 

habitat where only resident trout are present. 

Tish Tang Creek and Mill Creek 

Tish Tang and Mill were not designated key watersheds but both streams have important fisheries 

values to the Hoopa Valley Indian Tribe. The known anadromous habitat lies on the Hoopa Valley 

Indian Reservation. Anadromous fish are found only in the lower 2.8 miles of Tish Tang Creek 

and resident trout only are present in about 15.5 additional miles of stream. 

Mill Creek contains about 6.7miles of fish habitat where anadromous fish are known to be present. 

Salmon are confined to the lower 2.6 miles of Mill Creek. Past Forest Service fish surveys 

suggested that steelhead could not reach USFS habitat. The Hoopa Valley Tribal Fisheries staff 

believe that some steelhead are currently able to ascend Mill Creek at least to the reservation 

boundary, so that steelhead habitat may encompass 10 or more stream miles. There is about 

another 8 miles of fish habitat where only resident trout are known present. 

Only one lake provides recreational fishing within the analysis area. Mill Creek Lake is located in 

the Trinity Alps wilderness in the headwaters of the Mill Creek watershed. The lake contains both 

brook and rainbow trout, which are stocked by the California Department of Fish and Game. 

Water Quality 

The important water quality parameters that most influence the beneficial uses for the Horse Linto, 

Tish Tang, and Mill Creek watersheds are sediment and turbidity. Mill Creek is a domestic water 

source for the Hoopa Reservation during the summer months. Tish Tang Creek is being 

considered as an additional domestic water source for the Hoopa Reservation. These watersheds 

are also very important to the anadromous fisheries of the Trinity River sub-basin. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

1-24 
Characterization of the Watershed 

All three watersheds were impacted by the 1964 flood and to varying degrees by land 

management activities. These combined events and activities have resulted in increased levels of 

sedimentation that impacted aquatic habitats to varying degrees. Of the three watersheds, Horse 

Linto has the fewest residual impacts associated with the historic increase in instream sediment 

levels. The Trinity River is listed as sediment limited by Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) 

under the Clean Water Act section 303(d) and all three watersheds are included within the 

Maximum Daily Load (TMDL) listing. 

Turbidity is frequently associated with high sedimentation levels. Prior to the fire, turbidity was of 

most concern in the Mill Creek watershed. Mill Creek is not used as a domestic water source 

during the winter months due to elevated turbidity levels (Hoopa Valley Tribal Environmental 

Protection Agency, 1997). Tish Tang Creek had elevated turbidity levels due to managementrelated erosion problems. Historically, Horse Linto does not have high turbidity levels. After the 

Megram Fire, a turbidimeter was installed to track turbidity. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

1-25 
Chapter 1 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

1-26
Issues and Key Questions 

CHAPTER 2

ISSUES AND KEY QUESTIONS

The purpose of this chapter is to focus the analysis on the key elements of the ecosystem that are 

most relevant to the management questions, human values, and resource conditions in the 

HLMTT watersheds. This watershed analysis is focused on management issues related to the 

Megram Fire; therefore, the issues and key questions all relate to the fire, its effects, and recovery 

efforts that may be needed to achieve desired conditions. 

Because of the level of public concern about the fire and the Forest’s fire recovery effort, Forest 

staff held a number of field trips to the fire area and public meetings in the communities of Willow 

Creek, Hoopa, and Eureka. Many interested people attended, sharing their concerns and opinions 

about fire recovery efforts and the potential future occurrence of other large-scale fires. The 

issues and key questions in this chapter were developed from the input provided during the 

meetings and field trips, and from many written comments. 

Terrestrial System 

Issue 1: Long-Term Health and Recovery of Vegetation 

Vegetation management on the Six Rivers National Forest is based on the seral stage distribution 

within the primary vegetation series on the Forest (tanoak, Douglas-fir, and white fir). A historic 

range of variability (HRV) and recommended management range (RMR) has been developed for 

each of these series and seral stages within each of the three zones on the Forest. The HRV and 

RMR are based on disturbance regimes, including fire, which have created a mosaic of seral 

stages throughout the landscape. These watersheds lie within the central zone, and contribute to 

the RMRs for that zone. 

The Megram Fire burned with varying severity throughout these watersheds, with both beneficial 

and detrimental effects to vegetation. In high severity areas, almost all of the vegetation in the 

stand was killed. In low severity areas, the fire killed little of the overstory, primarily consuming 

shrubs and small material in the understory. The overall effects of the fire on vegetation should 

be analyzed in terms of the HRV and RMRs for the Forest’s central zone.

The two land allocations in these watersheds (the Trinity Alps Wilderness and LSR 305) provide 

specific direction regarding vegetation management. Within wilderness, natural ecosystem 

processes such as fire are to be evident, with minimal human impacts; vegetation manipulation is 

not permitted. In LSRs vegetation management in general should maintain or enhance latesuccessional forest conditions and reduce the risk of large-scale disturbance. After standreplacing events, management should be designed to accelerate or not impede the development 

of late-successional conditions (Six Rivers National Forest, 1995).

Noxious weeds are documented in the analysis area. Disturbances such as mechanical disruption 

of the soil, over-grazing, and fire can create conditions suitable for noxious weed establishment. 

Once established, noxious weeds can readily disperse into newly disturbed areas. The most 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

2-1 
Chapter 2 

effective management of noxious weeds is to minimize the chances of introduction and spread, 

and to treat localized occurrences as soon as detected. 

Vegetation Management 

1.1 How did the fire affect the distribution of vegetation series and seral stages in these 

watersheds? Is the resulting distribution within the HRV? Is the RMR still valid? Does the 

present distribution of late-successional stands comply with the “15 Percent Retention” 

standard and guideline? 

1.2 How did the fire affect the plantations within these watersheds? Should burned 

plantations be reforested? 

1.3 What possible management practices would best achieve or maintain the RMRs for each 

vegetation series and seral stage as well as the desired conditions identified in the Forestwide Late-Successional Reserve Assessment (LSRA)? 

Pests 

1.4 Has the fire increased the risk of pest infestation? 

Meadow Habitats 

1.5 How did the fire affect the plant communities in high elevation meadows? What possible 

management practices could maintain desired conditions in these meadows? 

Noxious Weeds 

1.6 What fire recovery activities may increase the potential for introduction and spread of 

noxious weeds? 

1.7 What opportunities exist to reduce the chances of noxious weed introduction and spread? 

Issue 2: Long-Term Health and Recovery of Terrestrial 

TES Species and Species of Concern 

Habitats exist within these three watersheds to support threatened, endangered and sensitive 

plant and wildlife species, as well as other species of concern (e.g. rare, survey and manage, or 

culturally significant species). The fire has affected habitat conditions in many ways, including 

canopy loss, consumption of coarse woody debris and loss of the duff layer. Depending on the 

species and burn intensity, the effects could be detrimental (short or long term) or beneficial. 

There are documented locations and suitable habitat for sensitive, rare, and survey and manage 

(S&M) plant species in these watersheds. Habitats include a wide range of settings, from 

coniferous forests and meadows to logs of advanced decay class. It is fair to assume that stands 

which burned intensely during the fire (i.e. complete loss of crown and duff layer) were so 

significantly altered that any occurrences of sensitive, rare and S&M plant species no longer exist. 

Furthermore, habitat conditions are currently unsuitable for these species. Stands that burned at 

low to moderate intensities could still support plant species of interest and their habitats. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

2-2 
Issues and Key Questions 

Management within these low to moderately burned stands will need to consider the effects on 

species of concern and their habitats. 

The watershed analysis area provides habitat for a wide variety of terrestrial and ripariandependent wildlife species. There are 16 amphibian, 17 reptile, 120 bird, and 60 mammal species 

likely to occur within the HLMTT area. Species distribution and habitat has been differentially 

affected by the Megram Fire. 

Plants 

2.1 How might the fire have affected plant species of concern and their habitats? 

2.2 How may management activities related to fire recovery affect plant species of concern 

and their habitats? 

2.3 Are there opportunities to benefit or enhance habitat conditions for species of concern? 

Wildlife 

2.4 How has the fire altered habitat conditions for TES and special status species in these 

watersheds? 

2.5 Within the LSR, how has the fire altered the habitat conditions for the northern spotted owl 

and how has the fire affected functionality of the LSR? 

2.6 What possible management practices, if any, are needed to facilitate the recovery of 

habitat for these species? 

Issue 3: Fire, Fuels, and Air Quality 

Fire is a major disturbance factor within the Horse Linto, Mill, and Tish Tang watersheds, as 

evidenced by the Megram Fire of 1999. This wildfire was a trigger event for executing this 

watershed analysis due to the fire’s size and intensity, along with off-site human impacts. Human 

health impacts, mainly related to severely degraded air quality, were significant enough to warrant 

a federal and state declaration of emergency. Visibility impacts were also severe locally and 

noticeable for hundreds of miles. Wildfire protection of local communities and Tribal Trust 

responsibilities for the Hoopa Valley Indian Reservation are critical components of future 

management in this area. 

3.1 What is the trend of fire risk within and adjacent to the HLMTT watersheds? 

3.2 What is the current, near-term (5-7 years), and longer-term (10-12 years) fire hazard within 

and adjacent to these watersheds, especially focusing on those areas directly affected by 

the Megram Fire? What are the potential fire behavior and mortality from future wildfires 

within these watersheds? 

3.3 What is the degree of threat from future wildfires to local communities? 

3.4 What possible management practices could help reduce adverse wildfire impacts 

(including impaired air quality) and/or risk to these watersheds and adjacent areas? Which 

are the priority areas to treat? 

3.5 What possible management practices could reduce the potential for extended exposure to 

smoke from wildfires? 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

2-3 
Chapter 2 

Riparian and Aquatic System 

Issue 4: Long-Term Health and Recovery of Riparian 

and Aquatic Systems and Species 

Riparian areas are sensitive ecological components of a watershed. They are an important link 

between upland and aquatic areas and provide critical habitat for many species. Riparian areas 

within the HLMTT area have been subjected to both natural and human-caused disturbances, 

including the 1999 Megram Fire. These natural and human-caused disturbances appear to have 

reduced aquatic habitat value to varying degrees in these watersheds. 

Streams in the Pacific Northwest have adapted through centuries of disturbances that have 

adversely affected water quality and aquatic habitat in the short term, but appear to have renewed 

and sustained aquatic ecosystems over the long term. During the past 40 years, the Horse Linto, 

Mill and Tish Tang watersheds have experienced increased levels of human disturbance, which 

may have compounded the impacts from natural disturbances such as floods and fires. The 

degree to which erosion rates, water quality and aquatic habitats have been altered from 

reference conditions, thereby affecting the long-term viability of aquatic species, is a principal 

concern. 

Erosion Processes and Water Quality 

4.1 How have natural and human-caused disturbances (floods, landsliding, wildfire & resource 

management) affected erosion processes in these watersheds? What parts of the 

watersheds have been most affected? 

4.2 How can restoration efforts following the Megram Fire influence erosion processes and 

benefit water quality, thereby protecting the domestic water supplies in Mill and Tish Tang 

watersheds and enhancing the values that make Horse Linto a key watershed? How long 

will it take for the effects of restoration to be evident? 

4.3 To what extent are cumulative effects (as defined by the Environmental Protection Agency) 

evident in these watersheds? How may future management actions in response to the 

Megram Fire contribute to the level of cumulative effects? 

Riparian and Aquatic Species and Habitats 

4.4 How have the abundance and distribution of riparian and aquatic species and their 

habitats changed as a result of natural and human-caused disturbances? 

4.5 How did the Megram Fire affect critical habitat components for the maintenance, protection 

and recovery of anadromous salmonid populations? What additional risks has the fire 

created for riparian and aquatic species and habitats? 

4.6 What possible management actions or practices are needed to facilitate the recovery of 

habitat for riparian and aquatic species? 

4.7 What factors need to be considered when proposing activities in response to the fire, 

especially in riparian areas? 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

2-4 
Issues and Key Questions 

Social System 

Issue 5: Human Uses, Values, and Expectations 

Residents of the communities bordering the analysis area (Hoopa, Willow Creek, Salyer, Hawkins 

Bar, Burnt Ranch), as well as other members of the public, use the resources in these watersheds 

in a variety of ways, and they value the watersheds for diverse reasons. The Megram Fire 

affected these uses and values, and people are concerned about the possible management 

practices the Forest may implement following the fire. They are also concerned about the potential 

for future wildfires of a similar scale to occur. 

Local Community Economies 

5.1 How do these watersheds contribute to the economies of local communities? What fire 

recovery efforts might contribute to local economies? 

Recreation 

5.2 What recreational opportunities were impacted by the Megram Fire? What possible 

management practices could be implemented to restore or maintain these opportunities in 

areas that were affected by the fire? 

Tribal Trust Resources 

5.3 How has the Megram Fire affected the Hoopa and Yurok Tribes’ federally reserved rights 

in the Trinity and Klamath fisheries? 

5.4 How may degraded water quality resulting from the fire affect federally reserved water 

rights of the Hoopa and Yurok Tribes with respect to domestic use and subsistence 

fishing? 

5.5 How can the Forest minimize the threat from future wildfires and pest infestation to Tribal 

trust resources? 

Tribal Spiritual and Traditional Uses 

5.6 What are the effects to contemporary spiritual locations used by Hupa traditionalists in the 

Trinity Summit area and along the Trail of the Blue Sun? What possible management 

practices could be implemented to mitigate adverse impacts? 

5.7 What are the short and long-term effects of the fire on the availability and quality of 

culturally significant vegetation and animals? What possible management practices could 

be implemented to mitigate adverse impacts? 

Heritage Resources 

5.8 What effects did the fire have on known cultural resource properties located within these 

watersheds? What kinds of fire recovery efforts might contribute to conserving the values 

of these sites? 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

2-5 
Chapter 2 

Access 

5.9 Has the Megram Fire altered the conclusions of the Lower Trinity Access and Travel 

Management (ATM) Plan? 

5.10 Which roads pose the greatest threat for failure and erosion if inadequately maintained? 

5.11 Where is the potential hazard to the public and Forest employees from fire-damaged trees 

falling on Forest development roads? How should these trees be removed to reduce this 

hazard in a manner that minimizes potential impacts to other resources? 

Roadless 

5.12 What factors should be considered when evaluating possible management practices within 

the remaining portions of the Roadless Area? 

Grazing 

5.13 What criteria for resuming grazing will prevent adverse impacts to high elevation meadows 

and riparian areas that were affected by the Megram Fire? 

Adaptive Management 

5.14 What are the opportunities to learn from the fire? 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

2-6 
Current and Reference Conditions 

CHAPTER 3

CURRENT AND REFERENCE CONDITIONS

This chapter describes both reference and current conditions of the various physical, biological, 

and human ecosystem elements in the HLMTT area. These descriptions pertain to the issues 

and key questions identified in Chapter 2. The information provided here will be used in Chapter 

4 to identify trends in these ecosystem elements and to synthesize our understanding of them. 

Much of the discussion under the “current conditions” subheadings of this chapter relates to the 

Megram Fire and its effects on the various ecosystem elements. The information for these 

discussions comes from the fire severity mapping the SRNF performed in December-January 

1999-2000. The fire severity map was developed through aerial photograph interpretation, with 

some ground-truthing to verify the severity classes. This mapping will be further field-checked in 

the summer of 2000, and there will probably be modifications based on the on-the-ground visits. 

Human Uses, Values, and Expectations 

Heritage Resources 

Humans have inhabited the Trinity River area from Salyer, Willow, Tish Tang, Horse Linto and Mill 

Creeks to the Hoopa Valley for thousands of years. The land use practices of the Native 

Americans inhabiting the region during the prehistoric era and the ranchers, homesteaders, 

loggers, miners, and Forest Service activities and administration during the historic period have all 

influenced the environment. The purpose of the following section is to summarize the 

environmental and cultural history of the analysis area. 

Past History 

Past Environment for the Analysis Area 

It is clear from pollen data and other research in the region that the climate of the interior portions 

of northwestern California has not remained static during Holocene (the last 10,000 years). 

Evidence for climatic fluctuations during the Holocene in the North Coast Ranges has been 

summarized by James West (1983). West (1993) concluded that interior regions of the North 

Coast Ranges experienced significant shifts in climate during the last 10,000 years. These shifts 

in yearly mean temperature, and quite likely the amount of annual precipitation, significantly 

affected the distribution of plant and animal species across the landscape. 

Given the past climatic record for the northcoast ranges situated immediately to the west, it can be 

hypothesized that similar processes of vegetative succession and environmental change have 

taken place during the Holocene within the analysis area. Evidence of a more open canopy and a 

wider distribution of white and black oaks within and along the slopes of Hoopa Valley during 19th 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-1 
Chapter 3 

Century and the early 20th Century have been documented in interviews with long-time residents 

(as well as in historic photographs of the Valley). It appears that cessation of frequent burning of 

the hillsides by the Hupa subsequent to historic era has resulted in an increase in the distribution 

of Douglas-fir at lower altitudes and on the more southerly oriented slopes of the region. Unlike 

regions further to the south, tanoak and Douglas-fir probably dominated the north facing slopes 

and in general were more widely distributed at lower elevations within the project area prior to the 

Contact Period. 

Anthropogenic (human-caused) fire along with natural fires was common prior to the historic era. 

In the early 1900s, the Forest Service took over administration of most of the lands to the east of 

the reservation. One of the most notable changes at that time was the effort to control wildfires. 

Human-initiated fires were prohibited (for example burning to encourage the growth of desirable 

plants by the Hupa or to keep open grazing lands) and natural fires were extinguished as soon as 

possible. 

Prehistory 

Several archaeological investigations over the last two decades on Six Rivers National Forest, 

including the excavation of a number of prehistoric sites, are relevant for the HLMTT Area. These 

sites are for the most part are located along the divide between the Mad River and South Fork 

Trinity River watersheds along Pilot Ridge, Whiting Ridge and Last Chance Ridge. During the 

1982, 1983 and 1984 field seasons, a series of 15 prehistoric sites were excavated in this area by 

Sonoma State University in cooperation and under contract with the Forest Service. These sites 

ranged in elevation from between 4,500 feet to about 6,000 feet. These studies (Hildebrandt and 

Hayes 1983, Hildebrandt and Hayes 1984, and Hayes and Hildebrandt 1985) and more recent 

studies in the North Coast Ranges suggest three broad cultural patterns for this region of the 

northern California. Definition of these cultural patterns is based on chronology and artifact 

patterning. 

The Early Period (Borax Lake Pattern) 

The Early Period of human occupation in the North Coast Ranges is also sometimes referred to 

as the Borax Lake Tradition, which spans that period of time from the entry of aboriginal peoples 

into the region, approximately 4,000 to 5,000 B.P. to about 3,000 B.P. Little is known about the 

first people to enter this portion of northwest California, neither the language they spoke nor 

where they came from. The artifacts found on prehistoric sites within and adjacent to the region 

dating to this period include the Borax Lake Pattern assemblage defined by Borax-Lake widestemmed projectile points, milling slabs, hand stones and relatively large serrated bifaces (worked 

on both sides with a saw-like edge on some portion of the artifact). 

Several "single component" Borax Lake deposits (i.e. all the materials recovered from a specific 

area of the prehistoric site dated from this time period) were identified on Pilot Ridge. These 

assemblages show little variability from site to site (Hildebrandt and Hayes 1993:110) and for the 

most part appear to be locations where a number of subsistence oriented activities (processing of 

both animal and plant resources) took place--inferring that family groups were camped at these 

locations. Further supporting this hypothesis is the recovery from the Borax Lake component of 

these sites of a greater percentage of artifacts associated with food processing and household 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-2 
Current and Reference Conditions 

maintenance activities than were recovered from either Middle or Late Period single component 

sites. Early Period artifactual materials included handstones, spall tools, cobble tools, and drills. 

One of the sites excavated on Pilot Ridge contained a feature that appears to be the remains of a 

structure approximately five feet by five feet in size. Structural indicators included a possible 

compacted floor surrounded by three post holes (Hildebrandt and Hayes 1993:110). This feature 

contained a Borax Lake component with a significant number of artifacts including 12 milling slabs 

(two of which were stacked one on the other), four hand stones, three hammer stones and 

numerous bifaces, projectile points, flaked tools and cores. This feature represents the oldest 

structural remains to be found to date in this region of the North Coast Ranges. Bill Hildebrandt, 

principal investigator for the Pilot Ridge Project in the 1980s, informed us that a sample from the 

structural feature (possibly a post) was recently dated using carbon-14 radiocarbon dating. The 

date of this sample was about 7,000 years B.P. This date, if it holds up after further analysis, will 

make this site the oldest dated site in northwestern California. 

It has been hypothesized that the peoples living in this region during the Early Period lived in 

small, highly mobile bands, probably consisting of one or a small number of extended families. 

These small groups utilized a "foraging" resource procurement strategy oriented towards a wide 

range of resources but emphasizing little handling or processing time - for example big game (elk 

and deer) and hard seeds. With this resource procurement strategy, little emphasis is placed on 

storage of food resources, rather "incongruities in the distribution of resources over time and 

space are solved by moving people from places of declining productivity to areas where foraging 

opportunities are enhanced" (Hildebrandt and Hayes 1993:115). Thus, within the project area 

during the Early Period it is likely that relatively small, highly mobile groups inhabited the region for 

at least some portion of the year moving from location to location as various kinds of resources 

became seasonally available for procurement. This subsistence strategy requires frequent moves 

by entire social units resulting in homogenous settlement site structure (i.e. little site-to-site 

variability) with similar generalized artifact assemblages (Hildebrandt and Hayes 1993:115). 

Even at this early date, land-use activities related to subsistence resource procurement were, 

quite likely, having an effect on the environment and the species composition of both plants and 

animals. By this time, anthropogenic fires, along with natural fires, were quite likely a major force 

influencing vegetation trajectories and environmental dynamics in this region. In addition, 

collection of certain plant species and the hunting of animals also influenced environmental 

dynamics and trajectories. The large Borax Lake projectile points were probably used on spear 

points or darts for the hunting of large game animals including elk. For example, it has been 

hypothesized that the over-hunting of elk and the resulting reduction in their numbers may have 

influenced the shift to the utilization of a wider range of resources, including acorns. 

The Middle Period (Mendocino Pattern) 

The Middle Period spans the interval of time between approximately 3,000 B.P. and 1500 B.P. 

The beginning of this period is roughly coincidental with the change in climate at the end of the 

Xerothermic Period. This change in climate has implications for the prehistoric record. It appears 

that montane forest began to increasingly dominate at higher elevations. This change in 

vegetation distributions through time resulted in a shift in resource procurement strategies. The 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-3 
Chapter 3 

artifact assemblages recovered from single component site areas dating from this period include 

projectile points, bifaces, flake tools, and hammerstones indicative of an emphasis on game. 

Archaeological evidence suggests it was during this period that the shift from a forager to a 

"collector" based subsistence strategy began to take place. Collectors store foods for some part 

of the year - usually in sedentary or semi-sedentary villages. In addition, rather than a need for 

group mobility, as in the forager resource procurement model, distributions of resources across 

time and space are solved by moving the resources to consumers resulting in fewer residential 

moves. Land-use activities in relation to settlement patterns are, therefore, also changed. Under 

the collector strategy, intersite variability becomes more pronounced. There are, for example, 

residential sites (villages) as well as various other kinds of specialized sites used for the collection 

of specific resources. These resources (such as acorns, grass seeds, or deer) were gathered 

and/or processed at special use sites then transported back to the main village locations (Simons 

1983:1.23). 

In addition to changes in climate and vegetation species trajectories, another factor that might 

have influenced both site settlement patterns was the increase in population density. Population 

growth necessitates that more energy be extracted per unit of land. Generally, this is 

accomplished by an increase in the range of resources utilized. That is, there is an increased use 

of lower ranked resources. 

Given the intensification in the procurement of subsistence resources resulting from an increase in 

population density, the procurement of a wider range of resources, and the use of fire to promote 

the productivity of desired resources, it is probable that by the end of this period the environment 

of the region was being affected to some extent by human land-use activities. 

Late Period (Gunther Pattern) 

This period extends from approximately 1,500 B.P. to the beginning of the historic period (often 

referred to as the contact period) and includes the ethnographic period (which will be discussed in 

greater detail in the next section). The artifact assemblages recovered from these Pilot Ridge 

sites were predominately of flaked stone tools (i.e. projectile points, cores, bifaces and other 

flaked tools [Hildebrandt and Hayes 1993:112]) similar to artifact assemblages found in Middle 

Period components. It appears that there was a continuing increase in population density and 

intensification in the collection of lowland subsistence resources like fish and acorns. There was 

also more emphasis placed on the storage of resources for winter consumption. Sites located 

away from the sedentary village locations along the rivers were of a more limited and specialized 

nature reflecting their use as temporary camps visited for specialized resource procurement 

activities (Simon 1983:1.26). Thus, by the Late Period, aboriginal peoples, through their land-use 

activities and increased population density, were significant factors influencing the mix of plant 

species and animal species found in the region. 

A theoretical dispute among archaeologists exists in this region related to the relationship between 

the peoples occupying area towards the end of the Late Period (i.e. the ethnographic period) and 

those living here during the earlier time periods. One hypothesis suggests that the changing 

adaptations to the environment and the ethnographic cultural patterns present at the time of 

historic contact occurred in place and were relatively early in origin. The alternative hypothesis, 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-4 
Current and Reference Conditions 

supported by linguistic data (Whistler 1979), contends that many of adaptations related to the 

exploitation of subsistence resources and cultural patterns present during the ethnographic period 

were brought in by immigrant groups with "technological systems preadapted to the local resource 

base" (Hildebrandt and Hayes 1993:116). 

This theory suggests that the original inhabitants of northwestern California were ancestral Karuk 

(Hokan Stock) with a culture focused on an inland-oriented big game subsistence resource 

procurement strategy. The evolution of both inland and coastal cultures during the later portion of 

the Late Period is summarized by Hayes and Hildebrandt (1993:116). 

At around 1100 B.P., the Wiyot arrived and occupied previously under-used coastal habitats. 

Soon thereafter, the Yurok settled along the lower Klamath and adjacent coastline, a process 

made possible by their superior technological abilities to fish, build boats, and store salmon. 

Marking the beginning of the Gunther Pattern, these arrivals are thought to be manifested 

archaeologically at a series of coastal sites containing dentalium shells, bone and antler 

harpoon points, various woodworking tools, ceremonial obsidian bifaces, ground stone 

zoomorphs, as well as a variety of other artifact forms. 

The final hypothetical wave of immigration was speakers of the Athabaskan languages 

(Tolowa, Hupa, Chilula, and Whilkut). Arriving about 700 B.P. and occupying areas peripheral 

to the Wiyot and Yurok, these groups possessed an acute knowledge of forest and riverine 

environment, and possibly an improved technological system that included the toggle harpoon 

and sinew-backed bow. 

The Analysis Area and the Prehistoric Record 

To date, no archaeological excavations have taken place within the HLMTT area. There have 

been, however, several studies within Hupa territory that can provide some insights. In late 

1970s, two sites (CA-HUM-245 and CA-HUM-246) located to the west of Hoopa Valley on Pine 

Ridge and Stormy Saddle were excavated under contract to the Bureau of Land Management 

(Flynn and Roop 1975, Jackson 1979). Although some disagreement about the antiquity of these 

sites exists among archaeologists, the consensus suggests that some of the artifactual materials 

date back at least 2,500 years. In addition, one site located to the east of Hoopa Valley within the 

HLMTT area on Hostler Ridge (CA-HUM-435) recorded in the late 1970s, contained artifactual 

materials that were similar in nature to those found both on Pilot Ridge and Pine Ridge suggestive 

of the Borax Lake tradition. 

It also appears that a radiocarbon date was secured for a village site in Hoopa Valley in about 

1973. The unpublished manuscript was not available for review (Norton 1973). According to 

Winter, (see Theodoratus 1979:125) a radiocarbon date of about 6,000 B.P. was obtained for one 

sample from this site. This date should be viewed with some caution until the documentation for 

this dating is confirmed. The evidence gathered to date, however, suggests that the analysis area 

has been inhabited and utilized by humans for thousands of years 

Surface lithics materials and diagnostic artifacts for prehistoric sites recorded to date within the 

analysis area are nearly all limited to higher elevations (above 4,000’). These artifactual materials 

are in agreement with the general prehistoric model for this region that suggests that high altitude 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-5 
Chapter 3 

areas were used on a seasonal basis. Given the rich resource base of anadromous fish, seeds, 

acorns and wildlife found at lower elevations in Hupa territory, it is not surprising that the higher 

elevations were used less intensively. 

Ethnogeography 

Part of the problem with defining the territorial boundaries in this region of California is related to 

differences in world view and cultures between the anthropologists who documented group 

boundaries and the Indians they interviewed. To the anthropologists working in the area, defining 

boundaries was a product of western logic conceived as strict demarcations that were well defined 

and agreed upon. However, as George Foster (1944:157) noted, "in the minds of the Indians 

exact boundaries were never known.” It is likely, therefore, that the territorial boundaries of the 

peoples living in this region were more complex and ambiguous than those confidently drawn on 

maps by early 20th Century ethnographers. 

During the ethnographic period, the Athabaskan speaking Hupa inhabited the HLMTT area. 

Martin Baumhoff (1958) summarized the ethnogeographic data (primarily the field notes of Pliny 

Goddard, C. Hart Merriam, and the published ethnographies of Alfred Kroeber) for the Hupa. 

Hupa territory occupied the lower portion of the Trinity River from just below its confluence with 

the Klamath south for about 20 miles. The closely related South Fork Hupa, known today as the 

Tsnungwe, occupied the lower portion of the South Fork of the Trinity south to Wintu territory and 

the main stem of the Trinity from the mouth of the South Fork east to Chimariko territory, which 

began about the mouth of the New River (Baumhoff 1958:210). The eastern boundary was the 

Trinity Mountain region and the northern boundary, east of Hoopa Valley, was along the ridge 

separating Red Cap and Mill Creeks and then a westerly line drawn approximately to the mouth of 

Bull Creek (Deerhorn Creek) about two miles south of the confluence of the Trinity and Klamath 

Rivers. 

Mill Creek, Horse Linto Creek, and Tish Tang Creek were important streams to the Hupa 

supporting large populations of anadromous fish. Villages were situated at the confluence of Mill 

Creek, Horse Linto Creek and Tish Tang Creek with the Trinity River (Baumhoff 1958:212). The 

lower reaches of these canyons contained large groves of tanoak and the headwaters regions of 

these watersheds are high altitude country and were a major summering area for deer and elk. 

There were also some groves of Oregon oak and black oak along the edges of the valley floor 

and the lower reaches of the creek canyons on the south facing slopes. In addition to acorns, 

grass seeds, bear grass, ferns and other plant resources were harvested seasonally within both 

the lower and upper reaches of the watersheds 

Given the facts presented above, it is likely that during the ethnographic period era these 

watersheds were used intensively. More recent interview data as summarized by Winter et al 

(1978) confirms that vast tanoak groves were located on the slopes above Mill Creek, Tish Tang 

Creek, and Horse Linto Creek and were accessed from the villages located at the mouth of each 

creek. Interviews with Hoopa residents indicates that acorns and mushrooms are still gathered on 

the Horse Linto side of Tish Tang Ridge (SRNF I#290) and other areas in the lower river canyons. 

As noted earlier, during the ethnographic period at the southern edge of Hupa territory centered 

on the confluence of the South Fork of the Trinity and the main river was a tribe ethnographers 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-6 
Current and Reference Conditions 

referred to as the South Fork Hupa. Today, this tribe is known as the Tsunegwe. Pliny Goddard 

(1903:7), who accomplished extensive linguistic work with the Hupa, suggested that they were a 

division of the Hupa. Despite their close linguistic ties, Goddard noted that there were important 

differences in religious matters. 

Although the Tsunegwe territory was some distance from the analysis area, they are mentioned in 

this study since it is possible that some of the territory within the southern portions of the analysis 

area may experience contemporary use (possibly for plant gathering, but also possible religious 

use) by the Tsunegwe and this use may have extended into the past. 

Hupa Subsistence Strategies and Land-use Practices 

During the ethnographic period, it is likely that the main focus of subsistence procurement 

activities in this region were related to fishing, with slightly less emphasis placed on acorn and 

seed collecting and hunting. While most of the major villages were located within Hoopa Valley on 

river terraces or flats adjacent to the river, there were a number of villages located to the south of 

the valley in the Trinity River canyon. The Hupa villages were permanent with substantial houses. 

The rectangular houses were semi-subterranean and were usually made of cedar planks 

(Wallace 1978:166). For a complete listing of villages and their locations, refer to Baumhoff 

(1958:213). The surrounding hills and mountains were visited seasonally to secure both plant and 

animal resources. 

In this region of northwestern California, resource procurement strategies can be divided into two 

major types. Kroeber (1925:898-899) discussed these types in his Handbook. The Hupa and the 

more coastal or lower river-oriented groups (Tolowa, Yurok, Karuk) in northwestern California 

practiced subsistence strategies and had cultural affinities with the aboriginal groups extending 

north along the coast into Oregon, Washington and British Colombia. These groups were 

dependent on anadromous fish as a major subsistence resource. For this reason, they tended to 

inhabit permanent village sites located along the major waterways within their territory. To the 

south of the Northwest Culture Area (immediately to the south of Hupa territory) begins what has 

been termed the California Culture Area. Here, southern Athabascan territory begins. These 

groups, although closely related linguistically with the Hupa, have cultural characteristics more in 

common with the aboriginal groups within greater California - including a more generalized 

subsistence resource procurement strategy. 

The following is a generalized model of river-oriented resource procurement strategies used by 

the Hupa. The principal subsistence resources utilized by the Hupa were anadromous fish and 

acorns. There were runs of anadromous fish several times each year including in the spring and 

fall. Fishing grounds were traditionally owned by families and were inherited (Theodoratus 

1979:93). Salmon, lamprey eel, and steelhead trout were caught in the river and tributaries during 

their annual migrations. In some strategic locations, fishing dams or weirs were constructed each 

year. Acorns were collected in the fall. Acorns of the tanoak were preferred, but most kinds were 

collected and utilized. Various plants in the hills were used for food resources (for example grass 

seeds and bulbs) and for basketry materials. Villages or extended families had ownership of some 

of these gathering areas for instance specific tanoak groves. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-7 
Chapter 3 

Wallace (1978:165) writes, "although their land was rich in game, the Hupa did not exploit this 

source of food extensively." Hunters did occasionally hunt deer and elk, as well as other small 

game. The Hupa were known for the beauty and quality of their baskets and the plant materials 

needed for their fabrication were secured at various locations within their territory including the 

high country. Ethnographers (Curtis 1924, Goddard 1903, Wallace 1978) also noted that the 

Hupa used fire to drive deer, enhance the quality of basketry materials and to keep the areas 

open and clear of duff under the oak trees where they collected annually. Based on the 

ethnographic data, in general, it appears, that the Hupa spent less time in the hills away from their 

main village sites than those southern Athabascan groups located immediately to the south. 

However, the use of the upland areas away from the river was still relatively substantial and given 

the use of fire, hunting and the gathering of plants it probable that the environment of the entire 

analysis area was influenced to a substantial degree by Hupa subsistence activities and land-use 

practices. 

Religion 

Religious activities were an integral part of everyday Hupa life. The high mountains east of 

Hoopa Valley, that form the headwaters region of the analysis area, were used extensively for 

doctor training and other purposes related to spiritual and religious activities. Trails and resting 

spots along the ridges east of Hoopa Valley were also considered sacred and travelers would stop 

in specific spots to rest, smoke and make offerings (Goddard 1903:88). Religious sites varied but 

included rock circles, cairns and fire hearths for praying, dancing, singing and the invocation of 

various incantations. The rock rings usually commanded an imposing view of the surrounding 

countryside. 

Studies by Six Rivers Heritage Staff (Winter and Heffner 1979, Heffner 1983, 1986) have 

concluded that the traditional religious practices of the Hupa are still taking place within the high 

country east of the valley. As a result of these studies, the De-No-To District was determined 

eligible for the National Register of Historic Places based on the ethnographical and contemporary 

values of these sites centered on the Trinity Summit area (nomination on file Six Rivers National 

Forest). 

Trails 

The Hupa had an extensive trails network linking river villages with the high country in the Trinity 

Summit region. These trails were used for subsistence activities and trade with the groups living 

to the east. As noted above, certain trails were used for religious purposes. 

Recent History 

The first contact between the Hupa and Euro-Americans took place in 1828 when the Jedediah 

Smith Party traveled along the Trinity River on their way to the coast. Intensive contact began 

after the discovery of gold in 1848 in the upper reaches of the Trinity River. The coastal ports of 

Union (Arcata), Humboldt City, Buck's Port and Eureka competed for primacy in supplying the 

Trinity Mines with supplies. The first development within the region occurred in the early 1850s 

with development of supply trails to the mines from the coast. Several trails crossed the Trinity 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-8 
Current and Reference Conditions 

River, with one through Hoopa Valley. The trail ran along the crest of Tish Tang Ridge towards 

the New River mines in the Denny area. 

During the first decade and a half that the trails were open, there were numerous skirmishes with 

the local Indian population. Many of these confrontations are discussed in Indian Wars of the 

Northwest (Bledsoe 1885). The violence escalated and between about 1862 and 1864 when the 

"Two Years War" between the settlers and Indians was being waged throughout interior sections 

of Humboldt and Trinity Counties. During this period, the Board Camp Mountain, Pilot Creek and 

Grouse Creek Watersheds, and the Trinity Summit region were refuge locations where local 

Indian groups could hide out to avoid the soldiers and parties of armed civilians who were 

searching for Indian encampments. The conflicts, when they occurred, were nearly always onesided, with the Stone-Age weapons and lack of organization among the aboriginal groups no 

match for the firearms of the settlers and the well-supplied army troops 

By 1865, the last of the violent conflicts with the Indian tribes had ended and this event opened up 

interior sections of Humboldt County to development and settlement. A number of settlers 

homesteaded in Hoopa Valley, eventually however, agreements were reached that created the 

Hupa Indian Reservation. The reservation boundaries included the most strategically important 

part of the Hupa territory - the Hoopa Valley - within the “Hoopa Square.” Lands to the east of the 

valley within the HLMTT area remained within the public domain. [The history of Hoopa Valley 

and establishment of the reservation is beyond the scope of this study. Those interested in this 

fascinating part of northwestern California history are referred to Our Home Forever a Hupa Tribal 

History, Nelson 1978).] 

Historical Development 

Due to the steep terrain and higher altitudes of the Trinity Summit region, little historical settlement 

took place within the analysis area. Establishment of the Hupa Reservation in the 1860s led to 

increased use of the area by the Hupa for seasonal grazing. In 1903, Frances Berry settled near 

the mouth of Horse Linto Creek and filed a homestead claim in 1907. Some fruit trees remain on 

this site (Gmoser 1984 Hoopa Timber Sale). 

For the most part, historic use within the watersheds has centered on subsistence activities such 

as acorn and seed gathering along the lower reaches of the creek canyons and livestock grazing 

and hunting in the upper reaches of the watersheds in the Trinity Summit region. Also, during the 

mid-to-late 19th century, camps were often established in this region for miners traveling to the 

Trinity mines. For example, Grizzly Camp is supposed to have been used in the 1850s by miners 

heading to the gold fields. 

In addition to the Hupa, some ranchers used the Trinity Summit area for the grazing of livestock. 

For example, in the 1870s and 1880s, a Scotts Valley rancher grazed horses in the Trinity Summit 

region (SRNF I#331). Also, the U.S. Army troops stationed in Hoopa Valley grazed their mules “on 

the summit of Trinity Mountain where grass and good water are abundant” as late as 1897 (as 

quoted in Winter et al 1979:23). 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-9 
Chapter 3 

Some known camps associated with hunting and grazing activities were located at McKay 

Meadows, Andy’s (or Meskets) Camp, Waterdog Lakes, Crogan Hole, Bret Hole, and the Trinity 

Summit Guard Station. 

In April of 1905, President Theodore Roosevelt signed legislation creating a number of Forest 

Reserves including the Trinity Reserve, which encompassed the public lands within the analysis 

area. The Forest Reserve was headquartered in Weaverville. Two Ranger Districts were 

established as administrative sites. One, the Lower Trinity Ranger District, encompassing 

approximately 450,000 acres, included the analysis area. By 1923, (and possibly earlier) an 

administrative site was established on the newly created Ranger District near the confluence of 

the South Fork Trinity and main Trinity River. 

Creation of the Trinity Reserve signaled a major change in the management of public lands by the 

federal government, with increased regulation and management of human land-use activities such 

as grazing and mining. In addition, steps were taken to establish and maintain a trail system, 

control wildfires and to establish communications links between the Forest Service Guard stations, 

lookouts and local homesteads (the Forest Service supplied each homestead with a phone and 

telephone line; homesteaders supplied the batteries to operate it). 

During the late 1930s and early 1940s, a Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) camp was 

established at Salyer. The men from these camps worked on a number of projects within the 

Trinity Summit region including trail construction and maintenance and the construction of a new 

Trinity Guard station. 

The principal recreation activities historically within the analysis area have been hunting and 

hiking. Recreation use has increased recently with the creation of the Trinity Alps Wilderness 

area. In 1947 (USDA Six Rivers National Forest, 1947) a campground and summer homes tract 

was proposed for Groves Prairie; however, that recommendation was never acted upon. 

Within the lands of the Trinity National Forest, there was little in the way of grazing land on what is 

now the Lower Trinity Ranger District. Most of these lands were to the south along Pilot Ridge 

and in the Board Camp Mountain areas. Although the lower reaches of the creek canyons within 

the analysis area were heavily forested, there were some excellent grazing lands in the 

headwaters region. This region, known as the Trinity Summit area, was mostly above 5,000 feet 

in elevation and was a mix of forest and expansive meadows. 

Many of the permittees using the Trinity Summit area were residents of Hoopa Valley. In addition, 

it appears from the historic record that a number of Hupa residents without permits grazed 

livestock in the Trinity Summit area. Since the Hupa had used this area for centuries, the District 

Ranger at that time took a rather permissive attitude when it came to enforcing the law in this area 

(Theodoratus 1979:26). One Lower Trinity Ranger noted this fact in his yearly report: 

Most of the Hoopa Indians own small subsistence ranches, and have small herds of cattle. It 

is the Indian sentiment that the use of National Forest ranges adjoining their Reservation for 

grazing their cattle in summer is part of their heritage based on generations of use by their 

forefathers. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-10 
Current and Reference Conditions 

This is therefore, not a case, which involves only the use of some grass; it involves a pattern of 

Indian use and tradition. The whole Indian problem and our relations with them revolves 

around our judicious handling of such cases as this one. Ranger ____ feels that Approval of 

these applications will definitely lead to better relations with the Indians, and help to solve a 

rather delicate situation. [Six Rivers HRM Grazing files, letter March 15, 1948] 

In the 1940s and 1950s, grazing records indicate that grazing was taking place in the Trinity 

Summit region as well as to the west in the Mill Creek watershed, Waterdog Lake, Fern Prairie, 

and Packer’s Prairie. There were also plans to build the “Trinity Summit Stock Driveway” and 

“Mud Springs Drift Fence” in 1942 charging every grazing permittee a fee to help pay for the 

construction (Theodoratus 1979:26). 

In 1947 (Annual Report 1947:C-22) records indicate that there were several grazing allotments 

within the HLMTT area. Table 3-1 displays the information for each allotment. 

Table 3-1. Allotment Information from 1947 

Allotment Name Total Acreage Total Useable 

Government Acreage 

Estimated Total 

AUMs 

Red Cap 13,967 4,820 281 

Trinity Summit 31,000 535 178 

Groves Prairie 19,840 4,640 150 

Groves Prairie Ranger Station was constructed in 1909. It was a one-room log cabin. In 1922, a 

larger log house, staffed seasonally by a guard, was constructed. The station had a pasture for 

grazing livestock and was located strategically in an area of dense timberlands that were 

susceptible to fire in the summer due to heavy use in the area by hunters. 

No information could be located on exactly when logging began within the analysis area. It is 

clear, however, that by 1947 timber sales were taking place on the Forest east of the Hoopa 

Reservation. In 1947, Forest Service Records (Forest Report 1947:C-21) indicate that 400 mmbf 

board feet of timber were harvested in the Mill Creek watershed and 550 mmbf in the Groves 

Prairie area. Notes in this document (1947:C-21) also indicate that it was estimated that there 

was approximately 1 billion board feet of standing timber existing on the Hoopa Reservation, 90 

percent of which was Douglas-fir. In addition, 500 acres in Section 18 T8N/R6E was cruised with 

a volume averaging 28,886 board feet per acre with a recommended cut of 17,000 board feet per 

acre. 

Hotelling (1978:100) noted that large-scale timber harvesting within the project area began in 

about the early 1950s. He also notes that in the early 1950s some of the first reforestation on the 

National Forest began. One of these areas was in the upper reaches of Mill Creek where Jeffery, 

ponderosa and Douglas-fir were planted. 

Heritage Resources Management 

To date approximately 3,200 acres have been surveyed within the Horse Linto and Tish Tang 

watersheds. Since most of the work has been associated with timber sales, many of the more 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-11 
Chapter 3 

archaeologically sensitive areas such as ridge tops, open meadows, and terraces along the inner 

gorges of Horse Linto and Tish Tang Creek have not been surveyed. Given the heavy historical 

and prehistorical use of the area it is likely that these areas contain some heritage sites. The 

lower portions of the Mill Creek watershed is within the Hupa Reservation and is not included 

within the heritage portion of this study. The upper portions of the watershed east of the 

boundary were included in some Forest Service projects. The total area surveyed on Forest 

Service lands within the upper Mill Creeks region east of the Hupa Square is approximately 1,200 

acres. 

In addition to the cultural resource inventories and site recordation that have taken place within 

and adjacent to the analysis area, a number of ethnographic studies were authored by members 

of the heritage resources staff at Six Rivers. These studies provide important information on both 

the traditional historical and contemporary use of the area east of the Hupa Indian Reservation. In 

addition to these studies, a number of interviews with knowledgeable Hupa on the cultural use of 

the Trinity summit region are on file. Numerous heritage resources have been recorded within the 

project area. The number and types of sites recorded are presented in Table 3-2. 

Table 3-2. Recorded Heritage Resource Sites in the Analysis Area 

Watershed Sites Prehistoric Historic Prehistoric/Historic Trail TCP1 

Mill Creek 19 4 6 2 4 3 

Horse Linto Creek 17 9 3 2 3 0 

Tish Tang Creek 23 8 6 2 42 4 

1

Traditional Cultural Property/prehistoric

2

Several trails listed as within this watershed are on the divide with Horse Linto and Mill Creeks

To date, 18 prehistoric sites, predominately flake and tool scatters, have been recorded within the 

analysis area. Most are located in the higher reaches of the drainage along ridges or adjacent to 

water sources. Most of these sites contain chert and obsidian flakes and archaeologists recording 

the sites have noted the presence of formed artifacts including projectile points on many of the 

sites. Most formed artifacts date from the Late Period. Interestingly, a cursory review of the site 

records suggests that the makeup of the lithics materials for these sites varies significantly from 

those sites recorded and excavated on Pilot Ridge and South Fork Mountain. The most important 

difference is in the ratio between the numbers of chert flakes/tools when compared to obsidian 

flakes/tools. On Pilot Ridge and areas to the south, sites that have been excavated or recorded 

only about 5 percent of the artifactual materials encountered are of obsidian. Within the HLMTT 

area on many of the sites recorded (none have been excavated) up to 50 percent of flakes/tools 

observed on the surface are obsidian. In addition, the presence of basalt flakes was noted on a 

number of sites (for example 05-10-53-221, 222, and 224). Basalt is rarely found on sites located 

within Six Rivers National Forest. Further to the south on Pilot Ridge and the Mad River Ranger 

District, perhaps one site in 100 contains a basalt flake or two. 

Despite the fact that there are references in the literature referring to the collection of tanoak 

acorns within the analysis area, to date, no sites containing groundstone artifacts have been 

recorded. This lack of groundstone artifacts may be the result of the bias towards surveying 

proposed timber harvest units. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-12 
Current and Reference Conditions 

To date, six historic sites have been recorded within the analysis area. These range from a 

“stump house” used as a hunters camp, several hunters camps and associated historic artifacts 

including cans and bottles, and the CCC era constructed Trinity Guard Station. Numerous trails 

Figure 3-1. The DE-NO-TO National Register District: 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-13 
Chapter 3 

lace the analysis area. To date most of these trails have not been recorded. Six trails have been 

formally recorded and most probably date to the prehistoric era. Religious practitioners have 

linked use of some of the trails within the analysis area to traditional and contemporary use. 

As noted earlier, the De-No-To National Register District is located within the analysis area 

(Figure 3-1). This National Register District was determined eligible in 1984. Given the critical 

nature of this area in relation to both the Hupa and the fact that rehabilitation efforts related to the 

Megram Fire might take place within the District boundaries, a large portion of the "Significance" 

section of the National Register nomination is quoted below. 

De-No-to is a significant cultural district eligible under: 

Criteria A Association with a broad pattern of events significant in local prehistory and history 

- due to its association with a complex of high country medicine making which has 

persisted since prehistoric times. 

Criteria C As a district whose components taken together make up a distinguishable entity 

which conveys an important sense of time and place - due to its recognition as a 

concentrated area of sacred significance to the Hupa, an area which retains 

qualities of environmental setting along with objects and sites which are 

characteristic of past and continuing spiritual use; and 

Criteria D has yielded and may be likely to yield information important in prehistory or historydue to the ongoing use of the area of an indigenous religious system, thereby 

providing a living source of information on traditional practices and beliefs along 

with archaeological manifestations of those practices. This information provides an 

important data base for anthropological study of northwest California belief 

systems, notably the World Renewal Complex participated in by the Hupa and also 

the Karuk, Yurok, and Tolowa. Most importantly, the district and its continuing use 

provides a focus for retention and transmission of cultural knowledge amongst 

current and future generations of Hupa practitioners, not only for an understanding 

of how things were done in the past but also as a dynamic core of cultural identity. 

The primary significance of the De-No-To district rests in its value as an area that has been 

sacred to the Hupa people throughout their history. Their feelings for this area and its 

association with the ongoing system of traditional cultural practices and beliefs constitute and 

integral aspect of Hupa cultural identity. 

The medicine making, doctor training and ceremonial activities carried on here are part of an 

indigenous religious system know n as the "World Renewal Complex" (Kreober 1925, Kroeber 

and Gifford 1949) which has persisted in Northwest California since prehistoric times. 

Ethnohistorical data confirm the functional significance of the World Renewal ceremonies in 

creating and maintaining social stability and cohesion (Goldschmidt and Driver 1940). 

Religious beliefs continue to play a vital role in the maintenance and transmission of cultural 

values and identity.... 

...The De-No-To area is the source of the "medicine" utilized by the doctors and ceremonial 

leaders to attend to the spiritual and physical well being of the people. The sacred power of 

the area results from its identification as a place where the "spirituals" dwell. Therefore, here is 

where communication with the supernaturals takes place and their messages are translated to 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-14 
Current and Reference Conditions 

this world. Medicine made here is vital to the success of the ceremonies carried out in Hoopa 

Valley. Here is where doctors still continue to undergo training to gain spiritual knowledge with 

curing powers, and where they continually return to reinforce and extend that knowledge. This 

is also the place for personal medicines, where anyone who approaches the area with the 

proper respect may seek the assistance of supernatural forces. A sense of place and the 

importance of particular localities is an integral aspect of those religious beliefs. "Such a thing 

as transplanting a ceremony to another place is wholly foreign to native views...here indeed is 

a cult rooted in the environment" (Kroeber and Gifford 1949:107). 

The De-No-To District has retained its integrity of location and environmental setting, feeling, 

and association, and thereby conveys an important sense of time and place. While 

archaeological manifestations may be quite subtle - in some cases only a small hearth (CAHUM-506), a cairn and cache of coins or flakes (CA-HUM-500), or a rock circle (CA-HUM-496) 

- these sites represent a complex of highly significant cultural activities that has remained 

essentially unchanged. The continuing use of these same places for generation after 

generation is a key to the transmission, maintenance, and transformation of those practices. 

Awareness of the continuity of use and integrity of these places provides for the users a sense 

of spiritual affinity and bonding with past users; their own teachers and relatives as well as 

distant ancestors. Spiritual objects, such as pipes, have been left here for later spiritual 

seekers who can thereby gain the knowledge and guidance of past and current users (Heffner 

1983:25). One stone pipe hidden in the area is said to be over 600 years old with over 30 

generations of medicine people using it (Winter et al 1979:38). While different localities within 

the district are recognized for particular spiritual activities, it is not possible to isolate particular 

sites from the importance of the area as a whole. The area is a "...concentrated spot of 

spiritual knowledge of greater meaning. The medicine people can step through these doors 

and circle the universe obtaining knowledge..." (Hupa consultant in Heffner 1983:13). 

The presence of a viable ongoing religious tradition in this area, which has deep roots in the 

aboriginal past of northwest California, has proven to be a valuable source of information 

important in prehistory and history. The information volunteered by users of the area has 

already added significantly to the store of knowledge on high country medicine practices and 

the nature of northwest California belief systems, especially of those groups participating in 

what is known as the World Renewal complex.... 

More important than scientific anthropological information, the district and its users provide a 

source of highly significant cultural knowledge for the Hupa themselves. The sacred sites and 

their use for spiritual activities provide a focus for the retention and transmission of cultural 

knowledge not only to current users but also to future generations as well. This knowledge 

provides a core through which cultural identity is maintained even though outward forms of 

practice and life-style may change. According to one Hupa consultant (in Heffner 1983:51), 

these sacred areas are "storehouses of knowledge, which through the young, will restore a 

reviving and continuing culture. There is very important information there. I won't say for the 

taking, but for the receiving by the proper person who is trained and very sincere in his quest. 

It is essential for the survival of our culture." 

Social and Human Uses 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-15 
Chapter 3 

The analysis area is predominately composed of public lands under the jurisdiction of the Six 

Rivers National Forest and the Hoopa Valley Indian Reservation under the jurisdiction of the 

Hoopa Valley Business Council. The local communities have a long history within the HLMTT 

area and have a high level of interest in the environment and economic conditions that surround 

their communities. 

The following sections discuss the findings as they pertain to the socio-cultural values that were 

obtained during the Megram Fire event and information provided by public written and verbal input 

at four public meetings held in Eureka, Willow Creek, and Hoopa Valley. Data has been taken 

from USDI-BIA written letters and reports and Yurok and Hoopa Valley Tribes’ written letters and 

reports, as well as formal government-to-government consultation with the Tribal Councils of 

Yurok and Hoopa. Date was also obtained other written materials generated by the communities, 

tribal governments, other federal agencies and groups utilizing or having interest in the analysis 

area. 

Local Communities 

Indian Tribes 

Aboriginal lands of the Hupa include the analysis area. Hupa individuals and the tribal 

government are actively concerned about what occurs within the watersheds. The Hupa are 

federally recognized, and as such, has authority under their constitution to represent enrolled 

Tribal members’ interests and rights; also, with this recognition comes the responsibility of the 

federal government to meet a trust responsibility towards the Tribe. Hoopa Valley Indian 

Reservation abuts National Forest lands on the south, east and north boundaries of the 

Reservation. The Trinity River dissects the Reservation as it flows toward the Klamath River. 

Tish Tang and Mill Creeks headwaters are east of the Hoopa Valley Indian Reservation and both 

streams flow down into the reservation. The downstream ends of both streams contain 

anadromous fish that are important to the Hoopa Valley Indian Tribe. Roughly half of the 

combined watersheds are within the reservation and about 26,000 acres is part of the Six Rivers 

National Forest. Horse Linto Creek lies just south and south east of the reservation. This 

42,000-acre watershed has runs of steelhead, coho and chinook. The watershed, with the 

exception of about one section of private land, is part of the Six Rivers National Forest. The Hupa 

people are very active in gathering plant resources, spiritual uses, and hunting within the HLMTT 

area. The Tribe is active in representing Hupa socio-cultural and political values to land 

management agencies. Traditionalist, be they plant gatherers, doctors, or spiritual practitioners 

are also active and vocal. 

The Tsnungwe is an organized tribe but is not a federally recognized tribe at this time, although 

they are currently seeking such federal recognition. The Tsnungwe Council speaks on behalf of 

its membership for cultural issues within the aboriginal territory of what is anthropologically known 

as the Southern Hupa. The Tsnungwe Tribal Council is active in supporting their members’ 

gathering of plant resources, spiritual uses and hunting within their identified aboriginal lands, 

which include some of the analysis area. 

The Hupa, Tsnungwe, and their respective Tribal government and Council, express similar values 

about the analysis area and share concerns with respect to the availability and quality of the 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-16 
Current and Reference Conditions 

materials they gather, protection of spiritual locations and cultural sites and quality and quantity of 

water in the Trinity River. They express concern for fisheries survival and habitat improvement. 

Along with those views, they express a desire for the analysis area to return to conditions that are 

more natural. 

Willow Creek and Vicinity 

Willow Creek has a population of approximately 1,500 people and is located along Highway 299 at 

its junction with Highway 96. The Trinity River, which includes a section of wild and scenic river, 

runs adjacent to the town and provides for an economic basis of tourism associated with white 

water rafting, canoeing and kayaking. The river also offers salmon, steelhead and trout fishing 

that attracts both local and out-of-state anglers. Swimming is a big attraction for the coastal 

residents. Several businesses in Willow Creek offer services that support these activities. 

Tribal Trust Resources 

Hoopa Reservation 

The Big Bar Fire Complex totaled 141,600 acres and consisted of the Megram (125,000 acres) 

and Onion (16,600 acres) Fires. Approximately 4,830 acres of reservation lands lie within the fire 

line perimeter. Approximately 2,020 acres of reservation lands actually experienced fire. The 

complex began burning on National Forest lands and later burned onto the Hoopa Valley Indian 

Reservation. Of this, 330 acres were impacted by wildfire and 1,690 acres by burn out 

operations. In anticipation of the fire spreading onto Hoopa lands, a cooperative governmental 

effort developed to reduce any potential adverse effects to tribal trust resources. Back firing 

occurred on approximately 2,090 acres; 146 acres were cleared of vegetation during construction 

of 17.62 miles of dozer line; 0.46 miles of hand line and 20 safety zones were constructed; 9 preexisting stream waterholes were used; 7 drop points were improved; 2 water dipping sites were 

used; 2.49 miles of closed road were re-opened; and 13 miles of road were brushed. Dozer line 

construction resulted in all live vegetation being removed, including old-growth trees. The majority 

of the vegetation affected by the wildfire, burnout operations and dozer/hand lines on the 

reservation were forests. (USDI 1999:54, 59, 89) 

After of the fire, the USDI Southern Burned Area Emergency Rehabilitation (BAER) Team 

produced the “Big Bar Fire Complex Burned Area Emergency Rehabilitation Plan for the Hoopa 

Valley Tribe”. The Plan was prepared for the Bureau of Indian Affairs, and so it documented 

concerns of other federally recognized tribes (Yurok and Karuk) in addition to those of the Hoopa. 

The concerns identified outside the Hoopa Reservation itself were related to fire effects on 

National Forest lands. The report, however, examined both short and potential long-term effects 

to Hoopa Tribal trust resources and interests (USDI 1999:48). 

Hoopa Tribal Council Consultation 

The Hoopa Tribe stated that they supported the data and recommendations in the USDI BAER 

report. Tribal staff participated in the data analysis and recommendations. The Tribe signed 

off on the final document (February 2, 2000). 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-17 
Chapter 3 

Yurok Tribal Chair Consultation 

The Yurok Chair stated that the information reflected in the USDI report basically covers the 

concerns expressed by the Tribal Council of being kept informed of the results of post fire 

monitoring. Additionally, the Council had requested that, if possible, there would be active 

participation in the rehabilitation work of the area (February 3, 2000). 

Timber Trust Resource 

Much of the Hoopa Valley Indian Reservation is dominated by Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga 

menziesii) timber and it is this timber resource that provides the primary economic base of the 

community (Hoopa Valley Tribe 1997:2). Forests affected by the Megram Fire and suppression 

activities include old growth, mature, and early seral (plantations) stands. Forest types include 

Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii)/mixed evergreen hardwood, mixed conifer at elevations 

above approximately 4,000 feet, and riparian forests associated with streams and springs. 

Approximately 1,720 acres within the Megram Fire line perimeter occur within areas designated as 

Wilderness Management and Cultural Use in the Tribe’s Forest Management Plan. Harvesting 

and fuels treatment has occurred within the affected area since as early as the mid 1940s. Of the 

4,830 acres of tribal lands within the fire line perimeter, about 1,490 acres have been harvested to 

date. All but six of the harvested areas had been site prepared and planted prior to the fire. Some 

plantations had been early released from competing vegetation, and many of the older plantations 

had been pre-commercially thinned and released (USDI 1999:59). 

The fire damaged or killed very few mature trees; damage to mature trees was limited to isolated 

small (one to two acre) groups. The fire did kill a substantial number of young trees in established 

Douglas-fir plantations. Damage to plantations varied from isolated mortality of individual trees or 

small groups of trees, to nearly complete mortality of continuous blocks of land within the 

plantations. All of this damage occurred as a direct result of burn out operations along the Long 

Ridge and Horse Linto roads. 

Trees were also killed as a result of dozer line and safety zone construction. In total, 491 acres of 

tree mortality were related to suppression related efforts (Ibid: 67). 

Fish & Water Trust Resource Associated with National Forest Lands 

The Hoopa Valley Indian Reservation was established in 1864. The reservation generally 

consists of approximately a 12-mile square block of land bisected by the lower Trinity River. In 

1988, Congress, via the Hupa-Yurok Settlement Act, established the Yurok Indian Reservation, 

which is bisected by the Lower Klamath River. Several court rulings have established that an 

important “Indian purpose” for the reservations was to reserve the tribes’ rights to take fish from 

the Klamath and Trinity rivers (USFW 1999 EIS for Trinity River Fisheries Restoration). 

The Hoopa and Yurok Tribes retain and fully exercise federally recognized fishing rights within the 

Klamath-Trinity watershed basin. Protection of these rights is a federal government trust 

responsibility. In managing these rights, the federal government recognizes the vested interest 

the Tribe retains in habitat and fish production outside the reservation in the Klamath-Trinity 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-18 
Current and Reference Conditions 

basin. Tribal fishing rights are vested property rights held in trust by the U.S. for the benefit of the 

Indians (Ibid). 

Much of the eastern portion of the Hoopa Valley Reservation is within the analysis area and 

portions were burned during the Megram Fire. Mill, Hostler and Tish Tang creeks all provide 

habitat for anadromous fish (Hoopa Valley Tribe 1997:2). 

The Hoopa Valley Indian Reservation has been granted “Program Authority” status under several 

sections of the Federal Clean Water Act. Under that authority and following due process, the 

Hoopa Valley Tribal Council adopted a Tribal Water Quality Control Plan in July 1997. The 

Hoopa Valley Tribe Water Quality Control Plan has water temperature, suspended sediment, 

turbidity, pesticide and herbicide standards that are more stringent than those of the State of 

California. The Tribe currently monitors water quality in Mill Creek and has extensive background 

data. Continuous data recorders are also presently maintained and the data analyzed in the Mill 

Creek watershed. Water leaving National Forest lands and flowing into the Hoopa Valley Indian 

Reservation is subject to meeting the Tribe’s standards under their Water Quality Control Plan. 

The Hoopa Tribe depends on Mill Creek for domestic water supply for the eastern portions of the 

Reservation, with approximately 280 metered service connections (Hoopa Valley Tribe 1997:31). 

Tish Tang Creek is under an engineering feasibility and design study for use as domestic water 

supply. Currently their Water Quality Plan identifies a goal to reduce turbidity during high flows on 

reservation domestic water supply streams that lead to unacceptable water quality problems 

during the winter months on Mill Creek and Tish Tang Creek (Ibid: 20-21). 

The USDI-BAER report analyzed effects of the burned area as it related to impacts to the 

domestic waters supply. The report indicated that the burned area within Tribal lands is relatively 

small. Portions of the headwaters of Mill Creek and Tish Tang watersheds on National Forest 

lands have burned at high severity but the percentage of the burned areas within those 

watersheds is small. The Colegrove Branch of Mill Creek had significant burn severity and will 

likely receive erosion control treatment. Potential for runoff and erosion from these headwater 

areas may impact water quality in Mill Creek and Tish Tang Creek but the effect will not be great 

and will be short-lived, as vegetation communities begin to restore themselves after the first year 

(USDI BAER 1999:70-73). They further state: 

“Threat to water quality and fisheries: Water quality in the Trinity River and tributaries will 

receive short term impacts from increased ash and sediment contributions as a result of the 

fire. All impacted tributary streams will experience an initial flush of ash and sediment, with a 

possible increase in water temperature. This will affect water quality in all watersheds with 

live streams. However, these effects will be short term, most likely lasting one to two years. 

All of these creeks have potential Coho Salmon populations or habitat. Populations could be 

adversely affected by short-term water quality impacts. The burn conditions and locations 

appear to conform to historical burn patterns (geomorphic observation). These patterns will 

provide impacts that are a natural part of these ecosystems. The short term impacts will be 

greatly outweighed by benefits to the system as a whole.” (Ibid: 74) 

The report recommended monitoring of water quality for a period of no less than three years to 

assess impacts on fisheries and domestic water supply (Ibid). 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-19 
Chapter 3 

Hoopa Valley Business Council Consultation 

The Tribe has in place monitoring, restoration, and enhancement guidelines and programmatic 

systems. The Tribe, through established policy, has addressed the need for Best 

Management Practices (BMP) to be implemented when threats to Tribal vested fish rights 

occur, including habitat and water quality degradation. To ensure protection of fishing related 

rights, Tribal scientific staffs are requesting that off-reservation jurisdictional agencies 

coordinate and consult with the Council on rehabilitation and monitoring efforts associated 

with the Big Bar Fire Complex (USDI memo November 1, 1999). 

Yurok Tribe Consultation 

Consultation with the Yurok Tribal Chair (February 3, 2000) confirmed the consultation 

information in the USDI BAER report: 

“As the largest fishing tribe in the Basin, the Yurok wish to be kept informed on the results of 

post fire water quality monitoring, and if possible, involved in data collection. Requested from 

the BIA and USFS that post fire monitoring be required for at least one year in Hostler, Tish 

Tang, New River, Horse Linto, Mill Creek, Red Cap Creek and the North Fork of the Trinity.” 

(USDI 1999) 

Hoopa Valley Business Council Consultation 

Consultation with the Hoopa Council regarding the HLMTT watershed analysis identified that the 

Tribe is concerned with the entire area east of the reservation. They are very concerned with the 

potential for forest pathogens to get to epidemic proportions on National Forest lands and spread 

into timber trust resources on reservation lands. In a letter dated February 2, 2000 they state: 

“We have completed watershed analysis on both Mill Creek and Tish-Tang, and we have 

invested a great deal of time and tribal money into the restoration of these watersheds. The 

suppression efforts of the Megram Fire impacted a tremendous amount of Tribal lands and 

compromised many acres of previously rehabilitated work in these watersheds.” ... 

The fire has affected many acres of previously healthy trees and weakened them dramatically, 

making them extremely susceptible to damaging agents. The fire has also leveled many acres 

of forest that will now convert to brush fields for 15-25 years, which poses an increased threat 

of similar fire events in the future. These issues need to be dealt with tangibly...The Megram 

Fire has altered the forest composition substantially. The policies that managed the forest 

pre-fire need to be re-evaluated to better meet the needs of the current situation. The concept 

of “Fire” being a natural part of the ecosystem is one that we sincerely believe in, however, the 

Megram Fire effects were not natural. On the contrary, many of the negative affects were due 

to conflicts between the USFS, public, and the industry which led to many land management 

policies that have excluded the use of fire as a land management tool for years.” 

Subsistence Uses 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-20 
Current and Reference Conditions 

Subsistence uses within the analysis area include fuel wood, poles/posts, mushrooms, acorns 

(tanoak), hunting (deer primarily), fishing, berries, and water for domestic use. 

Plant Gathering 

The Hupa people are the primary subsistence users of these watersheds. The Hoopa Valley 

Tribe has identified sixteen Hupa Traditional Plants of Special Concern and seven Abundant 

Hupa Traditional Plants within their Land Management Plan. They are shown in Tables 3-3 and 

Table 3-4. 

Table 3-3. Traditional Plants of Special Concern 

Species of Concern Common Name 

Adiatum pedatum five-fingered fern 

Boschniakia strobilacea ground cone 

Corylus cornuta hazel sticks 

Polypodium californium licorice fern 

Cercocarpus betuloides var. betuloides ironwood 

Tricholoma magnivelare tan oak mushroom 

Xerophyllum tenax bear grass 

Rhamnus californicus coffee berry 

Angelica arguta Indian root 

Chimaphila umbellate prince’s pine 

Evemia vulpine tree fern 

Polystichum munitum sword fern 

Taxus brevifolia Pacific yew 

Woodwardia fimbriat chain fern 

Chameocypris lawsoniana Port-Orford cedar 

The analysis area had previous botanical on-site field investigations conducted for the Hoopa 

Tribe by Karen Theiss and Associates. These investigations have identified several species of 

concern present. The investigations were conducted in the Box Camp area, South Tish Tang 

Compartment, and the Long Ridge Compartment on the Reservation all within the area of the 

Megram Fire. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-21 
Chapter 3 

Table 3-4. Abundant Traditional Plants 

Species of Concern Common Name 

Alnum rubra red alder 

Mahonia nervosa barberry 

Quercus kelloggii black oak 

Vaccinium ovatum evergreen huckleberry 

Equisetum arvense horsetail 

Oxalis oregana redwood sorrel 

Ranunculus spp. Buttercup 

Pteridium aquilinum bracken fern 

The Long Ridge compartment is located along the central eastern boundary of the reservation 

adjacent to National Forest lands. It is bounded along its westerly and northerly sides by Long 

Ridge, along its easterly side by the Reservation boundary, and along the southern side by Big 

Hill Ridge. Eighteen significant populations of six traditional Hupa species were found in this 

compartment (Table 3-5). 

Table 3-5. Significant Populations of Traditional Species found in the Long Ridge 

Compartment 

Species Common Name 

Adiantum aleuticum five-fingered fern 

Berberis nervosa barberry 

Boschniakia strobilacea ground-cone 

Chimaphila umbellate prince’s pine 

Corylus cornuta hazel sticks 

Taxus brevifolia Pacific yew 

The South Tish Tang Compartment on-site field investigation located six significant populations of 

three traditional Hupa species. The South Tish Tang Compartment is located in the southeasterly 

portion of the Reservation. Tish Tang A Tang Creek, South Tish Tang A Tang Creek bound it on 

its northerly side along its northerly boundary, and West Tish Tang Compartment on its westerly 

boundary, and the Reservation boundary adjacent to National Forest lands along the southerly 

side. The species are listed in Table 3-6. 

Table 3-6. Significant Populations of Traditional Species found in the South Tish Tang 

Compartment 

Species Common Name 

Polypodium californicum licorice fern 

Polystichum munitum sword fern 

Vaccinium ovatum evergreen huckleberry 

Woodwardia fimbriata chain fern 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-22 
Current and Reference Conditions 

The Box Camp Salvage Sale on-site field investigation located eleven significant populations of 

four traditional Hupa species. The area of investigation is located on the easterly boundary of the 

Reservation adjacent to National Forest lands. It is roughly bounded by the South Tribal Reserve, 

on the Reservation, along the south, Big Hill Road to the north, Upper Hostler Creek Compartment 

to the west, and Six Rivers National Forest to the east. The species are listed in Table 3-7. 

Table 3-7. Significant Populations of Traditional Species found in the Box Camp 

Salvage Sale Area 

Species Common Name 

Berberis nervosa barberry 

Chimaphila umbellate prince’s pine 

Corylus cornuta hazel sticks 

Pteridium aquilinum bracken fern 

In all the above investigations Theiss concludes that most of the traditional Hupa species, which 

occurred along the Long Ridge Compartment, appear to have narrow light and moisture 

requirements and that all of these species would be directly impacted by the removal of 

substantial canopy cover. She further states that some species, for example Equisetum arvense 

and Pteridium aquilinum, and Corylus cornuta, are fairly tolerant to disturbance and will colonize 

disturbed areas relatively rapidly, assuming moisture and shade are present. Corylus cornuta is 

one of the species that benefits from burning, provided there is at least partial shade, because the 

new growth is preferred for gathering for basket making. 

The Hupa people have identified the entire south Tish Tang Compartment as an area for 

contemporary mountain gathering; it is a general area of subsistence, craft, and medicinal 

gathering (Theiss 1991 & 1992; Heffner 1984). Theiss’ South Tish Tang work (1992) concludes 

that there are some traditional Hupa species that have narrow light and moisture requirements, 

such as Polypodium californicum and Woodwardia fimbriata. Other species, such as 

Polystichum munitum, appear to thrive in shady areas with a more mesic regime. All species 

identified, she concludes, would be directly impacted by the removal of substantial canopy cover. 

Optimum conditions are edaphic conditions of moderate to extensive canopy, low-density shrub 

layer and accumulation of organic duff/litter layer. 

Heffner’s 1984 work identifies National Forest lands within the analysis area as having extensive 

Hupa subsistence, ceremonial, and shaman gathering occurring. The work identifies significantly 

more species being gathered by the Hupa than identified in the Tribe’s Land Management Plan. 

This species list can be located in A Field guide to the Tanoak and the Douglas-fir Plant 

Associations in Northwest California (USDI-FS 1996:E-158). 

In consultation, the Hoopa Tribal Council has expressed concern regarding traditional plant 

gatherers having access into the Megram burn areas in order to continue gathering. They identify 

that this area is significant for Hupa traditional gatherers, specifically for basket makers. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-23 
Chapter 3 

Plant gatherers have identified in previous interviews that low intensity fires improve the quality of 

certain plant species used in basketry. However, they expressed concern that the fire retardants 

would contaminate the plants and other forest edibles (Burcell 1994:42). 

Wildlife 

The USDI BAER report identified wildlife species of importance to tribal members for sustenance, 

as well as, cultural significance. Hunting, fishing, gathering and observation of these animals are 

considered important to the livelihood, as well as cultural and traditional values of Hupa, Karuk 

and Yurok people. (USDI 1999:96-98) Table 3-8 lists the species identified as traditional species 

of concern in the Hoopa’s Land Management Plan. 

Table 3-8. Hoopa Traditional Species of Special Concern 

Species Common Name 

Dryocopus pileatus Pileated woodpecker 

Martes pennanti pacifica Pacific fisher 

Odocoileus hemionus Black-tail deer 

Mustela vison Mink 

Bassariscus astutus Ring-tailed cat 

Oncorhynchus kisutch Coho salmon 

Oncorhynchus mykiss Klamath Mtns. Province steelhead 

Oncorphychus tshawytscha Chinook salmon 

Diadophis punctatus Ring neck snake 

Lutra Canadensis River otter 

Haliaeetus leucocephalus Bald eagle 

Aquila chrysaetos Golden eagle 

Colaptes auratus Northern flicker 

Bonasa umbellus Ruffed grouse 

Dendragapus obscurus Blue grouse 

Cyanocitta stelleri Stellars jay 

The USDI report further states that the above species have been found to occur, have potential 

habitat within the fire area, or may be affected because their habitat is down stream from the fire. 

They recommend: 

1. Post fire monitoring to identify changes in turbidity and water quality resulting from the Big 

Bar Complex fires that may affect the federally listed SONCC coho salmon, and traditional 

species of special concern. Monitoring of water quality will help determine effectiveness of 

the proposed emergency rehabilitation treatments (both DOI and FS), and will help to 

determine if additional watershed treatments are necessary to protect these species and 

other fish populations of the Trinity River Basin. Macro invertebrate sampling will provide 

data that is indicative of water quality and watershed health. The data should be analyzed 

and compared with pre-fire monitoring data collected on the reservation, and adjacent 

National Forest lands. Results from both the DOI BAER fire related monitoring and similar 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-24 
Current and Reference Conditions 

FS BAER monitoring should be shared with all involved. Solutions should be developed 

collaboratively for any problems identified. 

2. Conduct TES fish counts to determine post fire presence. The results of this monitoring 

will help determine the effectiveness of proposed emergency rehabilitation treatments 

(both DOI and FS), and will determine post fire presence of the federally listed SONCC 

coho salmon, and traditional species of special concern: Klamath Mts. Province steelhead 

and Chinook salmon. The data should be analyzed and compared with pre fire monitoring 

data collected on the reservation and adjacent National Forest lands. Results from both 

the DOI BAER TES species monitoring and similar FS BAER monitoring should be shared 

with all involved. Solutions should be developed collaboratively for any problems 

identified. 

The report further had specific recommendations to the Forest Service: 

1. Consult with the Hoopa, Karuk, and Yurok Tribes regarding any proposed emergency or 

other post-fire activities that may affect the Hoopa Valley Indian Reservation watersheds or 

any traditional species of special concern that occur on aboriginal or ancestral lands. FS 

data will be required by FSW to address cumulative effects concerns as part of the 

Emergency Consultation process. 

2. Conduct water quality and fisheries surveys and monitoring, including immediate spawning 

surveys within the New River, Horse Linto and lower Trinity River drainages. 

3. Involve Tribal employees in all BAER monitoring within the context of co-management of 

the Trinity River Basin. 

4. Share post fire-monitoring results with the Hoopa Valley Tribal Council and 

representatives of the Karuk and Yurok Tribes. (USID 1999:102) 

Fisheries 

Fishing is part of the norm of these communities. The Trinity River fisheries and rehabilitation of 

necessary habitat has been a focus of these communities for several years. Fishing is part of the 

major recreational attraction to the area and many of the local residents relay on fish as part of 

their yearly subsistence. The Hupa and Yurok peoples have relied on this resource for 

generations and today are active leaders in restoring the fisheries. 

Both Yurok and Hoopa have trust resource rights in the fisheries of the Klamath and Trinity River 

and are concerned about the impacts of the Big Bar Complex Fires on the streams that could or 

should be maintaining healthy populations of fish. Specifically the concern is regarding sediment 

flow from the burned areas into the creeks and ultimately into the Trinity River affecting the fish 

populations. The USDI-BAER report, utilizing preliminary information, concluded that the sediment 

which would flow from the burned area is not likely to reach the Trinity River in relatively large 

quantities during normal rain events. This report, the Yurok Tribal Council, and the Hoopa Tribal 

Council all recommend fisheries surveys and water quality monitoring within the New River, Horse 

Linto, Mill Creek, Tish Tang Creek, and lower Trinity River drainages to identify changes in 

turbidity and water quality as it may affect fish and domestic water use. (USDI 1999:101-102) 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-25 
Chapter 3 

Domestic Water Use 

Mill Creek provides domestic water supply for the Hoopa Valley Reservation. Tish Tang Creek is 

identified as a potential source of domestic water on the Hoopa Valley Reservation. The East 

Fork Horse Linto Creek has an out-of-basin diversion that contributes to Quimby Creek, the water 

supply for the town of Denny. 

Fuelwood Cutting 

Fuelwood cutting takes place by the local communities within these watersheds. It is a major 

activity for local people that are conducted yearly. Currently it occurs along existing roads on both 

National Forest lands and Reservation lands. 

Spiritual and Cultural Uses 

Contemporary Cultural Concerns 

The contemporary concerns of the Hupa for the analysis area are based on continuing cultural 

traditions. These cultural traditions influence the attitudes towards the high country as well as the 

contemporary uses of the analysis area by members of the Hupa tribe. 

During the past two decades Forest Service initiated projects, including road building and timber 

harvesting, have frequently received project-related comments from the Hupa tribe and members 

of the local community. In addition, as presented earlier in this study, ethnographic studies, 

interviews with knowledgeable Hupa including religious practitioners have provided input on the 

significance of the region to the east of Hoopa Valley. It is clear that the watersheds of Horse 

Linto Creek, Mill Creek, and Tish Tang Creek are of critical concern to the Hupa. 

These concerns can be categorized under two broad themes; impacts to the environment affecting 

spiritual and religious activities and affects to localities where the gathering of traditional 

subsistence resources takes place. There is also a more generalized concern on potential effects 

to the environment of the region east of Hoopa Valley voiced by members of the Hupa tribe. This 

concern is because the lands within the analysis area are viewed as being within their traditional 

tribal boundaries. 

Traditional Cultural Properties and Contemporary Use 

A number of Traditional Cultural Properties (TCP) have been recorded within the analysis area. 

Traditional Cultural Properties are those heritage resources sites that are recognized as cultural 

sites that have in the past or are being used currently by native religious and spiritual users from 

Hoopa Valley. Due to the extremely sensitive nature of this information and location of religious 

and spiritual sites, specific location data is not included in this study. 

Although most of the TCPs are within the De-No-To National Register District caution should be 

exercised in any projects undertaken within the analysis area since trails, camps, and locations 

with religious or cultural significance are likely to occur throughout the territory east of Hoopa 

Valley. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-26 
Current and Reference Conditions 

Contemporary use of the high country is not limited to religious and spiritual activities. Gathering 

of traditional plant materials for basketry and for subsistence purposes as well as hunting has 

continued within the watersheds. Deer and until more recently elk were hunted in this area. 

Over the years, members of the Hupa community have repeatedly informed the Forest Service 

about the importance of the area east of Hoopa Valley and have requested modifications or in 

some instances the cancellation of proposed projects for this area. The letter quoted below from 

the Hoopa Valley Business Council (Aug 14, 1985, to the Forest Supervisor, in Cultural Resources 

Inventory Report 400. On File Heritage Resources, Six Rivers National Forest) is included in this 

study to illustrate the strong feelings of Hupa tribal members to proposed Forest Service projects 

within the HLMTT area. 

[The Horse Linto Creek watershed] “encompasses aboriginal territory of the Hupa 

which have traditionally and continue to be utilized as a source of food, materials, 

medicine and spiritual resources. This area is sacred and the greatest respect for 

wildlife, land, and water should be exercised... 

...Horse Linto Creek is considered a source of divine assistance and a youth seeking 

power will travel up the stream to reach areas of sacred inspiration. A major ridge 

between Tish Tang and Horse Linto Creek was also used to access the ceremonial 

and religious sites of the Trinity Summit area. The trail and resting places along the 

way are considered sacred themselves since reaching the high country is part of the 

process of power and purification... 

As noted earlier, although Tsunegwe territory was some distance from the analysis area it is 

possible that some of the territory within the southern portions of the area may experience 

contemporary use (possibly for plant gathering but also possible religious use) by the Tsunegwe. 

Some local residents and long-time visitors have historically used the region for such activities as 

hunting, wood cutting, and recreational purposes. Some of this use goes back generations. 

Subsequent to the fire, heritage resources staff mapped the locations of all known cultural 

resources sites within the burn area. Using GIS fire intensity maps, each site was evaluated for 

potential effects resulting from the fire based on whether it was located within a no burn, low, 

moderate, or high intensity burn area. The results of the analysis are shown in Table 3-9. 

The Hoopa Tribe’s Land Management Plan identified culturally protected areas which also lay 

within the analysis area: De-No-To trail corridor (which is the lower trail system of the De-No-To 

Cultural District that lies on Reservation lands), Box Camp and a South Tribal Reserve all of which 

abut on the eastern boundary of the Reservation and adjacent to National Forest lands. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-27 
Chapter 3 

Table 3-9. Heritage Resource Sites in the Burned Area 

Watershed no burn low low to 

moderate 

moderate moderate to 

high 

high 

Horse Linto Creek 2 0 1 1 8 5 

Mill 2 2 2 7 5 1 

Tish Tang Creek 1 0 0 8 12 2 

Creek 

The South Tribal Reserve is a wilderness with the objective by resolution of the Council to be 

managed as a wilderness. The Tribe’s Land Management Plan calls for Box Camp to managed 

as a wilderness with no timber harvest; a campground would be constructed, as would trails to 

various scenic sites or potential campsites. The Tribe’s Plan identifies the De-No-To trail as a 

cultural use area with no harvest. Protection of the existing trail corridor, cultural, visual, aesthetic 

and biological resources would be the overall goal for the area. 

Cultural resources were a priority throughout the Big Bar Complex incident, and the Hoopa Valley 

Tribe and its representatives and resource managers were involved throughout the fire. 

Reasonable efforts were made to protect cultural resources, to assess fire and fire suppression 

damages to these resources, and to address all incident-related damages. (USDI 1999:76) 

Documents issued by both the Hoopa Council and the Forest Service state that the De-No-To trail 

corridor has been impacted by fire suppression efforts that resulted in a tractor line being 

constructed up the middle of the trail corridor (USDI-BAER appendices). Temporary treatment for 

erosion control was employed during fire suppression rehabilitation work on both National Forest 

and Tribal lands along within the trail corridor. The Hoopa Council in a letter to BIA (October 29, 

1999) stated that the South Tribal Reserve, Box Camp areas, and the De-No-To trail area were 

severely impacted by fire dozer line construction as well as impacts associated with a temporary 

fire camp located in the Box Camp area. 

The USDI –BAER report conclude that the thermal effects of the Big Bar Complex fire on cultural 

resources are unknown at present. More serious concern includes suppression-related effects, 

disturbance of cultural traditions, and destabilization of watersheds that host the cultural 

resources. The report recommended that the Tribe assess the nature and extent of the incident 

effects on the De-No-To National Register Historic District. (USDI 1999:70) 

Hoopa Valley Business Council Consultation 

The Hoopa Council stated they were not only concerned with the rehabilitation of the watersheds, 

but also equally concerned with the protection of cultural areas. They stated they are directly tied 

to the area spiritually and culturally in many ways and that the Council has spoken with great 

concern and a consistent voice over the past 30 years regarding the need to protect and preserve 

this spiritual area for current and future generations. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-28 
Current and Reference Conditions 

Economics 

Commercial Uses 

Special Forest Products 

Commercial users of special forest products are concentrated within the Lower Trinity – Big Bar 

area. There is a concerted effort by the Hayfork Watershed Center to encourage this activity and 

promote the possible economic opportunities for displaced timber workers. The collection of the 

Tan Oak mushroom is occurring under Forest Service special use permits in the analysis area but 

the extent of that is unknown at this time. 

Grazing 

Three grazing allotments overlay the analysis area and cattle use is tied strongly to riparian areas 

due to the presence of water and green forage in riparian areas. These allotments are also 

discussed in the Human Uses, Values and Expectations section of this chapter. Cattle grazing 

has occurred in these watersheds for more than a century. Several small drift fences used to help 

control cattle distribution, but these fences are not in good repair, especially after the Megram 

Fire. 

Cattle grazing use has occasionally conflicted with riparian values. Stream banks have been 

trampled, riparian vegetation has been set back by livestock and erosion elevated in parts of each 

allotment. These problems are not extensive, nor severe, but rather are localized problems. 

Several corrective actions were taken, or were in the process of being implemented, to deal with 

grazing and riparian concerns prior to the Megram Fire. Annual operating instructions are 

modified when problems are noted. Salting is no longer allowed next to streams, since that 

encourages cattle to congregate there. Groves Prairie meadow was fenced to protect that site. A 

small exclosure was proposed for Patterson Meadow to monitor riparian and meadow condition 

and trend in the absence of grazing. 

A portion of each allotment burned at a high or moderate intensity. All three allotments also 

include lands where post fire rehabilitation has or will occur. It is expected that this watershed 

analysis will give guidance on how to decide when grazing should be allowed to resume and what 

monitoring should be implemented to ensure the activity is consistent with ACS objectives. There 

is a concern that cattle grazing may disturb fragile sites, elevate erosion and delay post fire 

recovery. It appears that the majority of the wet meadows and riparian areas burned at low to 

moderate severity. Also, the areas slated for rehabilitation efforts are mainly not locations where 

livestock have congregated before. Still, the fire rehabilitation team anticipates that there could be 

a conflict with grazing in areas that are to be seeded with grasses or rice straw applied to reduce 

erosion. 

Grazing of cattle in the analysis areas has been an economic activity for Hupa individuals since 

the introduction of cattle in the 1860s to the Reservation system; in association with this activity, 

there are numerous cattle camps. (Heffner 1983:42) Eight individuals, five Hoopa Tribal 

members, have grazing permits on lands administrated by the Forest Service. The grazing 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-29 
Chapter 3 

allotments affected by the wildfire are the Trinity Summit, Mill Creek, and Groves Prairie 

allotments. A total of 387 Animal Unit Months (AUMs) are within these allotments. The 

breakdown for the Term Permits is shown in Table 3-10. 

Table 3-10. Grazing Allotment Season of Use and AUMs 

Allotment & Unit Number of Cattle Season of Use AUMs 

Trinity Summit: Ferguson 70 7/16-9/30 175 

Trinity Summit: Grogan Hole 15 7/16-9/30 38 

Trinity Summit: Water Dog 27 7/16-9/30 68 

Mill Creek: Red Cap – Horse Trail 15 7/16-9/30 38 

Mill Creek: Mill Creek Lake 15 7/16-9/30 38 

Groves Prairie: Groves Prairie 15 7/16-9/30 30 

Grazing issues have been raised by a small segment of the community. They believe that any 

grazing term permits in existence should be honored and any structures and camps associated 

with this activity that were destroyed by the fire should be rebuilt. 

The Hoopa Valley Tribal Council expressed concern about potential impacts to people who graze 

cattle in that area during the summer months if the Forest Service closed the area to grazing as a 

result of the Megram Fire. They expressed that there was no other place for these individuals to 

put their cattle during these months due to the Reservation’s closed range policy. The Council 

suggested that if the Forest Service closed the grazing options while the area recovered from fire 

effects, that they look into the opportunity of providing hay for the cattle during this recovery 

period. 

Timber Harvesting 

Timber harvesting occurred within the analysis area managed by the Forest Service in the upper 

reaches of the watersheds and by BIA and later the Hoopa Valley Tribe in the lower reaches of 

the analysis area of Mill Creek, Tish Tang, and Horse Linto Creeks. Due to land designations of 

LSR, roadless and wilderness, timber harvesting has recently be focused on managing for LSR 

objectives and fuels reduction. Timber management as a program was not addressed by any of 

the comments received by the public. Rather, they addressed the need to either harvest the 

salvageable timber to reduce fuels or to leave dead trees in place to allow natural processes to 

occur without management interference. 

Community Economics 

The communities recognize that their economic viability rests in the landscape around them 

focusing in two major areas: timber industry and tourism associated with recreation, both of which 

rely on the timber and fish resources associated with the National Forest lands. 

The Big Bar Fire Complex impacted the economy of the local communities for almost a threemonth period. A clear trend in the community view reflects the belief that in managing the area 

affected by the Megram Fire, the Forest Service should consider the economics of the affected 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-30 
Current and Reference Conditions 

communities as the primary criteria in decision-making. These communities believe strongly that 

the communities themselves suffered both long and short-term economic impacts from the 

prolonged fire. Summer tourists, anglers, day-user swimmers, wilderness hikers, and river users 

were discouraged from coming into the area by the media attention to the smoke, large flashing 

road signs along Highway 299, which warned of the smoke, and many articles that appeared in 

various newspapers. Additionally, due to the heavy smoke and the health warning that was 

issued, many residents left their homes for health reasons, local schools were closed, and youth 

sports teams cancelled games or switched locations to other areas. The local communities view 

that all of this created an adverse economic impact to the community that will be felt in the shortterm and perhaps in the long-term. 

The local communities contend that salvage efforts should begin as soon as weather permits to 

remove as much salvageable timber out to market within the year. The concern the community 

holds for the rush to harvest salvage centers around the economic viability of the timber. If the 

salvageable timber is not removed within a two or three-year period, the volume will be lost to 

decay. They support an active rehabilitation program for the analysis area that considers the local 

economic needs as well as the needs for a viable healthy ecosystem. The community looks at the 

analysis area as a backdrop to their economic viability in the recreation and tourism industry and, 

as such, desires it to be accessible by roads and trails, enjoyable by the recreationist, and safe by 

reducing the fuel loads through salvage and potential future stand thinning. 

Community Safety 

Community protection from future fires is a concern across the broad range of community views. 

They view that one way to assist in this safety issue is the elimination of the fuel buildup that 

resulted from the fire. They believe that salvaging this fuel buildup should be a priority. 

An idea put forth was the development of a Community Safety Plan in partnership with the Forest 

Service and the California Department of Forestry (CDF) to assist the community in reducing 

private property risks from wildfires. 

Air Quality 

The Megram Fire burned for over 10 weeks. Meteorological conditions, combined with the 

mountainous terrain and large smoke production from fires, caused numerous localized and 

regional air quality impacts, including the first declared state of emergency in a California county 

(Humboldt) due to air pollution. The Hoopa Tribal Environmental Protection Agency and the North 

Coast Unified Air Quality Management District conducted widespread air monitoring during the fire 

to provide health officials with data to be used in issuing health alerts and evacuation plans. (Herr 

1999:1) Trinity County Public Health also issued a warning that air quality in the Burnt Ranch, 

Hawkins Bar, and Salyer areas had reached hazardous levels due to smoke from the Megram Fire 

recommending avoid outdoor activity and remain indoors or to relocate until the smoke clears. 

(Trinity Journal 10/12/99) 

The air quality was measured at a level that was unhealthy for people with chronic heart or lung 

disease, the elderly and young children. People were advised to remain indoors and avoid 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-31 
Chapter 3 

vigorous outdoor activity. Many local residents left their homes to during this time due to health 

concerns. The Red Cross and Northern California Indian Development Council operated 

emergency shelters for residents who felt it necessary to leave their homes. Over 400 people 

utilized these shelters the majority of those leaving were from Hoopa Valley (Times Standard 

10/26/99 Hoopa Council Consultation 2/2/2000). 

Herr (Ibid: 5) states that the reasons these wildfires caused such severe air quality impacts were 

the long duration of the fire, poor dispersion characteristics, and heavy fuel loading all of which 

contributed to smoke impacts experienced during the fires. 

The local communities continue to be very concerned about potential long-term impacts to 

individual health. 

The Hoopa Tribe had difficultly finding guidelines that would establish criteria to assist in 

determining when it was necessary to call a full evacuation and how to assess and deal with 

community fears and concerns. They sought this information from numerous federal agencies and 

were unable to find assistance. They recommend that the Forest Service get involved in 

developing criteria for communities to use in wildfire situations. Long-term health problems 

resulting from extended exposure to smoke from fire is significant to them and their citizens. In 

response to this concern, they have been proactive and are cooperating with the Center for 

Disease Control in a long-term study involving the issues of smoke from wildfires. 

Public Perspectives 

This area had intense public interest after the 1995-96 winter storms that resulted in the blow 

down situation. The Megram Fire has re-opened this intense and passionate discussion among 

those who value and have interest in the analysis area. The local residents are very involved in 

this discussion and actively use and value the natural resources around them in a consistent way. 

Natural resource oriented organizations and environmental industries also have a high interest in 

this area. 

One perspective put forth supports an active role in the rehabilitation of the fire damaged area, 

which they believe will ensure that the pre-fire ecosystems will be reestablished in the shortest 

period of time with the least threat to human health, safety and private property damage. Following 

are some of the areas of greatest concern: 

1. Economics: The only source of reliable revenues in the analysis area is the large 

woody fuels that resulted from the Megram Fire. Timing, slope, geography, 

species composition and proximity to roads are essential components in the 

determination to remove any of this material. They urge the use of contracting to 

complete the work as quickly as possible. 

2. Air Quality: Regardless of land classification within the Megram Fire Area, the 

vegetation community and the transportation system need to be managed such 

that future fires can be controlled in a matter of days rather than months. Air 

quality health threat should not be a probable consequence of management 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-32 
Current and Reference Conditions 

activities. The only options available to protect air quality are to minimize the fuels 

consumed and the duration of the wildfires. 

3. Fuel Conditions: There is a need to analyze what adjusting the fuel densities 

could have on reducing the adverse effects of fires and what fuel conditions are 

desirable to achieve low intensity burns and avoid moderate and high intensity 

burns. There is large community support for reducing the potential for future fire 

from the existing vast amounts of fuel in the area. They believe the best solution is 

through fuel breaks, fuel reduction and maintenance through moderate burns to 

reduce risks from future fires. The risks they consistently bring forth are 

concerning the potential of fire effecting private property and individual health risks 

associated with prolonged exposure to smoke from catastrophic fires. 

4. Timber Management: Some publics’ spoke specifically to the values associated 

with the LSR and encouraged the Forest to take an aggressive position to manage 

the damaged LSR. They view that the recovery of the LSR, and protection from 

future catastrophic fires, depend heavily on the use of timber salvage, reestablishment of plantations and fuel breaks. 

A letter provided by several environmental individuals and organizations (Citizens for a Better 

Forestry, January 26, 2000) summarizes another perspective on the values and management 

objectives needed in the analysis area: 

1. Roads: The condition of the transportation system should be reassessed to 

determine the need for road maintenance, improvement or obliteration. The 

building of new roads in the burned area should be prohibited 

2. Hazard Tree Removal: Provide a clear, thorough definition of what is a ‘hazard” 

tree by species. Responsible hazard tree removal on high traffic roads that are 

adequately maintained is supported. This should be integrated into plans for road 

closure and road removal. Discourage hazard tree felling within Riparian 

Reserves; however, any that must be felled should be left in place to provide on 

site LWD. 

3. Cumulative Watershed Effects and the Aquatic Conservation Strategy: A 

cumulative watershed effects analysis needs to be completed and a discussion of 

these effects related to aquatic habitat conditions, resident and anadromous 

fisheries, and flooding at the basin, sub-basin and watershed scales. 

4. Assessment of Fire Behavior, Fire Effects and Fire Risk: The fire is not 

viewed as a “catastrophe” and may have generally beneficial effects to the 

landscape. An objective assessment of fire effects and behavior should be 

completed. The risk of future high intensity fires within the burn area should be 

objectively assessed based on empirical evidence. 

5. Fire Suppression: Assess how fire suppression and fuel management activities 

contributed to existing cumulative watershed impacts in the watersheds and the 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-33 
Chapter 3 

potential cumulative impacts resulting from continued fire suppression efforts in the 

foreseeable future. The overall management goal must be to preserve and reestablish the fire and other disturbance regimes that maintain ecological systems 

and processes, while protecting human life and property. 

6. Salvage Logging: Concludes that salvage logging by any method must be 

prohibited, particularly on sensitive sites, including: severely burned areas (areas 

with litter destruction), on erosive sites, on fragile soils, in road less areas, in 

riparian areas, on steep slopes, or any site where accelerated erosion is possible. 

7. Fuels Management: Concerned with the use of extensive ridgeline fuel breaks. 

Does not support the construction of extensive shaded fuel break in the steep, 

inaccessible headwaters of the fire area for future fire suppression efforts, 

especially in the roadless areas. Finds some merit in developing fire breaks as 

pretreatment for re-introducing natural fire regimes, but must be considered 

experimental and located near communities where they would be most effective. 

8. Roadless Areas: Strongly opposes any salvage logging, road construction (even 

temporary), mechanical fuels treatments or continued fire suppression within any 

road less area, including inventoried “ RARE II” Road less Areas as well as uninventoried unroaded lands greater than 1000 acres in size. 

9. Community Protection Plan: The primary activities of the Forest Service should 

be to reduce fuels and fire hazards close to communities and homes. The vision is 

a Community Protection Plan implemented by the Forest Service in coordination 

with state and county agencies. 

10. Proposed Establishment of a Fire Process Research Natural Area: Consider 

the establishment of a Fire Process Research Natural Area within unroaded 

portions of Horse Linto Creek, Tish-Tang Creek, Mill Creek, Red Cap Creek and 

New River watersheds. It would be devoted to monitoring and studying long-term 

fire recovery processes and dynamics. 

The general broader community view regarding the LSR was around making every effort to 

maintain green trees, recover the LSR, protect from future catastrophic fires and return the Forest 

to a balanced mixture of openings, young growth, old growth and dense conditions. The methods 

of how this could be accomplished are diametrically different as discussed above. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-34 
Current and Reference Conditions 

Transportation and Access 

Reference Conditions 

Historic Road Development and Use 

Most of the road system in the HLMTT watersheds was developed within the last thirty-five years, 

though some of the routes have much earlier origins. As was typical in the mountainous regions 

of the west, road development began in the lower reaches of the watersheds and gradually 

expanded to the higher elevations. Though early primitive roads and trails predated the first 

designed road, the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) constructed road in the area as early as 

1933. The primary transportation system expansion, however, occurred after World War II as 

commodity development received increased emphasis on public lands. Most of the roads in these 

watersheds were constructed from the 1960s through the 1980s. Though most were designed to 

the minimum standard necessary to support commercial timber haul, certain routes were built to 

higher standards where necessary to insure resource protection and user safety. These roads 

provide access for resource management, fire protection, recreation and other public and 

administrative uses. 

Pre-Fire Transportation Planning 

Road maintenance budgets have generally declined through the years, and road maintenance 

opportunities associated with timber sales have essentially vanished in the HLMTT area as 

management direction shifted away from timber production. The lack of sufficient road 

maintenance funds, as well as specific direction in the Forest Land and Resource Management 

Plan (LMP) which states that road mileage on the Forest will be reduced by 250 miles over a tenyear period, provided the impetus for a transportation system analysis in the HLMTT area. 

In 1997, the Six Rivers National Forest completed an Access and Travel Management (ATM) plan 

for the lands northeast of the Trinity River, including the Horse Linto, Mill Creek and Tish Tang 

watersheds. The ATM planning team reviewed the existing transportation system to assess the 

current access needs for the area and to determine whether existing road standards provided 

adequate resource protection and user safety. Based on the evaluation, the ATM plan and 

subsequent Environmental Assessment (EA) identified specific roads that were no longer needed 

for National Forest resource management, public access or administrative access. The decision 

for this EA was signed on September 11, 1997. Roads identified as surplus were proposed for 

decommissioning or for classifying as operational maintenance level 1 (ML1). Decommissioning 

applies to roads where no long-term need has been identified; all culverts and drainage structures 

are removed, the roads are physically closed and they are removed from the road inventory 

system. Maintenance level 1 is the classification for roads that are not needed in the foreseeable 

future, but may be needed in the long term; these roads are retained in the road inventory as part 

of the official road system, but are physically closed for periods of at least one year. The ATM 

plan and EA specified that those roads being downgraded to ML1 would be made “hydrologically 

maintenance-free”, where culverts are removed, roadways reshaped, and waterbars or other 

drainage devices installed where necessary to prevent erosion, insure proper drainage, and 

protect the road investment. Approximately twelve miles of roads were identified for 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-35 
Chapter 3 

decommissioning, with about 52 miles of roads to be classified as ML1 and made hydrologically 

maintenance-free. The EA also defined areas where road upgrades were needed for resource 

protection purposes; the specified work consisted primarily of culvert upgrades. 

Most of the projects identified in the ATM plan and EA -- road decommissioning, hydrologically 

maintenance-free ML1 roads and road upgrading -- were implemented prior to the Megram Fire. 

For a detailed description of the restoration work completed, refer to the Watershed Restoration 

section under Aquatic and Riparian Systems. Approximately five miles of additional road 

decommissioning was planned but not implemented. Grant funding is available to complete the 

other remaining work identified in the EA. In addition to the roads identified in this EA, a separate 

decision was made to decommission and convert to a trail a segment of Forest Road 8N10. The 

affected portion of 8N10 is within a designated wilderness. A contract was awarded last year to 

complete this work, but not implemented due to the fire. It will be implemented during 2000. 

Pre-Fire Road Conditions 

Currently there are approximately 246.0 miles of roads in the analysis area, including 136.3 miles 

of Forest Development Roads (“system” roads), 26.6 miles of Forest non-system roads, and 83.1 

miles of private, State and County, and other non-Forest roads (including roads on the Hoopa 

Valley Indian Reservation). Of the Forest system roads, approximately 

• 33.4 miles are maintenance level (ML) 1 

• 45.3 miles are ML2 

• 55.3 miles are ML3 and 

• 2.3 miles are ML4 

An estimated 24.4 miles of Forest roads have been decommissioned to date, including 21.2 miles 

of system roads and 3.2 miles of non-system roads. Miles of road in the analysis area by 

watershed and surface type are shown in Table 3-11. Though the table displays miles of road for 

all jurisdictions, all listed surface types except “unknown” depict roads under Forest Service 

jurisdiction. Approximately 4.6 miles of Forest system roads and 22.2 miles of Forest non-system 

roads are included in the “unknown” category, with the remaining mileage representing roads 

under State, County, private, and other jurisdictions. 

As described above, road maintenance funding has been inadequate to fully maintain all roads at 

their design standard. Maintenance has generally been sufficient to address the most critical 

safety related work needs, but more expensive work items, such as surface replacement, are often 

necessarily deferred. A road maintenance inventory of all ML3 and ML4 roads on the Forest was 

completed last year, including the roads in the analysis area. Annual and deferred maintenance 

needs and capital improvement needs were identified. This information will be used to prioritize 

future road maintenance work in the area, within the limits of available funding. The Waterman 

Ridge road (7N02), which runs along the southwest boundary of the Horse Linto watershed, was 

identified as high priority for resurfacing and reconstruction. Many other work needs were 

identified on area roads, and these will be accomplished as time and funding permits, with 

resource protection and safety items receiving the highest priority. 

Table 3-11. Miles of Road (All Jurisdictions) by Watershed and Surface Type 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-36 
Current and Reference Conditions 

Watershed Surface Type* Miles 

Horse Linto Creek AC 

AGG 

BIT 

IMP 

NAT 

UNK 

TOTAL 

8.5 

31.5 

17.8 

17.6 

16.7 

16.2 

108.3 

Mill Creek AC 

AGG 

BIT 

IMP 

NAT 

UNK 

TOTAL 

0 

5.0 

16.3 

7.9 

3.7 

64.9 

97.8 

Tish Tang Creek AC 

AGG 

BIT 

IMP 

NAT 

UNK 

TOTAL 

0 

0.2 

3.0 

1.2 

2.3 

33.2 

39.9 

* Surface type codes:

AC = Asphalt IMP = Improved (pit run)

AGG = Aggregate NAT = Native surface

BIT = Bituminous (chip seal) UNK = Unknown

Current Conditions 

Current Road Use 

Post-fire activities in the burned area will increase the amount of traffic on area roads for the next 

few years. Rehabilitation activities dealing with erosion control, fuel reduction, hazard tree 

removal, resource monitoring and other fire-related projects will require vehicular access for work 

crews, monitoring personnel, large trucks and heavy equipment. Public use of the roads will 

continue, but it is likely to be minor relative to the amount of administrative and rehabilitationrelated traffic. The result will be an increase in mixed traffic ranging from pickups to commercialsized trucks. Maintenance and repair of fire-caused and suppression-related road damage will 

continue this field season. This work, combined with proposed hazard tree removal along 

roadways, could add to the congestion of expected heavier-than-normal traffic. Depending on the 

type, number and timing of any fire rehabilitation projects that are implemented, construction work 

and travel along area roads may require scheduling to minimize possible delays and threats to 

personal safety. Detours, scheduled closures or other travel restrictions could be considered if 

necessary. 

Several recently-decommissioned roads were temporarily reopened during the fire to provide 

emergency access. As a result, the Lower Trinity ATM plan was reviewed to determine whether 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-37 
Chapter 3 

the plan’s proposed actions are still valid under current conditions. The review suggested that 

only minor adjustments to the plan may be needed, some of which are unrelated to the fire. Two 

roads proposed for decommissioning may need to be left open temporarily to facilitate fire 

rehabilitation access and four short spur roads proposed for ML1 closure that access Groves 

Prairie, a dispersed campsite, be maintained at ML 2. These recommendations are specifically 

addressed in Chapters 4 and 5. 

Post-Fire Road Conditions 

Most of the roads in and adjacent to the burned area were used either directly or indirectly for fire 

suppression or post-fire efforts, including firefighting, reconnaissance, mop up, burned-area 

assessment or fire rehabilitation efforts. The roads were used to transport personnel, fire 

engines, crew carriers, large trucks and heavy equipment. As a consequence, substantial 

damage to the roads and related structures occurred. Examples of direct effects from the fire on 

roads included: damage to culvert ends, elbows and other drainage structures; burned out stumps 

and woody debris that undermined fill slopes and road prisms; rocks, snags and debris falling on 

roadways, culvert ends, ditches and culvert inlets; damage to asphalt or chip-seal surfacing; 

burned up signs. Suppression-related road damage included: heavy equipment damage to road 

surfacing, cut and fill slopes, ditches, culvert ends, drivable dips, and other road structures; 

backfire-caused damage to road signs and structures; felling of trees or snags onto roadway, 

culvert ends, ditches and culvert inlets. 

Forest engineering personnel were actively involved in road-related activities both during and 

immediately following the fire. In order to identify the appropriate funding source for repair work, 

road damage was inventoried and classified as either fire-caused or suppression-caused. Much 

of the identified maintenance and repair work was completed during or immediately after the fire, 

with priority given to correcting potential safety hazards. Road work was halted prior to 

completion due to adverse weather and ground conditions. The remaining tasks are planned for 

completion in the coming field season. 

In addition to the fire and suppression caused maintenance and repair work, the Forest hoped to 

implement critical deferred maintenance projects on major routes adjacent to the burned area. 

(See discussion on deferred maintenance needs in the “Pre-Fire Road Conditions” section 

above.) For example, 7N02, Waterman Ridge road, which provides an important link to the Horse 

Linto watershed, requires extensive resurfacing and reconstruction. Unfortunately, funds 

normally made available to Forests for completing this type of work were withdrawn this fiscal 

year. Consequently, the Forest is limited to use of regular programmed road maintenance funds, 

so additional large-scale projects are not fiscally feasible this year. 

Roadside Hazard Trees 

The Megram Fire created a situation where many dead or dying trees were left standing in close 

proximity to area roadways. As these trees deteriorate and fall, either completely or in part, they 

pose a threat to human safety and to the road facilities. A tree is considered a hazard if all or a 

portion of the tree has a high potential to fall or roll onto a roadway, trail or facility and cause 

personal injury or property damage. Distance to trees on the uphill side may exceed one tree 

height if they are likely to roll or slide onto the roadway, trail or facility (i.e. there are insufficient 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-38 
Current and Reference Conditions 

barriers to prevent trees from reaching the roadway, trail or facility). To be considered a hazard 

tree, it must also meet one or more of the following criteria: 

1. Tree is dead (no live crown) 

2. Tree is dying (likely to die within one year). A tree is dying if it meets one or more of the 

following criteria: 

a. 50% or greater crown foliage is discolored; 

b. For all species, except sugar pine and true fir, 50% or greater dieback (individual 

branches or branch tips are dead); for sugar pine and true fir, use other criteria 

(crown, foliage, insects, etc.); 

c. Evidence of successful bark beetle attack (dry frass [excrement, sawdust] in the 

bark fissure); 

d. Fire damaged trees: (1) white fir and red fir trees with greater than 25% of the 

cambium (circumference) killed by fire; (2) Douglas-fir and sugar pine trees with 

greater than 50% of the cambium killed by fire; and (3) Ponderosa pine, Jeffery 

pine, incense cedar and Port-Orford cedar trees, use other criteria (crown, foliage, 

insects, etc.) to predict mortality. 

e. Damaged or diseased trees with less than 20% live crown ratio. 

f. Crown loss due to fire is greater than 50% of pre-fire live crown ratio. Green 

needle retention is less than 40% of pre-fire needle complement, except for 

Ponderosa pine and Jeffrey pine, where green needle retention is greater or equal 

to 15% of original needle complement. 

3. Tree is damaged and shows one or more of the following characteristics: 

a. A spiked top that has potential to reach the road or improvement and is minimum 

12 inch diameter at the base of spike and a minimum 20 ft. in length. 

b. Damaged root system (examples include: root sprung or undercut by 1/3 or more of 

the root with greater than 20 degree lean toward the road; located on actively 

moving slope, etc.); 

c. Severe structural damage to the tree bole (examples include: mechanical damage, 

cracked bole, cat faces affecting 1/3 or more of the bole diameter); 

d. Advanced decay (root disease, bole rots) and the tree is exposed to additional risk 

factors such as being located in a high wind area; position on the landscape; 

leaning toward road or improvement; etc. 

Due to the anticipated increase in post-fire activities, as described in the “Current Road Use” 

section above, safe and secure access along the existing road system will be critical to the 

success of the projects, and consequently to the health of some forest resources. In addition to 

the fire-related administrative uses, the roads in these three watersheds are frequented by a wide 

variety of forest users. These roads provide access to five trailheads into the Trinity Alps 

Wilderness, several dispersed undeveloped camp areas and the general forest for uses such as 

pleasure driving, firewood cutting, hunting and subsistence gathering. The Forest Service is 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-39 
Chapter 3 

required to eliminate any known hazards along Forest roads that may constitute a threat to public 

safety. 

An interdisciplinary team has been assembled to analyze the hazard tree situation and complete 

an Environmental Assessment (EA), for which public scoping has already been initiated. The EA 

will specifically define what constitutes a hazard tree, where and under what circumstances felled 

hazard trees will be removed and all other specifics for dealing with hazard trees along the roads, 

trails, and facilities affected by the fire. To minimize this threat, it is proposed that hazard trees 

along ML 2, 3 and 4 roads be felled. Most of these trees would also be removed and utilized. 

In order to estimate the extent and location of the hazard tree problem, a cursory field review was 

conducted. Based on the review, it is estimated that during the next five-year period over 3,000 

trees will need to be felled if all of the affected roads are to remain open for use. The hazard trees 

are located along approximately 118 miles of Forest and County roads. Given the critical safety 

hazard associated with these trees, some road segments may need to be closed in the spring of 

2000 and remain closed until the hazards have been eliminated. 

The approximate densities (number per mile) of hazard trees that are expected to develop over the 

next five-year period have been categorized into five groups. The following are definitions of 

these five categories and the approximate miles of road for each category: 

Extreme - Greater than 100 trees per mile of road (5.5 miles) 

High - Between 51 and 100 trees per mile (12.9 miles) 

Medium - Between 11 and 50 trees per mile (38.0 miles) 

Low - Between 1 and 10 trees per mile (35.1 miles) 

Unidentified - None, or too few trees to remove; however, individual trees may be felled and 

left in place (26.2 miles) 

The vast majority of anticipated hazard trees were killed directly by the fire. Many additional trees 

will die over the next several years as the fire has predisposed them to the effects of other causal 

agents such as insects, diseases, windthrow, and breakage. The fire burned across the 

landscape in varying intensities and durations, and so the levels of hazard trees are also quite 

variable. As expected, the greatest concentrations of hazard trees occur where the fire burned at 

the greatest intensity. In those areas classified as "extreme" hazard tree level, essentially all trees 

have been killed or are expected to die. In areas classified as "low" hazard tree level, the fire was 

of relatively low intensity, or perhaps did not burn in that vicinity at all. 

Besides the threat to human safety, hazard trees can cause direct damage to roads and related 

drainage structures. Falling and rolling logs can damage road surfacing, culvert inlets and outlets, 

signs and other structures. Logs and woody debris can plug culverts and ditches, which can lead 

to surface erosion, diversions or even road failures. Similarly, hazard tree felling or removal can 

result in road damage due to tree felling, woody debris left in drainages, culvert inlets, and ditches 

and operation of heavy equipment on or near the roadway. The scoping document for the hazard 

tree EA states that “All heavy equipment would operate only within existing roadways, landings 

and other previously disturbed clearings. End-lining or winching for distances up to 150 feet may 

be necessary to retrieve all portions of hazard trees that are required to be removed.” These 

activities may serve to reduce resource impacts on the ground, but at the cost of increased road 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-40 
Current and Reference Conditions 

damage. Tracked vehicles should not be allowed on paved surfaces. The use of rubber-tired 

equipment would reduce damage to these road surfaces. 

Desired Conditions 

The road system in and adjacent to the HLMTT watersheds should be maintained to provide safe, 

efficient vehicular access for the anticipated short- and long-term volumes and types of mixed 

traffic. Hazard trees should be managed to reduce the threat to human safety and road 

investments. Closures or use restrictions should be applied where necessary to protect 

employees, workers and the public from safety hazards related to hazard trees, road conditions, or 

traffic patterns. Roads should be maintained in a manner that would minimize impacts on other 

resources. 

Recreation 

Reference Conditions 

Historic Recreational Use 

Historically, the principal recreation activities within the HLMTT area have been hunting and 

hiking. The network of trails was established through aboriginal use, miners traveling to and 

supplies being hauled to the New River mines (1850s), and livestock being herded to grazing 

lands in the meadows of the Trinity Summit high country. Trails were also used by inland 

communities and homesteaders as commerce routes with the coast (McClain, 1990). In 1905, the 

Trinity Reserve was established with the Lower Trinity Ranger District as one of two districts. 

With the establishment of the Reserve, steps were taken to establish and maintain a trail system, 

probably as part of a transportation system used for controlling wildfire, getting to fire lookouts and 

to local homesteads. Developed facilities in the HLMTT area have been minimal. It was probably 

sometime in the 1960s when a small developed camping area at Horse Linto Creek was 

developed; facilities consisted of a vault toilet, a couple of picnic tables, and fire rings. The 

camping area extended over onto the adjacent fish hatchery property. With the closing of the 

hatchery, the camping area was reduced to the current size of three to four sites. A 1947 annual 

report proposed a campground and summer homes tract at Groves Prairie; however, the 

recommendation was never enacted. 

Three primitive trailheads – Mill Creek, Grizzly Camp, and Tish Tang - comprising signing, bulletin 

boards, and parking areas were most likely established following the 1984 designation of the 

Trinity Alps Wilderness Area. Management of the area is shared between the Six Rivers National 

Forest and the Shasta-Trinity National Forest. In 1979, the Horse Ridge Trail was designated as 

a National Recreation Trail (NRT), along with the Salmon Summit NRT - which is not in the 

analysis area, but to which it is linked. No doubt the combination of the wilderness designation 

and the national recreation trail designation resulted in increased use and visitation, though the 

Six Rivers’ portion of the Wilderness has always had less visitation than the Shasta-Trinity side, 

which is easier to access. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-41 
Chapter 3 

Pre-Fire Conditions - Trails 

The trails in the fire area are a remnant of the network of trails that were created first as game and 

aboriginal trails, and then by miners and supply wagons on their way to the New River Mine and 

between the coast and inland communities. Trails are maintained according to maintenance level 

and design criteria established in the Trinity Alps Wilderness Management Plan. 

There are 56.1 miles of trail in the HLMTT area (see Table 3-12). Maintenance is performed 

yearly on the main routes with secondary routes maintained every three years as funding allows. 

The Grizzly Camp trailhead is the most heavily used, primarily by a grazing permittee and by 

people accessing the Trinity Alps Wilderness and the Trinity Summit area. The other heavily used 

area is the Mill Creek Lake trailhead. This is used by a grazing permittee and people accessing 

the Trinity Summit and Mill Creek Lakes areas; both areas have spectacular scenic values as well 

as tribal cultural values. Trails also provide access to peoples’ special places. 

Table 3-12. Trails in the HLMTT Area 

Number Trail Name Miles 

6E14 Red Cap Hole 4.5 

6E08 Horse Ridge Natl. Rec. Trail 15.3 

6E15 Calf Swag 2.5 

6E16 Crogan Basin 2.5 

6E17 One Mile 1.7 

6E18 Tish Tang 5.5 

6E19 Long Prairie 1.2 

6E20 Bell Swamps 5.0 

6E22 Ladder Rock 0.5 

6E29 Oregon Creek 3.0 

6E31 Graveyard Prairie 2.5 

6E35 McKay Meadows 1.3 

6E36 Lone Pine 2.1 

6E67 Grove’s Prairie 1.3 

6E73 Mill Creek Lake Loop 1.0 

6E74 Crogan Hole 5.2 

6E76 Cedar Creek 0.6 

5E36 Horse Linto Interp. Trail 0.4 

Total 56.1 

In the winter of 1995-1996, extensive blowdown severely impacted the trail system in the analysis 

area. Authorization to use chainsaws in the wilderness was given for the FY96 and FY97 field 

seasons to remove fallen trees across trails. The total cost of clearing the trails of blowdown was 

approximately $58,000. Additionally, grazing permittees cleared trails important to their 

operations. Approximately 20 miles and 1,000 trees (many 30-inch diameter and above) were 

removed from the trailway at a cost of $1,000 per mile. Other recent trail work in the analysis area 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-42 
Current and Reference Conditions 

includes the construction of two-foot bridges, a culvert crossing, and a sweet-smelling toilet (SST) 

at Groves Prairie approximately four years ago. 

Two projects are planned for implementation in the near future. The first project, which is 

currently under contract, will decommission a portion of the old road 8N10, which became trail 

6E74 (Crogan Hole) when the wilderness boundary was expanded. Three log stringer bridges 

and 34-inch culverts will be removed to maintain stream health while maintaining the integrity of 

the trail. The second project will reroute trail segments in the Patterson Meadow area to alleviate 

resource problems. 

Pre-Fire Conditions - Wilderness 

The Trinity Alps Wilderness was established by the California Wilderness Act of 1984. 

Management presence in the wilderness is minimal, with a zone wilderness ranger informally 

monitoring recreation use and performing trail maintenance. Volunteer groups such as the 

California Backcountry Horsemen assist in trail maintenance efforts and are an important part of 

the trails program. Grazing permittees also do some trail maintenance on routes most important to 

their operations. Most public contact is at the District reception area, either in person or by phone. 

No wilderness permits are required to enter the wilderness from the SRNF side. Trailhead 

information bulletin boards provide minimal management contact with the wilderness user. Trail 

maintenance is performed annually on the most heavily used trails and about every three years on 

the remainder of trails. 

Trail systems in the wilderness are a primary influence on movement of recreationists (Lucas 

1985). They have the potential to affect a visitor experience in either positive or negative ways. 

Therefore, trail management is an important component of wilderness management. Trails are 

especially important with certain types of use, such as horseback travel. Trails should be 

developed and maintained appropriate for the use received, of various quality and not of uniformly 

high standard through the wilderness. There is little support for very low-standard trails (blazed 

routes). There has been a trend in a decline of purist attitudes regarding trails (Cole 1996). 

Support for high-standard trails, for building bridges over creeks (needed only to keep feet from 

getting wet), and for administrative use of chainsaws to clear trails increased, while support for 

low-standard trails and leaving a few trees blown down across the trail decreased. 

Wilderness use nationally will continue to increase (Watson and Landres 1999); wildernesses are 

receiving increasing numbers of visits by backpackers, day hikers, anglers, horseback riders, 

photographers, berry pickers and hunters. Use increased steadily through the 1960s, 70s, and 

into the early 80s, when it appeared to level off. By the late 1980s, a resurgence of growth in 

wilderness visits occurred and it continues today. Use on this side of the Trinity Alps Wilderness, 

however, is light and offers a high solitude opportunity to the visitor. Some slight increases in use 

after the fire are predicted due to visitor curiosity about the fire’s impacts to their special areas. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-43 
Chapter 3 

Current Conditions 

Interviews were conducted with seven representatives from various organizations and the 

community of Willow Creek (Backcountry Horsemen, Boy Scouts, Lion’s Club, fishing guide, river 

outfitter/guide, Willow Creek-China Flat Museum, Chamber of Commerce) who are familiar with 

recreation activities in the analysis area. Information from their comments is incorporated into the 

“Current Recreation Use” and “Impacts of Fire on Recreation Opportunities” sections. The 

analysis area supports a diversity of recreation opportunities that are primarily dispersed in use 

and land base. Most of the Lower Trinity Ranger District’s water-based activities occur along the 

Trinity and the South Fork Trinity Rivers, which are outside of the analysis area and not discussed 

here. Table 3-13 lists the current recreation facilities and special recreation designations within 

the HLMTT area. 

Table 3-13. Facilities and Special Recreation Designations in the HLMTT Area 

Facility/Designation Name Description 

Horse Linto Interpretive Trail A 0.4 mile self-guided trail with brochure with a salmon habitat 

restoration theme 

Horse Linto Camping Area Three to four rustic camping sites with an old vault toilet, picnic 

tables, and fire rings; this is the start site for the Tish Tang Tang 

mountain bike race 

Tish Tang Trailhead Sign, some parking 

Grizzly Camp Trailhead Wilderness sign, bulletin board, SST, several primitive camp sites 

Mill Creek Trailhead Wilderness sign, parking, bulletin board, old corral 

Grove’s Prairie Area Two picnic tables, parking, SST, two small foot bridges over the 

creek, culvert crossing 

Trinity Summit Cabin Historical cabin with administrative use; not a recreation facility, 

but often a destination for hikers 

Trails 56.1 miles of trail, including the Horse Ridge National Recreation 

Trail 

Trinity Alps Wilderness Area West side of the wilderness area 

Current Recreation Use 

National forests are often viewed as peoples’ backyards because of the proximity of National 

Forest System lands to population centers and the amount of private inholdings within their 

boundaries. Almost anyone can be in a national forest within one hour’s driving time. National 

forests are rarely considered destination attractions the way that national parks are. 

Consequently, much of the visitation that occurs within a national forest consists of local users -

residents who live within an hour or two of the area. 

In the regional spectrum of the 19 forest units in California, the SRNF is considered a “rural” forest 

with low visitation. In comparison, an “urban” forest such as the Angeles National Forest in 

southern California has a potential visitor population of 12 million people within an hour’s drive of 

the forest boundary. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-44 
Current and Reference Conditions 

Many of the SRNF users come from the Northcoast, Redding, and North Central Valley areas, as 

well as southern Oregon. The major metropolitan centers of Sacramento, the Bay Area, and 

Portland are six to eight hours’ driving distance away, which precludes a weekend visit to the 

area. Tourism travel trends indicate that most people recreate within a two to three hour drive of 

home when considering a weekend getaway. Over the past three years, area tourism 

organizations have been involved in a campaign to educate local business and service providers 

about the area’s tourism and recreation riches and opportunities to encourage and entice visitors 

to stay “just one more day.” 

In general, the Lower Trinity Ranger District receives some of the highest use on the SRNF 

because of its river attractions and proximity to the coastal population centers. Recreational use 

in the HLLMTT is light with the primary season of use being May through October. Reliable 

visitation numbers for the analysis area are not available, nor are they available for the rest of the 

forest. The SRNF is slated in 2003 for a nationally administered recreation use survey. 

The District’s rivers, trails, snow availability and diverse topography are primary attractions. 

Willow Creek businesses identified the mountain ecosystem as the second greatest recreational 

asset after the Trinity River (Trinity River Strategic Planning Business and Visitors Surveys, 

1995). A second part of the study surveyed 1,492 people visiting the area from Memorial Day into 

early fall. Asked what they liked best about the area, the most common responses were the river, 

the climate (sun and heat), the beauty and scenery. Fishing, serenity and solitude were the most 

commonly mentioned attributes. The most popular activities were swimming (75 percent), 

sunbathing (65 percent) and sightseeing, picnicking, and camping (27 percent). The study was 

focused on the Trinity River and the responses are slanted to that emphasis, but many of the 

mentioned activities also occur in the analysis area. Other activities worth mentioning are fishing 

(21 percent), day hiking and rafting (16 percent), photography (10 percent), visiting historic sites 

(7 percent), and birding/wildlife observation (6 percent). Backpacking, mountain biking, and 

hunting were also identified in the 1 to 3 percent participation range. 

Recreational use of the HLMTT area follows the national trend, with visitors coming from a 

relatively short driving distance. In the interviews conducted, hunting, enjoying the outdoors and 

hiking were mentioned most often as being the major recreation activities in the analysis area. 

Camping, mountain biking, and fishing were also frequently mentioned. Other activities were also 

identified as occurring in the analysis area but engaged in to a lesser extent. Following is a list of 

activities that occur within the analysis area: 

• Hunting – The primary game hunted in the area is bear and deer. There is some bird 

hunting, primarily grouse and quail. 

• Hiking – The HLMTT area was identified as the major location on the District for hiking 

activities because of the 56.1-mile trail network and wilderness access there. The 

presence of the Horse Ridge National Recreation Trail (NRT) and its linkage with the 

Salmon Summit NRT, which connects with the Devil’s Backbone Trail network, offers 

hikers and trail riders an extensive trail system. 

• Communing with nature, enjoying the outdoors – several people had a hard time coming 

up with a word for a significant type of recreation activity that they know occurs. Most just 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-45 
Chapter 3 

identified it as “communing with nature”, “being in the outdoors”, “and finding a place to 

hang out and read, picnic, relax.” 

• Backpacking – Tish Tang, Mill Creek Lake, and Grizzly Camp Trailheads are the primary 

access into the Trinity Alps Wilderness. Backpackers heavily use the wilderness lakes as 

overnight camping sites, hiking from one lake to the next. Scouts do an annual 25-mile 

three-night backpack trip that is routed right through the fire area. They are eager to see 

the fire impacts firsthand as well as learn about fire ecology and fire’s impacts on natural 

resources. They plan to change the focus of this summer’s trip to a fire impact emphasis. 

• Trail riding (stock) – There would be more pleasure riding if facilities were designed with 

turn arounds for trailers and vehicles. Backcountry Horsemen of America indicated that 

the one facility of utmost importance to them is a road that allows for unloading of horses 

and gear without having to backup or puts them miles away from the access area. They 

are not particularly concerned with having restrooms, corrals, etc., but good turn around 

capability for vehicles is a must. The physical characteristics of some sites don’t allow for 

a turn-around road, but there may be possibilities at some others. 

• Mountain bike riding - This activity was identified by several interviewees as one of the 

fastest growing recreation activities in the area, occurring mostly at Grove’s Prairie, the 

Lone Pine Ridge Area, and along the mountain bike racing event course near Tish Tang. 

The attraction to riders at Grove’s Prairie and Lone Pine is the flat, open terrain. 

• Mountain bike racing event – One of the newer activities occurring on the District is an 

annual mountain bike race, Tish Tang Tang, which includes two events over a two-day 

period. One event is a cross-country ride consisting of about 100 cyclists covering about 

30 miles; they are broken down into three classes based on skill level. The second event 

is for more experienced riders and is a five-mile downhill race. The event operates under 

a special use permit from the District. It is sponsored by the Willow Creek Lions’ Club and 

Kiwanis Club as one of their big fundraising events. About $3,000 in profits is split evenly 

between the clubs for scholarships for local students. The event began in 1995 and 

continues to grow each year. Riders come from southern Oregon, the Bay Area, the 

Northcoast, and Nevada. 

• Fishing – Trout fishing was mentioned as the desired species sought in wilderness 

mountain lakes as well as in Cedar Creek. Steelhead in various creeks are also desired 

game fish. 

• Camping – Much of the camping is primitive or dispersed camping. People bring all their 

own facilities such as water, chairs, etc. Many use small trailers or motor homes. A lot of 

camping occurs during hunting season. There is quite a bit of use at the Horse Linto 

Camping Area near the Horse Linto Interpretive Trail. 

• Picnicking – People mentioned that they engage in this dispersed activity in a variety of 

locations throughout most of the year when the weather is good. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-46 
Current and Reference Conditions 

• Environmental education – The interpretive trail at Horse Linto/Cedar Creeks has been 

visited annually by about 40 sixth graders from the Trinity Valley Elementary School since 

the interpretive trail was developed in the early 1990s. There used to be more school 

visits when the fish hatchery was open. The interpretive trail is not known to many and is 

a long drive from Highway 299 (about 30 minutes), so it is not conveniently accessible. 

• Wildflower viewing – The Willow Creek-China Flat Museum conducts an annual wildflower 

tour in the HLMTT area from groups ranging from 6 to 25 people. The tour is a 

combination of driving and hiking to view and photograph a wide variety of wildflowers in 

the spring. 

• Birding – Some birding occurs within the HLMTT area. The Audubon Society conducts an 

annual bird count in the area as part of its National Christmas Bird Count. 

• Landscape photography, painting, drawing – one interviewee, an art professor at HSU and 

also a packer, indicated that over the past several years he has packed in artists, including 

seven Swedish visitors, into the Trinity Alps and Marble Mountain Wildernesses for 

landscape photography, painting and drawing opportunities. The non-commercial venture 

occurs about twice a year with about seven people per group. 

• Huckleberry collecting – mentioned by one person who has annually done this for many 

years in the HLMTT area. 

• Viewing scenery – Every interviewee indicated that viewing the landscape, the scenery, 

the natural beauty was one of the primary reasons people come to the area. 

• Historical research – One person said he conducts historical research in the HLMTT area 

on historic sites such as Grove’s Prairie and the remnants of the China Flat-New River 

trail. People in general are quite interested in historical sites. 

• Snow shoeing – A scout troop with approximately 15 boys (ages 11-18) and leaders has 

conducted an annual snow shoeing/hiking overnight trip staying at a special use cabin in 

Patterson Meadows for the past ten years. The fire burned the McCullough Cabin and the 

trip has been cancelled to that site. Probably there are other individuals who snowshoe in 

the area, but the most popular site for snow activities such as snow shoeing, cross-country 

skiing, and snow play on the district is at Horse Mountain, located outside of the analysis 

area. 

• Firewood cutting – The analysis area has been a popular area for woodcutting by locals. 

• Mushroom collecting – One person mentioned mushroom collecting as an activity in the 

area. 

• Wilderness – hiking and lake fishing are the primary activities within the wilderness area. 

The meadows and lakeshores are popular camping spots with scores of hearths scattered 

along the trails and elsewhere through the mountains. For example, there are more than a 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-47 
Chapter 3 

dozen camps that line the shores of Mill Creek Lake, which attracts trout anglers as well as 

backpackers and hunters. (Heffner 1983:44) 

• Driving for pleasure – while not specifically mentioned by anyone interviewed, driving for 

pleasure or viewing scenery while driving is the most popular recreation activity in the 

National Forest System. To recreate in the HLMTT area (excluding the wilderness area), 

one must drive a vehicle to get to the trailheads or to a dispersed area. Depending on the 

condition of the road, this would be either by passenger vehicle or a high-clearance 

vehicle. Other vehicles such as greensticker vehicles (motorcycles, all-terrain vehicles) 

and dual-sport motorcycles are also used. Roads are an important element in the 

backcountry recreation experience. Highway 96, which is one of the main arteries leading 

to the analysis area, is a proposed route for the Bigfoot Scenic Byway. This designation 

may increase use in the analysis area in the future. 

Impacts of the Megram Fire on Recreation Opportunities 

Both positive and negative effects were mentioned by the interviewees regarding their perceptions 

of the fire’s impacts on recreation opportunities in the analysis area. Comments ranged from the 

fire having “no impact at all” on recreation opportunities to “there won’t be any hunting there for 

quite a while.” Most indicated that they had not yet been able to visit the burn area to view the 

effects and impacts due to winter weather conditions, but planned to do so in the spring and 

summer when conditions allows. Several people commented on the loss of timber and the 

opportunity for salvage as being of importance to the local economy and to woodcutters. Some 

losses were identified as short-term, i.e. during the fire, one person was not able to hunt a single 

day during deer season because roads into favorite areas were closed. Another example 

discussed by one individual was the inability to get firewood cut for the season due to closed 

areas during firefighting efforts. Several people mentioned that the smoke and air quality at the 

time of the fires had an adverse impact on their lives and recreation opportunities in general. 

Local citizens discussed their opinions of the fire impacts and their recommendations for managing 

the large fuel buildup resulting from the Megram Fire. The recommendations ranged from using 

chainsaws and salvage operations in the wilderness to doing nothing and allowing the natural 

processes to take place. 

Wilderness users expressed a desire that visual qualities of the wilderness be maintained and 

suggested that the fire, by opening up the landscape, gave the opportunity to recognize historic 

trails. They believe this provides the Forest Service with an opportunity to open these old trails to 

compensate for the road closures that have taken place in the area. They expressed concern 

regarding safety for individuals, family, and pack stock. They are concerned with trail repair, 

hazard tree removal along trailheads and trails, and potential trail closures due to the effects of the 

Megram Fire. They are also concerned that removal of hazard trees along trails will not take as 

high a priority as hazard trees along the road system. The local community view tends toward the 

desire for salvage in the wilderness (which is not permitted under the Wilderness Act) in order to 

reduce fuel loading that resulted from the Megram Fire. The view expressed is that every attempt 

should be made to reduce the risk of such a lengthy fire in the future even to the point of allowing 

chainsaws into the wilderness. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-48 
Current and Reference Conditions 

A seasoned park ranger (Martin, personal communication) who has worked at Glacier National 

Park and in the Bob Marshall Wilderness where there have been fires indicated that visitors did 

not see recreating in a burned area as being a negative experience. People were curious about 

the fire’s effects to an area. Hiking in a recently burned area was more pleasant since vegetation 

was no longer dense, more open vistas were available, the ability to see the landscape was 

enhanced, and wildflower displays could be more prolific and spectacular. His comments tend to 

support the types of feedback generated from interviews with local residents. 

One research publication (Love et al, 1992) concerning the effects of the 1988 Gates Park Fire in 

the Bob Marshall Wilderness indicated that the fire had little impact on people’s choice of whether 

to recreate in a burned or unburned area. Visitors placed more importance on remoteness and 

naturalness in selecting trails and campsites than of the effects of fires. Visitors to both burned 

and unburned areas expressed concerns about being excluded from preferred areas and some 

feared their businesses would decline. 

Fire impacts identified by interviewees: 

• Loss of hunting grounds and wildlife 

• Fishing guide business down by 60 percent due to fire and smoke 

• Impacts to water quality in stream/creeks which may affect fish spawning habitat 

• Route changes in annual snowshoe hike due to loss of special use cabin in Patterson 

Meadows (Boy Scouts) 

• Short-term decrease in firewood cutting opportunities due to road closures during fire 

• Increased hunting opportunities and wildlife within burned areas once vegetation begins to 

grow back 

• Increased opportunities for packers 

• More areas opened up due to brush loss 

• Increased opportunities to view the landscape and scenery with less brush 

• Increased entry on trails into the burned area to see what the fire’s effects were 

• Increased educational focus on fire’s impacts instead of natural history for outings 

• Increased wildflower viewing opportunities 

• Increased opportunities to interpret fire, fire management, and rehabilitation efforts 

• No impact at all 

• Doesn’t think there will be impacts to recreation, but opinion may change once able to get 

into burn area in the spring. 

• Increased trail maintenance volunteer opportunities 

On-the-ground impacts to trails and wilderness are further discussed in the “Post-Fire Conditions” 

section. Additionally, several other impacts were identified by forest recreation and trails 

specialists: 

• Loss of trail tread and other trail structures 

• Alteration of the wilderness experience 

• Hazardous trail conditions may result in temporary trail closures (and loss of trail 

opportunities) until repaired 

• Inability to get all the trail work done if chainsaw authority in wilderness is not given 

• Safety hazards for trail crews and trail users 

• Inability to get trail rehab work done if funds are limited 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-49 
Chapter 3 

Special Places 

Interviewees identified places that were special to their members, clients, or themselves for 

various reasons, including historic significance, remoteness, beauty, flat ground and meadows, 

access to big trees and a park-like setting, access to water, serenity, and other aesthetic values. 

The following locations within the HLMTT area were identified as special places: 

• Groves Prairie 

• Grizzly Camp 

• Crogan Hole 

• Bret Hole 

• Trinity Summit Cabin 

• Signboard Gap 

• Horse Linto/Cedar Creek gorge area 

• Happy Camp Mountain dispersed recreation site 

• Mill Creek Lake 

• Box Camp 

Post-Fire Conditions - Trails 

Post-fire trail condition surveys were conducted after the fire before winter conditions to assess 

damage caused by the fire as well as impacts from the fire suppression efforts. For detailed 

information concerning specific trails, see Chapman’s report. Not all of the trails within the fire 

area were surveyed. 

Mapping indicates that about 14 miles of trail within the Megram Fire boundary were in the high 

intensity burn class, approximately 20 miles in the moderate intensity class, and a little over one 

mile in the low intensity class. Areas of moderate to high severity burn are characterized by many 

fallen trees, limbs and slash that are obstructing the trails. Burned out stumps holes are common, 

leaving caverns and cavities that can undermine the trail tread. Root wad holes from downed 

trees adjacent to the trail have created craters where the trail was. Areas of burned brush 

typically have fire-hardened stems poking into the trail corridor. The lack of vegetative cover and 

duff/humus/forest litter has exposed the forest soils to slough and slides. Trails that traverse side 

hills will have tread covered by slough material. Some sites may have drainage patterns that will 

result in erosion of the trail tread, as trails act as collectors of runoff and concentrate the drainage. 

Surveys were conducted on 6E08 Horse Ridge National Recreation Trail, Horse Ridge Trail North 

spur (unnumbered), Grove’s Prairie Trail network, 6E19 Long Prairie Trail, 6E14 Red Cap Hole, 

6E74 Crogan Hole, 6E18 Tish Tang Trail, 6E31 Graveyard Prairie Trail, and 6E15 Calf Swag 

Trail. The fire affected approximately 30 miles of the 56.1 miles within the HLMTT area. Needs 

were identified for waterbarring, removal of downed and hazard trees, trail and intersection 

signing, wilderness boundary signing, route blazing, trail tread reconstruction, flush cutting stumps 

and stobs along trail, brushing and limbing, outsloping, debris removal and bank armoring at 

stream crossings, and filling of burned out stump holes with local rock. Additional trail surveys will 

need to be conducted this summer to ascertain further damage and impacts. Safety hazards 

along trails may necessitate temporarily closing some trails until work can be accomplished. Signs 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-50 
Current and Reference Conditions 

with safety hazard messages would need to be posted at trailheads and along hazardous 

sections. Chainsaw authority in the wilderness is desired because of season limitations and both 

employee and visitor safety. 

Post-Fire Conditions - Wilderness 

The wilderness experience has been altered where fire suppression activities removed vegetation 

to create fire control lines and helispots. This current vegetation condition of particular concern 

where the fire line is in close proximity to trails and campsites. An associated problem occurs 

where the removed vegetation was left in windrows of slash adjacent to or in view of the trail. 

Desired Condition - Trails 

The desired condition for the trails in the fire area is that the fire-killed windfall will be cleared from 

the travel way. This will be an on-going scenario; as the wood decay progresses and winter 

storms pass, more fire-killed trees will come down each year. Hazard trees will be felled and 

cleared from the trail corridor in accordance with guidelines for hazard tress removal, for both 

wilderness and non-wilderness areas. Burned out stump holes and root wad holes will be 

repaired and the hazards eliminated. Fire-hardened stems will be pruned back from the trail 

clearing limits. The forest litter will gradually accumulate and soils will stabilize to reduce 

sloughing. The trail tread will be restored and drainage features installed to correct erosion. A 

survey of trail needs for the network will identify whether some previously existing and low use 

trails obliterated by the fire will or will not be replaced. Trails and trailheads throughout the 

HLMTT area are well signed. Trail work is coordinated with Shasta-Trinity NF for trails that are 

interlinked. Hikers and wilderness users will be provided educational materials about the fire 

rehabilitation efforts, management activities, and landscape recovery processes via information 

posted at trailheads, bulletin boards, forest web site, and in reception areas. Primary emphasis 

for trail rehabilitation will be on the Horse Ridge National Recreation Trail and high use trails in 

high intensity burn areas. 

Desired Condition - Wilderness 

Features and wilderness attributes altered during suppression activities will be restored to natural 

conditions. The visual impacts of the fire line would be reduced by scattering the brush and slash 

that was left in windrows, over the fire line area. Stumps from felled trees along the fire line would 

be naturalized. Fire crew campsite beds that were dug into side slopes would be restored to 

natural conditions. Fire rings, chainsaw furniture, and firewood would be removed, and campsites 

naturalized. Firelines that may be mistaken as trails will be put to bed and naturalized. Invasive 

exotic plant species within the fire area would be controlled and monitored. With the duff and 

forest litter removed by the fire, airborne thistle seeds may establish exotic plant populations in the 

wilderness, and a vigorous program would be needed for monitoring, control, and eradication. 

The desired condition for wilderness in the Six Rivers NF Land and Resource Management Plan 

is the ultimate condition sought. 

Roadless Area 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-51 
Chapter 3 

Reference Conditions 

Note: the acreages identified in this section differ somewhat from those in the SRNF LRMP. 

These differences are the result of improved technology (GIS) that was not available to the Forest 

when the LRMP was prepared. Acreages discussed in this document are considered to be more 

accurate than those displayed in the LRMP 

The original, 27,290-acre, Orleans Mountain “C” Roadless Area is located within the HLMTT 

watersheds. This area was evaluated for wilderness suitability during the Forest Service 

Roadless Area Review and Evaluation process (RARE II) in 1979 and again during the 

development of the California Wilderness Act in 1984. Based on the results of the evaluation and 

legislation, 11,760 acres of the original Orleans Mountain “C” Roadless Area were designated as 

wilderness (part of the Trinity Alps Wilderness). The remaining 15,530 acres were designated 

non-wilderness and made available for multiple use land allocation. These remaining acres were 

located in two separate parcels. The northern parcel included 1,840 acres and the southern area 

was 13,690 acres. 

In 1995, the Six Rivers National Forest LRMP established Forest-wide multiple use goals, 

objectives, and management area direction. The analysis of former RARE II areas which were 

previously designated non-wilderness (see Appendix C of the FEIS for the LRMP), described each 

roadless area, the resources and values considered, the range of alternative land uses studied, 

and the effects of management under each alternative. As a result of the analysis, the remaining 

non-wilderness areas associated with the Orleans Mountain “C” Roadless Area were not 

recommended for inclusion in the National Wilderness Preservation System. The LRMP assigned 

the non-wilderness portions of the Orleans Mountain “C” Roadless Area to the Special Habitat 

Management Area (LSR 305), which is managed to protect and enhance conditions of latesuccessional and old growth forest ecosystems. Portions of the roadless area are located within 

Horse Linto Creek, which is a Tier 1 key watershed. Within key watersheds, new road 

construction is prohibited within remaining portions of inventoried roadless areas that still qualify 

as roadless 

The LRMP analysis also determined that the area (3,030 acres) generally located between Lone 

Pine Ridge and the East Fork of Horse Linto Creek had been developed to the extent that it no 

longer retained roadless characteristics. Development in the area included road construction 

(approximately 5.70 miles) and timber harvest (approximately 290 acres of regeneration), most of 

which was associated with the Lone Pine Timber Sale (sold in 1988). The boundary of the 

roadless area was modified to exclude this developed portion of the roadless area. The remaining 

12,500 acres are located in three separate parcels. Figure 3-2 shows the location of the original 

Roadless Area boundary, areas subsequently designated as wilderness, the area dropped due to 

development, and the location of roads and harvest units associated with the Lone Pine Timber 

Sale. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-52 
Current and Reference Conditions 

Figure 3-2. Orleans Mountain “C” Roadless Area Boundary History: 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-53
Chapter 3 

Current Conditions 

The Orleans Mountain “C” Roadless Area is currently composed of three separate parcels. For 

the purposes of this analysis, the three parcels are referred to as the North, Central and South 

parcels or portions, which corresponds with their geographic relationship. The following section of 

this document describes the current conditions across the entire roadless area. Appendix C 

provides a more refined description of the current conditions within each of the three parcels. 

The 12,500 acre Orleans Mountain “C” Roadless Area is currently composed of three separate 

parcels (Figure 3-3), all of which are located adjacent to the Trinity Alps Wilderness. Elevations 

within the roadless area range from approximately 1,360 feet at the lower end of the Horse Linto 

Creek watershed to 6,200 feet in the Trinity Summit area. The terrain generally consists of 

moderately steep sided slopes and benchy ridges. There are numerous stream channels and 

smaller tributaries located within the area, some of which provide resident fish habitat. Vegetation 

within the roadless area is primarily comprised of white fir (54 percent), followed by tanoak (17 

percent), red fir (11 percent), Douglas-fir (8 percent), alder (4 percent), canyon live oak (3 

percent), grasslands/meadows (1 percent), and white oak (less than 1 percent). The remaining 

area (1 percent) is comprised of riparian areas, rock outcrops, and streams. The roadless area 

provides habitat or is occupied by several threatened, endangered or sensitive plant and animal 

species. There are many significant Native American cultural sites located within the roadless 

area. The Trinity Summit Cabin, which is on the boundary between the roadless area and the 

Trinity Alps Wilderness, is potentially eligible for listing in the National Register of Historic Places. 

There are no mining claims within the roadless area and the potential for mineral development is 

considered low. The LRMP assigned all acres within the roadless area to the Special Habitat 

Management Area (LSR 305), which is managed to protect and enhance conditions of latesuccessional and old growth forest ecosystems. The recreation opportunity spectrum (ROS) 

classification designated by the LRMP is semi-primitive motorized on the north and central 

parcels, and semi-primitive non-motorized on the south parcel. Approximately 4,840 acres are 

located within Horse Linto Creek (a tier 1 key watershed), where new road construction is 

prohibited. 

Approximately 212 acres of vegetation within the roadless area show indications of harvest and 

logging activities, which occurred in the late 1960s or early 1970s (Figure 3-3). Of these acres, 26 

are currently in the shrub / forb seral stage, 45 are classified as pole, 118 are mid-mature, and 23 

are within late mature seral stage stands. 

Ninety-three percent (11,640 acres) of the current roadless area was burned during the 1999 

Megram Fire. Extreme fire severities, where almost all of the vegetation cover was killed, 

occurred on 1,247 acres. High severity fire, where greater than 70 percent of the vegetation 

cover was killed, occurred on 2,154 acres. Figure 3-4 shows the locations of extreme and high 

severity fire areas. Moderate severity fire, where 25 to 70 percent of the vegetation cover was 

killed, occurred on 8,130 acres. The remaining 110 acres incurred low severity fire, where less 

than 25 percent of the vegetative cover was killed. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-54 
Current and Reference Conditions 

Figure 3-3. Trails, Roads and Harvest Areas Associated with Roadless Area: 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-55
Chapter 3 

Figure 3-4. Features, Firelines, and Extreme and High Fire Intensity Levels within the 

Roadless Area: 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-56 
Current and Reference Conditions 

Approximately 7.2 miles of fireline, constructed during Megram fire suppression efforts, are located 

within the roadless area (Figure 3-4). Hand lines comprise 6.4 of these miles while the remaining 

0.8 miles is dozer line. 

There are approximately 17 miles of trail within the roadless area (Figure 3-3). All trails are 

designated for non-motorized use. Some trails and trail segments are old four-wheel drive routes 

and skid roads developed to harvest timber. The trails within the roadless area primarily provide 

access from the west side of the roadless area to the west boundary of the Trinity Alps 

Wilderness. 

Recreational use within the area is relatively low; the primary recreational uses are hiking, 

horseback riding and hunting. The Grizzly Camp, Mill Creek and Tish Tang Creek trailheads are 

the most frequently used. The trails are probably most frequently utilized by livestock permittees 

for allotment access and moving livestock, and by hunters. 

Roadless Characteristics 

The principle elements of roadless character are natural integrity, apparent naturalness, 

remoteness, solitude/primitive recreation opportunities, unique features, special places and 

values, and manageability/boundaries. Natural integrity, apparent naturalness and remoteness 

relate to the physical setting of an area. 

• Natural integrity is the extent to which long-term ecological processes are intact and 

functioning. It is measured by the presence and magnitude of human induced change to an 

area. 

• Apparent naturalness means that the environment looks natural to most people using the area. 

It is a measure of importance of visitors’ perceptions of human impacts to the area. 

• Remoteness is a perceived condition of being secluded, inaccessible, and out of the way. 

• Solitude is a personal, subjective value defined as isolation from the sights, sounds and 

presence of others, and the developments of man. A primitive recreation experience includes 

the opportunity to experience solitude, a sense of remoteness, closeness to nature, serenity, 

and spirit of adventure through the application of woodsmen skills in an environment that 

offers a high degree of challenge and risk. 

• Unique features are those unique geological, biological, ecological, cultural, or scenic features 

that may be present in the area. 

• Special places and values are those places and values identified during public involvement as 

being important components of the roadless resource. 

• The manageability/boundaries element relates to the ability to manage an area to meet size 

criteria and the six characteristics described above. 

Natural Integrity 

The long-term ecological processes within the remaining portions of the roadless area appear to 

be in tact and functioning on 95 percent (11,915 acres) of this area. Skid roads/trails, landing 

construction, and most recently, firelines have impacted long-term ecological process on five 

percent (583 acres) of this area (Figure 3-5). All of the trees, shrubs, and ground cover have 

been removed from these areas. Vegetation is reestablishing along some of the skid roads and 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-57 
Chapter 3 

Figure 3-5. Areas within the Roadless Area where impacts have occurred to roadless 

characteristics: 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-58 
Current and Reference Conditions 

landing areas, however compaction and topsoil loss associated with these areas has slowed this 

process. It is expected that the hand lines will recover in the next year or two, while the dozer line 

will take longer to recover. 

Small areas associated with Trinity Summit Cabin and Grizzly Camp trailhead have been affected 

by the placement of facilities, and the trampling and compaction resulting from concentrated 

human activity around these facilities. 

Apparent Naturalness 

Ninety-six percent (11,970 acres) of the landscape within the roadless area appears primarily to 

have been affected by the forces of nature. Some human activities associated with timber harvest 

tend to be disappearing due to natural processes and are not obvious to the casual observer, 

while other harvest areas remain apparent. It is evident that firelines constructed in association 

with the recent Megram Fire are not a natural occurrence. Human activities associated with 

timber harvest and fireline construction have impacted the apparent naturalness on approximately 

four percent (583 acres) of the landscape (Figure 3-5). The hand lines will recover and are 

expected to appear natural in a year or two, but the dozer line will take longer to return to a natural 

appearance. 

Human activities are also evident in small scattered isolated areas. These areas are associated 

with undeveloped campsites, short segments of fence, the Trinity Summit Cabin, and along trails. 

The presence of, and indicators left by cattle, also detracts from the apparent naturalness of this 

area and are most evident in areas of concentrated use. 

Remoteness 

Most (98 percent) of the roadless area could be perceived as quite remote. The size, shape, 

topography and vegetation associated with this area contribute to the perceived feeling of being 

remote. Large expanses of land exist where there are no trails or evidence of humans. Benchy 

ridgelines, steep side slopes, and dense stands of large conifers dominate the landscape and 

screen much of the area from human impacts. Perceived losses of remoteness are typically 

limited to areas just inside the perimeter of the roadless area where roads, trailheads, and corrals 

may be apparent. This perceived loss of remoteness is accentuated in perimeter areas, adjacent 

to developments, where most screening vegetation was killed by extreme and high intensity fire. 

This situation exists in one isolated location (Figure 3-5) and affects the perceived feeling of 

remoteness on approximately two percent (210 acres) of the roadless area. 

Solitude/Primitive Recreation Opportunities 

The opportunity to experience solitude is high in the majority of area. There are some small, 

isolated areas along the perimeter of the roadless area where the opportunity for solitude is 

moderate. These areas are typically near roads, campsites and trailheads where the potential for 

seeing or hearing other visitors is slightly increased. The opportunity for solitude is considered 

low on approximately two percent (210 acres) of the roadless area. This area is adjacent to a 

road, a popular trailhead and a developed campsite, all of which increase the potential of seeing 

or hearing other visitors or of being exposed to the developments of humans. In addition, extreme 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-59 
Chapter 3 

and high intensity fire burned throughout the area and killed most of the vegetation that previously 

screened out some of the sites and sounds associated with human use. This area corresponds 

with area described in the previous section, where remoteness is impacted. 

The Orleans Mountain “C” roadless area provides a range of recreational experiences. 

Alterations to vegetation and the presence of trails, firelines, dispersed campsites, fences and 

cabins modify the physical and social settings to the extent that criteria for a primitive recreational 

experience are probably not met. The roadless area currently meets criteria consistent with a 

semi-primitive non-motorized recreation experience. 

Unique Features 

Trinity Summit Cabin is located within the roadless area and is potentially eligible for listing in the 

National Register of Historic Places. Although not considered unique, there are many prominent 

landmarks, topographic features and popular destination points including Red Cap Prairie, Red 

Cap Tree, McKay Meadows, Patterson Meadows, Trinity Summit Cabin, Bret Hole, Tish Tang 

Point, Graveyard Prairie, Ladder Rock and Bell Swamps. 

Special Places or Values 

The area is valued by Hupa for culturally important plants and ceremonial activities. Corral Creek, 

in the vicinity of McKay Meadows, is valued for hunting and brook trout fishing. The rocky area 

associated with Bret Hole is valued as a good hunting area. 

Manageability/Boundaries 

All remaining portions of the roadless area are located adjacent to the Trinity Alps Wilderness, so 

all areas regardless of their size, meet the 5,000-acre size requirement necessary to be 

considered for future wilderness designation. 

The boundaries of the roadless area are currently difficult to identify on the ground, as they 

frequently do not correspond to topographic features such as streams, ridgelines, or consistent 

elevations. In areas where roads dictated the extent of the roadless area, the distance between 

the road and roadless area boundary tends to fluctuate frequently and significantly. 

Detailed descriptions of the current conditions and roadless characteristics within the North, 

Central, and South portions of the roadless area are provided in Appendix C. 

Visual Quality 

Reference Conditions 

The Forest Plan has designated Visual Quality Objectives (VQO) as follows for these watersheds: 

Preservation, Partial Retention and Modification. Refer to Figure 3-6 for the VQOs in different 

parts of the analysis area. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-60 
Current and Reference Conditions 

Figure 3-6. Visual Quality Objectives in the HLMTT Watersheds: 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-61
Chapter 3 

Preservation (P): Management activities are generally not allowed; only natural ecological 

changes occur (untouched). 

Preservation areas have been designated within the analysis area and are located within the 

Trinity Alps Wilderness Area. 

Retention (R): Management activities are tiered to maintaining the area in a condition that 

appears undisturbed as seen from the viewing location. Management activities are acceptable, 

considered on a project-by-project basis, and would be designed according to the retention 

objectives of the visual management system (minor disturbance). 

Retention areas have been designated within the analysis area and are generally located in 

association with the Trinity Alps Wilderness Area and the area along Forest Road 10N02 from 

Tish Tang Campground to Sign Board Gap. 

Partial Retention (PR): Management activities may be evident but must remain subordinate to 

the characteristic landscape (minor disturbance). 

Partial retention areas are seen as foreground and middleground view from the following 

locations: 

• Forest Roads 7N53 and 8N02 to Grizzly Trail Head, which provides access to the 

wilderness. 

• Forest Roads 7N04 and 7N10, which access a dispersed camping area at Groves 

Prairie. 

• Forest Road 8N03 to Tish Tang Trail Head, which provides access to the wilderness. 

• Forest Road 8N01 and 10N02, which provides access to a wilderness trailhead. 

• Forest Road 8N10, to Mill Creek Trail Head, which provides access to the 

wilderness. 

• Forest Road 10N02 which provides access to Red Cap and Mill Creek Gap in the 

wilderness. 

Modification (M): Management activities may dominate the characteristic landscape, but must 

follow natural form, line, color, and texture; should appear as a natural occurrence when viewed in 

the foreground or middleground (moderate disturbance). 

Modification areas have been designated within the analysis area and are generally located 

east and southeast of the Hoopa Valley Indian Reservation. 

Current Condition 

The main concern is these watersheds are views from along Forest roads that provide access to 

recreation sites and the wilderness area and are utilized for recreational driving. These 

watersheds also serve as a scenic backdrop for the communities of Willow Creek and Hoopa 

Valley. 

Fire is considered a natural process that can create mosaic patterns across the landscape. The 

degree of modification of the landscape varies by burn severity. Low to moderate burn severity 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-62 
Current and Reference Conditions 

can be considered to have a positive effect on the landscape, adding variety to the landscape and 

creating a more interesting view to the forest visitor. A combination of mosaic and uniform 

patterns of green trees, along with various sized patches of brown and black snags or trees 

dominate the landscape. The character of the landscape will change with time, as trees continue 

to die from the effects of fire and insect infestation. The emergence of new vegetation would 

begin within five years, with forbs and grasses, then eventually, shrubs and trees. Green trees 

would start to grow in varying patterns across the landscape. Portions of Forest roads 7N53, 

8N02, 7N04, 7N10, 8N03, 8N01, 10N02, 8N10 and 10N02 experienced low to moderate burn 

severities. 

Wildfires having high burn intensities are more likely to have a negative effect on the viewshed, 

especially when large areas are burned, as is the case with the Megram fire. The Megram fire 

created a drastic, sudden change to the scenic character and condition in the foreground areas, 

especially within high severity burn areas. In middle ground view, the fire is not as dominating or 

seen as such a drastic change. In the high severity burn areas, the change to the landscape is 

the loss of dominating forested green textural patterns which is replaced by burnt trees. The 

landscape is highly textured with brown needle and dead and dying trees. When high severity 

burn impacts a large area, there is a negative visual impact. In such cases, the forest visitor sees 

a blackened landscape, which unless planted, will take much longer to return to its near-natural 

appearing condition and provide an attractive, forest landscape. Portions of Forest Roads 7N53 

and 8N02, 10N02 and 8N03 experienced a high severity burn. 

Desired Condition 

The natural phenomena of wildfire creates and alters landscape character through modification of 

vegetation patterns. There is convincing evidence that the immediate scenic effect of natural 

disasters is a reduction in the value of scenery for affected and adjacent lands. People seldom, if 

ever, credit a high intensity wildfire with enhancing scenic quality. Most fire-blackened trees are 

considered obtrusive to scenic views. However, the scenic impact of natural disturbances 

gradually diminishes as natural processes heal the landscape over time. The effects of natural 

disasters are compatible with naturally evolving and natural appearing landscape character goals, 

except when human intervention creates unnatural scenic deviations. 

The primary objective as per the Six Rivers LMP is to manage Forest lands to achieve visual 

quality commensurate with public uses. The VQOs, as assigned in each management area 

should be met, however, exceptions include alterations from disturbances such as catastrophic 

wildfire. Additionally, short-term departures from adopted VQOs that lead toward a desired longterm visual character are acceptable. 

The primary goals within the high severity burned areas are to restore the landscape to its nearnatural appearing condition and to provide an attractive forest landscape, while maintaining the 

intent of the designated VQO. Within the low and moderate severity burn areas, future activities 

should be designed to maintain or improve the visual landscape of the area and should not 

dominate the characteristic landscape. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-63 
Chapter 3 

Recreation Opportunity Spectrum (ROS) 

The ROS system is used to delineate, define, and integrate outdoor recreation opportunities in 

land and resource management planning (Six Rivers N.F. Plan Appendix I-1). It defines a 

continuum of outdoor recreation opportunities that range from primitive to urban. The ROS 

classification for the Megram fire is Roaded Natural (RN) and Semi-Primitive Motorized (SPM) in 

Figure 3-7. 

Roaded Natural (RN): A natural-appearing setting, with moderate sights and sounds of human 

activities and structures. The overall perception is one of naturalness. Roads and motorized 

equipment and vehicles are common in this setting. Evidence of human activity varies from area 

to area and includes improved highways, developed campgrounds, livestock grazing, timber 

harvesting operations, watershed restoration activities and water diversion structures 

Semi-primitive Motorized (SPM): Characterized by predominantly natural or natural-appearing 

landscapes. The size of these areas gives a strong feeling of remoteness. Experience solitude, 

closeness to nature, tranquility. High degree of self –reliance, challenge and risk in using 

motorized equipment. Low concentration of users but often evidence of others on trails. Access 

for people with disabilities is “DIFFICULT” and challenging. 

The fire did not change the ROS for these watersheds. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-64 
Current and Reference Conditions 

Figure 3-7. Recreation Opportunity Spectrum Classification: 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-65
Chapter 3 

Terrestrial System 

Vegetation 

Reference Conditions 

Historical Range of Variability 

Disturbance patterns in the past are difficult to assess, however, the frequency and pattern of past 

disturbance events can be inferred from the distribution of seral stages across the landscape. An 

analysis of the seral stage distribution of Six Rivers National Forest was done in 1995 and 

reanalyzed in 1997 upon completion of the Forest vegetation map (Jimerson and others 1997). 

This analysis modeled the past distribution of seral stages for different vegetation series. To 

determine the past distribution, stands were projected backward in time over 250 years at 50-year 

intervals. The past seral stage distribution was compared to the present to develop a Historical 

Range of Variability (HRV). The Historical Range of Variability is identified for seral stages in the 

primary vegetation series on the forest. These series are the tanoak, Douglas-fir, white fir and red 

fir series. The HRV percentages are relevant for analysis at the scale of the Forest zones. The 

Forest zones are three areas (north, central and south) of the Forest that are distinguished by 

species composition and seral stage distribution. These differences in vegetation are a reflection 

of the different disturbance patterns, geologic material and climate conditions of these three 

zones. The analysis area is part of the central zone. 

Although HRV values are specific to the Zone, they can be compared to percentages in 

watersheds within the Zone. These comparisons can show how the watersheds reflect the HRV 

percentages of the Zone. For example, the existing conditions of the Central Zone (Table 1) show 

that old growth in the tanoak, Douglas-fir, white fir and red fir series are currently below the HRV. 

This is the result of past logging in combination with the Megram fire. These conditions are 

different in the analysis area where old growth is a much higher percentage. In fact, with the 

exception of the Douglas-fir series, all types in the analysis area had higher frequencies of old 

growth than in the zone. This indicates that disturbance (natural and human) within the analysis 

area was lower over the last 250 years than it was in the Zone. It further demonstrates the 

capabilities of the analysis area to support a higher frequency of old growth. 

The Forest utilized the HRV to develop recommended management ranges (RMRs) for seral 

stages in the primary vegetation types (tanoak, Douglas-fir, white fir, red fir). The RMR is a subset 

of the HRV designed to maintain vegetation types and seral stages in an ecologically balanced 

manner by mimicking past seral distribution. The RMRs provide a buffer against unpredictable 

large-scale stand replacing events. The RMRs are used as guidelines in assessing all proposed 

vegetation management treatments. Projects that do not alter seral stage conditions outside of 

the RMR can go forward while those that do must be altered. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-66 
Current and Reference Conditions 

Table 3-14. The HRV for Seral Stages within the Tanoak, Douglas-fir, White Fir and Red 

Fir Series in the Central Zone of SRNF. These percentages are compared to 

the existing percentage of each series in the central zone and the pre fire and 

existing percentages in the analysis area. 

Central 

Zone 

HRV % 

Central Zone 

Existing % 

Analysis 

Area 

Pre-fire % 

Analysis 

Area 

Existing % 

tanoak 

shrub/forb 11 14 20 

pole 20 6 5 

early mature 14-21 18 15 14 

mid mature 12-22 20 22 20 

late mature 10-16 14 19 19 

old growth 25-39 18 24 23 

Douglas-fir 

shrub/forb 8 32 52 

pole 4 2 1 

early mature 14-37 35 21 17 

mid-mature 9-37 34 21 14 

late mature 4-11 8 12 10 

old growth 12-23 11 11 6 

white fir 

shrub/forb 24 6 35 

pole 7 6 4 

early mature 14-20 17 19 11 

mid mature 11-20 17 18s 13 

late mature 10-17 13 18 13 

old growth 26-39 23 33 23 

red fir 

shrub/forb 26 5 46 

pole 4 2 1 

early mature 14-40 21 23 13 

mid-mature 3-28 25 28 17 

late mature 1-17 13 24 12 

old growth 14-18 13 18 11 

Harvest History 

The three watersheds total 91,990 acres. Of this, 26,150 acres are under the jurisdiction of the 

Hoopa Tribe and 65,540 acres are under the jurisdiction of the Forest Service. There are 297 

acres of other private ownership. Within the three watersheds, there are a total of 21,795 acres of 

managed stands: 10,875 acres are on the Hoopa Reservation and 10,800 acres within the SRNF. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-67 
Chapter 3 

There is also a minor amount of private or non-tribal lands that have had some harvest activity. 

These managed stands have had some type of silvicultural treatment applied, from regeneration 

harvest or commercial thinning to sanitation and salvage. The earliest regeneration harvest on 

National Forest lands occurred in late 1950’s in the Mill Creek watershed. The most recent 

National Forest regeneration harvest occurred about 1990 in the Horse Linto watershed. 

Following the blowdown events of December 1995 and January 1996, a series of fuel reduction 

projects were planned on the National Forest within the Horse Linto and Mill Creek watersheds. 

Prior to the fire, 1,583 acres of the area proposed for fuel reduction treatment were salvage 

logged to reduce fuel levels. Of this, 300 acres had some previous intermediate harvest activity. 

An additional 573 acres were under contract to be salvage logged and were involved in the fire, 

which consumed the salvageable material. The treatments were specifically designed to remove 

a significant portion of the large fuel component through harvest and much of the smaller fuel 

through follow-up piling and burning operations. The wind damaged stands were not treated 

silviculturally. There was no provision to manage stand density or provide for the acceleration of 

stand structure development. Only damaged and down trees were removed with specific 

guidelines for snags and logs to be left on site. 

Table 3-15 displays the harvest history in the HLMTT watersheds, and Table 3-16 shows the 

acres harvested after the 1995-1996 blowdown event. 

Table 3-15. Harvest History (does not include blowdown treatments) 

Ownership Watershed 

Intermediate 

Harvest 

Regeneration 

Harvest Total 

Hoopa Horse Linto 176 176 

Mill 7,558 7,558 

Tish Tang 3,140 3,140 

Hoopa Total 10,875 10,875 

Private Horse Linto 16 104 120 

SRNF Horse Linto 1,074 4,756 5,918 

Mill Creek 1,346 1,423 2,769 

Tish Tang 51 781 832 

SRNF Total 2,471 6,960 9,520 

Grand Total 2,487 17,939 20,426 

Table 3-16. Blowdown Harvest Acres 

Watershed Horse Linto Mill Creek Total 

Acres 1,261 322 1,583 

Current Conditions 

This section provides a basis for the current vegetation conditions in the analysis area. For the 

purpose of this section, the analysis area is defined as National Forest lands within the Horse 

Linto, Tish Tang and Mill Creek watersheds. The main purpose of this section is to describe 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-68 
Current and Reference Conditions 

vegetation composition, structure and distribution and to describe the effects of the Megram Fire 

on these attributes. 

Vegetation Series and Subseries 

Through the ecology and mapping program at Six Rivers National Forest, potential natural 

vegetation types have been identified and mapped. Information from this classification and 

mapping effort was used for this analysis. Potential Natural Vegetation is the vegetation that 

would exist on the landscape due to specific biotic and abiotic factors and without human 

influence. The classification of these vegetation types is based on a hierarchal system. This 

system begins with the vegetation series, which represent the dominant overstory and 

regenerating species in a stand. The next level of the classification is the subseries. The 

subseries is the subdominant tree species or the shrub species that have indicator value across 

multiple plant associations. The plant association is the lowest level of the classification. It 

represents a potential natural community of definite floristic composition and uniform appearance 

that repeats itself across the landscape. 

Relationship to the Central Zone and Analysis Area 

The analysis area covers 22 percent of the Central Zone. The vegetation series in this area 

(Table 3-17) are representative of the high elevation vegetation in the zone. The Central Zone is 

dominated by the tanoak, white fir and Douglas-fir series along with the canyon live oak, white oak 

and grassland series. The analysis area contains 50 percent of the white fir series, 59 percent of 

the red fir series, 17 percent of the canyon live oak series, 23 percent of the meadow vegetation 

type and 11 percent of the Douglas-fir series in the Central Zone. This area has a relatively low 

amount of tanoak (17 percent) because of its high elevation position in the zone. 

Influences on Vegetation Distribution 

The distribution of the vegetation series in the analysis area is influenced by elevation, soil 

moisture availability and parent material. The white fir and red fir series are found at the highest 

elevation sites in the analysis area. Intermixed among these true fir stands are montane meadows 

and alder stringers. The tanoak series dominates on low elevation sites with deep soils and high 

water holding capacity. The Douglas-fir series is found upslope from the tanoak series on 

steeper, drier, south to southeast facing slopes. Canyon live oak dominates on steep, rocky sites. 

Vegetation Subseries 

The sub-series in the analysis area is an indication of the environmental conditions present. They 

display a moisture gradient from moderately dry in the tanoak-canyon live oak sub-series to moist 

in the white fir-Douglas-fir sub-series. They also reflect micro-site conditions. The steep, highly 

dissected terrain is usually dominated by canyon live oak while the more gentle slopes contain 

white fir and Douglas-fir. The high elevation wet basins usually contain montane meadows and 

alder stringers. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-69 
Chapter 3 

Table 3-17. The Distribution of the Primary Vegetation Subseries in the Analysis Area 

Sub-Series Acres Percent 

tanoak-canyon live oak 4,496 6.86 

tanoak-chinquapin 531 0.81 

tanoak-bigleaf maple 291 0.44 

tanoak/evergreen huckleberry 3,062 4.67 

tanoak/salal 109 0.17 

tanoak/hazelnut 148 0.23 

tanoak/dry shrub 15,408 23.51 

white fir-tanoak 2,953 4.51 

white fir-white-fir 3,177 4.85 

white fir-red fir 1,238 1.89 

white fir-Douglas-fir 13,596 20.74 

white fir-Ponderosa pine 70 0.11 

white fir-white oak 22 0.03 

white fir-incense cedar 1,905 2.91 

white fir-canyon live oak 146 0.22 

white fir-chinquapin 4,734 7.22 

red fir-white fir 2,884 4.40 

red fir-red fir 966 1.47 

red fir-incense cedar 610 0.93 

Douglas-fir-tanoak 374 0.57 

Douglas-fir-Ponderosa pine 27 0.04 

Douglas-fir-white oak 365 0.56 

Douglas-fir-black oak 83 0.13 

Douglas-fir-incense cedar 5 0.01 

Douglas-fir-canyon live oak 3,643 5.56 

Douglas-fir-chinquapin 228 0.35 

Douglas-fir/hazelnut 56 0.09 

Douglas-fir/huckleberry oak 46 0.07 

alder 1,210 1.85 

montane meadow 505 0.77 

white oak-canyon live oak 91 0.14 

black oak-Douglas-fir 3 0.00 

canyon live oak-Douglas-fir 905 1.38 

canyon live oak-canyon live oak 181 0.28 

riparian 80 0.12 

Grand Total 65,537 100.00 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-70
Current and Reference Conditions 

Vegetation Seral Stages 

Relationship of Seral Stages to the Central Zone 

The analysis area has the highest amount of late mature (18 percent) and old growth (26 percent) 

in the Zone. This is compared to 11 percent late mature and 18 percent old growth in the Central 

Zone. Early mature and mid-mature stands make up 24 percent and 22 percent of the Central 

Zone respectively. This is compared to 18 percent and 21 percent in the analysis area. Early 

seral vegetation was included in the shrub/forb and pole seral stages. They accounted for 10 and 

5 percent of the vegetation in the analysis area and 9 and 13 percent respectively of the 

vegetation in the Central Zone. 

It is also important to note that the analysis area contains 3,145 acres of early mature and 1,274 

acres of mid mature stands that contain predominant trees. These large overstory trees are the 

remnants (legacy) of the previous stand. They impart late seral characteristics to mature stands 

that are often lacking in structural diversity. These large trees can be used, together with 

innovative silvicultural prescriptions, to attain late seral characteristics quicker than they would 

appear naturally. 

Seral Stages by Vegetation Series 

Most of the vegetation in the analysis area is included in the tanoak, white fir, red fir, Douglas-fir 

and canyon live oak series (Table 3-18). The highest percentage of mature seral stage 

vegetation is found in the canyon live oak series, followed by the Douglas-fir and red fir series. 

Most of the old growth and late mature stands are in the white fir, tanoak, red fir and Douglas-fir 

series. The highest frequency of early seral vegetation is found in the tanoak, white fir, Douglasfir and red fir series. 

Table 3-18. The Distribution of Seral Stages by Vegetation Series within the Analysis 

Area 

tanoak white 

fir 

red fir Douglas-fir canyon live 

oak 

Seral Stage Acres Percent Acres Percent Acres Percent Acres Percent Acres Percent 

shrub/forb 2,480 10.3 1,662 6.0 211 4.7 203 4.2 0 0.0 

pole 1,398 5.8 1,585 5.7 90 2.0 162 3.4 0 0.0 

early mature 3,639 15.1 5,347 19.2 1,035 23.2 1,110 23.0 852 78.4 

mid mature 5,514 22.9 4,974 17.9 1,245 27.9 1,568 32.5 234 21.6 

late mature 4,757 19.8 4,988 17.9 1,079 24.2 937 19.4 0 0.0 

old growth 6,257 26.0 9,285 33.4 800 17.9 846 17.5 0 0.0 

Grand Total 24,044 100.0 27,841 100.0 4,460 100.0 4,827 100.0 1,086 100.0 

Harvested Seral Stages 

Through the mapping process, stands throughout this area were designated with an ‘H’ if any 

signs of harvesting were found. The harvested designation for shrub/forb and pole stands is the 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-71 
Chapter 3 

result of a clearcut harvest. For early mature, mid mature, late mature and old growth stands the 

designation is generally the result of an intermediate harvest. 

Most of the harvesting has taken place in the white fir and tanoak series. Nineteen percent of the 

white fir series and sixteen percent of the tanoak series has had regeneration or selective 

harvesting (Table 3-19). Ninety-three percent of the logging in the tanoak series resulted from 

clearcut harvest. In contrast, fifty-eight percent of the harvesting in the white fir series resulted 

from clearcut logging and forty-two percent from intermediate harvests. This wide difference is not 

surprising given the difficulty in managing stands in the tanoak series. The other series that have 

had harvesting are the red fir and Douglas-fir series. 

Table 3-19. Harvested Seral Stages by Vegetation Series within the Analysis Area 

Seral Stage tanoak white fir red fir Douglas-fir 

shrub/forb harvest 2,428 1,572 0 203 

pole harvest 1,192 1,513 0 140 

early mature harvest 109 355 0 41 

mid-mature harvest 125 1,324 0 11 

late mature harvest 49 405 11 0 

old growth harvest 0 123 0 0 

Total harvest 3,904 5,296 11 394 

Percent of Series Harvested 16 19 1 8 

Size Class and Canopy Closure 

A majority of the analysis area has large size class 4 and 5 trees (both hardwoods and conifers) 

(Table 3-20). Most of the vegetation in size class 1 and 2 are the plantations and hardwood 

stands, such as canyon live oak and alder. The size class 3 and 4 stands are the early mature 

and mid-mature white fir, red fir, tanoak and Douglas-fir series. A general description for the 

analysis area outside of the steep inner gorges would be dominance by high site class, large 

trees. In fact, some of the trees sampled during extensive ecology plot sampling in the area 

exceed the highest Dunning site class (base age 300 years) category for California (Dunning, 

1942). 

Table 3-20. The Distribution of Size Classes for Vegetation Series within Analysis Area 

Size Class Acres Percent 

0 (none) 1,512 2 

1 (0-5.9") 6,165 9 

2 (6-10.9") 3,892 6 

3 (11-20.9") 11,720 18 

4 (21-35.9") 22,407 34 

5 (>36") 19,841 30 

Total 65,537 100 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-72 
Current and Reference Conditions 

Canopy closure is high overall in this analysis area (Table 3-21). Eighty-one percent of the area 

has a canopy closure between 60 and 100 percent. Areas with no overstory cover are the 

grasslands and non-vegetated areas or barrens. 

Table 3-21. Canopy Closure Classes for all Vegetation Series within the Analysis Area 

Total Canopy Closure Acres Percent 

N (0-9%) 4,069 6 

S (10-19%) 969 2 

P (20-39%) 2,131 3 

M (40-69%) 5,559 8 

G (69-100%) 52,809 81 

Total 65,537 100 

Plantations 

On National Forest lands within these three watersheds, there were 6,960 acres of young stands 

that were reforested following timber harvest activities. They varied in age from 7 to 41 years, 

with the majority being 20-35 years old. The primary conifer species present were Douglas-fir and 

ponderosa pine, with sugar pine, incense cedar, and white fir being minor stand components. A 

large percentage of these plantations were burned at various severities during the fire. Table 3-

22 displays the acreages by watershed and the acres within the fire perimeter by burn severity. 

Remaining acres are unburned. 

Table 3-22. Plantations within the Watersheds 

Watershed Acres Burn Severity 

High Moderate Low 

Mill Creek 1620 334 49 396 

Tish Tang 625 255 107 27 

Horse Linto 4715 2173 532 758 

The category of burn severity within plantations is based upon the expected early mortality within 

the first year following the fire. Young stands between 7 and 40 years of age fall into the sapling 

and pole seral stages. Closed canopy conifers, with a hardwood component and crown ratios 

greater than 60 percent, characterize plantations greater than 20 years old. There would have 

been dead or dying shrubs in the understory. Generally, plantations less than 20 years old had a 

well-developed shrub layer with hardwoods and live crown ratios of greater than 70 percent. Both 

of these conditions carry high fuel loadings and potential for catastrophic loss in a fire. Young 

trees have thin bark, live crowns that are close to the ground and typically intertwined with 

adjacent conifer, hardwood, and shrub and forb vegetation, creating a “ladder” of fine fuels. 

Douglas-fir, sugar pine and incense cedar have slender twigs and small terminal buds. This 

creates a situation that results in high mortality when wildfire enters the stand (Wagener 1961, 

Weatherspoon 1988). In young stands that naturally regenerate following catastrophic loss to fire, 

wind or insects, the same conditions exist that are found in plantations except with increased 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-73 
Chapter 3 

amounts of standing snags and downed woody debris. Dead trees ignite easily and represent a 

higher potential source of firebrands that can enhance fire spread. Fallen fire-killed trees create a 

highly concentrated heat source that can cause problems during fire suppression and may result 

in localized soil degradation (Harrington 1996, Nyland 1996). 

Of the approximately 14,850 acres of stand-replacing, high intensity fire, between 2,000 and 3,000 

acres of plantations were burned. Actual losses will be field verified in the coming year as crews 

are able to access and evaluate these young stands. 

Fire Effects on Vegetation 

Individual Tree Damage 

The severity of the Megram Fire in relation to stand damage has been categorized into three 

classes; high, moderate and low. These categories relate to the amount of live, green canopy 

remaining based on aerial photo interpretation. Individual tree damage within stands following fire 

is generally categorized using two characteristics; crown scorch (or crown loss) and cambium 

damage (Wagener 1961; Weatherspoon, 1988; Reinhardt and Ryan, 1988). Individual species 

vary greatly in their susceptibility to fire, as do trees of different heights and diameters. 

Comparatively, pines have thicker bark and larger buds than the firs. These characteristics 

provide greater protection to cambium and next years’ production of replacement foliage (needles) 

(Wagener 1961). True firs (Abies sp) (white and red fir) and Douglas-fir have thin bark on 

younger trees and on mid and upper boles. Buds are smaller and less resistant to heat damage. 

These species cannot withstand as much cambium damage and crown loss as the pines. The 

majority of the natural conifer stands that suffered high and moderate severity fire in these 

watersheds were composed of white fir and Douglas-fir. Pines were a minor component. 

Generally for firs, crown losses greater than 65 percent of pre-fire crown volume or cambium 

damage between 25 and 40 percent of the bole circumference will result in death (Wagener 1961 

and Weatherspoon 1988). Insects will likely attack surviving trees that are near the upper limit of 

these damage thresholds (see section on insects below). 

Late season (fall) high intensity fires can also kill fine roots within a few inches of the soil surface 

and cambium on larger roots near the surface (Weatherspoon 1987). The amount of damage is 

difficult to predict due to factors such as species differences, soil moisture, duff layer depth and 

fire duration. Significant root loss can result in mortality or predisposition to insect attack. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-74 
Current and Reference Conditions 

Fire Severity 

In order to support this analysis and assess the impacts of the Megram Fire, fire severity on the 

Six Rivers National Forest portion of the fire was mapped. Post-fire aerial photos were used along 

with limited ground truthing. Seven categories were created for this assessment: 0, 1, 2, 2a, 3, 4a 

and 4b. Practically speaking, they can be lumped into three categories: low, moderate and high 

severity. The minimum map unit was approximately one acre for the two highest severest burn 

categories. Descriptions of each category follow: 

Low Severity 

0 - No burn. This category included one polygon within the fire perimeter that was identified 

as no burn. 

1 - This category included polygons in which < 25 percent of the canopy was killed. 

Practically speaking, these are the areas where there was almost no fire activity visible 

from air photos or where spotting was very infrequent and barely visible. A good majority of 

this category falls well below the 25 percent demarcation, from an aerial view. 

Moderate Severity 

2 - This category included polygons in which 25 to 40 percent of the canopy were killed. It 

included areas of small spot fires too small to delineate, i.e. below minimum map unit 

size. 

2a - This category was established for wildlife purposes. It included polygons where 40 to 

60% of the canopy was killed. Most of this category falls closer to the 40% canopy killed 

rather than the 60 percent. It also seems to be mostly in the higher elevation white fir 

and red fir early mature stands 

3 - This category included polygons where between 60 and 70% of the canopy were killed. 

High Severity 

4a - This category includes polygons where > 70 percent of the canopy was dead. It's 

probably more like > 85% of canopy mortality, with mostly dead trees or dead brush and 

only sporadic green vegetation interspersed. Canopy is mostly dead but not removed. 

4b - This category included stands with >70 percent canopy gone, more like 95 to 100 

percent gone and also removed, i.e. vaporized. This is characterized by brush fields 

burned to bare soil and tree stands with only charred "sticks " remaining. 

Ground truthing to validate polygon labels will likely be completed during the field season of year 

2000. 

A description of the effects of the Megram Fire on the vegetation of the analysis area follows. This 

analysis will concentrate on Federal lands within the fire perimeter and within the analysis area. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-75 
Chapter 3 

Statistical significance was assessed using chi-square (SPSS 1999). For analysis purposes, the 

assumption was made that all polygons were independent, identical trials. 

Fire severity effects on vegetation are described in Table 3-23. The moderate severity category 

accounted for the highest frequency of burned acres (32,886 acres, 67 percent). It was followed 

by the high severity category (14,852 acres, 30 percent) and low severity (1,701 acres, 3 percent). 

Table 3-23. Fire Severity Classes for all Vegetation Series within the Analysis Area 

Burn Code Acres Percent 

low severity 

no burn 0 0.0 

low intensity < 25% mortality 1,701 3.4 

moderate severity 

low-moderate intensity 25-40% mortality 17,885 36.2 

moderate intensity 40-60% mortality 12,798 25.9 

high-moderately intensity60-70% mortality 2,203 4.5 

high severity 

high intensity > 70 % mortality 10,718 21.7 

extreme intensity > 70% mortality 4,134 8.4 

Grand Total 49,439 100.0 

Fire Severity vs. Weather 

Records kept during the fire indicate that periods of rapid fire movement were associated with high 

winds and low humidity. Further analysis of the effects of weather will be evaluated later if the 

data becomes available. 

Fire Severity by Vegetation Series 

The white fir series had the highest frequency of burned acres (53percent) (Table 3-24). It was 

followed by the tanoak series (26 percent), Douglas-fir series (10 percent), red fir series (9 

percent) and a host of other vegetation types to a lesser extent. These frequencies are somewhat 

reflective of the frequency of these series in the analysis area. When the series are analyzed 

independently, it is apparent that they differ in the frequencies of fire severities. For instance, the 

tanoak series had 64 percent of its burned acres in the 25-40 percent burn category, with only 15 

percent in the high severity >70 percent burn category. This contrasts with the white series, 

where 26 percent of its burned acres were in the 25-40 percent burn category and 36 percent 

were in the high severity burn category. The red fir series shows even greater differences. It had 

only 10 percent of its burned acres in the 25-40 percent category, 43 percent in the 40-60 percent 

category and 44 percent in the high severity category. Red fir stands had significant infections of 

the parasite dwarf mistletoe (Arceuthobium abietinum) and cytospora (Cytospora abietis). This 

complex causes both crown loss and high levels of mortality, which contribute to the increased 

frequency of high severity fire effects. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-76 
Current and Reference Conditions 

Table 3-24. Fire Severity by Forested Vegetation Series within the Analysis Area 

Series tanoak white 

fir 

red fir Douglasfir Total 

Acres 

Total 

Percent 

Burn 

Code 

Acres Percent Acres Percent Acres Percent Acres Percent 

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

1 1,400 11 190 1 40 1 10 0 1,640 3 

2 7,720 64 6,510 26 440 10 1,790 39 16,460 36 

2a 940 8 7,480 30 1,910 43 1,020 23 11,350 25 

3 240 2 1,640 7 60 2 180 4 2,120 5 

4a 1,640 14 6,100 25 1,060 24 1,310 29 10,110 22 

4b 130 1 2,720 11 890 20 210 5 3,950 9 

Total 12,070 100 24,640 100 4,400 100 4,520 100 45,630 100 

Fire Severity by Seral Stage 

Vegetation seral stages were differentially affected by fire (Table 3-25). The highest frequency of 

affected acres for all severities was in the old growth seral stage (29 percent). This is unfortunate, 

given the importance of the old growth seral stage in providing habitat to late seral dependent 

species. In addition, 27 percent of the old growth seral stage was affected by high severity fire. 

The high severity burn category normally had over 80 percent of the trees killed, which reset the 

seral stage to shrub/forb. This results in a significant loss of late seral acres, one of the key 

features of the late seral reserve. 

The highest frequency of high severity fire occurred in the early mature seral stages. Here, due to 

the high degree of mortality, 39 percent of the early mature seral stage was reset to the shrub/forb 

seral stage. The mid mature and late mature seral stages also suffered from high severity fire, 

with 29 percent and 26 percent of their extent being reset to the shrub/forb seral stage. These 

acres are very important to the old growth seral stage, since they are the source of in-growth. 

Table 3-25. Fire Severity by Vegetation Seral Stage within the Analysis Area 

Burn Code 1 2 2a 3 4a 4b Total Percent 

Seral Stage Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent 

shrub/forb 14.8 7.1 9.6 7.3 11.4 6.3 8.9 

pole 3.4 6.7 3.2 2.9 6.5 3.7 5.2 

early mature 12.5 18.0 16.5 13.9 20.6 34.6 19.2 

mid mature 22.5 21.4 18.5 20.1 18.1 20.2 19.8 

late mature 12.3 17.9 20.8 18.6 16.0 11.4 17.5 

old growth 34.7 29.0 31.5 37.2 27.5 23.7 29.4 

Grand Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-77 
Chapter 3 

Fire Severity by Slope Class 

Fire severity by slope class is described in Table 3-26. The highest frequency of burn for all 

severity categories was in the 35-65 percent slope category (43 percent), followed by the 20-35 

percent slope class (27 percent) and the > 65 percent slope class (17 percent). In terms of fire 

severity class, the moderate severity burn had the highest frequency. 

Table 3-26. Fire Severity by Slope Percent Class within the Analysis Area 

Slope Class Acres Slope Class Percent Totals 

Burn 

Code 

>20-

35% 

>35-

65% 

>65% 0-20% >20-

35% 

>35-

65% 

>65% 0-20% Total 

Acres 

Total 

Percent 

0 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0 0.0 

1 352 921 284 144 2.7 4.4 3.5 2.1 1,701 3.4 

2 3,765 7,789 4,217 2,115 28.5 37.0 51.2 30.4 17,885 36.2 

2a 3,833 4,775 1,461 2,728 29.0 22.7 17.8 39.3 12,798 25.9 

3 703 918 267 315 5.3 4.4 3.2 4.5 2,203 4.5 

4a 3,022 4,764 1,799 1,132 22.9 22.6 21.9 16.3 10,718 21.7 

4b 1,535 1,883 202 514 11.6 8.9 2.5 7.4 4,134 8.4 

Total 13,210 21,051 8,230 6,949 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 49,439 100.0 

Fire Severity by Slope Position 

Fire severity classes by slope position are displayed in Table 3-27. The moderate severity burn 

category dominated all slope positions. However, significant differences (P = .0001) were found 

in fire severity by slope position. For instance, lower slope positions were characterized by 

moderate severity burn effects (77 percent) with a low frequency of high severity burn (19 

percent). This is in contrast to the significantly (P = .001) higher frequency of high severity fire 

(39 percent) in the upper slope position. The middle slope position was intermediate in terms of 

burn severity between upper and lower slope positions. 

Table 3-27. Fire Severity by Slope Position within the Analysis Area 

Slope Position Lower Middle Upper Total 

Acres 

Total 

Percent 

Burn Code Acres Percent Acres Percent Acres Percent 

0 0.0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0.0 

1 613 3.8 701 3.6 387 2.8 1,701 3.4 

2 6,986 43.2 6,471 32.9 4,428 32.6 17,885 36.2 

2a 4,773 29.5 5,009 25.5 3,016 22.2 12,798 25.9 

3 700 4.3 1,011 5.1 492 3.6 2,203 4.5 

4a 2,504 15.5 4,732 24.1 3,483 25.6 10,718 21.7 

4b 600 3.7 1,738 8.8 1,796 13.2 4,134 8.4 

Total 16,177 100.0 19,661 100.0 13,603 100.0 49,439 100.0 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-78 
Current and Reference Conditions 

Fire Severity vs. the Blowdown Area 

In December 1995 and January 1996, a series of high intensity wind storms swept the analysis 

area shearing the tops and breaking the boles of numerous trees across approximately 30,000 

acres. The result of this was a huge increase in fuel loading (up to 400 tons/acre) in parts of the 

analysis area. In preparation for possible fuel reduction projects, high concentrations of blowdown 

related fuels were mapped outside of wilderness only. In this analysis, the mapped blowdown 

areas were compared to areas outside of the mapped units for differences in fire severity (Table 

3-28). 

High severity fire (>70 percent mortality) appeared to occur with significantly higher (P=.0001) 

frequency in areas mapped as high severity blowdown. In contrast, moderate severity fire (25-40 

percent mortality), appeared to occur with significantly higher (P=.001) frequency in areas outside 

the mapped blowdown. 

Table 3-28. Burn Severity Comparison between Areas Mapped with High Severity 

Blowdown and Those without High Severity Blowdown 

No Mapped 

Blowdown 

Mapped 

Blowdown 

Total 

Acres 

Total 

Percent 

Burn Code Acres Percent Acres Percent 

< 25% mortality 1,701 3.8 0.0 1,701 3.4 

25-40% mortality 17,291 39.1 594 11.5 17,885 36.2 

40-60% mortality 10,886 24.6 1,912 37.0 12,798 25.9 

60-70% mortality 1,893 4.3 311 6.0 2,203 4.5 

> 70% mortality 9,151 20.7 1,567 30.4 10,718 21.7 

> 70% ext.mortality 3,356 7.6 778 15.1 4,134 8.4 

Total 44,278 100.0 5,162 100.0 49,439 100.0 

Fire Severity vs. Fuel Treatment Units 

Outside of wilderness, a variety of fuel reduction treatments were implemented following the 1995-

96 windstorms. These treatments occurred within units identified as having high concentrations of 

blowdown-related fuels (Table 3-29). Treatment units had the majority of blowdown generated 

large coarse woody debris removed. In addition, most damaged trees with <20 percent live crown 

ratio were cut and removed. Background levels of snags and logs were maintained on all units. 

Removal of trees with <20 percent live crown ratio resulted in very small changes in overstory 

canopy closure because most of the blowdown sheared the tops off the trees rather than topple 

them. Stand treatments were designed to maintain at least 60 percent canopy closure where it 

existed after the blowdown event. 

After harvesting, follow-up treatments to reduce fuels were at very stages of implementation prior 

to the fire. They included: 

1. no fuels treatment 

2. slash was piled 

3. slash was piled and burned 

4. slash was piled, burned and the unit was understory burned. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-79 
Chapter 3 

The following analysis attempts to measure the severity of fire on stands with these fuel 

treatments (Table 3-29). 

Table 3-29. Burn Severity Comparison between Logged Areas with Various Fuel 

Treatments 

Treatment Burn Severity Class Acres Percent of 

Treatment 

Percent of 

Total 

logged 25-40% 3 2.2 0.2 

no fuel 40-60% 36 27.5 2.4 

treatment 60-70% 7 5.7 0.5 

> 70% 77 59.3 5.2 

> 70% extreme 7 5.4 0.5 

Total 129 100 8.7 

logged < 25% 33 4.8 2.2 

piled 25-40% 208 30.7 14.1 

40-60% 201 29.6 13.6 

60-70% 50 7.3 3.4 

> 70% 144 21.1 9.7 

> 70% extreme 44 6.4 3.0 

Total 679 100 45.8 

logged 25-40% 10 2.2 0.7 

piled 40-60% 285 62.0 19.2 

piles burned 60-70% 28 6.0 1.9 

> 70% 126 27.5 8.5 

> 70% extreme 11 2.3 0.7 

Total 460 100 31.0 

logged 25-40% 146 67.8 9.8 

piles burned 40-60% 59 27.4 4.0 

understory burn 60-70% 4 2.0 0.3 

> 70% 6 2.8 0.4 

Total 215 100 14.5 

Grand Total 1,483 100.0 

The highest frequency of high severity fire occurred in stands with no follow up fuels treatment. 

Sixty-five percent of these stands suffered high severity fire effects in which >70 percent of the 

canopy was killed. The background level for high severity fire in upper 1/3 slope positions was 39 

percent. This indicates that large coarse woody debris removal without fuels treatment likely 

increases the risk of high intensity fire. Unfortunately, the fire occurred before fuel treatments 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-80 
Current and Reference Conditions 

could be completed. Fortunately, this lack of follow up treatment only occurred on 9 percent of the 

treatment area. 

Piling the slash, which occurred in 46 percent of the treatments, resulted in a large reduction in 

high severity fire mortality compared to no treatment. In comparison, burning the piled slash failed 

to significantly reduce high severity mortality when compared to piling without burning. These 

treatments covered 31 percent of the treatment area. Both treatments were below the overall 

frequency (39percent) for high severity fire in upper 1/3 slope positions.

The most successful treatment in reducing high severity fire involved piling the slash, burning the 

piles, followed by understory burning. These treatments reduced high severity mortality to three 

percent of the acres treated. An example comparison of this treatment to an adjacent untreated 

area is contained in Figure 3-8. These two areas are located immediately adjacent to one another 

on either side of a side-slope road in an upper 1/3 slope position. The stand below the road was 

untreated, including no large coarse woody debris removal. It was subjected to high severity 

mortality with over 90 percent of the trees killed. The treated stand above the road had between 

25 and 40 percent mortality.

Special Habitats and Rangelands 

Special habitats in the analysis area fall into two categories: riparian vegetation and montane 

meadows. Cattle graze both of these vegetation types. The descriptions below in combination, 

with other issues such as water quality, fish and wildlife habitat, culturally significant plants and 

fire effects, will be used to determine if cattle will be turned out this spring. 

Riparian Vegetation 

Riparian vegetation falls into three categories: alder stringers, streamside riparian and wet 

meadows. The alder stringers account for 1,210 acres; streamside riparian includes 77 acres, 

while the montane meadows cover 508 acres. The alder stringers are dominated by Sitka alder, 

the streamside riparian by mixed forbs and the montane meadows by the sedge/common 

cinquefoil-corn lily type. The latter type is found on high elevation basins above 5000 feet, on 

north and south facing aspects in middle 1/3-slope positions. It is made up of high cover of 

sedges/grasses and forbs. Perennial native sedges and grasses dominate the grass layer. The 

forb layer contains a combination of species, some of which have been identified as disturbance 

indicators. These species include sheep sorrel (Rumex acetosella), yarrow (Achillea millifolium), 

corn lily (Veratrum californicum) and bull thistle (Cirsium vulgare). 

Montane Meadows 

Montane meadows fell into two categories: dry upland grass types and mesic/wet meadows. The 

dry upland grass type was found on high elevation sites above 5500 feet, on south-southwest 

aspects in upper 1/3-slope positions. It is represented by the Lemmon's stipa/bracken fern type. It 

was made up of high cover of grasses and forbs. The grass layer is primarily made up of native 

perennial species. The forb layer is dominated by bracken fern. The high cover of bracken fern 

tends to indicate repeated moderate-high intensity disturbance. It is also known to have an 

acidifying effect on soils and can impede successful regeneration (Johnson-Maynard 1998). This 

is born out by the high extent of bare ground in this type. Ecology plot samples identified bare 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-81 
Chapter 3 

ground averaging 28 percent. Further observations identified low organic matter in the soil surface 

layer, which tends to lead to exposed mineral soil. Because of this bare soil, some areas displayed 

surface erosion and rilling. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-82 
Current and Reference Conditions 

Figure 3-8. Photographs of Fire Effects in Adjacent Treated vs. Untreated Areas: 

These photographs compare the fire effects in adjacent treated vs. untreated stands on a mountain sideslope in the upper 1/3 slope 

position on Lone Pine Ridge. -related fuels removed and was broadcast burned. Tree 

mortality in the treated stand was low; less than 25 percent of the trees died. 

riparian corridor, was high; more than 90 percent of the trees died. 

The treated stand on the left had blowdown

Tree mortality in the untreated stand, which contains a 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-83
Chapter 3 

Fire Effects on Special Habitats 

Observations within riparian areas and montane meadows indicate low/moderate fire effects. The 

principal concern in riparian areas is related to the amount of mortality in alder stringers. The 

alder layer tends to protect streams from cattle related impacts by limiting their access. If cattle 

graze these areas, it would slow recovery of the alder layer and could lead to reductions in water 

quality as well as fish and wildlife habitat degradation. 

In terms of streamside riparian areas, the vegetation has been removed in some areas. This 

tends to expose the soil surface and could lead to soil compaction from cattle. This would likely 

slow revegetation and could lead to deposition of soil particles into streams. 

Snags and Logs 

The importance of large (>20 inches) snags and logs in late seral stands has been documented 

throughout the literature. In an effort to understand the relationship of snag and log densities to 

vegetation type and seral stage, over 1200 plots were sampled across the Forest. These plots 

were used to generate the background levels of snags and logs displayed in the Forest LRMP. 

The Megram Fire generated significant increases in snag densities. In some areas, these 

densities increased 100-fold. Log densities have not reached the same levels as snags, but it is 

likely they will within the next 10 years. 

The desired range of densities for snags and logs by vegetation type and seral stage is displayed 

in Table 3-30. These levels are a refinement of the levels specified in the LRMP and reflect the 

desire to maintain higher levels of snags and logs in LSRs. 

Table 3-30. Desired Ranges of Snags and Logs per Acre 

Vegetation Series 

and Seral Stages 

Snag Range 

(>20" diameter 

and 20' tall) 

Log Range 

(>20" diameter 

and 20’ long) 

Tanoak/Douglas-fir 

early mature 2-5 8-12 

mid mature 3-6 4-8 

late mature 1-3 1-3 

old growth 3-8 8-12 

White Fir 

early mature 1-4 3-7 

mid mature 4-8 3-7 

late mature 4-8 7-11 

old growth 4-10 10-16 

Larger diameter downed logs are preferable, as they are expected to last longer over time. All 

logs in decay class 3 through 5 should be retained, but hard logs (decay classes 1-2) also need to 

be left to provide recruitment. These desired ranges should be met over a landscape or project 

area (e.g. 40 to 100 acres). The number of snags and down logs will vary on any particular acre, 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-84 
Current and Reference Conditions 

depending on site-specific conditions and objectives. For instance, snag and log densities may be 

very low in fuel breaks. 

It is desirable to have scattered individual snags and logs as well as aggregations. Aggregations 

perform important functions in both terrestrial and riparian habitats. The degree to which 

aggregations would remain untreated will vary by management objectives for the site. 

Insects 

Reference and Current Conditions 

Insects of significance in these watersheds are typically bark beetles in the genus Dendroctonus, 

Ips and Scolytus and the wood borers, genus Melanophila. There was an epidemic outbreak of 

the Douglas-fir bark beetle (D. pseudotsugae) in the Tish Tang and Horse Linto watersheds in the 

mid-1960s. Many of the older plantations in this area resulted from harvest following that 

outbreak. 

Following the wind event in the winter of 1995 -1996, there were individual and groups of trees in 

the white fir type that died after crown loss weakened the trees and fir engraver beetle (Scolytus 

ventralis) attacked. Aerial detection flights over these watersheds in1998 showed the largest 

patches of insect killed trees to be three to five acres in size and widely scattered. 

Following the fire, with many thousands of acres of dead and weakened trees, insects will play a 

role similar to what occurred after the blowdown, except on a broader scale. Trees scorched or 

killed by fire are attractive to many forest insects, which may come from a radius of several miles 

(Furniss and Carolin 1977). Bark beetles that breed in fire killed or weakened trees can spread 

and kill nearby green trees (Furniss 1965). Trees that retained some live crown after the fire, but 

are stressed due to crown and cambium loss, are highly susceptible to insect attack and death 

over the next one to three years (Wagener 1961, Weatherspoon 1988). Beetles thus can kill 

trees within the fire area that might have otherwise survived (Miller and Keen 1960). Wood borers 

enter the dead and weakened trees causing loss of value for wood products and limit the time 

available for salvage (Kimmey and Furniss 1943). Borers can feed on infested trees a few months 

to as much as 4 years from the time eggs are laid, causing mortality over extended time periods 

(Furniss and Carolin 1977). Long after trees are killed by fire or insects, snags invite lightning and 

can increase the cost, difficulty and danger of controlling the resulting fire. Fire kills or stresses 

trees that breed insects and insects can help set the stage for another fire (Furniss and Carolin 

1977). An example of when the combination of fire and insects help stage for another fire 

occurred on the Klamath National Forest. In July of 1999, a lightning storm ignited a fire within the 

Marble Mountains Wilderness within 20 miles of the Megram Fire area. The fire started in steep 

terrain in a large contiguous area of snags and down logs that resulted from a fire in 1987. Fire 

fighting resources were not able to suppress this fire due to the extreme danger from burning 

snags and rolling logs. The fire was monitored, and in August the Stein Fire reached over 800 

acres and was eventually suppressed when conditions allowed (Jones, personal observation). 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-85 
Chapter 3 

Plant Species of Concern 

Reference Conditions 

Species of concern include Forest sensitive plants, special interest species (SIS), California 

Native Plant Society (CNPS) rare plants, and survey and manage (S&M) species. For more 

detailed information, Appendix D (Table D-1) displays the vascular plant species of concern, and 

Table D-2 in Appendix D provides information regarding S&M species, including management 

recommendations. Most of the rare plant data for the analysis area were gathered through the 

Specimen Label Information Database (SLID) in the early 1980s. Other rare plant information 

came from review of documents listing rare plants associated with the Long Ridge Compartment 

(Theiss 1994), South Tish Tang Compartment (Theiss 1992) and Box Camp area (Theiss 1996) 

located within the Megram Fire area on the Hoopa Reservation. S&M information was derived 

from the Known Sites Database, Version 2.0 (KSDB). There are no threatened, endangered or 

proposed plant species, nor is suitable habitat present in the analysis area. 

A majority of the species documented in the analysis area is associated with the Ironside Mountain 

batholith. Rare plant occurrences have not been documented on the galice formation to the west 

of the batholith. Rare plants are often allied to distinctive lithologies and landforms, serpentinite 

barrens being one of the most species rich in terms of rarity. Infertility and unique chemical 

properties are just a few characteristics associated with such rock types as serpentinite, limestone 

and granite (Kruckeberg 1992). Adaptive features that aid plants in coping with limited resources 

and habitat specialization partially explain the preponderance of rare and endemic plant species in 

these seemingly harsh environments. 

The Ironside Mountain batholith is composed primarily of diorite. A key characteristic of diorite is 

the presence of moderate to coarse-grained, sodium feldspar with calcium and magnesium 

represented in subordinate amounts (M. Smith, personal communication). Perhaps the physical 

properties of the dioritic soils (well-drained) coupled with the limited amounts of calcium and 

magnesium, nutrients essential to plant growth, partially explain the presence of rare plant species 

in association with the batholith. 

Species locations in the analysis area coincide with high elevation vegetation types and habitats: 

red fir-white fir, red fir-incense cedar, and white fir-incense cedar sub-series. Habitats for the 

species of concern include outcrops, rocky/gravelly settings (i.e. localized serpentinite areas), 

meadows/wetlands, and micro-habitats within mature coniferous forests. 

There is little information available on reference conditions specific to any species of concern. 

The documented occurrences on the Forest have not been formally visited since the early 1980s, 

so even current conditions about species and sub-population health are lacking. Given the plant 

habitats of interest in the analysis area, only inferences can be made about reference conditions 

and probable changes in the quantity and quality of habitats that support these species. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-86 
Current and Reference Conditions 

Outcrops, Cliff faces, and Rocky Habitats 

Cliff faces and outcrops support Heckner’s lewisia (Lewisia cotyledon var. heckneri, SIS), pale 

yellow stonecrop (Sedum laxum ssp. flavidum, SIS), and Canyon Creek stonecrop (Sedum 

paradisum, Forest sensitive species). These habitats are considered stable in that natural or 

human-caused disturbances or physical processes have not significantly altered habitat conditions 

for the species over time. 

A concentration of rare plants occurs in the analysis area at high elevations in association with 

landforms derived from past glacial activity. Tracy’s lupine (Lupinus tracyi, CNPS rare plant) is 

the most prominent species along the high elevation ridges, occurring in glacial moraine and 

outwash areas in association with Tracy’s collomia (Collomia tracyi, CNPS rare plant). The 

Trinity Summit area is the type locality for Tracy’s lupine, which means the taxon was first 

discovered (circa 1940) and described from this locale. Sub-populations are scattered along the 

ridge system to the north of the analysis area into Siskiyou County. Geologically speaking, glacial 

areas are relatively new terrane. Species in the genus Lupinus are considered colonizers, 

becoming established on young, often rocky/gravelly soils. Processes occurring in these glacially 

derived settings could have changed habitat conditions from reference, but given the early 

successional nature of lupines, localized change in habitat conditions would not significantly affect 

the metapopulation over time. 

Meadow and Wetland Habitats 

High elevation meadow and wetland habitats in the Trinity Summit area support Klamath gentian 

(Gentiana plurisetosa, CNPS rare) and coast checkerbloom (Sidalcea oregana ssp. eximia, SIS). 

Bensoniella (Bensoniella oregana, Forest sensitive) occurs in a riparian area adjacent to Grove’s 

Prairie in association with nodding semaphore grass (Pleuropogon refractus, CNPS rare), which 

grows in moist sites of the prairies. Arctic starflower (Trientalis artica, CNPS rare), Vollmer’s lily 

(Lilium pardilinum ssp. vollmeri, CNPS rare), and California globe mallow (Iliamna latibracteata, 

CNPS rare) are other wetland species within the analysis area. 

Ongoing processes operating within meadow and wetland habitats can change conditions 

temporally and spatially for plant species. Meadows respond to precipitation patterns, shrinking in 

size during drought periods and enlarging during periods of heavy precipitation. Furthermore, it 

has been shown that species composition and distribution in meadows respond spatially and 

temporally to snowpack dynamics (Murray 1991). Geologic processes can affect meadows on a 

local scale in a single event (i.e. mass wasting) and over time and space as hydrologic conditions 

adjust to geologic instabilities. During fire-free intervals, species composition in meadows can 

shift from herbaceous to woody species, particularly on the meadow margins. Burrowing 

mammals overturn the soil, creating disturbance on a small scale resulting in micro-habitats 

suitable for species tolerant of this disturbance, (i.e. large-seeded exotic annual grasses as 

compared to small-seeded native perennials) (Stromberg and Griffin 1996). Given the forage 

value of meadows to wildlife, herbivory (via plant consumption, browsing, grazing or seed 

predation) by various faunal species is another process that has affected species composition and 

abundance (i.e. bent grass, Agrostis pallens, a native perennial occurring in the meadows, 

responds to herbivory by sprouting). 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-87 
Chapter 3 

Ongoing processes aside, reference conditions for most meadow and wetland habitats in the 

analysis area have been affected by livestock grazing. Grazing effects include shifts in 

composition, distribution and abundance of species, loss of species diversity, and destabilization 

of plant communities (i.e. noxious and non-native species introductions) (Painter 1995). 

Confounding the effects of grazing are variables related to climate. For example, drought 

conditions can influence trends already set in motion by grazing activity. 

A history of intense grazing would reduce habitat quality for rare plants and could result in 

complete loss of occurrences or sub-populations across the meadow complexes. In Menke’s 

rangeland assessment for the Sierra Nevada, he identified an array of species indicative of late 

seral conditions and considered susceptible to grazing and trampling (Menke 1996). Of the 

species listed, the following are present in the wet meadows of the analysis area: alpine timothy 

(Phleum alpinum) occurs in Patterson, Lower Ferguson and McKay Meadows; fringed gentian 

(Gentianopsis simplex), Klamath gentian (Gentiana plurisetosa), a CNPS rare plant, and 

American broomline (Veronica americana) occur in Lower Ferguson. Although late seral, grazingintolerant indicators persist in a few of the meadows within the analysis area, habitat quality has 

been affected by the introduction of non-native species. Presumably, the meadows in the analysis 

area that now support species indicative of overgrazed conditions (specifically, corn lily [Veratrum 

californicum], California oat grass [Danthonia californica], yarrow [Achillea millifolium], sheep 

sorrel [Rumex acetosella, an introduced species], and bull thistle [Cirsium vulgare, an introduced 

species] [Menke 1996]) originally supported an array of species native to the region and less 

weighted toward disturbance-tolerant species. 

In addition to grazing pressures, successional trends have affected the meadows. Conifer and 

hardwood encroachment is evident (ecology plot card data 1998). Sitka alder (Alnus viridis ssp. 

sinuata) and incense cedar (Calocedrus decurrens) are the species most often observed 

occupying areas once dominated by herbaceous meadow plants. This succession could be due 

to a shift in precipitation patterns and the subsequent effects on the hydrologic conditions of 

meadows or perhaps a tradition of fire exclusion that allowed for woody species encroachment 

into meadows. Reference conditions would have included meadow settings and periods whereby 

succession to woody species occurred; however, persistence of woody species and their extent of 

cover would have been delimited by periodic fire. 

Mature Conifer Forest Habitats 

Various species of concern are associated with mature forested habitats, particularly those in late 

and old growth seral stage condition. Association with late seral forests is in part due to the 

structural diversity of stands that are characterized by canopy openings, vertical diversity allowing 

light to reach the forest floor, a species mix in the understory, a mosaic burn pattern, presence of 

large coarse woody debris in various age classes, and simply the age of the stand, which allows 

for development of fungal relationships essential to the health of certain species. 

Vascular Plants 

Fascicled lady’s slipper (Cypripedium fasciculatum, Forest sensitive, S&M), mountain lady’s 

slipper (Cypripedium montanum, Forest sensitive, S&M), and a bryophyte, Ptilidium californicum 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-88 
Current and Reference Conditions 

are associated with late seral stage forests. The discussion below will focus on the orchid species 

as indicators of mature conifer forest habitats, with limited assessment of other S&M species. 

Fascicled lady’s slipper and mountain lady’s slipper occur primarily in forests with a 60 to 80 

percent canopy cover dominated by conifers, particularly Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) and 

white fir (Abies concolor). Sub-populations of these species on the Forest are less than 10 in 

number and of small size, particularly with respect to mountain lady’s slipper. There are no 

documented occurrences of either species within the analysis area. Two populations of fascicled 

lady’s slipper (1998 findings) occur on the Orleans Ranger District to the north (in the Red Cap 

and Boise Creek watersheds), and a considerable distance south on the Mad River Ranger 

District. There is one historic population of mountain lady’s slipper just southwest of the analysis 

area border, with historic populations north in the Slate Creek watershed on the Orleans Ranger 

District and south in the vicinity of the Horse Mountain Botanical Area. Revisits of the historic 

mountain lady’s slipper populations in 1998 resulted in negative findings at 9 of the 10 known sites 

(McRae 1998). For orchid species, negative findings from one monitoring season do not always 

indicate extirpation of sub-populations; however, in all instances the sites surveyed had been 

disturbed (i.e. fuel break construction, thinning). 

Like most orchid species, lady-slipper orchids are sensitive to ground disturbance due to their 

dependence on fungi, which occur in association with organic material on the forest floor. For 

establishment and survival, orchids require the presence of a fungal symbiont; therefore, the 

presence of suitable micro-habitat conditions for the fungus is a prerequisite to orchid 

establishment. Lady’s slipper species may also depend on mycorrhizal associations for months or 

years before above ground growth begins (Harper and White 1974). In essence, the association 

of lady’s slipper orchids to late seral stage forests is due to its requirement for relatively stable 

micro-habitat conditions that these older forests provide. Although these orchids can tolerate 

small-scale disturbance (i.e. canopy gap creation), they fall into a category of plants considered 

poor survivors of disturbance and poor recruiters after disturbance (Halpern 1989). 

Lady’s slipper orchids reproduce through both asexual and sexual means. Sexual reproduction 

requires cross-fertilization in most cases. Pollinators observed include species of bees, wasps, 

hornets, and flies (Knecht 1996, Luer 1975). Pollinator specificity has not yet been identified. If 

pollinator specificity is the case, pollinator behavior could be affected by habitat fragmentation. 

Plants in smaller, isolated populations can be disadvantaged by reduced pollinator activity. 

Reduced activity can result in reduced seed set (Menges1990). In the case of lady’s slipper 

species, which rely on cross-pollination for sexual reproduction, reduced pollinator activity could 

have a significant effect on recruitment. Other variables related to the reproduction and ecology 

of lady’s slipper orchids include a low reproductive success rate (Harrod and Knecht 1994) and 

poor seed dispersal capabilities (Harrod and Everett 1993). In summary, lady’s slipper orchids 

possess various life history traits that limit their distribution, establishment and survival. 

Reference conditions could be characterized as a forest mosaic existing in various stages of 

succession across the landscape, shifting spatially and temporally. Within stands, local 

perturbations (i.e. individual tree mortality) created structural and age diversity within stands. 

Historic fire patterns in the Klamath Region have been characterized as relatively frequent and of 

low to moderate severity; however, burn severity varied spatially, resulting in a diverse landscape 

pattern (Taylor and Skinner 1998). 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-89 
Chapter 3 

Historically, this mosaic pattern of disturbance on a landscape and stand-level scale allowed for 

habitat persistence over time and space, whereby the metapopulation was sustained. 

Furthermore, across the landscape, connectivity of mature stands provided dispersal options for 

the orchids as conditions changed. With this scenario in mind, it is likely that populations of lady’s 

slipper orchids were more widely distributed and larger than populations under current conditions. 

Management has affected habitat quality for the orchids by reducing cover, size and distribution of 

late seral and old growth stands. Furthermore, these stands have been fragmented, creating 

edge effects considered a threat to the lady’s slipper species (Seevers and Lang 1998). Fire 

suppression activities have allowed for an unnatural accumulation of fuels, leading to fires of 

greater severity and extent than can be tolerated by lady’s slipper species (Harrod et al. 1997). 

Non-Vascular and Fungi Species 

There are no documented occurrences of any lichen, bryophyte or fungus species of concern 

within the analysis area (KSDB, version 2.0). Documentations of Ptilidium californicum, Ulota 

megalospora, Polyzellus multiplex and Otidea onotica are recorded in fifth field watersheds to the 

south and west of the analysis area (KSDB, Harpel personal communication). Potential habitat 

exists in the analysis area for these species as well as a lichen species, Lobaria hallii. Lobaria 

hallii has been found on the Forest in association with white and black oaks in early to mid seral 

stage stands. The association of Lobaria hallii with late seral stage forests is currently under 

question, as is concern for its viability (Lesher 1999); therefore, this species will not be discussed 

further. 

Ptilidium californicum, a bryophyte, occurs at the base of mature Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga 

menziesii) and white fir (Abies concolor) trees. Specifics related to the ecology of Ptilidium are 

not known; however, most bryophytes require relatively stable conditions in regard to substrate 

and micro-climate. Maintenance of humidity levels and moderate temperatures appear to be 

important habitat conditions. Fungi such as Polyzellus multiplex are associated with the roots of 

Abies sp. Maintenance of the host tree and the soil and humus layer are important habitat 

conditions for this species. Otidea onotica occurs on accumulated duff and humus in conifer 

forests, thus the integrity of the organic layer of the forest floor is a critical habitat variable for this 

species (Castellano and O’Dell 1997). 

Relative to bryophyte and fungal species, reference conditions for species of concern are akin to 

those for the lady’s slipper orchid. Conditions in common include well-distributed late seral stage 

forests, relatively stable micro-site conditions, partial shade, and maintenance of the soil, humus, 

and duff layer. Mosaic patterns of natural disturbance occurring could have extirpated 

occurrences locally but given the spatial and temporal regime of fires, extirpation levels of 

significance to population health was not likely. 

Similar to the lady’s slipper orchids, management has affected habitat quality for the bryophytes 

and fungi of concern by reducing cover, size and distribution of late seral and old growth stands. 

At a micro-habitat scale, these species of concern are directly affected by disturbance to the soil, 

humus and duff layer, removal or loss of substrate/host, and reduced canopy cover. Depending 

on severity, fires have been identified as a threat to these species, which have already been 

affected by the reduction of late seral habitats (Castellano and O’Dell 1997, Harpel 1998). Fires 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-90 
Current and Reference Conditions 

that consume the humus and duff layer, large coarse woody debris, or eliminate a considerable 

amount of the canopy are of particular concern to these species. 

Current Conditions 

As discussed above, ongoing processes have affected habitat conditions for the species of 

concern. Specifically, climatic shifts, periods of drought (and contrarily, high precipitation), 

episodic mass wasting, fire, and herbivory have influenced the composition, abundance, and 

distribution of plant habitats. These processes operated at both a landscape and local scale, 

across time and space. Presumably, plant species responded accordingly and metapopulations 

persisted. 

Management (public and private) within and around habitats has interrupted the dynamics of 

disturbance or change in habitat conditions, and subsequent plant response. The species of 

interest are differentially affected by management practices. For example, species occupying 

outcrops or cliffs or barren-type habitats in the analysis area have been little affected by 

management. Species occupying wetland habitats and mature conifer forests have been affected 

by logging, road and trail construction, plant collection, over-grazing, fire exclusion, and 

subsequent habitat fragmentation. 

With specific reference to the Megram Fire and its effect on the quality and quantity of plant 

habitat, it is fair to assume that stands which burned intensely (complete loss of crown and duff 

layer) were so significantly altered than any occurrences of plant species of concern no longer 

exist. Furthermore, suitable habitat has been lost in the short-term. Stands that burned at low to 

moderate intensities could still support plant species of interest and their habitats. 

Rocky habitats and most of the meadows were not directly or significantly affected by the Megram 

Fire. Many of the documented sensitive, SIS and CNPS rare plants were associated with these 

habitats, so the fire’s direct effects were minimal to these species groups. Habitats associated 

with mature conifer forests were affected as evidenced by the shift in age class structure from mid, 

late and old growth seral stages to shrub/forb and pole (Table 3-31). Although the presence of 

individual or pockets of older trees can provide suitable habitat in early mature stands, these 

stands are generally considered unsuitable. Only the shrub/forb and pole seral stages were 

addressed in the table below since they are clearly unsuitable. 

Table 3-31. Changes in Seral Stage due to the Megram Fire 

Early Seral Stages by 

Vegetation Type 

Example of Species 

Affected 

Pre-Fire 

Acres 

PostFire 

Acres 

Difference % mid, late, 

old-growth 

Shrub/Forb and Pole 

Seral Stage (Red fir, 

White Fir, and Douglasfir series) 

Cypripedium 

montanum, Ptilidium 

californicum, Polyzellus 

multiplex 

6,165 17,121 10,956 PreFire 

PostFire 

Red fir 301 2,099 1,798 70 30 

White fir 3,270 10,975 7,705 69 49 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-91 
Chapter 3 

Douglas-fir 2,594 4,047 1,453 44 40 

Across the conifer series, there was a shift in age class structure from stands in the mid, late and 

old growth condition to those in the pole and shrub/forb seral stages. Perhaps the most significant 

change was in the white fir series. Prior to the fire, there were 3,270 acres in the shrub/forb and 

pole seral stages; after the fire the number of acres increased to 10,975, reducing the number of 

acres in the mid, late and old growth seral stage by roughly 40 percent. Mature white fir and red fir 

stands provide suitable habitat for Ptilidium californicum that grows on the base of white fir trees 

and Polyzellus multiplex which is associated with the roots of Abies sp. As a result of the fire, 

distribution and extent of habitat for these species as well as the lady’s slipper orchids has 

changed. 

Noxious Weeds 

Reference Conditions 

One can assume that, in it’s reference condition, the analysis area was void of noxious weeds. 

(“Noxious weeds” in the context of this discussion refers to those species that are not native to the 

ecosystem and particularly aggressive). Environments most susceptible to weed introductions 

include grasslands and meadows. In their reference condition, grasslands and meadows were 

likely dominated by perennial grasses in association with forbs. With perhaps a bias toward 

forage plants, Davy (1902) generated a partial species list for northwestern California meadows 

that substantiates the preponderance of native perennial grasses. The list covering the Trinity 

Mountains and inner Coast Range did not indicate the presence of any weed species at that time, 

but consisted of perennial grasses currently present in meadow complexes of the analysis area: 

needlegrass (Achnatherum lemmonii), wild blue rye (Elymus glaucus) and California oatgrass 

(Danthonia californica). 

Noxious weeds began arriving in the west in the early half of the 19th century by settlers from 

eastern North America and Europe. It is presumed that introductions occurred before this time, 

dispersed by Native American activities. Weed introductions corresponded most often with pulses 

of western migration. Specifics of introduction periods do exist; for example, yellow starthistle 

(Centaurea solstitialis), which is native to the Mediterranean and southern Europe, was 

introduced into southeastern Washington in the early 1900s as a contaminant of alfalfa seed and 

is reported throughout most of the west. Cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum), a native to the 

Mediterranean, was introduced into the U.S. with packing material in the late 1800s and is 

currently reported throughout the U.S. (Westbrooks 1998); scotch broom (Cystisus scoparius), 

native to southern Europe, was introduced in the San Francisco Bay area around 1860 where it 

was sold as an ornamental (McClintock 1985). 

Ecologically speaking, noxious weeds displace native plants and plant communities, reduce 

overall species diversity, alter successional patterns, change physical characteristics of a given 

ecosystem, and alter ecosystem processes (Vitousek 1986). Relative to physical characteristics, 

noxious weed establishment changes the structure of the vegetation both above and below the 

ground. The former may include interstitial spaces between plants that allow for raindrop impact 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-92 
Current and Reference Conditions 

and subsequent erosion. Regarding below-ground structure, a tap root architecture (such is 

evident for yellow starthistle) is less effective in anchoring the soil than the fibrous root systems of 

perennial grasses (Huenneke 1995). Disturbance cycles are affected by noxious weeds. 

Cheatgrass, one of the most widely distributed noxious weeds, is highly flammable, thereby having 

the potential to alter frequency and severity of fire (Westbrooks 1998). 

Noxious weeds maintain myriad adaptive mechanisms for dispersal, persistence and exploitation 

of newly disturbed ground. For example, yellow starthistle can be wind dispersed and with sharp 

spines around the base of the flower, it can readily attach to livestock, wildlife species, machinery 

tires, and clothing. Seed production can be as high as 29,000 seeds per square meter, with 95 

percent seed viability and soil banking longevity for 10 years or more. After germinating, yellow 

starthistle can extend its roots three feet or deeper into the soil profile, thereby fully exploiting 

water resources in the soil throughout the summer and thus outcompeting other species (Lanini 

1996). 

Most of the noxious weeds of concern in the analysis area are shade intolerant; therefore, of the 

vegetation types and habitats, open settings such as grasslands and meadows are most 

vulnerable to introductions. Land cleared for any reason that disturbs the substrate and removes 

overstory cover, becomes a suitable environment for establishment and spread of noxious weeds. 

In forested systems, depending on the severity, fire can create an environment suitable for 

noxious weed establishment. Suppression and recovery activities that disturb the ground surface 

promote weed establishment. Furthermore, equipment, personnel and materials (i.e. mulch) 

brought in to implement these activities can be a vector for noxious weed importation. 

Current Conditions 

The composition, abundance and distribution of noxious weeds in the analysis area are poorly 

known. Observations by district specialists indicate the presence of scotch broom, black locust 

(planted intentionally for erosion control), and yellow starthistle. Information from a report 

generated for the Hoopa Tribe covering lands within the vicinity of the Megram Fire indicates the 

presence of ripgut brome (Bromus diandrus), cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum), bull thistle (Cirsium 

vulgare), and Himalaya berry (Rubus discolor). These species are likely associated with cleared 

sites, roadsides and overgrazed areas. Of the species listed, yellow starthistle and scotch broom 

are of greatest concern in grasslands and other open settings. Himalaya berry can be of concern 

in riparian areas. 

Given the ability of these species to readily disperse into disturbed areas (even from considerable 

distance), disturbance caused by the wildfire and wildfire suppression activities could have 

introduced noxious weeds or exacerbated their spread in the fire area. Sites cleared by heavy 

equipment are particularly suitable for noxious weed establishment. In forested areas, the effects 

of weeds are temporal. Depending on the density, the weeds could set back re-establishment of 

native plants in the short-term; however, over time, as the canopy develops and closes, shade 

intolerant weeds will die out. Grasslands or meadows that burned are most vulnerable to noxious 

weed introductions and spread. Vulnerability increases with ongoing livestock grazing, which 

disturb the soil, creating a suitable habitat for weeds to spread. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-93 
Chapter 3 

Research Natural Area 

Reference Conditions 

The North Trinity Mountain Research Natural Area (RNA) was formally established in 1994. It 

encompasses 423 acres, all of which are within the Trinity Alps Wilderness. 

RNAs are established to provide a spectrum of representative target vegetation types considered 

of scientific interest. The target element for the North Trinity Mountain RNA is white fir (Abies 

concolor); however, the RNA supports red fir (Abies magnifica) stands and meadow habitats that 

are also of scientific interest. Integrations of Shasta red fir (Abies magnifica var. shastensis) and 

noble fir (Abies procera) also occur in the RNA. 

With regard to reference conditions, the North Trinity Mountain RNA is situated along a 

continuous high elevation range. This continuity of habitat allowed for montane species to shift 

spatially with changes in climate. Historic disturbance agents affecting these stands include fire 

and mass wasting events. The mean fire interval for white fir on the Orleans Ranger District is 

estimated at 36 years (Stuart 1997), with tree mortality associated with individuals or clumps of 

trees where burn severity was localized. Species in the red fir group are considered fire 

intolerant, having evolved in settings characterized by high snowfall and cool summer 

temperatures (Barbour 1998). Fires that do burn in these stands are typically patchy and of low 

severity, due to the natural terrain breaks. Stand-replacing fires are considered rare in these 

environments. Disturbance operates at a relatively small scale in the form of individual tree or 

small group mortality, whereby canopy gaps are created. Red fir is considered a gap species. 

Reference conditions for the high elevation meadows are discussed in the “Plants Species of 

Concern” section under “Meadow and Wetland Habitats.” Reference conditions pertain to a 

meadow dynamics influenced by such variables as precipitation changes and herbivory. These 

dynamics affect composition, size, and distribution of meadows, both temporally and spatially. 

Management’s effects on reference conditions include fire suppression, which may increase the 

severity of fires in a system historically more prone to low or moderately severity fires. 

Furthermore, fire suppression has resulted in denser stands than if fire had been allowed to burn 

at historic intervals. In addition, the Trinity Summit range allotment overlaps the RNA. Livestock 

grazing effects are discussed under “Meadow and Wetland Habitats.

Current Conditions 

In regard to the Megram Fire and its effects within the boundary of the RNA, of the 306 acres 

within the white fir series, roughly 12 percent were subjected to high severity fires. Within the red 

fir series, 50% of the 52 acres were subjected to high severity fires. The remaining acres were 

within the low to moderate fire severity. A majority of the remaining forested areas were subjected 

to low to moderate severity fire. All of the four acres of meadow habitat within the RNA burned at 

a low to moderate severity. 

High severity burn conditions are defined as a loss of greater than 70 percent canopy cover and 

loss of the duff layer. With particular regard to species within the red fir group, most of these 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-94 
Current and Reference Conditions 

stand ins the RNA were consumed by high severity fires. In adjacent areas, there could also be 

continued loss of trees over the next three to five years due to insect damage. Re-establishment 

will in part depend on availability of a see source as well as adequate moisture and shade for 

germination and seedling development. Furthermore, although cone periodicity is relatively 

frequent, their yields are commonly low. These low yields are due to a combination of factors 

including lack of pollinator activity, adverse weather conditions and insect predation. (Young and 

Young 1992). Seeds of red fir also do not remain viable for longer than one year. 

Low to moderate burn effects on meadows may not have unduly altered meadow conditions in the 

RNA from conditions prior to the fire. From this point, effects to the meadows may have more to 

do with any added disturbance from livestock grazing. For example, in moderately burned areas 

of meadows indicating late seral conditions, a shift in composition can occur toward more early 

successional species than existed before the fire. Livestock grazing in portions of the meadow 

where vegetation is young and sparse, and where bare ground exists, would exacerbate 

conditions set in place by the fire, such as a greater shift toward early successional species, 

including noxious weeds and non-native species. 

Fire Occurrence 

Reference Conditions 

Wildfires have been a major component of the analysis area, as evidenced by the typically dry 

summer environment, frequent lightning activity and existing vegetation types and seral stage 

distribution. The predominantly steep topography also adds to the scenario to produce large fires 

that would be difficult to suppress. Barrett (1935) in his summary of early California wildfires from 

the days of the early explorers to the creation of the forest reserves states, “Great conflagrations 

occurred in California during the early days. Records from both the northern and southern part of 

the state prove that these fires often burned from four to six months and frequently swept over 

more than 100,000 acres of forest and major watersheds before being extinguished by rain.” A 

long-term drought in California in the mid to late 1800s (Fritts and Gordon 1980) appears to 

coincide with these frequent large fires during this period. 

Barrett’s (1935) summary has several references related to this analysis area. The Denver Daily 

Rocky Mountain News (August 23, 1873) reported “A terrific fire has been raging on Trinity 

Mountain, 25 miles north of Shasta, for a week past and destroying a great amount of 

timber...There is dense smoke all over the country, making the atmosphere oppressive and hot”. 

Another reference from the San Francisco Chronicle (August 10, 1887) mentions a fire on Trinity 

Mountain that had been “raging so fiercely throughout the country for the last month and has 

destroyed so much timber and property.” R.T. Fischer’s report of September 1901 on the 

proposed Trinity Forest Reserve mentions fire conditions in the South Fork Mountain area 

(approximately 15 miles south of the HLMTT area). “The entire tract has been much burned. In 

the dense Fir Type along South Fork Mountain there are a score or more of fire glades, 50 to 100 

acres in extent. In the opener Pine fire has seldom cleared the ground, but has scarred or burned 

down many trees, killed the reproduction, and brought in brush. In the scrub, fires had burned 

large areas. Six fires were seen during this reconnaissance, three of which had been set to clear 

trails, and the rest left by campers”. Interestingly enough, except for the long-term drought 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-95 
Chapter 3 

weather pattern, this scenario of large, lengthy, intense wildfires was very similar to what occurred 

during the Megram Fire (which started on August 26, 1999). 

As was found for areas north and south of this study area (Keter 1993 and Keter 1995), Native 

American burning was a widespread component of this landscape due to the long-term existence 

of Native American tribes in this area and traditional uses of different materials that can be 

enhanced with fire. Considering the importance of tanoak acorns to many aboriginal people, 

these hardwood stands were most certainly burned to maintain this important food source. The 

creeks were also an important means of subsistence for the tribes inhabiting this area. A 

subsistence lifestyle by most of the people in this portion of the watershed has influenced the 

development of the landscape. The grasslands as well as the river in this area were also used by 

aboriginals to gather food. 

Ranching became an important land use activity prior to 1850, when the grasslands throughout 

Humboldt County were discovered to be prime for grazing cattle. Livestock grazing also promoted 

burning of large areas to provide forage for mobile herds of animals. Although not the only factor, 

periodic burning by both aboriginal people and Euro-American ranchers maintained the diversity 

and size of these grasslands on the landscape. Since more and more of these fires were getting 

out of hand, the first California State Fire Law was enacted in 1872 to prevent the destruction of 

forests by fire on public lands. Fines not exceeding one thousand dollars or imprisonment not 

exceeding one year or both were set for fires caused by arson or carelessness which affected 

“any wooded country or forest belonging to this State, or the United States, within this State, or to 

any place from which fire shall be communicated to any such wooded country or forest” Barrett 

(1935). The creation of National Forests and Forest Reserves increased aggressive fire 

prevention efforts to eliminate wildfires caused by settlers, sheepmen, miners, and Native 

Americans. Barrett (1935) went on to say “No such conflagrations as these [the large 100,000 

acre fires] have destroyed the timber wealth of the state since fire prevention measures have been 

put into effect by the Forest Service.” 

Adams and Sawyer (1980) found intervals between fires in Douglas-fir dominated mixed 

evergreen forests to be 16.2 years for the Lower Trinity Ranger District and 17.2 years for the 

adjacent Orleans Ranger District. They concluded that the all-aged nature of these stands, 

infrequent scarring of trees, and frequency of fires strongly suggests that ground fires, as opposed 

to crown fires, were the common mode of burning. The fire report form for Cedar Creek #1 Fire 

(1932), which burned 170 acres of Douglas-fir, showed 70 of these acres were in young growth of 

21 to 40 years of age (which probably resulted from an earlier fire). A white fir fire history study, 

using plots within the Orleans Ranger District, showed mean fire-free intervals to be 36.7 years, 

with a range of 20.1 to 52.2 years (Stuart 1997). In Douglas-fir forests, frequencies averaging 20 

years have been found in the eastern Siskiyou Mountains (Atzet et al. 1988), and Agee (1991) has 

documented a similar fire return interval in the eastern Siskiyou Mountains between 1740 and 

1860, before significant European settlement. In the Salmon River watershed on the Klamath 

National Forest, Wills (1991) found presettlement mean fire return intervals of 10 to 15 years for 

Douglas-fir/hardwood forests. Within a Douglas-fir dominated landscape in a late-successional 

forest reserve in the Klamath Mountains, Taylor and Skinner (1998) found median fire return 

intervals of 14.5 years for the presettlement period (1626 to1849), 12.5 for the settlement period 

(1850-1904), and 21.5 for the suppression period (1905 to 1992). These studies, combined with 

the relatively low recorded burned acreages for this watershed before the Megram Fire (Table 3-

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-96 
Current and Reference Conditions 

32) indicate that at least one to several fire intervals have been eliminated due to very effective 

suppression and prevention efforts. 

Current Conditions 

Available Six Rivers National Forest fire report forms for the analysis area go back to 1930. 

Summary fire data were also available for the Six Rivers portion of the Trinity NF for the years 

1911 to 1924. Data locations only were available for the Hoopa Indian Reservation for the years 

1986 to 1998. Even though fire causes were not available, it can be assumed that the vast 

majority (approximately 95 to 99 percent) of the fire causes were human. A total of approximately 

284 fires (49,467 acres) occurred within the Six Rivers NF portion of the watersheds between 

1911 and 1999 (excluding 1925 to1929, when no data were available). An additional 70 fires 

occurred on the Hoopa Reservation portion of the watersheds from 1986 to 1998; the highest 

occurrence year for the Hoopa portion was 1995 with 11 wildfires. Because fire cause data was 

not specifically included with the Hoopa database, the following summary data do not reflect the 

Hoopa Indian Reservation. Table 3-32 provides a breakdown of numbers and acres of fires by 

either decade or designated years and cause for the SRNF portion of the watersheds. 

Table 3-32. Number and Acres of Fires on SRNF Lands in the HLMTT Area 

Year Human 

Number 

% Lightning 

Number 

% Total 

Number 

Year Human 

Acres 

% Lightning 

Acres 

% Total 

Acres 

1911-19 11 92 1 8 12 1911-19 543 100 0 0 543 

1920-24 13 87 2 13 15 1920-29 291 100 1 0 292 

1930-39 9 26 26 74 35 1930-39 321 73 118 27 439 

1940-49 1 3 31 97 32 1940-49 0 0 85 100 85 

1950-59 3 12 23 88 26 1950-59 241 66 123 34 364 

1960-69 6 27 16 73 22 1960-69 16 42 22 58 38 

1970-79 13 33 27 68 40 1970-79 3 21 11 79 14 

1980-89 27 73 10 27 37 1980-89 260 99 3 1 262 

1990-99 21 32 44 68 65 1990-99 5 0 49462 100 49467 

Total 104 37 180 63 284 Total 1679 3 49825 97 51504 

Before the Megram Fire (which burned 49,439 acres within the HLMTT watersheds), the vast 

majority of the recorded fires on the Six Rivers portion were small in size, with only 7 recorded 

fires greater than 100 acres. The largest was a 458-acre fire of unknown cause that occurred in 

1915; the others were all less than 175 acres. The last large fire before the Megram Fire was in 

1987, of unknown cause, that grew to 123 acres. Figure 3-9 shows that four out of these seven 

fires were along the southern portion of the watershed near Waterman Ridge. Without the 

Megram burned acreage, and just focusing on the Six Rivers National Forest portion of the 

watersheds, only approximately 3 percent of the HLMTT area has been burned in the 84 years of 

record. With the Megram Fire included, this area burned bumps up to approximately 76 percent. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-97 
Chapter 3 

Figure 3-9. Fire Locations within and Adjacent to SRNF Lands in the HLMTT Area: 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-98
Current and Reference Conditions 

This area shows one of the highest lightning occurrences on the entire Forest; the records 

showing several lightning “busts”, with up to 12 recorded fire starts within a 24-hour period. 

Multiple lightning fire starts originated anywhere from May to October, and sometimes were 

clustered along specific ridges. Overall, the lightning fire starts were evenly distributed 

throughout the watershed. Focusing on the most recent period (1986 to 1999), the human-cause 

breakdown was: equipment use (2), smoking (1), campfire (10), debris burning (2), incendiary 

(16), and unspecified miscellaneous (10) (Figure 3-10). The majority of human-caused fires 

occurred in August and September, which are high use months for both recreation and hunting. 

A larger landscape perspective must be taken to completely assess the current fire occurrence 

potential for this analysis area. Figure 3-10 shows the more extensive human-caused wildfire 

concern that exists directly outside the HLMTT boundary. Clusters of human causes are 

centered along Highways 96 and 299. Adjacent communities (i.e. Trinity Village, Willow Creek, 

Salyer, Hoopa) and interior or adjacent recreational sites (i.e. Trinity Alps Wilderness, 

campgrounds at Grove’s Prairie, Happy Camp, Tish Tang, Box Camp, and trailheads at Grizzly 

Camp, Tish Tang, and Red Cap) also present the potential for future human fire starts. Figure 3-

9 also shows adjacent large wildfire perimeters in the Red Cap watershed, including the Red Cap 

#2 Fire of 1938, which burned approximately 16,775 acres. 

The entire Trinity Alps Wilderness is also a part of this larger area perspective, as was shown by 

the events of the Megram Fire. Large fires (greater than 100 acres) have been documented since 

the turn of the century in what is now the Trinity Alps Wilderness. Large fires have burned in 

virtually all areas of the wilderness and have been started by both lightning and humans. From 

1900 to 1935, large fires were frequent, with no more than a six year fire-free interval – the largest 

documented fire being 2,000 acres. Between 1935 and 1975, the wilderness had one large fire 

every 10 years – with the largest fire at 9,600 acres. From 1975 to 1999 large fires burned every 

two to four years, with several notable lightning fires: the Hog Fire (1977) burned 46,000 acres; 

nine fires (1987) burned more than 47,000 acres; and the Megram Fire (1999) burned a total of 

125,000 acres. In 1987, there were so many fires burning in the Northwest that firefighting 

resources were exhausted before any suppression resources could be sent to wilderness fires; 

these fires were considered low priority because there was no threat to life or structures. These 

fires burned for two weeks before suppression activities began (Klamath National Forest 1998). 

A very similar situation occurred on the Megram Fire, which originated in the Trinity Alps 

Wilderness. No life or structures involved, and there were five higher priority wildfires elsewhere 

in California. Suppression resources did not arrive at the Megram Fire for two to three days. 

Although smokejumpers arrived within 48 hours, their suppression actions did not affect perimeter 

growth. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-99 
Chapter 3 

Figure 3-10. Human-Caused Fire Starts in the Vicinity of the HLMTT Watersheds : 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-100
Current and Reference Conditions 

Riparian Areas 

Riparian area fire histories are of particular interest to the HLMTT area, but very few fire history studies have 

been done specifically to reflect riparian fire regimes in the Klamath Mountains or the southern Cascades. 

Agee (1993) suggests that narrower riparian zones will be more likely to have been more frequently disturbed 

by fire than will wider riparian zones, and that riparian zones in drier areas will probably burn more frequently 

than those in wetter areas.'' 

Skinner (in preparation) gathered fire history data from four riparian areas along the east side of the ShastaTrinity Divide in the Klamath Mountains within the Sacramento River watershed north of Lake Shasta. These 

data were gathered from within the riparian zone, and in summary, the forest type adjacent to all four sites 

would generally be described as the Klamath enriched mixed conifer type (Sawyer and Thornburgh 1977). 

Species common to all four sites were willows, western azalea, Port Orford cedar, and various grasses, 

sedges, and forbs associated with wet meadow systems. Other common species on these sites were 

spiraea, Sierra laurel, thimbleberry, mountain alder, and California pitcher plant. Elevations ranged from 4600 

to 6300 ft. Two sites were on north-facing, gently sloped swales, and two were on steeper south-facing 

slopes. The sites were all less than 2.5 acres each. 

The fire histories, which dated from the mid-1600s, suggest that riparian areas generally have longer and 

more variable fire return intervals than nearby upland sites. The pre-1850 median fire return interval for 

north-facing swales were 31 and 36 years (with a range of 9 to 71 years). The time since the last fire scar 

formed on these sites was 49 and 95 years. The pre-1850 median fire return intervals for the south-facing 

slopes were 26 and 52 years (with a range of 7 to 65 years). No fires had been recorded in the stumps for 58 

and 102 years. Nearby (less than 1650 ft away) upland sites had pre-1850 median fire return intervals of 12 

and 15 years (with a range of 6 to 44 years). 

On the west side of the Shasta-Trinity Divide, in the watershed of the East Fork of the Trinity River, data 

were collected for two 2.5-acre sites that were separated by a small creek with a well-developed riparian 

zone. The Forest types were Klamath enriched mixed conifer with riparian species similar to those described 

previously. These sites were in the middle third of along north-facing slope at an elevation of approximately 

4750 ft.'' 

This fire history, dated from the mid-1500s, suggests that a narrow riparian zone only a few meters wide may 

have longer and more variable fire return intervals than adjacent upland sites. the pre-1850 median fire 

return intervals were 13 and 14 years (with a range of 5 to 47 years). Sixty-one years had passed since the 

last fire scar was formed. A total of nineteen fires were recorded for the period. Of these nineteen fires, only 

ten (53 percent) were recorded on both sides of the riparian zone. The median fire return interval for the fires 

recorded on both sides of the riparian zone was 29 years (with a range of 7 to 47 years).'' 

Fire Hazard 

Reference Conditions 

Fire hazard pertains to projected fire behavior and subsequent suppression effectiveness once a 

fire starts. Historic hazard conditions can be inferred from several studies and personal accounts. 

Barrett (1935) refers to the diary entry of Jedediah Smith from May 10, 1828 near the junction of 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-101 
Chapter 3 

the South Fork and Main Trinity Rivers, “The traveling was very bad, several very steep, rocky 

and brushy points of mountains to go up and down with our horses,...we lost 15 on the way in the 

brush – 2 with loads.” Four days later when the party was down in what is now the Hoopa Indian 

Reservation, the diary says, “The traveling amazingly bad; we descended one point of brushy and 

rocky mountain, where it took us about 6 hours to get the horses down.” The 1873 fire that “raged 

in the Trinity Mountains” had burned for more than a week, creating “dense smoke all over the 

country, making the atmosphere oppressive and hot”; another fire on Trinity Mountain in 1887 

“raged so fiercely throughout the country for the last month” (Barrett 1935). These historic 

accounts relate conditions of extreme fire behavior with wildfires raging for long periods of time in 

the steep terrain. 

During the early parts of the 20th century, aggressive fire prevention and suppression kicked in, 

resulting in stands that are more dense with a greater ladder component (GAO/RCED-99-65, 

1999). The Orleans District Ranger Harley recognized the negative impacts of aggressive fire 

suppression as early as 1918, bemoaning the “thick underbrush, windfalls, and general humus” 

that now covered the forest. The aforementioned fire frequencies for this general area indicate 

that fires have played a major role in the ecological development of major species within the 

watershed. Stuart (1997), as part of his white fir fire history study on the Orleans and Mad River 

Districts, found that, on average, fires have had 39 to 54 more years to accumulate under the 

current fire regime than would have occurred under the presuppression fire regime. Without fire 

suppression, the more frequent fires (either from lightning or Native American burning) probably 

would have been less intense, but possibly larger in size due to more open canopies. Therefore, 

rates-of-spread may have still been high under late summer conditions, but flame lengths would 

probably have been much less severe, except during stand-replacing fire events (i.e. under 

severe weather and/or extreme fuel conditions). 

This area, as part of the Klamath subregion (as defined in the Recovery plan for the northern 

spotted owl), has a high potential for habitat loss through wildfire (Agee 1993), due to higher fuel 

loads and more uniform multilayered canopies. This area is also defined as part of an 

intermediate physiographic province (USDA and USDI FSEIS 1994), which has highly variable fire 

return intervals and fire severities. Wildfires played an important role in stand dynamics, altering 

age-class distributions with stand regeneration following wildfires. Wildfires did not always result 

in complete stand mortality or fuel consumption, with surviving trees, snags, and coarse woody 

debris becoming important components of developing old growth stands. The coastal fog 

component would also affect the frequency and intensity of wildfires in the HLMTT area, 

especially lower in the watersheds. 

More current reference fire hazard conditions (pre-Megram Fire) were assessed as part of the 

Large Area Vegetation Analysis (USDA SRNF 1997) and the Forest-Wide LSR Assessment 

((USDA SRNF 1999). Beyond subjective hazard assessments, hazard can be modeled in terms 

of rates of spread (ROS) and flame length (FL), which are calculated based on inputs of fuel 

model, slope class, and weather (Andrews 1986). These two critical fire behavior factors, ROS 

and FL, also affect resistance to control, which must be considered in the assessment of fire 

hazard for an area the size of a watershed. Implications of resource effects can be made based 

on flame lengths and the amount of time it takes for a fire to spread over an area. Flame lengths 

are also related to suppression effectiveness, in terms of whether hand crews, equipment or 

aerial attack can successfully suppress a wildfire. Fires that require aerial attack would be 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-102 
Current and Reference Conditions 

associated with the greatest potential for larger, more destructive wildfires with extensive crown 

fires and higher tree mortality. 

The process involved fire behavior models and mortality assessments. Fuel models were 

assigned to all mapped subseries and seral stages on the Forest. (Note: due to incomplete 

mapping of the blowdown area, fuel models were not revised to reflect blowdown fuel conditions). 

Fire Behavior fuel models (Anderson 1982) were used with a two fuel model concept (Andrews 

1986) to reflect understory conditions. These fuel models were geographically overlaid with 

standard National Fire Danger Rating slope classes (Deeming and others 1977) and assigned 

typical June and August weather for input into the BEHAVE fire model (Andrews 1986) which 

calculated ROS and FL. 

Separate ROS and FLs were calculated for each individual fuel model and fuel model 

combination. For the two fuel model combination, ROS values were weighted by percent cover. 

Flame lengths were assigned based on the fuel model with the greatest assigned percentage. 

Table 3-33 displays the June and August weather inputs to typify typical average (50th percentile) 

and more severe (90th percentile) summer time conditions. Depending on the year’s weather, the 

more severe 90th percentile values and even more extreme values could still exist well beyond 

August into September and October. 

Table 3-33. June and August Fuel Conditions 

Weather Parameter June August 

Midflame windspeed (mi/hr) 5 7 

1-hr timelag fuel moisture 6 2 

10-hr timelag fuel moisture 8 4 

100-hr timelag fuel moisture 14 8 

live herbaceous fuel moisture 133 75 

live woody fuel moisture 143 100 

Note: Fuel moistures are designated by “hour” timelag categories, which correspond to diameter 

size classes: 1-hour - 0.0 to 0.25 inches; 10-hour - 0.26 to 1.0 inch; 100-hour - 1.1 to 3.0 inches. 

For map representation and discussion purposes the groupings for ROS and FL are shown in 

Table 3-34 with their corresponding suppression effectiveness assessments. 

Table 3-34. ROS and FL Groupings with Suppression Effectiveness Assessments 

Value ROS (ft/min) FL (ft) Suppression Effectiveness 

Low 0-5 0-2 3-person handcrew or engine 

Moderate 5.1-11 2.1-4 5-person handcrew or engine 

High 11.1-22 4.1-6 engines/handcrews/water tender plus aerial attack 

Very High 22.1-33 6.1-8 all above plus dozers/aerial support 

Extreme 33.1+ 8.1+ beyond initial attack, into extended attack 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-103 
Chapter 3 

The modeled fire behavior results showed that varying percentages of the LSR or watersheds 

exhibited coincident high to extreme ROS (greater than 11 ft/min) and FL (greater 4 feet) (Table 

3-35). Note that these figures do not reflect the extreme fuel loadings from the blowdown event. 

Table 3-35. Percentage of LSR/Watersheds Exhibiting High to Extreme ROS and FL 

LSR/Watershed June August 

Horse Linto Creek 7 48 

Mill & Tish Tang Creek 6 39 

LSR 305 30 52 

Relatively speaking, LSR 305 had the highest percentage for June among all LSRs on the Forest, 

and the second highest among all LSRs in August. Among all watersheds in the central zone for 

August conditions, Mill and Tish Tang Creeks had the lowest percentage value, and Horse Linto 

was within a large midrange group of watersheds (SRNF Large Area Vegetation Analysis 1997). 

If fuel models had changed to reflect the blowdown, high to extreme modeled ROS and FL would 

have resulted throughout the entire blowdown area (SRNF LSRA 1999). This was verified clearly 

by the fire behavior experienced during the Megram Fire as it burned through the blowdown area 

on September 27. Extreme fire behavior was exhibited, including 150-foot flame lengths and a 5-

mile run in 7 hours through the headwaters of Horse Linto Creek and Tish Tang Creek, with 

spotting up to a mile ahead of the flaming front (Figure 3-11). Before the blowdown, dead and 

down fuel loading across the landscape varied considerably. Depending on aspect, stand 

density, and seral stage development, total pre-blowdown fuel loading ranged from 5 to greater 

than 50 tons per acre. After the blowdown, total fuel loading ranged from 100 to 300 tons per 

acre, with many of the fuels propped up as part of jackpots (Hom and Kersh 1996). Figure 3-11 

also shows how the September 27 fire run resulted in substantially higher areas of mapped lethal 

mortality (i.e. greater than 70 percent mortality) compared with surrounding stands. This major 

run that burned approximately 9,600 acres was due in part to the strong, dry easterly winds and 

accompanying low humidities (Snook 2000) in addition to the extremely high fuel loadings. 

Referring to potential wildfire events within the blowdown area Hom and Kersh (1996) predicted: 

“Under extreme conditions of wind and/or drought, the communities of Denny (on the Big Bar 

Ranger District), Hoopa, Hoopa Valley Indian Reservation, and Willow Creek could conceivably 

be at risk, with Denny having a high chance of being cutoff due to limited access”. Ironically, 

these predictions were very close to what actually occurred during the Megram Fire. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-104 
Current and Reference Conditions 

Figure 3-11. Megram Fire Progression in the Blowdown Area along with Mapped Lethal 

Mortality: 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-105 
Chapter 3 

Tree Mortality 

The Forest-wide LSR Assessment (SRNF 1999) predicted fire-related tree mortality. The First 

Order Fire Effects Model (FOFEM) was developed to predict the direct consequences of 

prescribed fire and wildfires (Reinhardt et al. 1997). First order fire effects are the immediate of 

direct results of a fire. FOFEM was used in the LSR Assessment to predict fire-caused tree 

mortality based on tree diameters by vegetation type and modeled flame lengths. The current 

version of FOFEM only includes major vegetation types, so initial modeling used average tree 

diameters for the Douglas-fir and white fire subseries. For the remaining tree species, a 

generalized mortality matrix developed by the Klamath National Forest using mortality research 

accumulated within the Fire Effects Information System (Linfoot 1997). Again, without blowdown 

conditions reflected, 56 percent of LSR 305 was predicted to experience stand-replacing results 

(greater than 70 percent mortality) from a wildfire under 90th percentile weather values in August 

and 54 percent under 50th percentile values in June. [Note: The tanoak series data from the 

Klamath matrix reflected lethal mortality for all flamelengths. Our tanoak series includes a 

substantial component of conifers, especially Douglas-fir. Further analysis since this document 

was completed has resulted in refined values for the tanoak series. Therefore, these quoted 

results would be reduced with a refined tanoak mortality assessment.] Based on fuel loading 

assessments within the blowdown area of 100 to 300 tons per acre (Hom and Kersh 1996), these 

wind-affected areas would have also had the potential to experience lethal, stand-replacing 

conditions during a wildfire. 

Fuel Treatments and Suppression Effectiveness 

Of special note within the HLMTT watersheds are two groups of fuel treatments that actually did 

affect or had the potential to affect suppression effectiveness during the Megram Fire. The first 

group was a cluster of understory burns that were completed in the late 1980s as part of the Point 

timber sale (approximately one mile north of Hawkins Bar). Since this area of approximately 400 

to 600 acres had been treated, fire suppression tactics took this into consideration when they 

placed their fireline along the eastern boundary of the treated area. This afforded the firefighters 

the tactical advantage of an open forest floor to their backs and the potential for reduced 

intensities if a spot fire had occurred within the treated area. These open areas also allowed for 

greater mobility for the suppression resources. 

The second group of fuel treatments was a series of shaded fuelbreaks that were undertaken 

within the blowdown area along roads and ridges. A wide variety of fuel treatment prescriptions 

were undertaken within these units, including large woody debris removal, piling and burning, 

jackpot burning, and understory burning (see Table 3-29 in the Vegetation section). A small 

number of units were completed all the way to understory burning, while many more were only 

partially implemented, and some had no treatment at all. This group of fuelbreaks fit the standard 

definition of “a strategically located wide block, or strip, on which a cover of dense, heavy, or 

flammable vegetation has been permanently changed to one of lower fuel volume or reduced 

flammability (Green 1977). Shaded fuelbreaks are created by altering surface fuels, increasing 

the height to the base of the live crown, and opening the canopy by removing trees (Agee et al. 

1998). Due to the extreme fuel loading from the blowdown, removal of large woody debris 

already on the ground was also part of the prescription for most of these units. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-106 
Current and Reference Conditions 

A total of 1,615 acres had some phase of fuel treatment completed, and essentially all of them 

were within the Megram Fire boundary, including some spot fires. By overlaying the fuel 

treatment coverage with the burn severity coverage, an overview of fuelbreak effectiveness can 

be assessed. (Note: Due to the extreme fire behavior exhibited while the fire was burning through 

this area, firefighters were not dispatched to this area, but the fire effects were very indicative of 

potential suppression effectiveness. This relates to the assumption that fuelbreaks are never 

designed to stop fires, but to allow suppression forces a higher probability of successfully 

attacking a wildland fire [Agee et al., 2000]). Overall, 30 percent of the treated acres resulted in 

less than 40 percent mortality even without fire suppression assistance. The best results within 

these fuel treatments, in terms of highest percentage of acres in the less than 40 percent mortality 

category, were: 

• 68 percent of the 215 acres that had large woody debris removed along with understory 

burning 

• 73 percent of the 119 acres that just had the fuels piled 

At the other end of the spectrum the “worst” results in terms of lowest percentage in the less than 

40 percent mortality category were: 

• 0 percent of the 12 acres that had large woody debris removed with piles burned 

• 0 percent of the 18 acres that were logged, piled, and jackpot piles burned 

• 0 percent of the 13 acres with just piles burned 

• 2 percent of the 429 acres that had large woody debris removed, piles burned and jackpots 

burned 

• 2 percent of the 129 acres that just had large woody debris removed 

These percentage results are grouped for the entire list of fuel treatments. When looking at 

individual units, many stand out as having survived these extreme burning conditions quite well, 

including Sweet Onion 1, Sweet Onion 8, and Sweet Onion 9. To fully address the underlying 

reasons why these units did not experience stand-replacing mortality, many factors will need to be 

assessed, including unit size and width, width of ridge, aspect, orientation compared to the 

wildfire spread, windspeed and direction, time of day the fire burned through, date of fuel 

treatment accomplishment, etc. (Note: There is interest by Colorado State University, through the 

Joint Science Program, to investigate these units in relationship to the Megram Fire results.) 

Results from these studies and on the ground observations could help refine design criteria for 

future shaded fuelbreaks. 

Current Conditions 

As explained earlier, fire hazard can be represented by fire behavior and subsequent fire 

suppression effectiveness. The same modeling scheme was used to represent fire behavior 

factors of ROS and FL based on revised fire behavior fuel models that were assigned by the 

mapped mortality from the Megram Fire. Because of the extent of mortality from the Megram Fire, 

fuel models were reassigned by subseries and seral stage based on coincident severity levels of 

high (greater than 70 percent mortality), moderate (25 to 70 percent mortality) and low (less than 

25 percent mortality). In addition, fuel models had to be projected into the future due to probable 

shrub and grass regrowth after the fire along with fuel accumulation due to standing dead trees 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-107 
Chapter 3 

falling to the ground. This resulted in three representations of projected fire behavior for both 

June and August weather conditions: year 1, years 5 to 7, and years 10 to 12. Table 3-36 

displays the results for these three time periods. 

Table 3-36. Percent of SRNF HLMTT Area by Projected Fire Behavior 

Projected Behavior ROS (June) ROS (Aug) FL (June) FL (Aug) 

Year 1 

Low 52 24 59 33 

Moderate 21 29 12 27 

High 13 14 15 7 

Very High 3 13 14 6 

Extreme 11 20 0 27 

Year 5 

Low 23 7 52 29 

Moderate 51 28 20 23 

High 19 23 13 8 

Very High 2 15 5 6 

Extreme 4 27 10 34 

Year 10 

Low 25 7 57 30 

Moderate 36 20 13 27 

High 21 30 11 8 

Very High 11 18 8 5 

Extreme 7 25 11 31 

Modeled high to extreme fire behavior potential increases with time after a wildland fire due to 

increased mortality and an influx of the shrub and grass component where the canopy has been 

removed. This is especially evident under a typical August weather scenario, with dry, cured 

fuels. From Table 3-36 it appears that the high to extreme group for either ROS or FL peaks at 

year 5 and then declines at year 10. The typical scenario is more of a plateau of fire hazard with 

additional ground fuel being added from standing trees falling over at the same time that fuels in 

contact with the ground are decomposing. It is also important to recognize that the potential for 

high to extreme fire behavior will exist well beyond the 10 to 12 years used for this analysis. 

For display purposes, only the combined high to extreme August ROS and FL were included for 

year 1 (Figure 3-12), years 5-7 (Figure 3-13), and years 10-12 (Figure 3-14). Table 3-37 shows 

the acres and percentage breakdown by year for June and August weather scenarios for all three 

time periods. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-108 
Current and Reference Conditions 

Figure 3-12. Areas with August High to Extreme Predicted Fire Behavior – Year 1: 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-109
Chapter 3 

Figure 3-13. Areas with August High to Extreme Predicted Fire Behavior – Years 5-7: 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-110
Current and Reference Conditions 

Figure 3-14. Areas with August High to Extreme Predicted Fire Behavior – Years 10-12: 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-111
Chapter 3 

Table 3-37. Acres and Percent of SRNF HLMTT Area with High to Extreme Predicted Fire 

Behavior 

Year 1 Year 5-7 Year 10-12 

June August June August June August 

Acres 10,875 27,384 10,185 31,394 14,471 28,888 

Percent of Area 16 40 15 46 21 43 

Of extreme importance to this area is the ongoing threat of wilderness fires both within and 

adjacent to this watershed. Preserving the “natural character” of the wilderness precludes active 

fuels management (except through wildland fire use) within the wilderness. The large area 

burned by the Big Bar Complex in the wilderness both on the Six Rivers and the Shasta-Trinity 

National Forest will have the potential for high to extreme fire behavior and associated mortality 

many years into the future. 

Tree Mortality 

Except for the tanoak series, the same matrix discussed in the “Reference Conditions” Tree 

Mortality section was used to model mortality for years 1, 5 to 7, and 10 to 12. The tanoak series 

has a high conifer (mainly Douglas-fir) component. The tanoak species is highly susceptible to 

mortality even at lower flamelengths because of its thin bark. Douglas-fir, at the same time has a 

higher resilience to fire due to its thicker bark. Based on this information, we adjusted the 

mortality rankings associated with the tanoak series to reflect the overall series mortality, using 

seral stage as the deciding factor (i.e. older trees would need higher flamelengths to kill them). 

Therefore, these results should not be directly compared with the modeled mortality reported in 

the reference tree mortality section. 

For display purposes three percentage classes of mortality were used: 0 to 25 percent (nonlethal), 25.1 to 70 percent (mixed mortality), and 70.1 to 100 percent (lethal). Table 3-38 displays 

the acres and percentages that fall into these three mortality categories. Both June and August 

modeled flame lengths were used to typify early season wildfires (or late spring prescribed burns) 

and late season wildfires, respectively. Modeled August tree mortality is displayed for years 1 

(Figure 3-15), 5-7 (Figure 3-16), and 10-12 (Figure 3-17). 

Table 3-38. Percent of Area in Mortality Classes 

Year 1 Year 5-7 Year 10-12 

June August June August June August 

Percent 

non-lethal 64 50 56 44 56 47 

mixed mortaltiy 17 18 19 15 19 16 

lethal 19 32 25 41 25 37 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-112 
Current and Reference Conditions 

Figure 3-15. Modeled August Tree Mortality – Year 1: 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-113
Chapter 3 

Figure 3-16. Modeled august Tree Mortality – Years 5-7: 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-114
Current and Reference Conditions 

Figure 3-17. Modeled August Tree Mortality – Years 10-12: 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-115
Chapter 3 

Suppression Availability 

Of equal importance to a hazard assessment and suppression effectiveness is the determination 

of suppression availability once a fire does start. Suppressing fires while they are still small 

requires a mix of initial attack resources that is mobile and quickly available. The current 

organization for the Forest Service and CDF emphasizes ground attack as the primary initial 

attack resource, with support from aerial forces for extended attack. This area falls within the 

Lower Trinity Ranger District which has two engines available, with three engines also available 

from the Hoopa Valley Tribe. CDF would supply crews from High Rock, Alderpoint (1 engine), 

Trinidad (1-engine), Fortuna (dozer), Thorn, and the Mendocino Ranger Unit. The watershed 

would also typically receive resources from the Shasta-Trinity NF. Local air support would include 

Kneeland and/or Scott Valley helicopters and air tankers out of Rohnerville, Redding, and 

Medford. Numerous volunteer fire departments would also respond. 

Due to the mainly rural population of this area, fires within or adjacent to the HLMTT watersheds 

would have a lower priority when compared to more populated wildland interfaces and intermixes 

found throughout the state. Since this was the case during the Megram Fire, this will be a 

continuing significant factor when forces are drawn down past effective levels, possibly resulting in 

significantly larger and more destructive wildfires. For example, the extremely busy fire season of 

1996 resulted in standard resource orders being delayed for two to three days. 

Air Quality 

Reference Conditions 

Related to the issue of fire hazard and cumulative fire effects is the concern for air quality, both 

from wildfires and prescribed burns. Historic (i.e., pre-Megram Fire) newspaper accounts, 

personal accounts, and fire report forms relate severe, smoky conditions when wildfires were 

burning in the HLMTT general area: 

• August 23, 1873 – a fire raging in Trinity Mountains produced “dense smoke all over the 

country, making the atmosphere oppressive and hot” (Daily Rocky Mountain News) 

• August 24, 1932 – Salyer Ditch #5 Fire – “This fire was not discovered by crew upon 

arrival at Salyer Ditch 1,2,3, and 4 fires because of dense smoke in the canyons.” 

• August 28, 1932 – Cedar Creek #1 and #2 Fires– “Heavy smoke screen from Hoopa 

Reservation fires has put our regular lookouts out of commission...visibility very poor.” 

• September 16, 1932 – Waterman Fire – “Due to dense drift smoke from Hoopa 

Reservation fires, this fire could not be seen by Brannon Mt. Lookout.” 

• October 1, 1932 – Jim Jam Fire – “Because of smoky conditions lookouts did not locate 

fire until action had been taken to suppress it by Fireman Fancher.” 

• October 6, 1932 – Sharber #3 and #4 Fires – “Smoke was dense over the district.” 

Note: This previous series of five fires show smoky conditions existed from August until October 

of 1932. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-116 
Current and Reference Conditions 

• November 17, 1936 - Indian Field Fire – “Large fires on same readings outside the forest, 

together with heavy smoke prevented detection of fire in its early stages.” 

• June 27-August 8, 1987 – Horse Linto Fire – this fire along, with the numerous wildfires 

that burned during the summer of 1987, produced enough dense smoke to see bats flying 

during the day (Pfister personal communication 2000) 

Smoke from wildfires and prescribed burns can be a major contributor of particulate matter smaller 

than 10 microns (PM10), which is of particular interest to human health. Airborne particles larger 

than 10 microns are trapped by the body's normal defense mechanisms and are expelled from the 

body. PM10 bypasses these defenses and remains lodged deep in the lungs. Detrimental health 

effects of PM10 can include asthma attacks, reduced lung function, aggravated bronchitis, 

respiratory disease, cancer and possibly premature death. Immediately affected by PM10 

emissions are the elderly, children, asthmatics, and people with chronic heart or respiratory 

disease. Long-term exposure could have more widespread detrimental effects, including affecting 

healthy people. 

Concerning the Megram and Onion Fires, severe air quality impacts occurred due to the long 

duration of the fires (which burned from August 23 to November 4, 1999), poor dispersion 

characteristics, and heavy fuel loading. During the 30-day period that air monitoring was 

conducted for PM10 at Hoopa by the North Coast Air Quality Management District (AQMD), the 

California Ambient Air Quality Standards (50 ug/m3 as a 24-hour average) were exceeded on 19 

days and the Federal Ambient Air Quality Standards (150 ug/m3) were exceeded on 12 days 

(Herr 2000). The 24-hour average PM10 concentration exceeded 420 ug/m3 (considered 

hazardous as rated by the Federal Air Quality Index) on 4 consecutive days. Beginning on 

October 17 the most severe smoke episode started and lasted until October 23. This period saw 

several days of 24-hour average PM10 levels in excess of 400 ug/m3, and numerous hourly 

peaks up to 1,000 ug/m3. A mini-vol sampler placed at the mouth of Horse Linto Creek recorded 

a 5-hour average PM10 concentration of 4,000ug/m3 during the early morning hours of October 

21, the highest recorded concentration during the entire fire. High volume samplers placed in 

Salyer and Willow Creek recorded concentrations at various averaging times of 600 to 800 

ug/m3. Due to this hazardous air quality, the governor declared a state of emergency for 

Humboldt, Napa, and Yuba Counties on October 22, 1999. On the same day, the Office of 

Emergency Services recommended evacuation of Hoopa. Willow Creek, and all smoke affected 

areas. This was the first state of emergency declared in California due to air pollution. Smoke 

plumes from the fires were visible on satellite imagery, extending several hundred miles into 

Oregon and Nevada and out into the Pacific Ocean parallel to the Monterey Peninsula. Air 

quality levels at distant monitoring stations (Garberville and Blue Lake) were also elevated, but in 

no case did the 24-hour average PM10 exceed 100 ug/m3. 

Visibility was also severely hampered during these episodes, sometimes down to 20-foot visibility. 

Several times imaging and suppression aircraft were prevented from flying due to dense smoke. 

The clear visibility of the Trinity Alps Wilderness was severely degraded throughout the duration 

of the Big Bar Complex. 

Smoke generated from the fuel treatments executed within these watersheds (i.e. pile burning or 

understory burning) were of short duration, dispersed away from populated areas, and did not 

produce any nuisance calls to the North Coast AQMD. One of the most important tradeoffs to 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-117 
Chapter 3 

consider is the substantial increase in smoke production from wildfires versus prescribed fires. 

Wildfires typically occur when fuels are dry, fuel consumption is greater, and the fuels are 

consumed during the less efficient smoldering stage. In comparing wildfire versus prescribed 

burning emission production in eastern Oregon and Washington, Ottmar et al. (1993) found the 

wildfires to produce approximately twice as much PM10 when compared to the prescribed fires. 

The fuel loadings described for this study were well within the pre-blowdown conditions. It can be 

assumed that the extreme fuel loading from the blowdown would have produced much higher than 

double the PM10 values in the wildfire versus the prescribed burns. 

Current Conditions 

The HLMTT watersheds fall within the North Coast AQMD. Air quality in this air basin has 

generally been considered good, except during large wildfires of long duration (e.g. the Megram 

Fire and the 1987 wildfire events). Except during these extreme events, all Federal standards are 

consistently achieved (including those for ozone, carbon monoxide, particulate matter, and nitrogen 

dioxide). The overall area is considered to be in "attainment" by Federal standards; it has 

previously met and currently meets ambient air quality standards. California state standards for 

PM10 have not been met for the North Coast AQMD (which has mainly been attributed to sea salt). 

Smoke from wildfires, along with prescribed burns, can be a major contributor to impaired air 

quality. One of the most important tradeoffs to consider is the substantial increase in smoke 

production from wildfires versus prescribed fires. Wildfires typically occur when fuels are dry, fuel 

consumption is greater, and the fuels are consumed during the less efficient smoldering stage. In 

comparing wildfire versus prescribed burning emission production in eastern Oregon and 

Washington Ottmar et al. (1993) found the wildfires to produce approximately twice as much PM10 

when compared to the prescribed fires. The fuel loadings described for the Ottmar study were 

well within the pre-blowdown conditions. It can be assumed that the extreme fuel loading created 

by the blowdown would have produced much higher than double the PM10 values in the wildfire 

versus the prescribed burns. Within the blowdown treated units, the yarding of unutilized tops (10 

feet or more in length), which was specified for all units (Hostler personal comm. 2000) would 

have also reduced the amount of fuel that was available to burn. Using air quality models from the 

Prescribed Fire Information Reporting Systems (PFIRS), the estimates of fuel loading for the pre 

(5 to 50 tons/acre) and post blowdown (100 to 300 tons/acre) event (Hom and Kersh 1996), and 

assuming complete consumption, Table 3-39 shows the modeled results for PM10 production in 

tons/acre based on tons/acre of fuel consumed. 

Table 3-39. PM10 Production by Tons/Acre of Fuel Consumed 

Tons Per Acre Consumed 

5 50 100 300 

Wildfire .07 .68 1.35 4.05 

Mixed conifer .05 .51 1.03 3.08 

Dozer piled slash .03 .31 .62 1.86 

Hand piled slash .06 .64 1.28 3.84 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-118 
Current and Reference Conditions 

These numbers seem somewhat close in value regardless of situation, but it must be remembered 

that wildfires could easily consume more acres than were planned in a prescribed burn. Also, 

wildfires are not planned, with little opportunity to employ mitigation techniques except to suppress 

the fire as quickly as possible. The smoke generated will be directed and concentrated according 

to the prevailing wind and atmospheric stability. This will often occur during the summer months 

when fuel moisture is low, fuel consumption and smoke production is high, and stable atmospheric 

conditions may persist. Managed ignitions or wildland fire use can be planned for a time when: 

• Smoke will disperse quickly 

• Smoke will avoid sensitive airsheds 

• Less fuel will be consumed or fuel will consume more efficiently and produce less smoke 

• Fuels have been removed or reduced, eliminating the need to burn piles or jackpots 

Effective smoke management means maintaining desired air quality by avoiding unacceptable 

combinations of concentration, duration, and dispersal of smoke. The central principle of smoke 

management is to promote dispersion of smoke and other pollutants that have the potential to 

cause health and visibility impacts. This is especially the case in the vicinity of communities and 

major highways where the best available predictive models and strategies would need to be used 

to minimize the negative impacts on the area and its visitors. 

Wildlife Species 

Reference and Current Conditions 

The watershed analysis area provides habitat for a wide variety of terrestrial and riparian 

dependent species. Based on existing survey information, species range maps, the Lower Trinity 

District incidental wildlife sighting reports, and the California Wildlife Habitat Relationships 

database, there are 16 amphibian, 17 reptile, 120 bird, and 60 mammal species likely to occur 

within the HLMTT area. Species distribution and habitat has been differentially affected by the 

Megram Fire. Depending on the species and burn intensity, the effects could be detrimental 

(short or long term) or beneficial. The loss of late-seral attributes within the high intensity burn 

areas has impacted late-seral dependent species to a high degree. However, these stands will 

also in the near future provide habitat for a large array of early-seral dependent species. This 

section provides an overview of the suitability of wildlife habitat conditions both before and after 

the Megram Fire. 

Threatened, Endangered and Proposed Species 

Preliminary guidelines for evaluating federally threatened, endangered and sensitive species 

(TES) through watershed analysis were provided in a memo from the U.S. Department of Interior 

and U.S. Department of Agriculture, June 13, 1994. The Endangered Species Act includes 

provisions for "a means whereby the ecosystem upon which endangered species and threatened 

species depend may be conserved (and) to provide a program for the conservation of such 

endangered species and threatened species..." Watershed analysis provides an avenue to 

assess habitat conditions for listed and candidate species. This information is then available for 

use in planning and subsequent Section 7 consultation. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-119 
Chapter 3 

There are three federally threatened wildlife species that are known or suspected to occur within 

or contiguous to the analysis area; the bald eagle, northern spotted owl (NSO), and the marbled 

murrelet. The northern spotted owl is the only federally threatened species known to nest within 

the analysis area. There are recorded sightings of the bald eagle within the analysis area; 

however, no recorded nest territories have been located and no suitable nesting habitat has been 

designated within the analysis area. Although critical habitat for the marbled murrelet has been 

designated within the HLMTT area, surveys associated with the Marbled Murrelet Range and 

Distribution Study have yielded no detections for this species within the area. 

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) has designated critical habitat for the northern 

spotted owl and the marbled murrelet within the analysis area. Additionally, a large portion of the 

analysis area is within LSR 305, which is designated to maintain a functional late-successional 

and old growth forest ecosystem for late-successional dependent species. 

There are also eight of the nine Forest Service (Region 5) sensitive species that are likely to 

occur within the HLMTT area. The great gray owl is not likely to occur in the watershed analysis 

area. 

Northern Spotted Owl 

The first segment of this analysis focuses on the habitat conditions for the NSO prior to the 

Megram Fire. Current population information is from surveys conducted from 1977 through 1997. 

The analysis area contains portions of the Northern Spotted Owl Willow Creek Demographic 

Study Area, which has been in existence since 1985, and has been intensively surveyed annually 

by Alan Franklin, Humboldt State University. Suitable spotted owl habitat is referred to as nesting 

and roosting (NR) habitat. 

Habitat selected by NSOs typically exhibits moderate to high canopy closure with a multi-layered, 

multi-species canopy that is dominated by large overstory trees, a high incidence of large trees 

with large broken tops and other indications of decadence, numerous large snags, heavy 

accumulations of logs and other woody debris on the forest floor, and considerable open space 

within and beneath the canopy. These attributes are usually found in old growth, but they area 

sometimes found in younger forests, especially those that contain remnant large trees or patches 

of large trees from earlier stands (USDA and USDI 1994). 

Acres of suitable NR habitat for spotted owls was queried using the tanoak, white fir and Douglasfir series that contained trees at least 21 inches in diameter at breast height (DBH) and with at 

least 60 percent canopy cover. 

Prior to the Megram Fire, there were approximately 33,215 acres (36 percent) of NR habitat within 

the HLMTT area. Foraging habitat comprised approximately 11,843 acres (13 percent) of the 

habitat within the analysis area. Specific to the SRNF land base, NR habitat comprised 

approximately 49 percent of the HLMTT area and 18 percent of the area was classified as 

foraging habitat. Capable (e.g. foraging and dispersal) habitat is defined as stands with the 

capability of becoming suitable habitat. Specific to the SRNF land base, 52,172 acres (80 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-120 
Current and Reference Conditions 

percent) of the HLMTT area is capable habitat. Table 3-40 displays the NSO habitat by type and 

ownership. 

Table 3-40. Northern Spotted Owl Habitat Prior to Megram Fire within the HLMTT Area 

Habitat Type SRNF Hoopa Private 

Foraging 11,570 233 40 

Nesting/Roosting 32,282 834 99 

Unsuitable 21,685 25,085 159 

Total NSO Habitat 43,852 1,067 134 

Total Acres 65,689 26,152 297 

Approximately 50,830 acres of the HLMTT area is within LSR 305. Prior to the Megram Fire, the 

portion of LSR 305 within the analysis area provided approximately 26,780 acres of NR habitat 

and 9,750 acres of foraging habitat for northern spotted owls (Figure 3-18). Within the analysis 

area, approximately 50,830 acres are designated as critical habitat for the northern spotted owl 

(CHU CA-30). 

There are 33 known NSO activity centers within the HLMTT area. Surveys have been conducted 

in select portions of the watersheds for timber sales and prescribed underburning projects 

between 1977 and 1999. Surveys prior to 1991 may not have been to protocol. 

The USFWS considers an owl territory to be “taken” when the amount of nesting, roosting, and 

foraging (NRF) habitat drops below 500 acres within 0.7-mile radius around the activity center and 

1,340 acres within a 1.3-mile radius circle. Table 3-41 displays results of the preliminary take 

assessments for the 33 activity centers located within the watershed analysis boundary prior to 

the Megram Fire. 

Table 3-41. Assessment of NR and NRF Habitat for NSO Activity Centers (AC) within the 

HLMTT Area Prior to the Megram Fire 

Total Number of 

ACs 

# AC > 500 

acres NR within 

0.7 Miles 

# AC > 500 

acres NRF 

within 0.7 Miles 

# AC > 1,340 

acres NR 

within 1.3 Miles 

# AC >1,340 

acres NRF 

within 1.3 

Miles 

33 16 30 25 31 

In the past, the Forest was required to analyze dispersal habitat for NSO using the “50-11-40” 

rule. This rule stated that 50 percent of each quarter township (9 square miles) must have forest 

conditions equivalent to 11-inch dbh trees with 40 percent canopy closure or better for adequate 

spotted owl dispersal. Although the 50-11-40 rule is no longer required, preliminary assessments 

indicate that the area was not deficit in dispersal habitat prior to the Megram Fire. There were 

approximately 49,055 acres of dispersal habitat for the NSO in the HLMTT area. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-121 
Chapter 3 

Figure 3-18. Suitable NSO Habitat before the Fire: 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-122
Current and Reference Conditions 

Prior to the Megram Fire, the preliminary take assessments for the activity centers located within 

the HLMTT area determined that 17 activity centers were below the “take” threshold within the 

0.7-mile radius and 8 activity centers were also below the “take” threshold within the 1.3-mile 

radius. One activity center is deficient only in the 1.3-mile radius. Fifteen activity centers are 

above the “take” threshold completely. Table 3-42 summarizes the NSO assessment of suitable 

habitat within activity centers. 

Table 3-42. Acres of Suitable NSO Habitat within 0.7 and 1.3 Miles of Known Activity 

Centers in the HLMTT Area Prior to the Megram Fire 

Owl 

Number 

Territory Name NR 

Acres 

0.7 Mile 

F Acres 

0.7 Mile 

Total NRF 

Acres 

NR Acres 

1.3 Mile 

F Acres 

1.3 Mile 

Total 

NRF 

Acres 

Status 

P: Pair 

T:Single 

106 NF Mill Creek 545 303 848 1,428 1,009 2,437 P 

107 Mill Crk Gap 523 51 574 1,258 521 1,779 T 

108 Middle Fork 214 68 282 1,356 168 1,524 P 

113 Mill Creek 445 70 515 1,030 374 1,404 P 

114 Tish Tang Pt 200 132 332 800 348 1,148 P 

115 SF Tish Tang 662 68 730 2,281 418 2,699 T 

116 Tish Tang East 807 50 857 2,242 545 2,787 P 

117 Tish Tang C 473 219 692 1,418 521 1,939 P 

118 C Lone Pine 641 243 884 1,719 1,042 2,761 T 

119 W Lone Pine 521 283 804 1,613 903 2,516 P 

120 McKay Mdws 347 14 361 1,149 195 1,344 T 

121 Ladder Rock 622 178 800 1,828 540 2,368 T 

122 Grizzly Camp 348 247 595 1,209 535 1,744 P 

123 EF Horse Linto 483 208 691 1,547 682 2,229 P 

124 E Lone Pine 419 371 790 1,982 718 2,700 T 

125 Cedar Creek 541 200 741 1,882 574 2,456 P 

126 Groves Prairie 439 287 726 1,530 832 2,362 P 

127 E Cedar Creek 624 196 820 1,977 737 2,714 P 

128 S Cedar Creek 386 352 738 1,342 705 2,047 P 

130 N Waterman 393 306 699 1,336 1,149 2,485 P 

131 Horse Range C 711 166 877 2,240 428 2,668 P 

132 Horse Creek 561 88 649 2,250 321 2,571 P 

133 W Maple Sprg 328 296 624 1,222 1,367 2,589 T 

134 E Waterman 460 237 697 1,644 543 2,187 P 

135 Horse Range 478 309 787 1,712 987 2,699 P 

136 C Waterman 438 78 516 1,403 514 1,917 P 

137 S Waterman 665 71 736 1,655 593 2,248 P 

273 Corral South 590 174 764 2,345 451 2,796 T 

274 Corral North 639 168 807 1,914 472 2,386 T 

275 Bear Hole 214 27 241 1,018 266 1,284 P 

319 G Praire Crk 406 288 694 1,477 805 2,282 T 

335 Horse Linto 721 160 881 2,289 560 2,849 T 

358 W Horse Rg 652 59 711 2,123 466 2,589 T 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-123 
Chapter 3 

Habitat conditions have been altered greatly by the recent Megram Fire, and this next section will 

focus on post-fire conditions. The current habitat conditions have been derived from aerial 

photograph interpretation and a limited amount of field verification. The fire severity mapping was 

utilized to assess the impacts to spotted owl habitat post Megram fire. A description of the 

severity mapping categories is displayed within this chapter under “Fire Effects to Vegetation” 

within the section entitled “Fire Severity. Basically, habitat that is in burn severity categories 3, 4a 

and 4b is classified as unsuitable due to canopy closure losses of 60-95 percent. However, 

where moderate severity occurred (2a), within nesting/roosting habitat, the habitat was 

reclassified as foraging due to the effects of 40 to 60 percent canopy loss. Within the 0–2 severity 

categories, which experienced 0-40 percent canopy loss, nesting, roosting and foraging habitat 

remains as classification prior to the Megram fir. The acreages of habitat degraded by the 

Megram Fire are expected to change as future mortality occurs and with ground validation. This 

analysis is intended to be utilized as a tool to capture the conditions as they presently exist. 

After the Megram Fire, there are approximately 20,241 acres (22 percent) of NR habitat within the 

analysis area, which represents a reduction of 14 percent due to the fire. Foraging habitat 

comprises approximately 14,883 acres (16 percent) of the habitat within the analysis area, which 

represents an increase of 3 percent (degraded NR habitat now qualifies as foraging habitat). 

Specific to the SRNF land base, NR habitat comprises approximately 29 percent of the HLMTT 

area and 22 percent of the area is classified as foraging habitat. Table 3-43 and Figure 3-19 

display NSO habitat post-Megram Fire. Table 3-44 displays the “take” assessment for the activity 

centers in the analysis area post-Megram Fire. 

Table 3-43. Northern Spotted Owl Habitat Post-Megram Fire within the HLMTT Area 

Habitat Type SRNF Hoopa Private 

Foraging 14,611 232 40 

Nesting/Roosting 19,317 825 99 

Total NSO Habitat 33,923 1,057 134 

Unsuitable 31,609 25,095 159 

Total Acres 65,689 26,152 297 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-124 
Current and Reference Conditions 

Figure 3-19. Suitable NSO Habitat after the Megram Fire: 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-125
Chapter 3 

Table 3-44. Acres of Suitable NSO Habitat within Known Activity Centers in the HLMTT 

Area after the Megram Fire 

Owl 

Number 

Territory Name NR Acres 

0.7 Mile 

F Acres 

0.7 Mile 

Total 

NRF 

Acres 

NR 

Acres 

1.3 Mile 

F Acres 

1.3 Mile 

Total NRF 

Acres 

Status1 

106 NF Mill Creek 360 349 709 895 943 1,838 P 

107 Mill Crk Gap 513 51 564 1,213 519 1,732 T 

108 Middle Fork 214 68 282 957 441 1,398 P 

113 Mill Creek 445 70 515 1,030 374 1,404 P 

114 Tish Tang Pt 160 145 305 714 333 1,047 P 

115 SF Tish Tang 509 126 635 1,600 560 2,160 T 

116 Tish Tang East 807 50 857 2,180 596 2,776 P 

117 Tish Tang C 472 219 691 1,412 520 1,932 P 

118 C Lone Pine 641 243 884 1,714 1,042 2,756 T 

119 W Lone Pine 521 282 803 1,610 902 2,512 P 

120 Mckay Mdws 32 253 285 163 740 903 T 

121 Ladder Rock 97 239 336 362 795 1,157 T 

122 Grizzly Camp 0 108 108 20 422 442 P 

123 EF Horse Linto 4 323 327 166 851 1,017 P 

124 E Lone Pine 177 583 760 751 1,263 2,014 T 

125 Cedar Creek 222 390 612 822 991 1,813 P 

126 Groves Prairie 260 395 655 783 1,283 2,066 P 

127 E Cedar Creek 404 269 673 978 968 1,946 P 

128 S Cedar Creek 337 353 690 995 841 1,836 P 

130 N Waterman 386 306 692 1,324 1,151 2,475 P 

131 Horse Range C 711 166 877 2,209 443 2,652 P 

132 Horse Creek 514 118 632 2,004 305 2,309 P 

133 W Maple Sprg 327 297 624 1,216 1,371 2,587 T 

134 E Waterman 458 237 695 1,603 520 2,123 P 

135 Horse range 434 306 740 1,217 1,073 2,290 P 

136 C Waterman 428 80 508 1,375 472 1,847 P 

137 S Waterman 640 69 709 1,576 556 2,132 P 

273 Corral South 572 186 758 1,890 546 2,436 T 

274 Corral North 348 152 500 1,133 528 1,661 T 

275 Bear Hole 84 93 177 311 618 929 P 

319 G Prairie Creek 392 279 671 1,333 843 2,176 T 

335 Horse Linto 175 183 358 641 920 1,561 T 

358 W Horse Ridge 619 84 703 1,997 468 2,465 T 1

Reproductive Status; T=Territorial single; P=pair 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-126 
Current and Reference Conditions 

After the Megram Fire, the preliminary take assessments for the activity centers located within the 

analysis area have determined that 23 activity centers are below the “take” threshold within the 

0.7-mile radius, and 21 activity centers were also below the “take” threshold within the 1.3-mile 

radius. Only one activity center is deficient in the 1.3-mile radius. Nine activity centers are above 

the “take” threshold completely. Dispersal habitat was also determined utilizing the 50-11-40 rule. 

Presently there are approximately 37,557 acres of dispersal habitat for the NSO within the 

analysis area. Although the 50-11-40 rule is no longer required, preliminary assessments indicate 

the analysis area is not deficient in dispersal habitat post Megram Fire. Table 3-45 summarizes 

the NSO assessment of suitable habitat within activity centers for both pre- and post-fire habitat 

conditions. 

Table 3-45. Comparison of NR and NRF Habitat for NSO Activity Centers (AC) within the 

HLMTT Area Pre- and Post-Megram Fire 

Time Period Total # # AC > 500 

acres NR 

within 0.7 

Miles 

# AC > 500 

acres NRF 

within 0.7 

Miles 

# AC > 1,340 

acres NR 

within 1.3 

Miles 

# AC > 1,340 

acres NRF 

within 1.3 

Miles 

Pre-Megram 33 16 30 25 31 

Post Megram 33 10 25 11 27 

AC 

Bald Eagle 

There have been recorded observations of bald eagles within the analysis area. However, there 

are no historic nest sites and no bald eagles are known to be utilizing habitat for nesting within the 

watersheds. 

Marbled Murrelet 

There have been no detections of marbled murrelets in the HLMTT watersheds. Marbled murrelet 

habitat structural elements consist of large diameter nest trees with large lateral branches, 

decadent trees with mistletoe, deformations, and moss on limbs (Hammer and Nelson, 1995). 

These elements are typically found in mature forest stands, including mid to late successional and 

old growth stands. 

Approximately 99 percent (64,976 acres) of the SRNF land in the analysis area lies within marbled 

murrelet Zone II (approximately 40 to 47 miles from the coast). A small portion (59 acres) lies 

within marbled murrelet zone I (coast to 40 miles inland). Approximately 35,300 acres have been 

designated by the USFWS as critical habitat within the analysis area (CHU CA-30). Intensive 

surveys have been conducted since 1998 in the HLMTT watersheds. In 1998 and 1999, 

extensive surveys were conducted in the analysis during Phase II of the Marbled Murrelet Range 

and Distribution Study. The study is in the final phase of completion and is focused on latemature and old growth tanoak forest on the Lower Trinity and Orleans Ranger Districts, as well as 

portions of the Klamath National Forest and the Hoopa Valley Indian Reservation. The study 

yielded no detections of marbled murrelets within the analysis area or the entire study area. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-127 
Chapter 3 

Prior to the Megram Fire, the watersheds contained approximately 27,730 acres of suitable habitat 

for the marbled murrelet, with 14,648 acres on SRNF lands (Figure 3-20). The Megram Fire 

reduced the quantity of suitable habitat within the watersheds by approximately 5 percent, and 

26,234 acres now remain suitable. Specific to the SRNF land base, there are currently 13,066 

acres of suitable habitat, which represents a reduction of 11 percent. Figure 3-21 displays the 

distribution of suitable marbled murrelet habitat after the fire. 

Forest Service Sensitive Species 

U.S. Forest Service sensitive species, which include the northern goshawk, American marten, 

fisher, foothill yellow-legged frog, and the southern torrent salamander, are known to occur in the 

watershed analysis area. There are three known and three suspected goshawk territories in the 

analysis area. Singing males (willow flycatcher) have been reported within the analysis area, 

however, nesting has not been confirmed for this species on the Forest. While many of the 

streams contain willow and alder habitat, the wet meadow systems are not present in sufficient 

quantities to probably support this species. The large wet meadow systems needed by the great 

gray owl are not present within the analysis area, but are present to the west within the Trinity 

Alps Wilderness. It is unlikely that this species is present within the analysis area. Additional 

information on these species can be found in Appendix E. 

Survey and Manage Species 

A number of survey and manage and/or wildlife protection buffer species are known or suspected 

to occur in the analysis area. Known occurrences include the Del Norte salamander, Oregon 

shoulderband snail, Klamath shoulderband snail, Church’s sideband snail, Pressley hesperian 

snail, papillose tail-dropper snail, and one ROD Protection Buffer Species – Ancotrema voyanum. 

Surveys for the following species are required within the analysis area: 

Del Norte salamander, Oregon shoulderband snail, Pressley hesperian snail, Tehama chaparral 

snail, Shasta chaparral snail, and the Papillose tail-dropper snail. Locations have been 

determined primarily by surveys associated with proposed management activities. The specific 

extent of the above species’ range within the analysis is currently unknown. The high burn 

severity categories are representative of areas which canopy closures have been reduced by 70 

to 95 percent. Within these areas, the micro habitat conditions needed by S&M species have been 

removed and/or altered to a significant degree. The midstory and overstory canopy components 

have been lost which protected animals from extreme fluctuations in temperature and humidity. 

The exposure to hot and dry conditions as a result of the loss of forest canopy and the loss of 

micro habitat conditions greatly reduce the probabilities for species persistence and population 

viability. The majority of the above listed S&M species are vulnerable to wildfire even at low 

intensity levels. The effect of the Megram Fire on these species as of this time is yet to be 

determined in the absence of monitoring data after the fire. It is expected that species were 

consumed in the areas of high fire intensity; however, species may have survived in adjacent 

areas of unburned habitat or areas with low to moderate burn intensities. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-128 
Current and Reference Conditions 

Bats 

Many species of bats are suspected to occur in these watersheds. There is little information on 

caves or mine shafts within the HLMTT watersheds, and limited information on abandoned 

buildings or bridges that may provide suitable breeding or roosting sites. No surveys for bats 

Figure 3-20. Suitable Marbled Murrelet Habitat before the Megram Fire: 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-129 
Chapter 3 

Figure 3-21. Suitable Marbled Murrelet Habitat after the Megram Fire: 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-130
Current and Reference Conditions 

have occurred within the analysis area. Snags probably provide the primary bat roosting habitat 

in these watersheds. See Appendix E for life histories and habitat discussions. 

Herpetofauna 

There are known occurrences of the foothill yellow-legged frog, southern torrent salamander, and 

the Del Norte salamander in the watershed analysis area. Other special status species listed in 

Appendix E are suspected in the watersheds. In addition, the Pacific Southwest Redwood 

Sciences Laboratory has monitored several populations of Del Norte salamanders since the early 

1980s. Due to the recent wildfire, riparian vegetation needed by frogs, salamanders and pond 

turtles has been reduced to a high degree in localized areas that burned with high intensities. 

Harvest Species 

The Redwood Creek black-tailed deer herd utilize habitat within the watershed analysis area. The 

summer range is generally characterized by habitat over 4,000 feet in elevation. Key fawning 

areas include portions of the Horse Linto, Mill Creek and Tish Tang Creek drainages. No key 

deer areas have been identified within the analysis area. The Le Perron Peak Key Deer Area lies 

approximately two to three miles north of the analysis area. Only one wintering area has been 

identified within the analysis area. The Tish Tang deer wintering area lies within the southeast 

corner of the Hoopa Valley Indian Reservation and portions of this wintering area lie within the 

SRNF boundary. The Tish Tang wintering area was not affected by the Megram Fire. Due to the 

fire, an abundance of early seral-stage habitat will be available for forage in the near future. 

Currently the Redwood Creek herd has been in a slow decline in population since the mid to late 

1970s. 

There have been several incidental sightings of Roosevelt elk in recent years. The analysis area 

is within close proximity to several established herds (Marbled Mountain Herd, Trinity Alps Herd, 

and the Lewiston Herd) and expansion of the herds within the area is the near future is probable. 

Black bear, quail (California and mountain), blue grouse and band-tailed pigeons are also hunted 

in the watershed analysis area. 

Special Habitats 

Many special habitats occur within the HLMTT watershed analysis area (Figure 3-22). These 

include wetlands, springs, ponds, meadows, cliffs, talus slopes, and hardwood stands. These 

habitats may support endemic or rare wildlife species in the watershed. However, little is has 

been done to adequately survey these areas. Therefore, the status of these sites and potentially 

associated species is unknown. 

In 1991, the Six Rivers National Forest wildlife department mapped the location of many special 

habitats across the Forest from aerial photographs (Figure 3-22). Many small areas such as bogs 

and springs may not have been visible, and are most likely underrepresented. Additional 

information on these assemblages can be found in Appendix E. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-131 
Chapter 3 

Figure 3-22. Special Habitats in the HLMTT Area: 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-132
Current and Reference Conditions 

Riparian and Aquatic Systems 

This section addresses water quality, riparian and aquatic habitat quality, and the species 

dependent on this habitat, as well as how these values are affected by erosion processes and 

other disturbance regimes. Reference conditions describe riparian and aquatic conditions within 

the probable range that existed prior to current land management activities. Estimating the full 

range or reference variability of those conditions can be very important in making informed land 

management decisions. The following descriptions of reference conditions are often derived from 

qualitative professional judgment where quantitative data about the analysis area are lacking. 

The discussion is often based on anecdotal information, general knowledge of ecosystem 

processes and function, general knowledge of the affected species, and visual evidence from old 

aerial photos. Current conditions are based on the best available data for the analysis area, 

including direct knowledge of relevant physical and biological functions and the affected species. 

Hydrologic Context within Klamath-Trinity River Basin 

The Klamath-Trinity Basin has experienced considerable land use change during the last 135 

years. Mining and logging have affected streams throughout the basin. Hydraulic mining 

drastically altered channels and floodplains in many areas. Pulp mill effluent created additional 

water quality impacts. Irrigated agriculture, grazing and hydropower development also have 

occurred in the basin over the last 50 years. All of these disturbances represent a significant 

departure from conditions that existed prior to European settlement. 

Natural flow regimes in the Klamath-Trinity Basin began to be altered with the construction of 

large dams on both mainstems in the early 1960s. Large inter-basin diversions from the Lewiston 

Dam on the mainstem Trinity River have significantly influenced its flow regime and consequently 

impacted the aquatic community, particularly anadromous fish populations. These impacts are 

most evident near the dam where natural flows have been greatly altered in terms of volume and 

timing. In contrast to the Trinity River, flows in the Klamath River have been altered primarily in 

terms of seasonal duration rather than total annual discharge. The altered flow regimes in both 

the Trinity and Klamath Rivers have affected seasonal stream flows and water temperatures. 

These changes have altered habitat conditions within the river and are thought to have affected 

both downstream and upstream migration of anadromous salmonids. 

Erosion Processes 

The landscape of the analysis area is typical of the Klamath Mountains, although somewhat 

unusual for the Six Rivers National Forest in that about one-third is an upland surface that has 

been glaciated and gradually eroded, while the lower two-thirds of these watersheds has been 

dissected by deep stream canyons. This is largely due to contrasting bedrock characteristics in 

the upper and lower watersheds. The present erosion regimes also differ considerably between 

the upper and lower watersheds, with sediment delivery being much higher in the lower 

watersheds due to mass wasting. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-133 
Chapter 3 

Geologic Setting 

There are two major geologic units plus a third minor unit that underlie the HLMTT analysis area. 

The distribution of geomorphic units over the bedrock geology is also shown in Figure 3-23, and 

the units are described below. The geomorphology of the analysis area was interpreted and 

mapped from 1:24,000 color aerial photos. Geomorphic units are defined in terms of process 

types and landforms (Haskins et al., 1998). The mapping area covered Horse Linto, Tish Tang 

and upper Mill Creek, but geomorphology was not mapped in lower Mill Creek on the Hoopa 

Valley Indian Reservation. 

Bedrock Units 

Galice Formation metasedimentary rocks (principally slate and phyllite) underlie 37 percent of 

the analysis area in the lower watersheds. This unit comprises a somewhat greater proportion of 

Mill Creek and a lesser proportion of Tish Tang Creek. Galice terrane contains extensive ancient 

landslide deposits (19 percent of its area) and is susceptible to debris slides and accelerated gully 

erosion.

Igneous rock (principally diorite) underlies 60 percent of the analysis area in the upper 

watersheds. It appears to be relatively massive with moderate jointing and tends to support 

rugged terrain in the upper river canyons and uppermost glacial headwall areas. Old landslide 

deposits are much less common than in the Galice (only 3 percent of the diorite area) while steep 

headwalls and rockslide areas are much more common (16 percent of its area). About three 

percent of the diorite terrane is mantled by glacial deposits (moraines and outwash) that are 

relatively coarse grained and well drained. Dioritic terrane appears to be much less susceptible to 

historic landsliding, but its deeply weathered, non-cohesive soils tend to be very erodible even on 

moderate slopes.

Western Hayfork Terrane metasedimentary and metavolcanic rocks underlie three percent of 

the analysis area in a narrow zone along the Orleans Thrust Fault and in upper Horse Linto 

Creek. They are somewhat less prone to mass wasting than Galice rocks, but this unit does 

contain extensive older landslide deposits and headwall basins and is moderately erodible.

Geomorphic Units

Alluvium includes stream-deposited sediment within the active channel and floodplain. 

Stream terrace deposits consist of older alluvium outside or above the present-day active 

channel that may be subject to erosion and remobilization during peak flows.

Alluvial fan deposits are localized at the mouths of some steep tributaries that have been subject 

to high mass wasting rates. Altogether, alluvial deposits cover about one percent of the analysis 

area, principally in the middle and lower sections of Tish Tang and Horse Linto Creeks.

Inner gorge is composed of steep slopes (generally >65 percent) adjacent to incised streams that 

are produced by coalescing debris slides. This tends to produce a noticeable break-in-slope at 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-134 
Current and Reference Conditions 

the top of the inner gorge. This landform was differentiated where it overlaps colluvial deposits. It 

includes about 3.5 percent of the mapping area. 

Landslide deposits are translational types in the analysis area consisting of disrupted rock and 

soil. More coherent landslide masses are differentiated as block slides. 

Landslide toe zones include the lowermost part of landslide deposits that are considered more 

susceptible to secondary mass failure due to their proximity to streams and typically more 

saturated condition. 

Other colluvial deposits were mapped in the lower sections of headwall basins. Such deposits 

also tend to be more susceptible to secondary mass failure than the adjoining hillslopes. 

Altogether, unstable colluvial deposits cover about 6.2 percent of the mapping area. 

Talus deposits were mapped below rockslide/rockfall areas. These areas are typically more 

stable than other colluvial deposits and comprise less than one percent of the mapping area. 

Headwall basins are steep, generally concave slopes in the upper parts of some tributaries that 

have been formed by prolonged shallow mass wasting, in many cases inferred to be from a 

former, more intensive erosion regime. However, they are considered more susceptible to 

landsliding than comparably steep adjacent slopes. They comprise about 8.6 percent of the 

mapping area. 

Rockslide/rockfall areas and rockslide/headwalls were mapped where very steep slopes and 

generally competent bedrock were exposed. These areas are fairly stable and do not produce 

much fine-grained sediment. They comprise about 4.3 percent of the mapping area. 

Glacial headwalls are found along the Trinity Summit area. Most are comprised of steep, craggy 

exposed diorite. They comprise about 1.9 percent of the area. 

Glacial deposits include moraines and outwash, and were mapped below most of the glacial 

headwall areas. They are comprised of poorly to moderately sorted sand, gravel and boulders 

that were deposited by glacial ice or meltwater, and cover about 1.9 percent of the mapping area. 

Eroding hillslopes include the remaining terrain of the analysis area. These variable slopes are 

subject to sheetwash erosion, creep and minor localized mass movement. Their susceptibility to 

landsliding and erosion generally increases with slope steepness. 

Landscape Evolution and Disturbance Regimes (Reference 

Conditions) 

This landscape of deep canyons, steep slopes, relatively high energy streams, and widespread 

mass wasting has evolved over millions of years during which it has undergone catastrophic 

changes with long intervening periods (hundreds to thousands of years) of relative stability. 

Both large and small-scale physical disturbances have been an integral part of this evolution. 

During earlier glacial epochs, the terrain experienced especially intense erosion and mass 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-135 
Chapter 3 

Figure 3-23. Geomorphic Units and Bedrock Geology: 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-136
Current and Reference Conditions 

wasting which have left their imprints on the landscape as headwall basins and massive landslide 

scars. 

Our short historical window only provides a limited sample of the full spectrum of disturbance. 

Two catastrophic, landslide-producing floods occurred during the historical period in 1861 and 

1964, but other floods have also caused substantial erosion and mass wasting. Floods even 

greater than 1861 or 1964 undoubtedly occurred in prehistoric times; such extreme flood events 

are believed to have occurred in 1750 and 1600. Clearly, the reference condition for this region 

includes landsliding and sedimentation that were occasionally very widespread and caused 

drastic changes in riparian and aquatic ecosystems. 

However, prehistoric conditions also would have included long intervals with relatively less active 

geomorphic processes. This would have been accompanied by relatively low sedimentation rates 

from landslides and erosion, and therefore would have provided long periods for riparian and 

aquatic systems to recover from catastrophic events. The distribution of disturbance would have 

been affected by variation in geologic and geomorphic sensitivity, because different bedrock units 

and landforms would have responded differently to extreme natural events. 

Surface erosion has probably varied greatly across this landscape because of differences in soil 

and parent material, slope steepness and position, and vegetative cover. Mass wasting 

processes tend to accelerate erosion processes by abruptly altering all three of these conditions. 

In a geologically active setting such as this, the average rate of soil formation is probably only 

somewhat faster than natural erosion rates. On some sites such as old landslide benches and 

gentle uplands, deep soils have time to form and are protected from erosion, while on other sites 

such as old landslide scars, erosion persists and little or no soil development occurs. Wildfire has 

been a second complicating factor in the erosion history of the analysis area because it alters or 

removes the vegetation cover to some extent, and if very intense, may alter physical soil 

properties that cause short-term increases in surface erosion from rilling and gullying. Since 

intense fires have likely occurred in this area for millenia, locally high rates of erosion have 

occurred here prior to any human disturbance of the landscape. 

Riparian and aquatic communities have adapted to these disturbance regimes and erosion 

processes. For extended periods, stable riparian and aquatic conditions would have resulted in 

high productivity and integrity of dependent communities, while at other times, these communities 

would have been struggling to recover from recent disturbances. 

Pre-Management Conditions 

The 1944 aerial photos predate most human disturbance of the area and show relatively unaltered 

landscape conditions with respect to erosion processes. Prior to 1944, the area was occupied by 

Native Americans and turn-of-the century miners. Their use of these lands probably had relatively 

minor impacts on erosion processes. Forest Service road construction and timber harvest did not 

begin until the 1950s. 

Recent landslide scars constitute the principal evidence of erosion on the 1944 aerial photos. 

Only the Horse Linto and Tish Tang watersheds were inventoried for landslides. However, 

landslide occurrence in Mill Creek is probably very similar to that in Tish Tang Creek (Pacific 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-137 
Chapter 3 

Watershed Associates, 1990 and 1995). A total of 164 features (132 in Horse Linto and 32 in Tish 

Tang) were present of which 58 percent were smaller than one acre while 9 percent were larger 

than 3 acres. Active landslides were estimated to cover about 220 acres or 0.4 percent of the 

analysis area. Slides were most common along the middle to lower mainstem of both creeks and 

predominantly in lower slope (inner gorge) positions. Half of the slides in Tish Tang Creek and 85 

percent of those in Horse Linto had delivered sediment directly to streams and could have had 

some adverse effects on aquatic or riparian habitats. Most of these slides also appeared to be 

ongoing sources of sediment from surface erosion, but this was probably only a small fraction of 

the sediment delivered by the original slope failure. 

Many dormant landslide features were present in the analysis area since prehistoric times and 

also can be seen on the 1944 aerial photos. They are more numerous and cover more area than 

the historically active landslides, indicating that prolonged landsliding has shaped the landscape. 

Active landsliding is often spatially associated with older landslide deposits because the colluvium 

typically forms less competent slopes and more readily entrains water during major storms that 

favors slope failure. Although only one-sixth of the active slides observed in 1944 were 

associated with older landslide terrain, they accounted for 43 percent of estimated total sediment 

delivery up to that time. 

Dormant landslide deposits underlie about seven percent of the analysis area (ranging from 3.5 

percent in Mill Creek to 9 percent in Horse Linto Creek). Dormant shallow landslides (including 

many headwall basins) are more widespread throughout the steeper terrain of these watersheds, 

ranging from 12 percent of Mill and Tish Tang watersheds to 17 percent of Horse Linto. Shallow 

landsliding has probably been a more common mass wasting process in these watersheds than 

current mapping indicates because smaller debris slides are more quickly obscured by vegetation. 

Over long time frames, deep-seated landsliding may have a more profound effect on the total 

landscape, but shallow landsliding is a more effective and frequent mechanism for delivering 

sediment and debris to stream channels. 

Current Conditions for Erosion Processes 

Extensive areas of resistant bedrock as well as other areas of relatively unstable and erodible 

terrane underlie the analysis area. Therefore, erosion rates are also quite variable across this 

landscape. Total erosion rates are a combination of surface erosion and mass wasting 

processes. Based on previous erosion studies in northwest California, it can be assumed that 

mass wasting processes have been far more important volumetrically than surface erosion in most 

of this analysis area over the long term. However, the recent Megram Fire represents an extreme 

short-term change in erosion rates for a substantial fraction of the Horse Linto watershed and a 

moderate fraction of the Tish Tang and Mill Creek watersheds. 

Surface Erosion 

Surface erosion involves the removal and downslope transport of soil particles from the soil 

surface by sheet or rill erosion. The highest surface erosion rates have probably been associated 

with active gullying in finer-grained or weakly cohesive units including some of the Galice 

metasediments and deeply weathered diorite, as well as steep headwall areas and poorly 

revegetated landslide scars. Surface erosion rates before and after the Megram Fire were 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-138 
Current and Reference Conditions 

calculated for the three watersheds using the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) with the Order 

III Soils coverage. Pre-fire surface erosion estimates are shown in Table 3-46. 

Table 3-46. Estimated Pre-Fire Surface Erosion Rates 

Watershed 

Surface Erosion 

(tons/year) 

Erosion Rate 

(tons/acre/year) 

Horse Linto 1180 0.03 

Tish Tang 371 0.02 

Mill Creek 495 0.02 

The Horse Linto watershed contains the more erodible soils, which is reflected in the higher 

background surface erosion rate. It also has the largest area, resulting in a predicted background 

delivery rate of 1180 tons per year. 

Mass Wasting 

Storm events and land management have had important erosion effects in the analysis area. 

Three large storm/flood events occurred between 1960 and 1975, including the 1964 flood that 

caused widespread landsliding throughout Northern California, as well as lesser storms in 1972 

and 1975. These disturbances had dramatic impacts throughout the analysis area. Prior to and 

during this period, road building and timber harvesting had occurred throughout the lower 

watersheds. When the storms occurred, slopes that had been clearcut or on which roads had 

been constructed were more susceptible to mass wasting processes than other undisturbed 

slopes. Previous sedimentation studies for the Hoopa Tribe Forestry Department (Pacific 

Watershed Associates, 1990 & 1995) provide a wealth of data on road-related mass wasting in 

Tish Tang and Mill Creeks. 

An inventory and chronology of historically active landslides was prepared for this watershed 

analysis to evaluate sediment volumes mobilized by mass wasting. The entire watersheds of Tish 

Tang and Horse Linto Creeks were included, while Mill Creek was omitted. The analysis 

consisted of examining 1944, 1960, 1975, 1990 and 1998 aerial photos that bracket the major 

floods that have most affected the area. The following attributes were recorded for each identified 

landslide: 

• estimated size in acres 

• landslide type (shallow or deep-seated) 

• management influence (Forest or County road, harvest, cumulative or natural) 

• hillslope position (upper, midslope or streamside) 

• apparent or inferred percent delivery to streams 

• notable aggradation response downstream 

• change from previous airphoto year, including estimated enlargement 

Volumes of each slide were calculated from the estimated area by adapting a relationship 

developed in Grouse Creek for shallow debris slides. Sediment delivery in tons was then 

calculated from the estimated percent delivery and a density conversion factor of 1.6 tons per 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-139 
Chapter 3 

cubic yard (cy). These estimates, especially when summed for the various categories discussed 

below, are considered accurate to +30 percent. A number of conclusions can be drawn from the 

resulting data. 

General Trends and Management Influences 

As noted earlier, there were 164 active landslides within the two watersheds in 1944. By 1998, 

385 additional landslides had occurred, all but 31 of which had appeared by 1975. Total sediment 

delivered from all 549 landslides was estimated at 7,877,000 tons (Table 3-47). Approximately 17 

percent (1,346,100 tons) was delivered before 1944, which is a smaller proportion than has been 

found in other watersheds on the Six Rivers where landslide inventories have been done. Large 

fractions of total sediment delivered by landslides occurred during the period 1960-1975, including 

60 percent of the total in Horse Linto Creek and 82 percent in Tish Tang Creek. Sediment delivery 

from landslides appears to have been much lower since that time, despite the occurrence of 

several large winter storms including the January 1997 storm. Of the 6,531,000 tons delivered 

after 1944, about three-quarters was the result of new landslides and one-quarter was due to 

enlargement of older slides. 

Table 3-47. Landslide Trends and Estimated Sediment Delivery in Tish Tang and Horse 

Linto Creeks. Bold entries denote first appearance; other entries denote 

enlargement. 

Tish Tang Creek: Total = 3,021,000 tons 

Present 

in 1944 

Appeared or 

Enlarged 1960 

Appeared or 

Enlarged 1975 

Appeared or 

Enlarged 1990 

Appeared or 

Enlarged 1998 

Count Tons Count Tons Count Tons Count Tons Count Tons 

32 251,700 3 42,300 6 288,400 0 0 0 0 

16 214,600 6 71,200 1 900 0 0 

124 2,111,900 0 0 0 0 

8 39,600 0 0 

32 251,700 

(8%) 

16 / 3 256,900 

(9%) 

124 / 12 2,471,500 

(82%) 

8 / 1 40,500 

(1%) 

0 / 0 0 

Horse Linto Creek: Total = 4,856,000 tons 

Present 

in 1944 

Appeared or 

Enlarged 1960 

Appeared or 

Enlarged 1975 

Appeared or 

Enlarged 1990 

Appeared or 

Enlarged 1998 

Count Tons Count Tons Count Tons Count Tons Count Tons 

132 1,094,400 5 132,300 30 541,700 3 132,000 1 800 

26 472,900 11 265,300 0 0 0 0 

188 2,108,500 1 7,500 0 0 

23 93,400 1 7,600 

0 0 

132 1,094,400 

(22%) 

26 / 5 605,200 

(12%) 

188 / 41 2,915,500 

(60%) 

23 / 4 232,900 

(5%) 

0 / 2 8,400 

(<1%) 

A large majority of these landslides delivered some of their volume to a stream channel; the 

average estimated delivery rate was 78 percent. Approximately 38 percent of all active slides after 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-140 
Current and Reference Conditions 

1944 were directly or indirectly related to management activities, based on aerial photo 

interpretation (i.e., proximity), while the remaining slides appeared to be due solely to natural 

causes. However, the patterns of occurrence and sediment delivery to stream channels were 

substantially different in the two watersheds. As shown in Tables 3-48 and 3-49, a much greater 

percentage of slides and tons of delivered sediment were associated with management in Tish 

Tang Creek than in Horse Linto Creek. This is also the case for sediment delivery after 1960, as 

well as after 1975 when management practices are thought to have improved. 

Table 3-48. Landslide Delivery by Management Influence. 

1944-98 Tish Tang Creek Horse Linto Creek 

Influence Number Tons Delivered Number Tons Delivered 

Mgmt-related 80 (55%) 1,870,800 (68%) 76 (28%) 704,700 (19%) 

Natural 65 (45%) 897,000 (32%) 192 (72%) 3,057,200 (81%) 

TOTAL 145 2,767,800 269 3,761,900 

Table 3-49. Landslide Delivery by Management Influence and Year. 

Tons Delivered Tish Tang Creek Horse Linto Creek 

Influence 1960-98 1975-98 1960-98 1975-98 

Mgmt-related 1,769,600 26,500 677,900 100,700 

Natural 742,200 14,900 2,471,600 122,300 

Landslide occurrence and sediment production have also varied among the different geologic 

units in the analysis area. Overall, about half of the 437 slides that were active after 1944 and 

half of the sediment they delivered originated from Galice metasediments. The next most prolific 

landslide source terrane was colluvium, which accounted for a third of the sediment delivery from 

only one-fifth of the landslides. Colluvium has had a somewhat higher sediment delivery rate 

(tons/ac) than Galice metasediments in Tish Tang Creek and a much higher rate in Horse Linto 

Creek (Tables 3-50 and 3-51). Landslide incidence and sediment delivery was considerably lower 

throughout areas underlain by diorite and Western Hayfork Terrane. These data suggest that 

recognizing dormant landslide terrain as highly susceptible to shallow landsliding can have 

important benefits to reduce the adverse effects of management activity on sedimentation. 

Table 3-50. Active Landslides by Geologic Unit in Tish Tang Creek, 1944-98 

Geologic 

Unit 

Acres in 

watershed 

Number 

of Slides 

Total 

Cu.Yds. 

Cu.Yds. 

per acre 

Tons 

Delivered 

Tons 

per acre tons/ac/yr 

Colluvium 1,340 26 384,000 287 512,300 382 7.1 

Galice 

metased 5,286 84 1,412,200 267 1,837,500 348 6.4 

Diorite + 

W.Hayfork 

Terrane 

12,533 45 375,700 30 418,900 33 0.6 

TOTALS 19,159 155 2,171,900 113 2,768,700 145 2.7 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-141 
Chapter 3 

Table 3-51. Active Landslides by Geologic Unit in Horse Linto Creek, 1944-98 

Geologic 

Unit 

Acres in 

watershed 

Number 

of Slides 

Total 

Cu.Yds. 

Cu.Yds. 

per acre 

Tons 

Delivered 

Tons 

per acre tons/ac/yr 

Colluvium 3,705 56 1,595,400 431 1,718,800 464 8.6 

Galice 

metased 12,338 121 1,235,400 100 1,550,000 126 2.3 

Diorite + 

W.Hayfork 

Terrane 

26,027 105 396,100 15 493,100 19 0.4 

TOTALS 42,070 282 3,226,900 77 3,761,900 89 1.7 

Pre-1944 slides were most abundant in the diorite and Western Hayfork Terrane, although nearly 

all the largest delivered volumes originated from Galice metasediments and colluvium. After 1944, 

both the majority of slides and the bulk of delivered sediment were associated with the latter two 

units. 

Effects of the Megram Fire on Erosion Processes 

Fire is a natural and important part of the disturbance regime in forested ecosystems, but 

scientists disagree about the nature and degree of both its beneficial and adverse effects on 

watershed condition and health. The effects of fire on erosion principally result from the 

destruction of ground cover that exposes mineral soil that is then subjected to increased overland 

flow and raindrop impact. Severely burned areas typically experience higher rates of soil erosion, 

increased peak runoff, greater duff reduction, loss of soil nutrients and soil heating. If the organic 

layers are consumed by high intensity fire and mineral soil is exposed, soil infiltration and water 

storage capacity are reduced and water repellent conditions (hydrophobicity) may result. These 

impacts may persist for weeks or decades, depending on the fire’s severity and intensity, any 

remedial measures that are implemented, and the rate of vegetative recovery (Robichaud 

&Winter, 2000). Erosion from burned areas typically declines in subsequent years as the site 

stabilizes, but the recovery rate varies depending on the fire severity. 

Soils are a critical component of hydrological processes. Sediment production and hydrologic 

response to wildfire often depend on fire severity and the occurrence of hydrologic events. 

Burning reduces the amount of rainfall interception by the forest canopy and reduces 

evapotranspiration. This may in turn contribute to increased runoff and peak flows. When a large 

storm follows a severe wildfire, impacts can be substantial. Increased runoff, peak flows and 

sediment delivery can adversely affect fish populations and their habitat. Suspended sediment 

concentrations in stream flow can increase several-fold due to the addition of ash and fine soil 

particles [Rinne 1997]. 

Fire severity typically varies spatially, making erosion potential from burned hillslopes variable 

also. Robichaud and Monroe (1997) found that a high severity burn upslope from a low severity 

burn commonly produced about 50 percent more sediment because the rilling initiated in the upper 

burned area continued down through the lower severity burn. Table 3-52 summarizes burn 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-142 
Current and Reference Conditions 

severity by slope position for the three watersheds. In the Horse Linto watershed, 67 percent of 

the burned acres are in middle or upper hillslope positions, indicating a greater potential for 

hillslope erosion. 

Table 3-52. Burn Severity by Slope Position (Percentages are of the Whole Watershed) 

Watershed Burn 

Severity 

Upper Slope Mid-Slope Lower Slope 

Acres/Percent Acres/Percent Acres/Percent 

Horse Linto High 3550 4430 (10%) 1917 

Moderate 4482 7516 7450 

Low-None 2395 5623 4725 

Tish Tang High 900 1078 775 

Moderate 2445 2942 2737 

Low-None 1757 9%) 3524 3000 

Mill High 1007 934 452 

Moderate 1930 2859 2596 

Low-None 5195 312 6890 

(8%) (5%) 

(11%) (18%) (18%) 

(6%) (13%) (11%) 

(5%) (6%) (4%) 

(13%) (15%) (14%) 

( (18%) (16%) 

(3%) (3%) (1%) 

(6%) (9%) (8%) 

(17%) (1%) (22%) 

The potential for increased surface erosion following the fire can be estimated better by examining 

burned severity acres relative to slope steepness as well (see Table 3-53). 

Table 3-53. Burn Severity by Slope Class (percentages are of the whole watershed) 

Watershed Burn 

Severity 

<20% Slope 20-35% Slope 35-65% Slope >65% Slope 

Horse Linto High 967 2279 4969 1683 

Moderate 2791 3814 9153 3689 

Low-None 375 1561 9237 1570 

Tish Tang High 451 1076 1056 169 

Moderate 1666 2753 2564 1142 

Low-None 714 1198 5143 1227 

Mill High 222 1295 858 144 

Moderate 807 2183 2632 1767 

Low-None 2639 4421 11,666 2104 

(2%) (5%) (12%) (4%) 

(7%) (9%) (22%) (9%) 

(9%) (4%) (22%) (4%) 

(2%) (6%) (6%) (1%) 

(9%) (14%) (13%) (6%) 

(4%) (6%) (27%) (6%) 

(1%) (4%) (3%) (1%) 

(3%) (7%) (9%) (6%) 

(9%) (14%) (38%) (7%) 

If slope steepness and position are considered together, a clearer picture of increased erosion 

potential results. Conceptually, highest risk is associated with severely burned, steep slopes; 

moderate risk is associated with severely burned, moderately steep middle or lower slopes, as 

well as moderately burned, steep upper or middle slopes; and least risk is associated with 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-143 
Chapter 3 

moderately burned, less steep slopes. Based on these assumptions, Table 3-54 shows percent 

acres considered to be at risk of increased erosion, while Figure 3-24 shows their distribution in 

the analysis area. 

Table 3-54. Estimated Increased Erosion Risk in Burned Areas (Percent of Watershed) 

Erosion Risk Horse Linto Tish Tang Mill 

High 30% 18% 18% 

Moderate 18% 19% 10% 

Low 22% 20% 5% 

Little or no burn 30% 43% 67% 

Estimated surface erosion rates by burn severity were also calculated using the USLE with a 2-

year, 6-hour rainfall, as shown in Table 3-55. A considerable range of surface erosion is expected 

for the range of burn severity. Soils specialists documented extensive rilling and gullying during 

site visits in high elevation granitic terrain after the first fall rains, and recommended doubling the 

surface erosion rates predicted by the USLE for these soils. Nevertheless, the data shown below 

have not been revised to reflect higher erosion rates on high elevation granitic soils because the 

USLE model is thought to over-predict soil erosion rates. Therefore, these estimates may be 

somewhat conservative. 

Table 3-55. Estimated Surface Erosion Rates, Post-Fire 

Watershed Burn Severity Acres 

Predicted Surface 

Erosion (tons/yr) 

Predicted Erosion 

Rate (tons/ac/yr) 

Horse Linto Low 1,300 1,000 0.8 

Medium 50 40,400 2.1 

High 9,900 50,800 5.1 

TOTAL/AVG 30,650 92,200 3.0 

Tish Tang Low 9 7 0.9 

Medium 8,120 12,200 1.5 

High 2,750 11,200 4.1 

TOTAL/AVG 10,890 23,400 2.2 

Mill Low 440 200 0.4 

Medium 7,380 9,200 1.2 

High 2,520 7,000 2.8 

TOTAL/AVG 10,340 16,400 1.6 

Post fire surface erosion rates are predicted to be greatest in the Horse Linto watershed, followed 

by the Tish Tang and Mill Creek watersheds. A greater proportion of the Horse Linto watershed 

was subjected to moderate and high severity burns on steeper slopes, and this translates to 

higher predicted surface erosion rates and amounts. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-144 
Current and Reference Conditions 

Pre- and post-fire surface erosion estimates are compared in Table 3-56. The data suggest that 

dramatic increases in surface erosion should be expected over background or pre-fire rates. 

Figure 3-24. Burned Areas with Increased Erosion Risk: 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-145 
Chapter 3 

The greatest predicted changes are anticipated to occur in Tish Tang and Horse Linto 

watersheds, followed closely by Mill Creek watershed. These inflated erosion rates are likely to 

attenuate within a few years to perhaps a decade on the most intensely burned areas. 

Table 3-56. Pre- and Post-Fire Surface Erosion Estimates 

Watershed Pre-Fire Surface Erosion Rate 

(tons/ac/yr) 

Post-Fire Surface Erosion Rate 

(tons/ac/yr) 

Horse Linto 0.03 3.0 -fold increase) 

Tish Tang 0.02 2.2 -fold increase) 

Mill Creek 0.02 1.6 -fold increase) 

(100

(110

(80

Based on some rough assumptions about likely rates of attenuation in areas of different burn 

severity, and using the first year estimated yields from Table 3-56, the total short-term increases in 

surface erosion as a result of this fire were estimated as follows: Horse Linto – 198,000 tons; Tish 

Tang – 49,000 tons; Mill Creek – 34,000 tons. 

It is more difficult to estimate the potential increase in sediment delivery from mass wasting as a 

result of the Megram Fire because landslides tend to be randomly distributed in time and space 

and strongly dependent on major storms coinciding with a period of vulnerability such as this. 

One approach is to consider past patterns of landslide occurrence relative to certain terrain and 

geologic types as an indicator of future patterns. Based on those relationships discussed earlier, 

areas with burn severity of 3 or greater on slopes over 50 percent or on sensitive geomorphic 

terrains (landslide deposits, headwall areas and inner gorge) could experience higher than normal 

landslide frequencies if a major storm occurs in the next 5 to 10 years. To estimate the acres in 

each watershed that meet those criteria, it was assumed that roughly half of slope class 35 to 65 

percent is steeper than 50 percent (the midpoint). 

Table 3-57. Estimated increase in mass wasting sediment delivery from Megram Fire 

Watershed Burn class >3 

Slopes >50% 

(acres) 

Burn class >3 

Sensitive terrain 

(acres) 

Total acres 

(% of 

watershed) 

Possible increased 

sediment delivery from 

landslides (tons) 

Horse Linto 4,730 1,590 6,330 (15) 50,000 

Tish Tang 660 180 840 (4) 8,000 

Upper Mill 530 170 730 (5) 6,000 

TOTAL 5,930 1,940 7,870 (10) 64,000 

The last column in Table 3-57 was calculated using a delivery rate that is comparable to the longterm rate observed on sensitive terrains in the active landslide study (7 to 8 tons/ac/yr). This is a 

very speculative value to apply to burned areas, and actual delivery could vary substantially up or 

down. However, it is probably the right order of magnitude. 

These two estimates of increased sediment delivery are combined in Table 3-58 and compared to 

the historic delivery of sediment from mass wasting during the period 1960-1975 (tons/year for the 

Megram Fire is based on a presumed five-year duration of those effects.) The results suggest 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-146 
Current and Reference Conditions 

that the Megram Fire could have a noticeable short-term effect on sedimentation rates in Horse 

Linto Creek (roughly one-quarter of the sediment delivery), but a substantially smaller relative 

effect in Tish Tang Creek and probably Mill Creek as well. However, a significant difference 

between these two events is that the floods and landsliding of 1960-1975 delivered a large 

fraction of coarse material, whereas the Megram Fire is likely to produce a much larger fraction of 

fine-grained material which could have more adverse effects on fish populations and habitat. 

Table 3-58. Comparison of sediment delivery from floods of 1960-1975 and estimated 

delivery from the Megram Fire. 

Watershed 

Sediment delivery 

from mass wasting, 

1960-1975 

tons/year 

Estimated increased 

sediment delivery 

due to Megram Fire 

tons/year 

Horse Linto 2,915,500 194,400 248,000 49,600 

Tish Tang 2,471,500 164,800 57,000 11,400 

Upper Mill unknown 40,000 8,000 

Water Quality and Hydrologic Processes

Reference Conditions 

Water quality parameters important to the analysis area include temperature, sediment, and 

turbidity. These parameters and associated water quality objectives for streams and tributaries 

are outlined in the North Coast Basin Plan. This plan also lists specific conductance, dissolved 

oxygen, pH, hardness, and Boron as parameters. The former water quality parameters 

(temperature, sediment and turbidity) are the most critical water quality parameters for beneficial 

uses within the analysis area since they can be modified by land management activities, such as 

timber harvesting and road construction. The latter water quality parameters are not sensitive to 

land management activities, but rather apply to drinking water standards and are of more concern 

in urban or agricultural settings where these parameters can be greatly modified. 

Very little information exists with respect to historical water quality conditions within the three 

watersheds. Presumably, the sedimentation rates within the mainstem streams were low due to 

the limited extent of inner gorge landslides evident in the 1944 aerial photographs. Given the 

nearly pristine appearance of tributary watersheds in 1944, ambient conditions in riparian areas 

are inferred to have included cool, moist air and filtered light, providing good habitat for riparian 

species. Likewise, summer stream temperatures were probably at the low end of their historic 

range, presumably below 65o

F, thereby providing good conditions for aquatic species. Given the 

small number and size of active landslides visible along tributaries on the 1944 aerial photos and 

the general absence of channel widening commonly associated with excessive sediment loads, it 

is likely that sediment was moving through tributary stream channels in a manner that was not 

disruptive to aquatic communities in the long term. In addition, the abundant conifers visible in the 

riparian canopy suggest that there was sufficient large woody debris available for recruitment, and 

by inference, incorporated in the channel. Sediment routing through the tributaries was probably 

efficient because of the steep channel gradients. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-147 
Chapter 3 

Current Conditions 

Temperature 

Temperatures below 15C (59oF) are considered optimum for rearing anadromous salmonids, while 

temperature above about 26o

C (78oF) are considered lethal. Horse Linto Creek has low water 

temperatures ideal for anadromous fish rearing. Continuous stream stage and temperature have 

been recorded since the stream gage was installed in 1993 in lower Horse Linto Creek. Average 

maximum summer temperature at this site ranges between 65o

F to 68oF in Horse Linto Creek. 

Summer water temperatures are also monitored at a number of sites higher in the anadromous 

portion of the watershed and the temperatures are, as would be expected, even lower. 

Temperature monitoring on Mill Creek and Tish Tang Creeks did not begin until 1998. Fisheries 

biologists from the Hoopa Tribe state that summer stream temperature in Tish Tang Creek is high 

during summer months when solar radiation is high and flows are low. Summer water temperature 

in Mill Creek is considered an impaired condition that places fish at risk (personal communication, 

James Wrobell). 

Effects of the Megram Fire on Temperature 

A significant percentage of the intermittent and ephemeral stream network within all three 

watersheds, but particularly in Horse Linto, was impacted by moderate and high fire severity. 

Increased stream temperature is expected in perennial stream channels within or downstream of 

intensely burned areas and will persist until riparian canopy cover is re-established. It is not known 

whether these increases in headwater stream temperatures will alter stream temperatures on the 

mainstem channels of the three watersheds. A slight increase is possible. 

A temperature gage (hobo monitor) was installed on the uppermost reach of the mainstem Tish 

Tang Creek on the Hoopa Reservation to track changes in stream temperature. The gage was 

installed in January 2000, so pre-fire temperatures at this location are not known. Temperature 

gages also exist in Horse Linto and Mill Creek (three hobo gages), so changes in stream 

temperature in the mainstem can be tracked in the future. 

Sediment 

Sediment levels can be inferred in the three watersheds on the basis of the erosion history and 

appearance of riparian corridors. Of the three watersheds, Horse Linto has the least 

sedimentation problems while Mill Creek has the most. Horse Linto was severely impacted by the 

1964 flood and experienced extensive channel adjustment, particularly in the lower reaches. Since 

the 1964 flood, there have been very few new significant sediment sources, thereby allowing the 

watershed to recover. 

Redwood Sciences Lab personnel sampled the V* parameter in pools on Horse Linto Creek. V* 

measures the amount of sediment stored in a pool and is an indicator of sediment levels and 

aquatic habitat quality. Overall, V* for Horse Linto Creek was 0.12. A channel with a V* equal to 

or less than 0.1 is considered to have a low sediment load (Lisle and Hilton, 1999). There are no 

V* data for Mill Creek and Tish Tang Creeks. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-148 
Current and Reference Conditions 

In contrast to Horse Linto Creek, Mill Creek is considered sediment impaired by Hoopa fisheries 

biologists (personal communication, James Wrobell). The 1964 flood resulted in widespread inner 

gorge landsliding and channel aggradation along the entire mainstem. Subsequent road building 

and harvesting exacerbated the impacts of the flood, particularly in the upper half of mainstem Mill 

Creek on Hoopa lands where tractor skid roads and harvesting occurred within the inner gorge 

(personnel communication, Greg Blomstrom). The resulting excess sedimentation in the stream 

channel is still visible on recent aerial photos. It is estimated that approximately half of the 

sediment generated by the 1964 flood and subsequent logging has flushed out and that it will take 

another 40 years for the watershed to recover to pre-1964 sediment levels (personnel 

communication, Greg Blomstrom). 

Tish Tang Creek has moderate sedimentation concerns. Most sediment originates from tribal 

lands as a result of past logging and road related operations. Less than one percent of the eroded 

sediment in Tish Tang Creek is generated from Forest Service lands (Pacific Watershed 

Associates, 1995). If the current level of sedimentation is reduced, there is a good chance that the 

stream would flush out the excess fines and sand. Landslides and erosion rates are naturally high 

in the Tish Tang watershed. Landslides represent the single largest source of past and future 

erosion and sediment delivery. In summary, even the moderate sediment levels in Tish Tang 

Creek place aquatic habitats at risk (Wrobell, 1999, unpublished). 

Effects of the Megram Fire on Sediment 

Sedimentation of stream channels within and downstream of burned areas is expected to occur in 

all three watersheds, particularly given the extent of moderate and severely burned acreage and 

the number of miles of perennial, intermittent and ephemeral watercourses impacted (see riparian 

reserve discussion). The extent of sedimentation and associated downstream impacts are not yet 

known. Sedimentation of stream channels within severely burned areas and closely downstream 

is expected to be high. Preliminary field visits by specialists after the first rains following the fire 

documented extensive surface erosion, particularly in high elevation granitic terrane. It is 

expected that a significant portion of this erosion will reach stream channels and cause 

sedimentation. Sedimentation of stream channels is anticipated to be greatest in Horse Linto, 

followed by Mill and Tish Tang Creeks. 

Turbidity 

Turbidity is an important water quality parameter that indicates the suspended sediment load. 

Turbidity is higher in streams carrying greater concentrations of fine particles. Continuous 

turbidity data in the Horse Linto and Tish Tang watershed have only been gathered since the 

Megram Fire. Grab samples for turbidity measurements have been collected over time in these 

watersheds which provide enough information to suggest that pre-fire turbidity levels in Horse 

Linto and Tish Tang Creek were low and moderate respectively, with occasional higher turbidity 

levels associated with high flows from storm events. The Mill Creek watershed is used as a 

domestic water source by the reservation. However, due to high turbidity levels during high flows, 

the water supply is periodically shut down for water quality reasons. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-149 
Chapter 3 

Effects of the Megram Fire on Turbidity 

In November 1999, a turbidimeter was installed at the stream gage in Horse Linto Creek near the 

Horse Linto campground. Preliminary information from this gage indicates that there has been no 

significant increase in turbidity associated with the fire as of mid-January 2000. Turbidity 

measurements are mostly in the 5 to 10 NTU range, with occasional spikes of 40 to 80 NTUs 

during higher flows. High readings in the range of 200 to 400 NTUs have not been seen yet. 

Possible reasons for the lack of higher NTU readings are: 1) fine-grained sediment and ash from 

the fire have not yet reached the lower mainstem channel; or 2) the fire effects will never influence 

the lower mainstem significantly due to dilution and distance from the source. Nevertheless, 

continued monitoring of turbidity in Horse Linto will occur for the foreseeable future. 

Turbidity measurements began in Tish Tang Creek in January 2000 but it is too early to 

demonstrate any real data. A continuous turbidimeter has been installed in the Mill Creek 

watershed but it has yet to be calibrated and has not been providing useable data as yet. 

Hydrologic Regime 

The hydrologic characteristics of the three watersheds have only just begun to be assessed. 

Stream gages were installed in Horse Linto Creek in 1993 and in Mill and Tish Tang Creeks in 

1998. At present, there is very little data with which to assess changes in peak flows associated 

with land management activities. However, inferences can be made based on extent, type and 

location of land management activities such as timber harvesting and road building. A pristine 

forested watershed has a low surface run-off rate due to the ability to infiltrate precipitation into 

the ground that is later slowly released to adjacent stream channels. Road building can increase 

the rate of delivery of subsurface water to surface waters. Timber harvesting decreases 

evapotranspiration rates making more water available for runoff. Both management activities have 

the potential to increase peak flows during storm events. 

In Horse Linto watershed, timber harvesting and road building has not been very extensive. 

Average road density is low (2.4 miles/square mile) and most roads are located on mid to upper 

hillslopes. Over the past 40 years, clearcut harvest has occurred on approximately 12 percent of 

the watershed. A minor amount of selective cut harvest has also occurred. Overall, it is unlikely 

that peak flows have changed from historic levels. There may have been short- term increases 

associated with peak flows on small perennial stream channels adjacent to clearcut units, but 

these peak flows would not have increased the peak flows in the main tributaries or mainstem of 

Cedar or Horse Linto Creek. 

In Mill Creek, road density is higher and many of the roads were built in inner gorges and lower 

hillslope positions. Clearcuts have occurred on approximately 29 percent of the watershed, and 

84 percent of the clearcut acres are on the Hoopa Reservation. Based on the extent of historic 

land management that has occurred in Mill Creek, peak flows may be somewhat higher than 

historic peaks. 

In Tish Tang Creek, clearcut timber harvest has occurred on 21 percent of the watershed with 84 

percent of the harvest occurring on Hoopa lands. Road density is high and roads have been 

constructed on inner gorge slopes along the main channel of Tish Tang Creek and its major 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-150 
Current and Reference Conditions 

tributaries. Hydrologists and fisheries biologists from the Hoopa Tribe believe that the hydrology 

of the watershed has changed, affecting infiltration and transportation of water in and out of the 

watershed. As a result, peak flows are thought to have changed from historic conditions. 

Effects of the Megram Fire on Peak Flows 

Moderate and high burn severity impacted most of the intermittent and ephemeral stream channel 

network, as well as many miles of perennial streams, in the headwaters of Horse Linto, Tish Tang, 

and Mill Creek watersheds. Because of the drastic loss of vegetation, evapotranspiration rates 

will be reduced considerably for several years, allowing more groundwater flow to reach the 

stream network. Therefore, total runoff and summer base flows will probably increase in these 

watersheds somewhat, especially Horse Linto where the proportion of high and moderate severity 

burning was greatest. 

Table 3-59. Pre- and post-fire flows for 2 and 10-year recurrence intervals 

Watershed 

Acres 

subject to 

increased 

runoff 

Pre-fire 

2-year 

recurrence 

interval flow 

(cfs) 

Post-fire 

2-year 

recurrence 

interval flow 

(cfs) 

Percent 

increase 

from prefire 

Pre-fire 

10-year 

recurrence 

interval flow 

(cfs) 

Post-fire 

10-year 

recurrence 

interval flow 

(cfs) 

Percent 

increase 

from prefire 

Horse Linto 29,300 3,890 4,440 14 8,830 10,100 14 

Tish Tang 10,900 1,840 2,050 11 4,320 4,810 11 

Mill 7,190 3,320 3,540 7 7,190 7,650 6 

Estimates of pre-fire and post-fire peak flows are shown in Table 3-59. The projected increase in 

post -fire peak runoff for a 10-year recurrence interval storm ranges from 6 to 14 percent. These 

values are based on preliminary estimates of burn intensity acreage for BAER and assumptions 

about reduced infiltration due to burning effects on the soil. Based on the data shown in Table 3-

59, changes in peak flows are not likely to be apparent in the mainstem channels of the three 

watersheds. The slight change in peak flow occurrence that this represents is very unlikely to 

produce significant geomorphic change in mainstem channels. However, localized increases in 

peak flow are expected to be more substantial in headwater streams that drain a large proportion 

of severely burned acres. The projected changes could be on the order of 25 percent, which 

could result in modest channel adjustments such as downcutting, gullying and bank erosion. 

Megram Fire and Other Water Quality Parameters 

The influx of ash from the fire into stream channels is expected to result in a short-term change in 

pH and conductivity. In addition, increase in nutrient loading is anticipated. These effects may 

last from one to two seasons as seasonal rains flush the ash and nutrients through the system. 

These changes are natural and a result of the fire. (Fredriksen 1971; Scrivener, 1982). 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-151 
Chapter 3 

Watershed Restoration 

Effects of Roads on Erosion Processes 

Roads are generally recognized as the principal land management influence on erosion and 

sedimentation rates. The most common problems associated with roads are: (1) improper 

locations of road cuts and fills on unstable or erodible terrain; (2) improper design or construction 

of stream crossing fills; (3) undersized or improperly installed culverts; and (4) inadequate or 

improper road maintenance. Since one-third of the active landslides and 29 percent of the 

associated post-1944 volume of sediment identified in the aerial photo inventory can be directly or 

indirectly linked to roads or landings, identifying and correcting the remaining problem sites should 

promote the recovery to a more "normal" sediment regime. This has been the focus of watershed 

restoration on these lands, as described in a following section. 

Most Forest Service system roads in the analysis area are located on the upper 2/3 thirds of 

hillslopes. The average road density is relatively low on NFS lands, but roads are concentrated in 

some sub-areas and on the Hoopa Reservation. The relatively low densities are unlikely to alter 

hillslope hydrology significantly, but areas with extensive inboard ditches that intercept 

groundwater flow and convert it to surface flow can increase the likelihood of increased erosion 

and sedimentation. 

Culvert density reflects the extent to which roads have modified the channel network, as well as 

the potential risk associated with failure of drainage structures and subsequent sediment delivery. 

Culvert failures may have a variety of consequences within riparian corridors. Minor failures may 

introduce sediment volumes that exceed the transport capacity of the channel, causing the 

channel to aggrade and widen, followed by fluvial adjustments that may take many years to 

complete. Sudden mass failure of stream crossings also may generate debris flows that entrain 

much additional sediment as they move downstream. Stream crossings in steep terrain with a lot 

of organic debris upstream that could plug the culvert during large storms have the highest debris 

flow potential. Maintenance, storm proofing, or decommissioning are high priorities in such areas. 

Improvement activities include removal of culverts or other drainage structures and associated 

fills, reshaping a stable channel, and ripping and partially outsloping the roadbed. 

Stream diversions also pose significant risks in terms of off-site sedimentation. Diversions occur 

when a culvert plugs and the stream flow follows the roadbed instead of crossing the road and 

returning to the original channel. When the stream flow eventually crosses the road, it may create 

a new channel on the hillslope with considerable erosion consequences. 

It has become widely accepted that road restoration can be one of the most effective, long-term 

means of erosion control and prevention. Funding for maintenance of Forest Service roads has 

been declining dramatically and in the absence of timely road maintenance, minor road problems 

can become more damaging to aquatic habitat and may persist for decades. 

Extensive inventories on Forest Service roads were conducted throughout the analysis area. The 

objective of the inventories was to gain a better understanding of current conditions of the 

transportation system and determine what opportunities existed for road restoration and 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-152 
Current and Reference Conditions 

upgrading. Storm-proofing is the improvement of a road drainage system to withstand large storm 

events without appreciable on-site or off-site damage. It can be accomplished in several ways. 

The most common methods are increasing culvert sizes to accommodate larger flows, modifying 

inlet geometry to accommodate organic debris better, and correcting stream diversion potential. 

These types of corrective measures are gradually being applied to the road network within the 

analysis area as time and funding permits. 

A transportation strategy for Horse Linto, Tish Tang and Mill Creeks was drafted in 1997. It 

outlined road restoration activities that would reduce the total road network and allow more roads 

to be regularly maintained with limited available funds. Other restoration work completed in the 

analysis area includes landslide treatments, road upgrading and instream structures. Figure 3-25 

displays the locations of all restoration on federal lands in the analysis area. 

Horse Linto 

The Forest Service manages 90 percent of the roads in the watershed, of which 75 percent are 

located on upper and middle hillslope positions. A total of 23 miles of road (19% of the total 

system) have been decommissioned or placed in a hydrologically maintenance-free condition. 

Both classifications had the same on-the-ground treatments, but some roads were not 

permanently taken off the transportation system. In either case, all stream crossings were 

removed and stream channels returned to original grade and configuration. All road fill was 

removed and placed in a stable location. Drainage dips and outsloping were added where 

needed to disperse overland flow along the road, thereby restoring more natural drainage 

patterns. Road surfaces were de-compacted by ripping the upper 36 inches to improve infiltration 

and promote natural revegetation. Some roads were planted with native species. 

All landings in Horse Linto watershed were evaluated for their potential to deliver sediment into 

streams. Of all the landings in the watershed, only seven were identified as high priority treatment 

sites. Approximately eight acres of landings were restored, which accounted for about 3,500 cubic 

yards of material that was removed and stored in a more stable location. Landing treatments 

removed fill from the outside edges and blended it back into the cutslope. All treatment areas 

were planted with native species. 

A large slump-earthflow located about one-quarter mile upstream from Cedar Creek had been very 

active and delivered considerable fine-grained sediment to Horse Linto Creek since the 1950s. 

An ambitious stabilization project on this natural feature was implemented in the early 1980s to 

reinforce the toe zone of the slide and divert much of the slide debris away from the stream and 

onto the adjoining stream terrace. This $400,000 project has been highly successful since 

construction in reducing the delivery of fine sediment to spawning and rearing habitat in the lower 

reach. Five smaller landslides also were identified and replanted successfully to reduce erosion. 

In 1991, the Ridge Tie slide occurred along a major road that accessed the upper headwaters of 

Horse Linto Creek. The slide was adjacent to the mainstem of Horse Linto. Because of the high 

level of instability, a sediment trap was constructed below the slide to capture additional material 

and prevent it from entering the stream. In addition, it was decided not to reopen the road but to 

upgrade an existing jeep road that would serve as a bypass route. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-153 
Chapter 3 

Figure 3-25. Location of Watershed Restoration Projects in the Analysis Area: 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-154
Current and Reference Conditions 

The most recent restoration work in Horse Linto watershed occurred along route 7N04, a major 

system road with long sections parallel to Cedar Creek. All stream crossings were assessed in 

terms of condition, hydraulic capacity, and diversion potential. Six of the sites were high priority 

for upgrading. At two sites, existing culverts were removed and replaced with larger ones. At 

three sites, additional overflow culverts were installed, and at one site, the inlet configuration was 

modified. All treatment sites had drainage dips installed to limit diversion potential. 

Table 3-60. Road Restoration Summary in the Horse Linto Creek Watershed 

Miles of Road 

Restored 

Miles of 

Upgrading 

Acres of 

Landings 

Restored 

Total Fill 

Removed 

(yd3) 

Cost 

per 

mile 

Cost 

per 

yd3 

20.5 4.5 8 39,900 $6,500 $3,500 

Table 3-60 summarizes restoration accomplishments to date. The remaining restoration work in 

Horse Linto will focus primarily on upgrading system roads to meet current Standards and 

Guidelines in the Aquatic Conservation Strategy (as outlined in the Six Rivers Land and Resource 

Management Plan). 

Currently, there are approximately 124 miles of road in the watershed, 95 percent of which are on 

Forest Service lands. The average road density is low, but some areas outside Forest Service 

lands have a higher density. Generally, road density in the watershed is not high enough to alter 

hillslope hydrology. Table 3-61 summarizes information on the current transportation system. 

Approximately 90 percent of the Forest Service roads in Horse Linto watershed are in a 

maintenance level 1 or 2 category. Roads placed at these maintenance levels generally do not 

receive annual maintenance, and therefore are considered a high priority for upgrading. 

Table 3-61. Current Road System Miles and Density in the Horse Linto Creek Watershed 

Jurisdiction Road Miles Acres 

Area in 

Square Miles 

Road Density 

(mi/sq.mi) 

Hoopa 9.84 1,005 1.57 6.27 

SRNF 113.58 40,786 63.73 1.78 

Tish Tang 

Pacific Watershed Associates conducted an extensive inventory throughout this watershed in 

1995. The purpose of the inventory was to identify road-related sediment production. Roads 

were singled out primarily because the network provides ready access for heavy equipment to 

reach potential work sites. The Hupa Tribe has implemented all high priority sites identified in the 

inventory (personnel communication, Greg Blomstrom). 

One of the major findings of the inventory was an abandoned segment of Forest Service road 

8N10 located in the Trinity Alps Wilderness. Many of the stream crossings were old log-stringer 

bridges and the road was no longer being maintained. The decision was made to remove all the 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-155 
Chapter 3 

stream crossings and convert the road into a trail. This work is under contract and is scheduled 

for completion in the fall of 2000. Table 3-62 lists restoration accomplished to date. 

Table 3-62. Road Restoration Summary in the Tish Tang Creek Watershed 

Jurisdiction 

Miles of Road 

Restored 

Total Fill 

Removed (yd3

) 

SRNF 5.7 5,000 

Hoopa 4.6 2,465 

Currently, the Forest Service manages approximately 30 percent of the road system, the majority 

of which is located on upper and middle hillslope positions. Several miles of road were transferred 

to the Hoopa Reservation after the recent boundary adjustment was made. Of the 32 miles on 

Forest Service lands, approximately 50 percent are in a maintenance level 1 or 2 category. The 

average road density is relatively low, but some areas have a higher concentration of roads than 

others. Table 3-63 summarizes road density by land ownership. 

Table 3-63. Current Road System Miles and Density for the Tish Tang Creek Watershed 

Jurisdiction Road Miles Acres 

Area in Square 

Miles 

Road Density 

(mi/sq.mi) 

Hoopa 68.00 8365 13.07 5.20 

SRNF 32.58 10794 16.87 1.93 

Mill Creek 

Pacific Watershed Associates completed a comprehensive field inventory of this watershed in 

1990. The objective was to identify road-related sedimentation and develop a priority list for 

treatment. The Forest Service began implementing road restoration projects in 1998. None of the 

restored Forest Service roads were classified as decommissioned; rather, they were downgraded 

to a maintenance level 1 category and made hydrologically maintenance free. The restoration 

treatments were the same as in Horse Linto, but the roads were not completely removed from the 

transportation system. The Hupa Tribe has completed all high priority sites identified as a result 

of the PWA inventory (personnel communication, Greg Blomstrom). Table 3-64 lists all restoration 

work accomplished to date. 

Table 3-64. Restoration Summary for the Mill Creek Watershed 

Jurisdiction 

Miles of Road 

Restored 

Total Fill 

Removed (yd3

) 

SRNF 10.5 7,465 

Hoopa 16.5 60,863 

The current road system that is managed by the Forest Service accounts for approximately 43 

percent of the roads in the watershed. Of these, 86 percent are located in upper and middle 

hillslope positions. Table 3-65 lists road density by ownership. 

Table 3-65. Current Road System Miles and Density in the Mill Creek Watershed 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-156 
Current and Reference Conditions 

Jurisdiction Road Miles Acres 

Area in Square 

Miles 

Road Density 

(mi/sq.mi) 

Hoopa 157.00 16782 26.22 5.99 

SRNF 54.08 13957 21.81 2.48 

Watershed Restoration following the Megram Fire 

Figure 3-26 shows the locations of high and moderate burn severity areas relative to existing and 

decommissioned roads. Stream crossings and ditch relief culverts that exist within moderate or 

high severity burn areas may have a greater chance of becoming plugged by debris or sediment. 

All roads and stream crossings within these areas need to be evaluated for possible treatments. 

Fortunately, a substantial proportion of Forest Service roads in the moderate to high severity burn 

areas were decommissioned prior to the Megram Fire. 

Fireline Rehabilitation 

All known bulldozer and hand lines constructed on the Six Rivers during the Megram Fire were 

evaluated in terms of their potential to erode and deliver sediment into streams. Rehabilitation of 

the control lines consisted of machine or hand placed waterbars, covering exposed soils with 

slash or straw mulch, and pulling berms created by bulldozers back from riparian areas. Table 3-

66 summarizes most of the fire line rehabilitation. Of all the road restoration completed throughout 

the analysis area, approximately two miles of road and three stream crossings in Horse Linto were 

re-opened during the fire. Six Rivers specialists supervised 90 percent of all rehabilitation 

activities, including the rehabilitation of the roads that were opened during the fire. 

Table 3-66. Summary of Suppression Rehabilitation Activities 

Activity Unit of Measure No. of Units 

Waterbar Firelines Miles 62 

Firelines Seeded Miles 14 

Firelines Mulched Miles 25 

Firelines Slashed Miles 8 

Safety Zones Treated Acres 25 

Burned Area Emergency Rehabilitation (BAER) 

The interim BAER report for the Six Rivers and Shasta-Trinity National Forests outlines what has 

been accomplished this year and what remains to be treated next spring. The majority of the work 

outlined is located on the Six Rivers. Erosion control treatments on hillslopes and in channels 

have been initiated in the Mill and Horse Linto watersheds. The Tish Tang watershed was not 

considered for work in the winter of 1999/2000 due to adverse weather conditions, safety 

concerns and access problems. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-157 
Chapter 3 

Figure 3-26. High and Moderate Burn Severity Areas in Relation to the Road System: 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-158
Current and Reference Conditions 

Riparian Corridor Conditions 

Reference Conditions 

The condition of riparian and aquatic habitats in the analysis area has varied through time, 

primarily as a result of channel changes caused by mass wasting and sedimentation during major 

floods. In the first few decades after a major flood, there would be numerous fresh landslides 

adjacent to channels, considerable secondary erosion from landslide scars, widespread 

accumulation of sediment and debris in most stream channels, and increased exposure of the 

channel due to loss of riparian cover. This would have caused elevated water temperatures, 

reduced aquatic habitat quality, and reduced stream productivity for salmonids. During longer and 

more stable recovery periods, large conifers would have dominated riparian areas and provided 

dense shade and occasional inputs of large woody debris to the channel. A large proportion of 

the aquatic habitat would have been highly suitable for salmonids, with cool water temperatures 

and complex instream structure. Erosion, sediment production and sediment transport would have 

been roughly in balance over the watershed, providing abundant clean substrate for spawning 

and rearing of salmonids. 

Little direct information exists regarding prehistoric conditions, processes and functions under 

which the riparian and aquatic ecosystems of the analysis area evolved. However, useful 

inferences can be drawn from aerial photographs taken in 1944 since relatively little land 

management had occurred by 1944. The aerial photos reveal extensive riparian cover, much of it 

old-growth conifer. The flood of 1861 reportedly had widespread impacts in the region, but very 

little evidence of those effects is visible on these older aerial photos. Much of the flood effects 

could have been erased in the intervening 83 years, however. 

Inferences about other riparian and aquatic processes and functions can be drawn from the extent 

and density of this riparian cover. Stream temperatures were probably low where there was 

substantial shading along most tributary streams. It is also reasonable to infer from the few active 

landslides and other sediment sources visible in 1944 that aggradation and channel widening 

were fairly minimal in any of the three watersheds. Although extensive sedimentation is not 

apparent in 1944, considerable sediment could be stored in these channels but concealed by 

riparian vegetation. Total sediment storage in the watersheds might have been comparable to the 

present, but much of it was probably well stabilized by vegetation and channel structural elements 

such as logs and boulders. Hence, it is inferred that less sediment was available for transport 

during high flows compared to the present. 

Current Conditions 

Sequential aerial photos (1944, 1960, 1975 and 1998) reveal extensive riparian corridor and 

stream channel changes in tributary drainages. In the 1944 photos, riparian areas along main 

tributary streams in the analysis area had such a dense coniferous riparian canopy that they were 

only discernible through stereographic relief. The majority of the tributary channels were not 

directly visible. Small openings were evident next to scattered inner gorge landslides. There 

were very few landslides within tributary watersheds, and nearly all were attributable to natural 

causes. The tributaries appear pristine with little or no land management activity. Ridge-top 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-159 
Chapter 3 

roads existed in some parts of the watersheds, but no erosion impacts associated with these 

roads were evident. A large flood occurred in 1861 that reportedly had a large impact on many 

Trinity River tributaries. Effects of this flood in the analysis area are not very evident in 1944, 

although some older dormant debris slides are visible that could have resulted from 19th century 

floods. It is possible that the 1861 flood did not produce as much landsliding and resultant 

damage to riparian areas as the 1964 flood and that most of those areas had fully healed by 1944. 

Given the extent of the riparian conifer coverage visible in 1944 and the time that it takes for the 

conifers to mature (75 to 120 years), it is reasonable to conclude that these tributaries had not 

experienced a major disturbance capable of altering sediment routing and large woody debris 

recruitment for many decades, or perhaps since the 1861 flood. 

In 1960, there were a few inner gorge landslides scattered among the Horse Linto, Tish Tang and 

Mill Creek watersheds that created riparian canopy openings and downstream channel 

adjustment. These channel adjustments appeared to be fairly minor and did not appear to have 

had significant riparian or aquatic impacts. These landslides and the resultant canopy opening 

were probably a result of the 1955 flood. 

The most dramatic change in riparian canopy and stream channel conditions was visible in the 

1975 aerial photos. All three mainstems experienced flood damage of riparian areas ranging from 

severe localized impacts to complete removal of riparian canopy along the stream corridor. Horse 

Linto and Mill Creeks experienced the greatest riparian disturbance with extensive inner gorge 

landsliding and resulting channel aggradation, although Tish Tang experienced extensive channel 

adjustment in the middle section. 

The 1998 aerial photos reveal that much of the coniferous riparian canopy that was disturbed by 

floods between 1960 and 1975 has been replaced by dense deciduous vegetation. While the 

long-term woody debris recruitment potential may have been set back, the shade component has 

been re-established through encroachment of alders and other riparian species. Channel 

openings remain along most tributaries, but riparian canopy conditions overall have substantially 

recovered since 1975. Impacts to riparian corridors associated with the Megram Fire are 

discussed in the Interim Riparian Reserve section after the following descriptions of specific 

watershed conditions. 

Horse Linto Creek 

The lower section of Horse Linto Creek below Cedar Creek experienced extensive channel 

changes in the 1964 flood, including loss of all coniferous riparian canopy, channel aggradation, 

and loss of sinuosity. By 1998, deciduous riparian vegetation had returned and now covers much 

of the channel. The creek appears to have cut down through the aggraded sediment and partly 

re-established the pre-1964 meanders. The middle reach of Horse Linto Creek also lost much of 

its riparian vegetation and experienced extensive landsliding, but it did not undergo the degree of 

channel adjustments that occurred in the lower section. By 1998, riparian vegetation fully covered 

the channel and the effects of the flood were no longer visible. Upper Horse Linto Creek and the 

East Fork have shown much less channel adjustment over time. 

Cedar Creek is a steep, narrow and incised channel that was dominated by mature conifer cover 

in 1944 and 1960. Its middle section is similar to that of Horse Linto Creek, with extensive inner 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-160 
Current and Reference Conditions 

gorge landslides associated with the 1964 flood. It appears to have since fully recovered in terms 

of riparian vegetative cover. In the uppermost sections of Cedar Creek, most of the slides in 1944 

were old debris avalanche chutes that have changed little in historic times. 

Riparian habitat elements such as large woody debris, pool character and quality, stream bank 

condition and floodplain connectivity are all considered to be functioning properly. Despite land 

management activities associated with harvesting and road building, riparian condition has not 

been significantly impacted beyond that caused by natural flood events. 

Tish Tang Creek 

The riparian corridor along lower Tish Tang Creek had some inner gorge landslides in 1944. The 

1964 flood stripped the riparian vegetation, caused extensive inner gorge landsliding, but did not 

result in appreciable channel widening. These landslides had fully recovered with deciduous 

vegetation by 1998. The middle section of Tish Tang Creek had very few landslides in 1944 and 

1960 and was dominated by conifers. This area was heavily managed and was hardest hit by the 

1964 flood. Channel widening was substantial in this section. By 1998, most of the landslides and 

the riparian corridor had been significantly revegetated. This reach seems most vulnerable to 

future mass wasting due to the presence of mid-slope roads. The North Fork was subjected to 

extreme sedimentation in the 1964 flood. This area has moderately recovered from the flood as 

evident by the riparian canopy. The South Fork is the most stable channel in the watershed with 

few landslides within the riparian corridor despite harvest activities on Forest Service lands. The 

riparian canopy is still dominated by conifers. 

Extensive ground disturbance associated with timber harvesting and road building has occurred 

without protection buffers along the tributaries and mainstem of Tish Tang Creek inside the 

reservation. These land management activities have resulted in excessive sediment along the 

main channel and degradation of fish habitat. The lack of streamside vegetation in some areas 

has contributed to a rise in water temperature, bank instability, and loss of instream habitat. 

Floodplain connectivity and associated riparian vegetation has been affected. Large woody 

material is generally low or lacking in the channels. Past timber salvage operations in smaller 

tributaries and along the main channel have removed most of the large woody material that was 

present. Recent restoration work on roads has only marginally enhanced the recovery of the 

watershed and stream channels (Hoopa, 1999). 

In summary, riparian habitat characteristics considered not properly functioning are large woody 

debris, pool character and quality, riparian reserves and off-channel habitat. Stream bank 

condition and floodplain connectivity are also considered at risk (Hoopa, 1999). 

Mill Creek 

Prior to the 1964 flood, Mill Creek riparian areas were characterized by a dense coniferous 

canopy and few inner gorge landslides. The stream channels were not visible on the aerial 

photos. The 1964 flood resulted in extreme channel changes throughout the watershed due to 

aggradation resulting from streamside landslides. This aggradation was so extensive that the 

floodplain was used as logging access for inner gorge harvesting that occurred after the 1964 

flood. Considerable inner gorge and riparian corridor harvesting has occurred within the upper 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-161 
Chapter 3 

half of Mill Creek on the Hoopa reservation (personal communication, Greg Blomstrom). This 

logging exacerbated the sedimentation and impacts to riparian areas from the 1964 flood. The 

riparian corridor of the upper half of Mill Creek is composed mostly of deciduous vegetation. The 

1964 flood and subsequent inner gorge logging and road building significantly reduced the longterm potential for large woody debris recruitment. 

The lower half of Mill Creek also experienced extensive riparian impacts associated with the flood, 

including extensive aggradation and channel widening. The lower mile of the creek has been 

channelized with log crib walls. Riparian cover is dominated by deciduous vegetation that has 

grown since the 1964 flood. The conifer component along the inner gorge is better in the lower 

half of the mainstem than in the upper reach as little inner gorge logging occurred within this lower 

reach. Hence, the long-term large woody debris recruitment potential is slightly better (personal 

communication, Greg Blomstrom). 

When viewed in its entirety, the riparian corridor of mainstem Mill Creek is considered at risk. 

Roughly half of the inner gorge has been logged. The combined flooding, road building and 

harvesting within the watershed has resulted in significantly reduced in-channel large woody 

debris, large woody debris recruitment, and stream bank and floodplain function (Hoopa, 1998). 

Interim Riparian Reserves 

Interim Riparian Reserves (IRRs), as defined by the Northwest Forest Plan and the Six Rivers 

Land and Resource Management Plan, are derived by buffering fish-bearing streams and nonfish-bearing perennial, intermittent and ephemeral streams, as well as including unstable lands. 

These interim riparian reserves are based on a crenulated stream coverage, which extends the 

stream network shown as blueline streams on USGS maps into topographically defined 

indentations. Many of these indentations are first- and second-order stream channels. The 

interim riparian reserves have been developed for all streams within the three watersheds for this 

analysis, although they technically apply only to National Forest lands. Nevertheless, for the 

purposes of this analysis, the reserves will be analyzed for all lands. 

As described in a previous section, the condition of the riparian network varies among these 

watersheds. Table 3-67 shows the extent of past harvesting within currently defined IRRs. It is 

important to note that IRRs are not based on site-specific criteria but are modeled from map data. 

Many IRRs are found to exceed the geomorphic breaks-in-slope when field verified, and hence 

have excessive acreage compared to field-defined riparian reserves. 

Table 3-67. Extent of Past Harvesting within IRRs 

Watershed Jurisdiction IRR Acres 

IRR in Past Harvest 

Units (acres) 

Horse Linto Six Rivers 11,568 758 

Hoopa 160 29 

Total 11,846 788 

Tish Tang Six Rivers 2,616 159 

Hoopa 2,210 783 

Total 4,825 942 

(6.7%) 

(19.5%) 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-162 
Current and Reference Conditions 

Mill Creek Six Rivers 3302 203 

Hoopa 4314 1997 

Total 7,616 2,220 (28.9%) 

Data from Table 3-67 indicate that the extent of total riparian reserves modified by past harvest 

activities varies among the three watersheds with Mill Creek having the most harvest in riparian 

reserves and Horse Linto Creek the least. One can assume that in most cases, past harvesting 

activities did not have riparian buffer protection widths as defined by the Northwest Forest Plan 

and may have adversely impacted riparian areas. 

Effects of the Megram Fire on Interim Riparian Reserves 

The full effects of the recent Megram Fire on riparian reserves have yet to be verified; however, 

some inferences can be made from aerial photo analysis and preliminary ground visits. The fire 

covered extensive headwater areas of all three watersheds. Table 3-68 summarizes the extent of 

riparian reserves affected by different burn severity. 

Table 3-68. Burn Severity within Interim Riparian Reserves 

Watershed Burn Severity Burned Acres 

% of Total 

Riparian Acres 

Horse Linto none 3,184 26.9 

low 330 2.8 

moderate 6,099 51.5 

high 2,333 18.8 

SUBTOTAL 11,846 100 

Tish Tang none 2,226 46.1 

low 9 0.2 

moderate 2,055 42.6 

high 535 11.1 

SUBTOTAL 4,825 100 

Mill Creek none 4,899 64.3 

low 120 1.6 

moderate 2,178 28.6 

high 419 5.5 

SUBTOTAL 7,616 100 

Based on the data above, IRRs within the headwaters of Horse Linto appear to have the greatest 

proportion of total riparian reserves acres (74 percent) impacted by the Megram Fire compared to 

Mill and Tish Tang watersheds. Furthermore, the majority of the burned riparian reserve acres in 

Horse Linto Creek are in the moderate and high severity categories. Horse Linto also has the 

largest proportion of acres in both the high and moderate burn severity categories compared to 

Mill and Tish Tang Creek watersheds. Tish Tang watershed had 54 percent of total of riparian 

reserve acres burned, mostly in the moderate and high severity categories. Mill Creek had 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-163 
Chapter 3 

approximately 36 percent of total of riparian reserve acres burned. Both Tish Tang and Mill 

Creeks also had extensive moderate and high burn severity acres within IRRs. 

The extent of perennial and intermittent/ephemeral streams impacted by the fire is shown in Table 

3-69. The miles of perennial and intermittent/ephemeral streams affected by the fire could alter 

such watershed processes as peak flow, channel erosion and sedimentation. The greater the 

number of perennial streams burned, the greater the likelihood of increased channel erosion and 

sedimentation. Perennial channels have a greater likelihood of sediment delivery and routing due 

to greater stream power to mobilize sediment. However, the intermittent and ephemeral stream 

network is more extensive and they probably store more sediment subject to remobilization. Many 

crenulated channels are only debris avalanche chutes in headwalls that deliver little sediment 

principally by mass wasting, not fluvial transport. Thus, the miles of burned intermittent/ephemeral 

stream channel are likely overestimated. 

Approximately 73 percent of the total stream miles in Horse Linto were moderately or severely 

burned. The greatest amount of the stream channel network burned was in the 

intermittent/ephemeral category, and of these channels, the majority were in the moderate to high 

burn severity (239.5 miles or 61.4 percent). The majority of Horse Linto watershed perennial 

stream channels were moderately or severely burned (44.6 miles or 66.9 percent of the perennial 

streams). In the Tish Tang watershed, 69.2 percent of perennial stream channels experienced 

moderate and high burn severity. In addition, a large number of miles of intermittent/ephemeral 

streams were in the moderate and high burn severity category (75.4 miles). Approximately 58 

percent of the total stream network in Tish Tang is in moderate and high burn severity categories 

with the majority in the moderate category. The Mill Creek watershed has the least number of 

stream miles that were impacted by high and moderate fires in the perennial (11 miles or 4.5 

percent) and intermittent/ ephemeral streams (70.7 miles or 29.1 percent). 

These figures are only estimates and must be field verified. It is difficult to estimate the condition 

of a stream channel from aerial photos, particularly in the moderate category since site conditions 

can be so variable. Nevertheless, the impact of the Megram Fire on the stream network has the 

potential to be highly significant, particularly at the local scale. The extent of the potential impact 

on stream channels is largely weather dependent, but the stage has been set for extensive stream 

channel erosion, sedimentation, and adjustment in the headwaters of each watershed, and 

particularly in Horse Linto Creek. The downstream impact of these conditions is not yet known. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-164 
Current and Reference Conditions 

Table 3-69. Perennial and intermittent/ephemeral stream miles by burn severity 

Horse Linto Creek 

Stream Type Burn Severity Miles % of Total Miles 

Perennial none 20.8 5.3 

low 1.3 0.3 

moderate 38.9 10 

high 5.7 1.5 

Intermittent/ephemeral none 75.5 19.3 

low 8.5 2.2 

moderate 170.2 43.6 

high 69.3 17.8 

TOTAL 390.2 100 

Tish Tang Creek 

Stream Type Burn Severity Miles % of Total Miles 

Perennial none 10.9 6.3 

low 0 0.0 

moderate 23.6 13.7 

high 0.9 0.5 

Intermittent/ephemeral none 61.4 35.7 

low 0 0 

moderate 57.4 33.3 

high 18.0 10.5 

TOTAL 172.2 100 

Mill Creek 

Stream Type Burn Severity Miles % of Total Miles 

Perennial none 31.8 13.1 

low 1.1 0.5 

moderate 11.0 4.5 

high 0 0 

Intermittent/ephemeral none 125.2 51.4 

low 3.3 1.4 

moderate 58.3 24.0 

high 12.4 5.1 

TOTAL 172.2 100 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-165 
Chapter 3 

Riparian Species and Habitats 

Reference Conditions 

In the distant past, many riparian areas were characterized by an overstory of old-growth conifers 

presumably with an understory mix of shade tolerant, deciduous trees or shrubs such as big-leaf 

maple, various willow species, Pacific dogwood, vine maple and thimbleberry. Riparian corridors 

were well distributed across the landscape, allowing for habitat connectivity for mosses that more 

often rely on asexual reproduction via fragmentation than sexual reproduction, the former limited in 

dispersal distance. Before logging and road building fragmented the landscape and before wildfire 

suppression, riparian areas were subject to periodic disturbance across the landscape primarily in 

the form of flood events. Periodic disturbances would have fostered a mosaic of conditions within 

the riparian areas, thereby promoting epiphytic diversity, abundance and persistence. 

Current Conditions 

Riparian habitat was greatly affected by the 1964 flood and past management actions such as 

road building and logging. Substantial riparian corridor recovery has occurred during the last few 

decades, so that prior to the Megram Fire, riparian areas provided good connectivity for 

bryophytes, lichens, and vascular plants and for wildlife dispersal. The fire allowed the majority of 

the true riparian vegetation, such as dogwood and willow, to survive the fire, but the overstory 

canopy trees were killed or damaged along many miles of stream corridors in the headwaters of 

the analysis area. This change may alter the microclimate and habitat values along those streams 

for many years, thus altering the quality of riparian habitats and affecting the vascular and nonvascular species that rely on those habitats. 

Vascular Plants 

Of the vascular plants of concern within the analysis area, only bensoniella (Bensoniella oregana) 

is considered riparian-associated. Although specifics about bensoniella’s habitat are not well 

known, suitable habitat is characterized as moist zones along the edge of streams in the true fir 

zone. Partial shade and adequate moisture are important habitat variables. Large coarse woody 

debris appears to provide micro-site shading and moisture retention. 

Reference conditions for bensoniella can only be addressed in terms of potential habitat. Habitat 

for bensoniella occurring in true riparian areas (as compared to meadows) would be characterized 

by low gradient stream conditions, presence of scattered large coarse woody debris, and partial 

(not dense) overstory shade. Disturbance agents historically operating in riparian areas include 

flood and mass wasting events. These agents influenced habitat variables important to 

bensoniella including a change in canopy closure and recruitment of coarse woody debris. As is 

the case with most dynamic systems, the influence of disturbance on habitats varied temporally 

and spatially so at any one time, suitable habitat would have been present within the analysis 

area. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-166 
Current and Reference Conditions 

Potential habitat for bensoniella was affected by loss of the shade canopy. Loss of overstory 

conifers in severely burned areas will also reduce recruitment of large woody debris — a structural 

habitat element often associated with bensoniella. The effects relative to bensoniella are only 

based on potential habitat. Changes in shade, moisture and bank stability discussed below in 

relation to epiphytes can be applied to bensoniella as well. 

Non-Vascular Plants 

Many bryophytes (i.e. Kurzia makinoana) and certain lichens (ie. Leptogium saturninum), require 

moist, shady micro-habitat conditions that riparian areas provide. Furthermore, the deciduous tree 

and shrub component of riparian areas contributes to the diversity and cover of species in these 

groups. Both bryophytes and lichens lack roots; most of their water and nutrients are acquired 

from the atmosphere; therefore, maintenance of micro-climate and micro-habitat conditions are 

critical to these species. 

Mosses in particular are commonly associated with deciduous trees in riparian areas. Epiphytic 

mosses (meaning attached to other plants) depend on transfer of water and nutrients from the 

atmosphere via stem flow. The orientation of deciduous tree branches directs the flow to the main 

stem or bole of the tree as compared to the typical downward-oriented branches of conifers that 

direct water toward the branch tips. Moss mats in the path of the flow capture and accumulate the 

nutrients and water. Nutrients are leached from the mosses during heavy rains and subsequently 

enter the soil (Norris 1993). 

Given their reliance on adequate moisture, nutrient/mineral contribution and shade, mosses are 

very sensitive to changes in their environment, even on a micro-scale. Fires can be lethal to 

epiphytes, which rely on moisture and nutrient uptake from the atmosphere, due to either direct 

consumption of the substrate or to smoke levels. Fire effects varied across the analysis area with 

the Horse Linto watershed experiencing the most extensive moderate to high severity burning. In 

areas that burned severely, mosses would be directly affected by consumption of their substrate 

or indirectly affected by reduced canopy cover. In regard to bank stability and riparian vegetation 

associated with these immediate stream environments, the greater the extent of intense burning in 

perennial streams the increased likelihood of subsequent channel erosion within the burn area 

and downstream. 

Although the Megram Fire certainly affected the riparian associated epiphytic flora in these 

watersheds, the significance of these effects is not known. Pre-requisites for recovery of epiphytic 

organisms in riparian areas affected by moderate to high intensity burning include: suitable 

substrate availability (primarily deciduous trees or shrubs); available parent material for dispersal; 

and adequate shade to ensure proper humidity and temperature levels within the riparian area. 

Meadows 

Meadow habitats in the analysis area provide habitat for an array of native species and plant 

species of concern including Klamath gentian (Gentiana plurisetosa, CNPS rare), coast 

checkerbloom (Sidalcea oregana var. eximia, SIS), and nodding semaphore grass (Pleuropogon 

refractus, CNPS rare). Discussion of reference and current conditions for these meadow species 

is discussed under the Terrestrial Sections within “Plant Species of Concern”. Current conditions 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-167 
Chapter 3 

in the meadows have most likely changed from reference conditions with regards to the shift in the 

species composition of meadows to include non-native plant species, with livestock being the 

most likely vector for non-native introductions. Fire may have, in specific areas subject to 

moderate burning, favored a shift in composition toward early successional and non-native 

species. However, it is expected that continued livestock grazing in these particular meadows will 

only exacerbate the trend. 

Northwestern Pond Turtle 

Northwestern pond turtles are often concentrated in low velocity and low gradient sections of 

creeks and rivers, especially in sloughs, side channels, and backwater areas. They prefer creeks 

that have deep, still water and sunny banks. Hatchlings are small and cryptic, and require shallow 

edgewater areas with minimal currents. Adults concentrate in deep-water pools with lots of 

underwater debris. For nesting and overwintering, turtles require an adjacent terrestrial area 

(within 500m of the watercourse) with uncompacted soil and a duff layer (Jennings et al. 1993). 

Although pond turtles have been eliminated from an estimated 30-40 percent of their historic 

range, habitat conditions and population trends are largely unknown in the HLMTT watershed 

analysis area. Major threats to this species are loss or alteration of habitat (including wetland 

reclamation, water diversions, dams, and grazing), fragmentation of habitat, over-exploitation, and 

spread of exotic species (especially bullfrogs and bass) (Jennings et al. 1993). 

There are no records of western pond turtles within the analysis area. Surveys for this species 

have occurred within several of the streams and lakes within the analysis area but no detections 

have been made. However, this species is a habitat generalist and is very likely to occur in some 

of the pools associated with low gradient streams within the analysis area. 

Red-Legged Frog 

Northern red-legged frogs require ponds, pools in slow streams, marshes, or reservoirs with 

submerged vegetation for egg attachment, a depth greater than 1 meter to accommodate singing 

males, and a maximum stream width greater than 2 meters. This frog is found in coniferous/mixed 

hardwood forests with greater than 50 percent canopy closure, and with downed logs in and out of 

water. It requires cool water, having the lowset upper (21 degrees Celsius) and lower (4 degrees 

Celsius) lethal embryonic temperature of any North American ranid frog (Licht 1971). 

Threats to this species are similar to those discussed under the northwestern pond turtle (e.g. 

loss, fragmentation, or alteration, of habitat resulting in increased water temperatures, decreased 

pool depths, or decreased riparian vegetation, and introduction of exotic fishes or bullfrogs. 

Riparian reserves are expected to provide adequate protection for these species. There are no 

known records for red-legged frogs within the watershed analysis area. 

Foothill Yellow-Legged Frog 

Foothill yellow-legged frogs inhabitat rocky, higher gradient, shallower streams with less 

vegetative streamside cover than red-legged frogs. Both species require partially submerged 

rocks and logs for basking and cover. The yellow-legged frog population is considered stable in 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-168 
Current and Reference Conditions 

the north coast area. Surveys for this species have been accomplished in many of the streams 

associated with anadromous fish surveys. Yellow-legged frogs have been recorded in the 

watershed analysis area, specifically within Horse Linto Creek and its drainages. 

Southern Torrent Salamander 

Southern torrent salamanders reside in headwaters, springs, seeps, and first to third order 

streams with high canopy closure. This species is an aquatic obligate, sensitive to desiccation, 

increased sedimentation, and habitat alteration. Torrent salamanders require cold water 

temperatures that consistently range from 8-12 degrees Celsius in summer. Their headwater 

stream habitat has declined substantially due to extensive logging. There are three records of the 

southern torrent salamander within the analysis area, all of which are located within the Horse 

Linto drainage. 

Aquatic Species and Habitats 

The current known range of salmonids within the analysis area is shown in Figure 1-7. Fisheries 

information for these three watersheds prior to the 1960s is primarily anecdotal. There is general 

agreement among fisheries biologists and the general public that the abundance of anadromous 

fish and the quality of their habitat declined severely in these three watersheds following the 1964 

flood. 

A decline also took place throughout most of California and beyond. There are many causes for 

the general decline of anadromous salmonids in California, and not all scientists agree as to which 

causes are most responsible for declines of the different fish stocks. Although it is recognized that 

many problems exist at larger scales than the analysis area, it is beyond the scope of this 

document to focus on fisheries problems beyond the analysis area. However, it is important to 

remember that anadromous salmonid populations have declined throughout the western 

continental United States. 

Historically, if a catastrophic event eliminated a salmonid population in some watersheds for a 

decade or even a century, the watershed would eventually be re-colonized from adjacent 

watersheds. Such colonization was possible due to the presence of diverse and abundant stocks 

of fish spread out over many, presumably healthy watersheds. Due to dwindling fish populations, 

fish stocks, and limited properly functioning habitat, it is much less likely that fish populations can 

rebound as they formerly did. 

The decline of anadromous salmonids, coupled with a desire to conserve anadromous salmonids 

for future generations, led to the designation of Horse Linto Creek and other watersheds as key 

watersheds. Federal policy dictates that the key watersheds are to be managed as refugia for atrisk fish species. The protection of fish habitat is central to the management of all watersheds, 

and especially key watersheds. 

Extensive data about anadromous fish and their habitat in the Horse Linto key watershed is 

available from the 1970s to present. This Horse Linto data are available in a stream report (Fuller, 

1991) and anadromous monitoring reports. The most recent monitoring report encapsulates past 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-169 
Chapter 3 

monitoring through 1999 (Six Rivers National Forest, 1999). The California Department of Fish 

and Game (CDFG) assisted the 1999 to 2000 monitoring in Horse Linto Creek via a grant 

agreement funded by Senate Bill 271. 

The known anadromous habitat in the Mill and Tish Tang watersheds is all on the Hoopa Valley 

Indian Reservation, although steelhead may sometimes ascend Mill Creek beyond tribal lands. 

The Hoopa Valley Tribe (HVT) assisted this analysis by providing information about fish and fish 

habitat on tribal lands. 

Coho Salmon 

Coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) and their habitat have been listed under the Endangered 

Species Act (ESA). All three watersheds contain designated critical habitat for the threatened 

Southern Oregon/ Northern California Evolutionary Significant Unit (ESU) of coho salmon. 

General information about coho can be found in the Forest-wide Reference Document (Six Rivers 

National Forest, 1997). We know the following specifics about coho within the analysis area. 

Coho numbers in the analysis area are extremely low. The numbers in the Horse Linto watershed 

have been especially low since 1995 (Boberg, 1996 and Six Rivers National Forest, 1999). In that 

time, we have seen a few coho adults and/or juvenile coho in the Horse Linto watershed each 

year, but the numbers have been so low that it appears that very few pairs of coho return each 

year to spawn. However, it should be noted that our current method of salmon and steelhead 

juvenile monitoring couldn’t be implemented early enough in the year to count the majority of coho 

yearlings due to the high flows when they out-migrate. 

Juvenile coho have been seen in Mill Creek for most of the past decade in limited numbers. Little 

information is available on coho within Tish Tang Creek, except that they are occasionally 

present. 

Some scientists wonder whether any of the coho in the analysis area are truly native. It is likely 

that coho were never common in the analysis area since the available habitat is dissimilar from 

what coho normally prefer. It is also likely that the coho within the analysis area have some 

amount of hatchery stock in their genetic makeup because hatchery coho have been planted in 

Horse Linto and other nearby watersheds including on the Hoopa Valley Indian Reservation. In 

addition, over half of the coho carcasses recovered by the Lower Trinity Ranger District in 1998-

1999 in a condition allowing verification, showed a maxillary clip denoting they were from the 

Lewiston hatchery (Six Rivers, 1999). Coho strays have also been recovered from Oregon 

hatcheries. 

Chinook Salmon 

Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) and their habitat within the analysis area have not 

been listed under the ESA. All three watersheds contain habitat for the Upper Klamath and Trinity 

River ESU of chinook salmon. General information about these chinook can be found in the 

Forest-wide reference document (Six Rivers National Forest, 1998). We know the following 

specifics about chinook within the analysis area. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-170 
Current and Reference Conditions 

All chinook in the analysis area are fall-run fish; spring-run chinook have not been found. Horse 

Linto chinook are considered a late-fall-run stock since peak spawning occurs from late November 

to early December, with some chinook continuing to spawn into mid to late January. It is believed 

that this timing was the norm for the chinook within the analysis area for many centuries due to 

natural selection. A late-fall run fits the hydrology of the watershed; fish do not benefit from 

returning to spawn until flows increase sufficiently to allow them to spawn efficiently. Recognizing 

the importance of local chinook adaptations to local conditions was a central facet of a small-scale 

cooperative chinook hatchery that operated in Horse Linto from 1984 to 1994. 

While historical numbers of chinook are unknown, the habitat could have easily supported many 

thousands of spawners and runs could have been that large in normal to good years. However, 

spawning surveys in the late 1970s documented very low numbers of returning adult fall chinook 

(less than a dozen per year were located in some years). As a result, a small hatchbox rearing 

project was initiated in 1981 to augment the spawning population. The project was discontinued in 

1983. Spawning surveys continued to find very low numbers of chinook adults returning to the 

Horse Linto Creek watershed. 

A small, streamside chinook salmon production facility was developed in Horse Linto Creek in 

1984, through a cooperative agreement between Six Rivers National Forest, the California 

Department of Fish and Game, the Hoopa, Karuk, and Yurok Tribes, the Pacific Coast Federation 

of Fishermen’s Association, US Fish and Wildlife Service, and Humboldt State University. The 

facility was designed to increase returning chinook spawners to a level that would no longer 

require augmentation. Returning Horse Linto chinook spawners were trapped, spawned, reared 

to fingerling and/or yearling size, coded-wire tagged at the facility and released back into Horse 

Linto Creek (Halemeier & Farro, 1995). During the early years of the project, very few fish were 

artificially spawned, since the project also had to allow for escapement of some chinook to spawn 

naturally. As returns grew, a greater number of adults were available from which eggs could be 

collected. Between 1984 and 1994, as many as 75,000 juvenile chinook salmon were tagged and 

released annually from the Horse Linto facility. As a result of this effort, fall chinook spawning in 

Horse Linto and Cedar Creeks increased to over 200 pairs annually, while the facility was in 

operation. The facility has been idle since 1994 to test the viability of the augmented spawning 

population over time. 

The project appears successful to date. Horse Linto Creek currently has the largest naturally 

spawning chinook population in the lower Trinity River. Figure 3-27 shows the number of redds 

and carcasses located within the approximately 5.5 miles of habitat in the lower watershed that 

are regularly surveyed. The highest number to date was in 1997 when the last four-year-old 

Horse Linto hatchery fish were returning. While natural variability, such as flooding, can impact 

how many juvenile chinook survive to outmigrate, monitoring has shown a steadily improving trend 

in naturally produced chinook juveniles from 1993 through 1997 (Six Rivers National Forest, 

1999). 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-171 
Chapter 3 

Figure 3-27. Redd and Carcass Totals from 1991 to 1999 for Horse Linto Watershed : 

Horse Linto Watershed 

0 

50 

100 

150 

200 

250 

300 

350 

400 

91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 

Year 

Number Observed 

Redds 

Carcasses 

Chinook are present within the Mill and Tish Tang watersheds, and their numbers are increasing 

from the very low numbers seen after the 1964 flood. These streams also benefited to some 

degree from the Horse Linto hatchery, since carcasses of Horse Linto tagged strays have been 

recovered in those watersheds. 

Steelhead 

Steelhead (Oncorhynchus mykiss) and their habitat within the analysis area have not been listed 

under the ESA. All three watersheds contain habitat for the Klamath Mountain Province ESU of 

steelhead. General information about steelhead can be found in the Forest-wide reference 

document (Six Rivers National Forest, 1997). We know the following specifics about steelhead 

within the analysis area. 

All steelhead in the analysis area are winter-run fish; summer-run steelhead are not known to be 

present. Steelhead spawning in Horse Linto Creek has been observed between January and 

early May. 

Steelhead populations in Horse Linto Creek appear to be at a stable level, within probable natural 

variability. Population surveys and monitoring of downstream migrants began in 1990. From 1990 

through 1996, the entire anadromous reach of Horse Linto Creek was surveyed annually by 

snorkel divers to count and identify juvenile anadromous salmonids. These surveys found a wellstocked array of quality habitats and well balanced year-class distributions for juvenile steelhead 

(Boberg, 1996). The downstream migrant trapping is continuing annually. Data compiled from the 

traps also indicate a strong recruitment of young-of-the-year steelhead and healthy numbers of 

out-migrating smolts in Horse Linto Creek (Six Rivers National Forest, 1999). 

Steelhead are present within the Mill Creek and Tish Tang Creek watersheds and their numbers 

appear to be increasing from the very low numbers seen after the 1964 flood. 

Resident Trout 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-172 
Current and Reference Conditions 

Two species of resident trout are found within the analysis area, rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus 

mykiss) and brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis). The brook trout are not native to California but 

were introduced within the headwaters of the analysis area beginning as early as the 1930s. 

Streams within the analysis area were formerly planted with both brook trout and rainbow trout by 

the California Department of Fish and Game, but that effort ceased decades ago. Upstream 

portions of the analysis area contain healthy populations of both species. Resident trout may be 

found within the anadromous waters, but their primary range is upstream of natural barriers. It is 

unclear what the historic range of rainbow trout was prior to fish planting. Some of the rainbow 

trout above current natural barriers are likely descended from steelhead that were able to access 

farther upstream when passage conditions were different. 

Resident trout are found in one lake within the analysis area. Mill Creek Lake is located in the 

Wilderness in the headwaters of the Mill Creek watershed. The lake contains both brook and 

rainbow trout, which are stocked by the California Department of Fish and Game. It is believed 

that the Megram Fire had little effect on the fishery in Mill Creek Lake. 

Fish Habitat Availability and Condition 

These three watersheds are believed to have provided healthy fish habitat prior to European 

settlement. The analysis area has experienced assorted human activities, including Native 

American burning to manage vegetation, more recent active fire suppression, mining, road 

building, and logging. Within the last 100 years, several large flood events have significantly 

altered aquatic habitat conditions, as noted in preceding sections. Most of the fish habitat within 

the analysis area has experienced some level of recovery from the 1964 flood. Stream habitat 

quality ranged from fair to excellent condition for anadromous and resident salmonids prior to the 

Megram Fire. 

While no human-caused anadromous fish barriers are present within the analysis area, it is 

believed that resident fish passage may be blocked at several stream crossings along roads 

7N04, 7N53 and 10N02. These stream crossings and the fish habitat upstream from them should 

be inspected for fish passage improvement needs. 

Environmental baselines that characterize the health of each watershed prior to the Megram Fire 

relative to anadromous species are shown in Table 3-70. These baselines are used to summarize 

the habitat values of a watershed for anadromous fish. The methodology used to arrive at these 

baselines is found in “Making Endangered Species Act Determinations of Effect for Individual or 

Grouped Actions at the Watershed Scale” (NMFS, 1996). A combination of fisheries and 

hydrologic field data, GIS data and professional judgment were used to rate the three watersheds. 

Horse Linto Creek was deemed to be a properly functioning refugia, while Mill and Tish Tang 

Creeks were judged not to be properly functioning refugia. 

Figure 3-28 displays fish habitat within the analysis area relative to the Megram Fire. The fire 

overlapped both anadromous and resident fish habitat, but it did not directly affect the habitat 

equally. Most of the anadromous habitat was left unburned. Generally, the fire burned hottest in 

headwater reaches that contained no fish or only resident fish. However, it is certain that some 

degree of indirect effects will occur in all anadromous and resident fish habitat where the 

Figure 3-28. Fish Habitat and the Megram Fire: 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-173 
Chapter 3 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-174
 2/25/00 Chapter 3

HLMTT Watershed Analysis

5-175

Table 3-70. Environmental Baselines for Anadromous Fish Habitat before the Megram Fire

Horse Linto Creek Mill Creek Tish Tang Creek

ENVIRONMENTAL BASELINE ENVIRONMENTAL BASELINE ENVIRONMENTAL BASELINE

Properly 

Functioning At Risk

Not 

Properly 

Functioning

Properly 

Functioning At Risk

Not 

Properly 

Functioning

Properly 

Functioning At Risk

Not 

Properly 

Functioning

WATER QUALITY WATER QUALITY WATER QUALITY

Temperature Temperature Temperature

Sediment/Turbidity Sediment/Turbidity Sediment/Turbidity

Chem.Contamination Chem.Contamination Chem.Contamination

HABITAT ACCESS HABITAT ACCESS HABITAT ACCESS

Physical Barriers Physical Barriers Physical Barriers

HABITAT ELEMENTS HABITAT ELEMENTS HABITAT ELEMENTS

Substrate Substrate Substrate

Large Woody Debris Large Woody Debris Large Woody Debris

Pool Frequency Pool Frequency Pool Frequency

Pool Quality Pool Quality Pool Quality

Off-channel Habitat Off-channel Habitat Off-channel Habitat

Refugia Refugia Refugia

CHANNEL CONDITION & DYNAMICS CHANNEL CONDITION & DYNAMICS CHANNEL CONDITION & DYNAMICS

Width/Depth Ratio Width/Depth Ratio Width/Depth Ratio

Streambank Cond. Streambank Cond. Streambank Cond.

Floodplain Connect. Floodplain Connect. Floodplain Connect.

FLOW/HYDROLOGY FLOW/HYDROLOGY FLOW/HYDROLOGY

Peak/Base Flows Peak/Base Flows Peak/Base Flows

Drainage Network 

Increase

Drainage Network 

Increase

Drainage Network 

Increase

WATERSHED CONDITIONS WATERSHED CONDITIONS WATERSHED CONDITIONS

Road Density & Loc. Road Density & Loc. Road Density & Loc.

Disturbance History Disturbance History Disturbance History

Riparian Reserves Riparian Reserves Riparian Reserves
Chapter 3 

upstream headwaters experienced high or moderate intensity wildfire. All anadromous fish habitat 

had such fire effects in the riparian reserves upstream. It is expected that the chief effects to 

anadromous habitat will be related to erosion, sedimentation and water quality. Resident fish 

habitat is expected to have the same problems, plus the direct alteration of habitat along the 

stream corridor where downed wood was burned and living trees and other vegetation were killed 

or damaged. The Megram fire likely impacted environmental baselines related to riparian 

reserves, sediment/turbidity and refugia function in all three watersheds, but additional field 

analysis will be needed to update the current baseline conditions. 

It is likely that the Megram Fire will affect anadromous fish and their habitat for at least a decade. 

It is not possible to quantify the magnitude of future effects of the fire on anadromous fish habitat 

or to predict the maximum duration of these effects. The effects on fish habitat will depend to a 

great degree on the weather in the next decade and natural recovery processes. Large rain-onsnow events such as occurred in 1964 would be much more damaging to anadromous fish habitat 

than “normal” weather patterns considering the current erosion potential in the analysis area. 

Erosion will probably remain elevated until the intensely burned hillsides and stream courses are 

vegetated and stable again. Sediment that moves into a headwater stream course may take 

several years to reach anadromous habitat, however. 

Several years of monitoring are probably necessary before we can estimate the long-term effects 

of the Megram Fire on anadromous habitat or predict likely long-term effects if similar large, 

catastrophic fires occur in the future. The Six Rivers National Forest fisheries program has been 

monitoring habitat conditions including stream flows and water temperatures in lower Horse Linto 

Creek for a number of years. Stream Condition Inventory (SCI) sites were established in Horse 

Linto Creek and a tributary to Tish Tang Creek prior to the Megram Fire. These sites will allow us 

to monitor changes in habitat condition over time. 

Horse Linto Creek 

The Horse Linto watershed contains about 14 miles of fish habitat where anadromous fish are 

present and another 33 miles of habitat where only resident trout are present. Horse Linto Creek 

and its major tributary Cedar Creek comprise the majority of the anadromous habitat. The stream 

channels are predominantly bedrock controlled and deeply incised. There is good habitat 

diversity including primary pools and coarse woody debris. Water quality is good with no 

temperature problems. There are only minor problems with excess fine sediment adjacent to and 

immediately downstream of small natural landslides. 

After the 1964 flood, the anadromous habitat had been greatly simplified, causing some fisheries 

biologists to liken the creek to a bowling alley. Post-flood salvage logging and wood removal to 

“protect the fisheries” was generally detrimental to aquatic habitat. Large woody debris is now 

recognized as an important component of healthy aquatic habitat. The shade canopy had been 

restored in most of the anadromous reaches of Horse Linto and Cedar Creeks by the late 1980s. 

Large woody debris has become common throughout the anadromous reach within the last few 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-176 
Current and Reference Conditions 

years due to recruitment from adjacent riparian reserves. Current conditions provide high quality, 

diverse habitat. 

Instream enhancement projects were initiated in 1979 in Horse Linto and Cedar Creeks to develop 

additional spawning areas and increase habitat diversity through the placement of log and boulder 

structures. Most of the structures in Horse Linto and Cedar Creeks have performed as designed 

and are assisting greatly in the sorting and storage of bedload sediment, providing cover for 

juvenile and adult fishes, and enhancing habitat quality overall. 

Horse Linto Creek was a properly functioning refugia with good to excellent habitat conditions for 

anadromous salmonids prior to the Megram Fire. Approximately 64 percent of the Horse Linto 

watershed fishery habitat burned in the fire. However, only about seven percent of the Horse 

Linto anadromous stream corridor was burned. About 2.1 miles of anadromous stream corridor 

burned at moderate severity and less than 0.1 mile burned at high severity. Stream corridors 

containing only resident fish burned much more extensively. About 12.8 miles of resident stream 

corridor burned at moderate severity and about 4.3 miles burned at high severity. 

The lower 0.9 miles of Horse Linto Creek are on private land. The now inactive Horse Linto 

hatchery is located on that private land. The private landowner is working with Six Rivers National 

Forest, California Department of Fish and Game, and other cooperators to complete projects to 

benefit anadromous fish. The latest habitat projects were the addition of LWD and planting 

conifers near the stream to provide more long-term shade and large woody debris. The Megram 

Fire did not directly affect fish habitat on private land. 

Mill and Tish Tang Creeks 

Mill and Tish Tang Creeks were not designated as key watersheds, but both streams have 

important fisheries values to the Hoopa Valley Tribe. The known anadromous habitat lies on the 

Hoopa Reservation. Neither Mill nor Tish Tang Creeks were thought to be properly functioning 

refugia prior to the Megram Fire. Tish Tang is the healthier of the two watersheds. There is a 

much higher road density and more extensive management disturbance in the Mill Creek 

watershed than in Tish Tang Creek. Table 3-70 shows the environmental baselines for a number 

of factors that affected anadromous fish habitat prior to the Megram Fire (Frank Lake, 1998 and 

1999). 

Anadromous fish are found only in the lower 2.8 miles of Tish Tang Creek and resident trout are 

present in about 15.5 miles of stream. Mill Creek contains about 6.7 miles of anadromous habitat 

that has been historically occupied, but salmon are currently confined to the lower 2.6 miles of 

habitat. Forest Service fish surveys have suggested that steelhead could not reach habitat on 

National Forest lands. The Hoopa Valley Tribal Fisheries staff believe that some steelhead are 

currently able to ascend Mill Creek at least to the reservation boundary, so that steelhead habitat 

probably encompasses 10 or more stream miles (personal communication, James Wroble). There 

are about another eight miles of habitat on National Forest lands where only resident trout are 

known to be present. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-177 
Chapter 3 

Prior to the Megram Fire, resident fish habitat in upper Mill and Tish Tang watersheds was 

generally in good condition. This habitat had experienced the same kinds of problems and 

subsequent recovery that occurred in Horse Linto Creek. 

Mill Creek fisheries habitat received less direct impacts from the fire than the other two 

watersheds. Approximately 19 percent of the fish-bearing stream corridors in Mill Creek burned in 

the Megram Fire. However, none of the anadromous stream corridor was burned. About 3.3 

miles of resident stream corridor burned at moderate severity and none is thought to have burned 

at high severity. It should be noted that about 34 percent of the riparian reserves in Mill Creek 

were burned in the Megram Fire at a moderate to high severity, so indirect post-fire fisheries 

problems are still likely to affect resident and anadromous fish habitat. 

Approximately 50 percent of the fish-bearing stream corridors in Tish Tang Creek burned in the 

Megram Fire. However, none of the anadromous stream corridor was burned. Stream corridors 

containing only resident fish burned fairly extensively. About 8.5 miles of resident-only stream 

corridor burned at a moderate severity and about 0.6 miles burned at a high severity. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-178 
Current and Reference Conditions 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

3-179

Synthesis and Interpretation 

CHAPTER 4

SYNTHESIS AND INTERPRETATION

This step of the analysis process is designed to synthesize and interpret information collected in 

the previous steps. Emphasis is placed on understanding ecosystem processes and functions as 

they relate to the issues and key questions in Chapter 2, and on identifying opportunities to close 

the gap between current and desired conditions. 

This chapter is designed to follow the format of Chapter 2 (Issues and Key Questions) in order to 

address the issues and answer key questions. Thus, the major sections of this chapter 

correspond with those in Chapter 2. As the intent of this chapter is to synthesize the information 

gathered during the analysis and integrate different disciplinary perspectives, many of the issues 

and key questions are simultaneously addressed in these discussions. For example, some of the 

opportunities identified to achieve RMRs (key question 1.3) would also reduce the risk of future 

fires (key question 3.4), help recover habitat for plant and wildlife species of concern (key 

questions 2.3 and 2.6), contribute to local economies (key question 5.1), and reduce the threat 

from future wildfires to Tribal trust resources (key question 5.5). It is therefore impractical to 

respond to each key question separately. Instead, headings for the discussions that follow 

identify the relevant key questions in parentheses. Some of discussions pertain to only one key 

question; in these cases, the question precedes the discussion. 

Terrestrial System 

Issue 1: Long-Term Health and Recovery of Vegetation 

Vegetation Management 

Historic Range of Variability (1.1, 2.4, 2.5) 

The recent HRV analysis performed for the central zone (see Chapter 3) shows the combined 

effects of past logging and the Megram Fire. Past harvests between 1960 and 1990 had the most 

impact on the old growth seral stage in the tanoak and Douglas-fir series. Before the fire, both of 

these vegetation types were below the recommended management range (RMR) for the old 

growth seral stage, and near or below the HRV. The fire exacerbated this situation by further 

reducing the number of mature and old growth acres. Before the fire, the white fir and red fir 

series were within the RMRs for most seral stages, but high severity fire converted many acres to 

the shrub/forb seral stage. As a result, the late mature and old growth seral stages are now below 

the RMRs for these vegetation series. 

Although fire is a natural event that affects successional development, the large scale and severity 

of the Megram Fire appears to be outside the historic range of variability for fires in the Klamath 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

4-1 
Chapter 4 

Mountains (Skinner, personal communication). The Megram Fire was the fifth largest fire in 

recent history in California, and the largest fire in conifer forest lands (California Department of 

Forestry, 1999). Historically, median fire return intervals ranged from 12 to 19 years in Douglasfir-dominated forests, with a median fire size of 860 acres (Taylor and Skinner, 1998). Although 

fires were frequent, they typically burned with a low to moderate severity, with small patches of 

high severity stand-replacing fire. “Frequent fires of mixed low and moderate severity killed some 

overstory trees, initiated recruitment, and thinned or killed understory trees. These mixed-severity 

fires created multi-aged stands where tree establishment was associated with more severe fires 

that killed parts of the canopy. Large, severe fires were uncommon” (Ibid). Fire suppression over 

the last century has altered natural successional patterns, lengthening the interval between fires 

and thus creating higher fuel levels than expected in a “natural” system. The 1995-1996 

blowdown event added more fuel to stands, which already had a higher than “natural” stand 

density due to past fire suppression. These unusually high fuel levels helped to fuel the Megram 

Fire, with an atypically high percent of high severity stand-replacing fire. 

After the Megram Fire, the combined effects of human and natural disturbance have reduced the 

four primary vegetation series (tanoak, Douglas-fir, white fir and red fir) below the minimum value 

for both the HRV and the RMR for the late seral stages in the central zone. This is particularly 

important in light of the fact that these three watersheds contributed the majority of the late seral 

vegetation to the zone. In addition, the acreage of mature seral stage vegetation has decreased 

in the Douglas-fir, white fir and red fir series. Because the mature seral stages provide potential 

in-growth for late seral vegetation, this loss could influence the attainment of a balanced seral 

stage distribution that is within the RMRs for many decades. 

Recommended Management Ranges (1.3, 2.3, 2.5, 2.6, 3.4, 4,6, 5.1,5.5) 

The Forest LRMP provides overall vegetation management direction for the Forest and the central 

zone. It describes the desired vegetation conditions for vegetation types and seral stages in the 

RMRs. The Forest-wide LSR Assessment (LSRA) provides management recommendations for 

LSR 305, which covers most of the analysis area. The LSRA emphasizes the maintenance and 

promotion of late seral conditions to the maximum amount sustainable over time. “It is expected 

that the acreage of each LSR in the mid-mature, late mature, and old growth seral stages will be 

at the upper end, or even exceed, its relative contribution to the RMRs for the zone in which the 

LSR is located...” (Six Rivers National Forest LSRA, 1999). The Megram Fire has significantly 

reduced the amount of mature and old growth vegetation within the analysis area, and there is a 

large gap between current conditions and the desired conditions described in both the LRMP and 

the LSRA. We therefore look toward the LRMP and LSRA for management direction. 

When vegetation is outside the RMRs for a specific vegetation series and seral stage in any zone, 

the LRMP directs that all vegetation management activities should be aimed at returning 

vegetation within the RMR for the zone. The LSRA directs that management activities promote or 

maintain late seral vegetation. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

4-2 
Synthesis and Interpretation 

To meet both of these objectives and achieve the RMRs, two opportunities are outlined here: 

1. Protect remaining mature and old growth stands from catastrophic loss 

2. Accelerate the development of late mature habitat: 

• Move early and mid mature low and moderate burn severity acres into the late 

mature seral stage 

• Reforest high severity burn areas and reduce fuel concentrations 

• Reforest burned plantations 

Opportunities for Moving Vegetation toward RMRs 

1. Protect Remaining Mature and Old Growth Stands from Catastrophic Loss 

Within these watersheds, stands that suffered a loss of 60 percent or more of their pre-fire canopy 

closure total over 17,000 acres (Table 3-23). Losses of this magnitude re-set the successional 

clock and changed the seral stage distribution (Table 3-14) in the HLMTT area, as well as the 

central zone of the Forest. It is imperative to maintain remaining stands into the foreseeable future 

to provide late-successional habitat within the LSR and move vegetation toward the RMRs for the 

late mature and old growth seral stages. 

Mature and late successional stands with moderate and low severity burn effects experienced 

both individual tree and group mortality; mortality in these stands is expected to increase as trees 

are stressed by cambium and crown loss. Over time, these trees will add significantly to the fuel 

loading and hazard in the area, far exceeding desired fuel levels. Reducing the fuel loading, while 

maintaining the desired snag and log levels identified in the LRMP and LSRA, will add to the 

likelihood that these stands will survive another fire. “Given the continued alteration of fire 

regimes and our lack of ability to control tree densities on a landscape basis, untreated post-fire 

stands could have the future combination of elevated dead and down and also elevated tree 

densities. This future condition could be a serious concern for both suppression and adverse fire 

effects from the increased fire intensity. Basically, fires in altered forest systems may not have 

reset the environmental clock, but set a biological time bomb in the future...” (Everett 1995). 

2. Accelerate the Development of Late Mature Habitat 

The following options would accelerate the development of late mature habitat within these 

watersheds. 

• Move Early and Mid Mature Low and Moderate Severity Burn Acres to the Late Mature 

Seral Stage 

Between 1996 and 1999, 1,580 acres within the fire area were harvested and treated to 

reduce fuel loadings and hazard that resulted from the storm events during the winter of 1995-

1996. These treatments were designed to reduce fuel levels, and did not include structural 

treatments based on silvicultural prescriptions to enhance development of late seral 

characteristics. During the Megram Fire, the majority of these treated acres (Table 3-28) 

suffered lower burn severities than similar untreated areas. Due to the success of these 

treatments in reducing burn severity, we believe that a combination of fuel reduction and 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

4-3 
Chapter 4 

silvicultural treatments would be beneficial. A two-fold benefit can be achieved; to enhance 

stand structure development and reduce stand density to accelerate the movement of mature 

stands toward late seral conditions, and reduce hazard and increase survivability in the event 

of another fire. 

Many of the stands that burned with a low to moderate severity contain fire-killed or severely 

stressed trees, and can be expected to have further insect-related mortality (Furniss and 

Carolin 1977, Wagener 1961, Weatherspoon 1988). Trees with low vigor are most likely to 

die in the near future; characteristics include cambium loss, low crown ratio, thinning or fading 

crowns, defects, and insect evidence. This mortality creates high levels of large and fine 

fuels, putting the remaining functional mature stands at substantial risk for future loss. This 

risk can be reduced by implementing fuel reduction projects in stands that burned with a low to 

moderate burn severity. A combination of fuel reduction and silvicultural treatments can alter 

structure within these stands both vertically and horizontally, thereby shortening the period of 

time needed to attain late seral characteristics (Jimerson and Jones. 1993). Within small 

gaps or patches created by fire and insect mortality, tree removal will reduce fuels and in many 

locations provide conditions conducive to regeneration of a new age class of trees and other 

vegetation, providing both vertical and horizontal diversity. In other portions of these stands, 

density reduction by removing low vigor trees will allow the remaining trees to more fully utilize 

the site resources that will maintain or enhance diameter and height growth. Trees removed 

under these circumstances would generally have less than 25 percent live crown, or would 

have lost greater than 65 percent of their pre-fire canopy volume. These treatments will retain 

desired levels of snags and downed wood and not remove large remnant trees (predominants) 

that were survivors from stand-replacing fires in the late 1800s or early 1900s, which are 

important stand components for snag recruitment, coarse woody debris and wildlife habitat. 

Treatments are expected to accelerate movement into later seral stages. The highest priority 

stands for treatment are those located in the mid to upper one-third slope position that had a 

moderate burn severity, because these are the stands that are most likely to burn severely in 

future stand-replacing fires. 

• Reforest High Severity Burn Areas and Reduce Fuel Concentrations 

Of the approximately 17,000 acres of high severity burn, about 10,500 are located outside the 

wilderness, mostly in the white fir and Douglas-fir series. Stands in the high severity burn 

category have been converted to the shrub/forb seral stage, and will be rapidly occupied by 

fire-adapted shrub species such as snowbrush (Ceanothus velutinus), deer brush (Ceanothus 

intergerrimus), bitter cherry (prunus emarginata) and manzanita (Arctostaphylos sp). The 

combination of both fine fuels and large dead fuels presents a significant hazard for re-burning 

at high severity. The ability of these stands to naturally regenerate depends on numerous 

factors, including the proximity of a conifer seed source, periodicity of seed crop, predation of 

seed, germination and survival of seedlings and the effects of vegetative competition and 

animal browsing (Nyland 1995). Naturally regenerated stands will be impacted by the large 

number of dead trees as they decay and fall, which can crush or damage new growth. These 

falling trees can reduce the number of surviving seedlings and saplings. The growth and 

movement (succession) of stands into later seral stages under these conditions can be 

expected to take 20 to 25 years or longer than with artificial regeneration, assuming future 

fires do not set them back to the shrub/forb stage repeatedly. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

4-4 
Synthesis and Interpretation 

Artificial regeneration of high burn severity stands, where possible, will provide multiple 

benefits. The large numbers of snags and logs that would contribute to high intensity re-burns 

would be reduced to desired levels. The remaining surviving green trees and predominants, 

as well as snags and logs, would provide the structure and habitats needed to bridge to later 

seral stages as the stands develop. Reforestation will reduce the period of time in the 

shrub/forb seral stage and speed recovery of the LSR in the long term. Follow-up treatments 

such as release and precommercial thinning will also accelerate stand development. Early 

seral vegetation is highly susceptible to loss in a fire. Treatments that reduce the time that 

stands are in these seral stages should reduce the risk of loss in the future. 

By reducing the risk of re-burns, artificial regeneration can reduce impacts to soil productivity 

in high severity burn areas. Soil productivity in these areas may have been reduced, and 

subsequent fires would further impact the soils in these stands. 

The white fir and red fir series are found at higher elevations within the burn area. 

Development of unmanaged stands will be slower due to shrub competition, seed source 

availability and the limitation of high elevation growing seasons, which are typically short. 

Development of the pole seral stage will likely take up to 30 years in white fir stands, and 30 to 

50 years in the red fir series. Late successional conditions may not appear for 140 to 180 

years, thus affecting the timeframe to meet the RMRs for the late mature and old growth seral 

stages. Surviving stands (low to moderate burn severities) that are adjacent to high severity 

burned stands are at an increased risk of burning in the event of another large fire. 

• Manage burned plantations as needed to re-establish healthy conifer stands 

Plantations are the result of past forest management, primarily following harvest. Of the 

approximately 7,000 acres of plantations on national forest lands in these watersheds, 

between 2,500 and 3,500 acres were destroyed in the fire and burnout operations (Table 3-

22). These stands are in a variety of conditions following the fire. Many were 25 to 35 years 

old and have standing dead trees between 6 and 16 inches in diameter. Younger stands have 

sapling-sized material standing, while very young stands were burned relatively clean of 

woody material. Timber values are not recoverable in these stands due to their small tree size 

and rapid decay. Decay will render them unmerchantable by the time a recovery project could 

be implemented. 

Reforestation efforts of high severity burn plantations would begin replacement of these 

stands and speed the recovery of the LSR. These efforts could not begin until the spring of 

2001 due to the unavailability of site-adapted seedlings. It takes a minimum of 16 to 28 

months to obtain a seedling following placement of an order. Reforestation of plantations 

would depend on seedling availability and implementing necessary site preparation treatments 

to provide access and reduce the amount of dead fuel. 

Plantations that burned at a moderate or low intensity will need to be field evaluated during the 

summer and fall of 2000. It is expected that additional mortality will occur from cambium and 

crown loss and increased insect activity. Plantations that have additional mortality that leave 

fewer trees per acre than deemed adequate to meet long term LSR objectives would be 

reforested. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

4-5 
Chapter 4 

Those with high fuel loading would be treated. To minimized potential erosion, hand cut, hand 

pile and burn or lop and scatter would be utilized. Concern is that additional fire in these 

stands has the potential to adversely impact soil productivity. 

15 Percent Retention S&G (1.1) 

One of the standards and guidelines (S&Gs) in the LRMP addresses the retention of latesuccessional stands at the fifth field watershed level. The S&G states that if the federal forest land 

within a fifth field watershed is currently comprised of 15 percent or less late-successional forest, 

all remaining late-successional forest should be protected. The Horse Linto, Mill, and Tish Tang 

Creek watersheds are fifth field watersheds. A directive dated September 14, 1998 outlines 

implementation procedures and field guidance for this S&G. The following assessment is based 

on the steps and procedures outlined in this draft directive. The directive states that the 15 

percent S&G will be interpreted and implemented in the context of an assessment at the 

watershed scale. 

The FSEIS ROD defines late-successional stands as forest seral stages that include both mature 

and old growth age classes. The definition for mature stands is “A mappable stand of trees for 

which the annual net rate of growth has peaked. Stands are generally greater than 80-100 years 

old and less than 180-200 years old...” This definition of a mature stand does not coincide with 

the description of the early mature seral stage on the Forest (which generally range from 71 to 

110 years in age). Late-successional characteristics begin to develop about halfway through the 

mid-mature seral stage. The scale of the Forest vegetation mapping cannot identify these standlevel characteristics, so half the acreage in the mid-mature seral stage was used to proxy for latesuccessional forest in this assessment. In addition, both the late mature and old growth seral 

stages are considered late-successional forest. 

The amount of late-successional habitat remaining after the Megram Fire was determined by 

assuming that stands which burned with a moderately high to a high fire severity (greater than 60 

percent of the canopy cover killed) reverted to the shrub/forb seral stage. The total acreage and 

percent of early and late-successional forest in each watershed are shown in Table 4-1. All 

watersheds are well above the 15 percent threshold in both matrix and reserved lands. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

4-6 
Synthesis and Interpretation 

Table 4-1. Acres and Percent of Late-Successional Forest after the Megram Fire 

Land 

Allocation 

Early 

Successional 

Acres 

Early 

Successional 

Percent 

LateSuccessional 

Acres 

LateSuccessional 

Percent 

Total Acres 

Horse Linto 

Matrix 0 0 0 0 0 

LSR 17,067 54 14762 46 31,829 

Wilderness 6,159 69 2,798 31 8,957 

Total 23,226 57 17,560 43 40,786 

Mill 

Matrix 404 44 507 56 911 

LSR 6,297 57 4,749 43 11,046 

Wilderness 1,106 55 894 45 2,000 

Total 7,807 56 6,150 44 13,957 

Tish Tang 

Matrix 0 0 0 0 0 

LSR 4,200 53 3,752 47 7,952 

Wilderness 2,023 71 819 29 2,842 

Total 6,223 58 4,571 42 10,794 

The late-successional forest acres shown in Table 4-1 are further broken down by seral stage in 

Table 4-2. In each of the watersheds, the old growth seral stage comprises a large proportion of 

the late-successional habitat, which reinforces the finding that these watersheds carry a large 

portion of the late seral habitat in the central zone of the Forest. 

Table 4-2. Late-Successional Forest Acres by Seral Stage after the Megram Fire 

Seral Stage Matrix Acres Reserve Acres Total Acres 

Horse Linto 

mid mature 0 3,451 3,451 

late mature 0 6,385 6,385 

old growth 0 7,724 7,724 

Total acres 0 17,560 17,560 

Mill 

mid mature 63 1,353 1,416 

late mature 191 1,711 1,902 

old growth 254 2,581 2,835 

Total acres 508 5,645 6,153 

Tish Tang 

mid mature 0 526 526 

late mature 0 1,309 1,309 

old growth 0 2,738 2,738 

Total acres 0 4,573 4,573 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

4-7 
Chapter 4 

The September 14, 1998 directive outlines successive levels of assessment to implement the 15 

percent S&G. These levels are provided below. 

Level 1 Assessment: Are all federal forest lands within the watersheds designated as either 

congressional withdrawal, LSR, or other reserved land? 

All of the lands in the Horse Linto and Tish Tang Creek watersheds are designated as either LSR 

or congressional withdrawal (wilderness), so no further assessment is required. A small portion of 

the Mill Creek watershed is matrix land (7 percent), so additional assessment for this watershed is 

required. 

Level 2 Assessment: Are management actions planned or proposed on federal forest lands in 

the Mill Creek watershed that would reduce the acreage of 80-year-old and older forest (this 

assessment uses half of the mid-mature as well as all of the late mature and old growth stands)? 

Most of the land in the Mill Creek watershed is in either LSR or wilderness, and there are no 

proposed management actions in these land allocations that would reduce the acreage of latesuccessional forest. Within the 911 acres of matrix land in the watershed (of which only 48 acres 

burned), there could be management actions that would reduce the acreage of late-successional 

forest, so additional assessment is required. 

Level 3 Assessment: Is the percentage of federal forest lands within the Mill Creek watershed 

currently comprised of 15 percent or less 80-year-old and older forest (late-successional)? 

The answer to this questions is no; the watershed is currently comprised of 44 percent latesuccessional forest. Additional assessment is required. 

Level 4 Assessment: Does an assessment of federal forest land within the Mill Creek watershed 

indicate that planned or proposed management actions would reduce 80-year-old and older (latesuccessional) forest to the 15 percent level? 

The answer to this question is no. Most of the watershed is either LSR or wilderness; silvicultural 

treatments are precluded in wilderness areas, and are directed at maintaining and protecting latesuccessional habitat in LSRs. Therefore, no treatments in these land allocations will reduce the 

amount of late-successional habitat. Management actions in matrix lands could reduce the 

amount of late-successional habitat, but only by one or two percent due to the small acreage in 

matrix land. Under the Forest Plan, vegetation management in the watershed is aimed at moving 

vegetation toward the recommended management ranges for the central zone; these 

recommended management ranges are much more restrictive than the 15 percent S&G. The zone 

is currently at or below the minimum RMR for the late mature seral stage and below the minimum 

RMR for old growth in the primary vegetation series. Therefore, management actions in these 

seral stages will be limited in order to maintain and increase the acreage of late seral stands over 

time. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

4-8 
Synthesis and Interpretation 

Snags and Logs (1.1, 1,3, 2.1, 2.4, 3.4) 

Snag and log densities have increased significantly as a result of the fire. These increased 

densities far exceed the recommended densities displayed in Table 3-30 and contribute to 

elevated fuel levels and risk of future fires. Possible management practices to meet the 

opportunities described here and in Chapter 5 should be designed to reduce fuel levels while 

maintaining the desired densities of snags and logs across the landscape. 

Pests 

1.4 Has the fire increased the risk of pest infestation? 

For this issue, pests are categorized into two groups; diseases and insects. Weed pests are 

discussed below. Tree diseases will not spread outside of the fire perimeter. Decay fungi are 

going to be a large factor in the determination of value and salability of logs from potential salvage 

and fuel reduction areas within the burn. Trees vary in their susceptibility and rate of decay by 

species and by tree size. Many of the recommended recovery and fuel reduction activities will be 

dependent on how quickly the dead and severely damaged trees can be removed. They are 

expected to remain sound enough to be merchantable for two to four years following the death of 

the tree. Following that period, their economic value rapidly declines and therefore fuel reduction 

will not be feasible. Large areas with high numbers of rotting trees make prescribed fire difficult if 

not impossible. Burning under these conditions is hard to control and would do substantial soil 

damage when large logs are consumed. 

Insects will increase in activity and will cause widespread additional mortality inside the burned 

areas. Mortality will vary from scattered single trees, to groups not expected to exceed 5 acres in 

size. This will add to the fuel loadings and exacerbate fire hazard. Once dead, these trees fall 

into the same conditions and scenario described above for diseased trees. 

Meadow Communities 

High Elevation Meadows associated Riparian Areas (1.5, 2.1, 2.3, 4.5, 

4.6, 5.13) 

Riparian habitats and montane meadows have been altered by historic grazing. In dry meadows, 

past grazing has resulted in an increase in bare ground (average 28 percent) and an increased 

cover of disturbance-tolerant species such as bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum), which alters 

soil acidity thus influencing species composition in these areas. Cattle are noted vectors for the 

introduction of non-native species (Bedunah 1992), species that presently occur in both dry and 

wet meadows in the analysis area 

Fire lightly burned a number of the meadows in the analysis area. Light burns would not be 

expected to unduly affect meadow conditions. Certain riparian reaches, particularly in the upper 

one-third headwater streams, were subject to high severity fires, which resulted in complete loss 

of riparian vegetation. The direct effects of fire-caused damage to riparian areas and wet 

meadows need further investigation. For the most part, fire’s direct effects on meadow habitats 

are considered inconsequential; however, it is probable that these habitats could be indirectly 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

4-9 
Chapter 4 

affected by displacement of cattle use. Roughly 30 percent of the Trinity Summit allotment (an 

allotment that contains wet meadows) burned under severe fire conditions, with 65 percent 

burning at moderate severities. Burn pattern and severity could influence livestock movement due 

to loss of available forage or improved access to water in riparian areas subject to severe burning. 

Assessment of grazing patterns needs to occur to ensure that displacement of cattle use due to 

the fire doesn’t lead to overgrazing in certain meadows and riparian areas. Overgrazing, with its 

associated shift in composition toward early successional (disturbance-tolerant) and non-native 

species as well as compaction and potential soil erosion, could lead to long-term destabilization of 

meadow communities. 

There are concerns about continuing grazing in meadows and riparian habitats in an immediate 

post-fire environment. High elevation meadows in particular are important reservoirs of 

biodiversity. These communities provide habitat for such rare plant species as Klamath gentian 

and coast checkerbloom. The recovery of riparian areas is important to wildlife species that use 

riparian areas as travel corridors and foraging habitats, as well as to anadromous fish populations 

that rely on these areas for critical stages in their life history. 

The specifics of livestock use after the fire requires further investigation. In general, grazing in 

meadows and riparian areas has the potential to direct successional, compositional and erosional 

trends in these habitats (e.g. shift toward non-native species, loss of vegetation, increased 

erosion). Within riparian areas, concentrated grazing can locally prevent vegetation from 

developing to a mature state. To assess the potential impacts due to cattle use, specialists 

should visit the meadows and riparian areas before cattle are turned out. Specialists should 

assess 1) the potential for streambank erosion and soil compaction caused by cattle concentrating 

in areas void of vegetation and 2) whether turnout will delay the re-establishment of vegetation. 

Management options should be developed based upon findings. See the “Grazing” section for 

more information. 

Noxious Weeds 

Reduce the Risk of Noxious Weed Introduction and Spread (1.6, 1.7) 

Non-native species and noxious weeds readily become established and spread in exposed, 

disturbed areas. Prior to the fire, non-native and noxious weeds were documented in the analysis 

area; however, their extent is not accurately known. Activities related to wildfire suppression, 

particularly the use of equipment for suppression and fuel break construction, could have provided 

both a vector and a suitable setting for weeds. Wind-born seeds of noxious weeds can travel 

considerable distances. The fire itself created an environment suitable for weed establishment 

(disturbed ground and reduced canopy). Equipment and other material (erosion control) used in 

recovery efforts can also promote weed introductions. 

In keeping with LRMP standards and guidelines (LMP IV 20-16 to19), efforts should be made to 

reduce noxious weed introductions and spread. The best prevention for introduction and spread 

of noxious weeds is the removal of satellite populations (localized, small populations) once 

detected. This tactic is also the most cost-effective control method. The fire and activities related 

to wildfire suppression could have favored noxious weed introduction and establishment. There is 

an opportunity to reconnaissance roadside settings or any setting disturbed by the construction of 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

4-10 
Synthesis and Interpretation 

fuel breaks (especially those constructed with a bulldozer) to determine if any satellite populations 

exist. This reconnaissance is especially important within the first post-fire growing season to 

reduce the chances of seed bank development and for ease of removal. This reconnaissance 

effort would also provide useful baseline information for assessing risk of noxious weed 

introduction related to subsequent activities proposed in the area. 

Relative to grazing and noxious weeds in meadow habitats, historic livestock use has influenced 

the composition and extent of noxious weeds in the analysis area. As cattle move from one area 

to another, they can transport seed of noxious weeds (e.g. seed attached to hair or trapped in 

mud) to areas previously uncontaminated. Noxious weed effects are most noted in “open” 

habitats that include meadows—a setting where cattle tend to concentrate. An approach to 

reduce the risk of noxious weed introduction and spread related to cattle use is addressed in the 

“Meadow Communities” and “Grazing” sections. 

Issue 2: Long-Term Health and Recovery of Terrestrial 

TES Species and Species of Concern 

Plants 

Plant species of concern that are known or have the potential to occur in the analysis area were 

addressed in terms of their respective habitat groups, which include rocky or outcrop habitats, 

riparian areas and meadows, and late seral conifer forest. Most of the plant species of concern 

are within habitats associated with the Ironside Batholith, composed primarily of diorite parent 

material. The white fir, red fir and Shasta red fir series are coincident with the batholith at high 

elevations (upper one-third slope position) in the eastern half of the analysis area. 

Species respond differentially to fire. Early successional rare species such as Tracy’s lupine and 

robust false lupine (Thermopsis robustus, Forest sensitive) could benefit from the fire and 

potentially colonize burn areas. In moderate to low severity burn areas, certain species may have 

benefited from the mosaic pattern of burning. Geophytes (i.e. Lilium sp., Iris sp.) can flourish after 

a fire; as the fire stimulates above-ground growth. A mosaic burn pattern can reduce inter-specific 

competition and create canopy gaps necessary for regeneration. Species such as lady’s slipper 

orchids are considered gap tolerant, meaning they can survive small disturbances if micro-site 

conditions are not significantly altered (Nelson 1999). 

While fire effects may have benefited certain species of concern, high severity burn areas resulted 

in the loss of considerable late successional and old growth habitat in the analysis area; this 

habitat is far more limiting across the landscape than early successional environments. 

Mature Conifer Forest Habitats (2.1) 

Late-seral conifer forest was the habitat most directly affected by the fire, with specific reference 

to those areas with a high burn severity. Fire severities were high near the ridge top position, 

settings dominated by true fir forests. Suitable habitat for such late seral species as mountain 

lady’s slipper, fascicled lady’s slipper and Ptilidium californicum (a liverwort) will be lost in these 

areas for decades. Lady’s slipper orchids possess various life history traits and habitat 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

4-11 
Chapter 4 

requirements (i.e. presence of mycorrhizal fungi and partial shade) that limit their establishment 

and survival. These species are considered poor survivors of disturbance and poor recruiters 

after disturbance. Survey and manage species highly associated with white fir include Ptilidium 

californicum (a liverwort) which grows specifically at the base of mature white fir trees and 

Polyzellus multiplex (a fungus) which grows in association with true fir roots. According to the 

vegetation analysis presented earlier in this chapter, 50 percent of the white fir series in the 

central zone and contains the highest amount of late mature and old-growth habitat in this zone. 

Within these watersheds, 36 percent of the white fir acres burned at high severities, which 

converted about 40 percent of the acres in the mid, late and old-growth seral stages to the 

shrub/forb and pole stages. 

Before the fire, management activities (residential development, logging, and road construction) 

on public, tribal and private lands within and surrounding the analysis area had already affected 

mature conifer forest habitat. The loss of suitable habitat resulting from these management 

practices has reduced the extent, size and distribution of late seral stage conifer forests. 

Furthermore, a tradition of wildfire suppression that has placed late-seral stands within and 

beyond the analysis area at risk, imparts a cumulative effect on those species associated with this 

habitat. 

Logging of mature stands and road construction on lands outside of the Forest Service’s 

jurisdiction will continue in the foreseeable future. Specific to the Forest, mature white fir stands 

within the central zone are below the recommended acres (RMRs); therefore, the Forest would not 

prescribe to intensively manage within these stands under the current Forest Plan; however, the 

threat of intense fire due to unnatural fuel loads will prevail. 

Meadow and Wetland Habitats (2.1, 1.5) 

Although not unduly affected by the fire, meadow habitats that support such rare species as 

Klamath gentian and coast checkerbloom could be indirectly affected by the displacement of 

livestock use from high severity burn areas to moderate severity burn areas. Fire’s effects on 

meadow habitats that support plant species of concern are further discussed under Issue 1 in the 

“Meadow Communities” section. 

Maintain Habitats for Species of Concern during Recovery Efforts (1.5, 

2.2, 3.2, 4.6, 5.12, 5.13) 

Within stands that burned with a low to moderate severity and are still considered suitable habitat, 

recovery efforts should consider maintenance of habitat elements necessary for establishment 

and survival of certain plant species of concern. Habitat variables include structural diversity, 

partial shade, presence of large coarse woody debris and minimal ground disturbance. Activities 

that disrupt these elements across the stand would deter maintenance and recovery of species of 

concern. 

In riparian areas (particularly perennial streams) where much of the overstory was consumed, 

substrate and micro-climate conditions have been affected by the fire. Various moss species 

including Buxbaumia viridis (S&M) depend upon maintenance of humid conditions. Perennial 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

4-12 
Synthesis and Interpretation 

stream courses provide important habitat for these species. Meadow habitats are discussed 

under Issue 1 in the “High Elevation Meadows” section. 

Opportunities to Benefit or Enhance Habitat Conditions for Species of 

Concern (1.5, 2.3, 4.4, 5.7) 

Concern rests over the future fire risk to mature stands, especially late mature and old growth 

stands within the true fir vegetation types. This concern certainly extends beyond the analysis 

area since continuity of habitat may be very important to such species as mountain lady’s slipper 

having dispersal limitations and generally small population sizes. Development and 

implementation of a prescribed burn program with associated fire effects monitoring would be an 

important action. A baseline burn program would initially reduce fuels in areas of unnatural fuel 

accumulations and with an ongoing program would likely create an opportunity to sustain habitat 

conditions for species of concern within mature forests. 

With the exception of fuel reduction activities or prescribed burning and efforts to reduce erosion 

in the conifer stands, other recovery activities are not expected to benefit or enhance habitat 

conditions for species of concern. In any activity occurring in the forest habitats, it is important to 

minimize ground disturbance, maintain stand structural components and provide partial shade— 

conditions needed by late-seral associated species. 

Meadow habitats within the analysis area are the most vulnerable to increased grazing pressure 

(due to the possible displacement of use from other areas subject to intense fires), trampling and 

the introduction or spread of non-native species and noxious weeds. The conditions needed for 

cattle turn out are discussed under Issue 1 in the “Meadow Communities” section. 

Riparian-dependent and associated species (with particular reference to bryophyte species) 

would benefit from recovery efforts focused on active planting of deciduous hardwood species on 

those perennial reaches most affected by high severity fires. 

Wildlife 

2.4 How has the fire altered habitat conditions for TES and special status species in these 

watersheds? 

The Megram Fire altered habitat conditions for many of the TES wildlife species dependent on 

late-successional habitat. There were approximately 28,950 acres in the late mature and old 

growth seral stages within the tanoak, white fir, red fir and Douglas-fir vegetation series prior to 

the fire; the Megram Fire reduced the amount of late mature and old growth habitat by 21 percent, 

to 22, 890 acres. Before the fire, shrub/forb habitat comprised approximately 4,560 acres; after 

the fire, this seral stage now comprises approximately 18,610 acres, an increase of over 400 

percent. 

Threatened, Endangered, and Proposed Species 

Northern Spotted Owl: The fire reduced the amount of nesting and roosting habitat for the 

northern spotted owl by approximately 20 percent. Of the 33 activity centers within the analysis 

area, 25 were above the “take” threshold prior to the Megram Fire; only 11 are now above the 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

4-13 
Chapter 4 

“take” threshold at the 1,340 acre level for nesting and roosting habitat. Before the fire, 84 

percent of the acres capable of supporting suitable habitat were suitable habitat; currently, only 65 

percent of the capable area is suitable. Future reductions in suitable habitat may be expected 

through additional conifer mortality from insects and fire related stress. 

Marbled Murrelet: Extensive surveys were conducted within the analysis area during Phase II of 

the Marbled Murrelet Range and Distribution Study. The study has yielded no detections of 

marbled murrelets within the analysis area. The Megram Fire reduced the amount of suitable 

habitat for this species by approximately 11 percent on SRNF lands within the analysis area. 

Even though the fire reduced the amount of suitable habitat for this species, the effects to 

individual species are probably negligible. 

Bald Eagle: Within the analysis area there are no historic or known nesting territories for the 

bald eagle. Therefore, there are no known impacts from the fire on any bald eagle nesting 

territories within the analysis area. 

Other Species of Interest 

Marten and Fisher: The fisher occupies habitat similar to that used by the marten and the 

northern spotted owl. As a result of the Megram Fire, potential habitat for the fisher was reduced 

to 33,903 acres, which reflects a reduction of 23 percent from pre-Megram Fire habitat 

assessments. Before the fire, approximately 25,720 acres of the analysis area were classified as 

suitable for the marten. The fire reduced the amount of potentially suitable habitat for the marten 

by approximately 31 percent, to 17,850 acres. The majority of the suitable marten habitat affected 

by the fire was in the higher elevation white fir and red fir communities. 

These two species also utilize riparian corridors to a high degree for travel and foraging. Over 74 

percent of the riparian reserves within the Horse Linto watershed were affected by moderate to 

high fire severities. Riparian reserves in the Mill and Tish Tang watersheds were impacted at the 

36 and 54 percent level by moderate and high burn severities. The impacts to the riparian 

reserves have the potential to alter the travel corridors and foraging habitats for these two 

species. 

Northern Goshawk: The general habitat for this species in the watershed analysis area consists 

of Douglas-fir and white fir in the mid mature, late mature and old growth seral stages. Prior to the 

Megram Fire, there were approximately 43,850 acres of suitable habitat for this species. After the 

fire, there are currently 33,930 acres of suitable habitat within the analysis area (represents a 23 

percent loss due to the fire). There are four known and two suspected territories in the watershed 

analysis area. The Ladder Rock and the Horse Trail territories were extensively impacted by the 

loss of habitat by high severity wildfire. The South Fork Mill Creek, Tish Tang East, Tish Tang 

West, and the Groves Prairie territories were affected by a combination of low to moderate burn 

severities. Future reductions in suitable habitat for this species may be expected through 

additional conifer mortality from insects and fire related stress. 

Willow Flycatcher: The willow flycatcher utilizes willow and alder dominated wet meadow 

systems. Suitable habitat exists within the analysis area in several high elevation meadow 

systems near the Trinity Summit area and the adjacent meadow complexes found in the Trinity 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

4-14 
Synthesis and Interpretation 

Alps Wilderness Area. Surveys for willow flycatchers within the Trinity Summit area have not 

yielded any detections; however, not all suitable habitat has been surveyed. The effects of the 

Megram Fire on willow flycatcher habitat are currently unknown. Limited field reconnaissance has 

occurred in suitable habitat to validate the effects of the fire on this species habitat. 

Peregrine Falcon: There are two historic peregrine falcon territories within the analysis area, 

which include the Mill Creek and Horse Linto territories. The Horse Linto territory was extensively 

impacted by a combination of moderate and high burn severities. The foraging habitat within the 

Mill Creek territory was affected to a lower degree given the lower level of burn severities that 

occurred within this territory. The areas within and adjacent to the existing territories may offer a 

unique guild of prey species in the future for this species. 

Herpetofauna and other riparian-dependent species: Within the analysis area, the following 

species are known to occur; the foothill yellow-legged frog, southern torrent salamander, and the 

Del Norte salamander. Surveys for the western pond turtle and the northern red-legged frog have 

not yielded detections for these species. However, suitable habitat within the analysis area exists 

for these two species. The specific impact of the Megram Fire on herpetofauna and ripariandependent species is currently unknown. However, given the level of impacts to riparian reserves 

discussed in the section for marten and fisher, it is probable that the impacts on the habitat 

attributes needed by these species may be significant given the level of fire severities within 

riparian reserves. 

Survey and Manage Species: The analysis area provides habitat for an number of survey and 

manage and protection buffer species. The known occurrences include the Del Norte 

salamander, Oregon shoulderband snail, Klamath shoulderband snail, Pressley Hesperian snail, 

papillose tail-dropper snail, and one protection buffer species – Ancotrema voyanum. Surveys 

are required for the above listed species as well as the Tehama chaparral snail and the Shasta 

chaparral snail. The majority of the survey and manage species that are predicted to occur within 

the analysis area are vulnerable to fire even at low burn severities. The effect of the Megram Fire 

on these species has yet to be determined in the absence of limited monitoring data after the fire. 

It is expected that in the areas of high burn severity, species were consumed and the area is no 

longer considered habitat, however species may have survived in adjacent areas of unburned 

habitat or areas with low to moderate burn severities. 

2.5 Within the LSR, how has the fire altered the habitat conditions for the northern spotted owl 

and how has the fire affected functionality of the LSR? 

The Draft Recovery Plan for the northern spotted owl predicted that LSR 305 would support 20 

Current Projected Federal Owl Pairs and the 25 Future Projected Federal Owl Pairs. Given the 

habitat conditions after the Megram Fire, LSR 305 does not meet the level of suitable habitat 

needed to provide for 20 Current Projected Federal Owl Pairs nor the 25 Future Projected Owl 

Pairs as per the Draft Recovery Plan. The Megram Fire reduced the amount of nesting and 

roosting habitat by approximately 20 percent and the amount of foraging habitat by 10 percent. 

Currently, only 72 percent of the capable spotted owl habitat within LSR 305 is classified as 

suitable. The preliminary “take” assessment exhibits that LSR 305 is providing suitable habitat 

that is above the “take” threshold in only 11 of the 37 activity centers. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

4-15 
Chapter 4 

As identified within Table 3-25, the highest frequency of affected acres for all intensities was in the 

old growth seral stage. This is unfortunate given the importance of the old growth seral stage in 

providing habitat for late seral dependent species. Approximately 27 percent of the old growth 

seral stage burned with a high severity. Stands in the high severity burn category had greater 

than 70 percent mortality, which reset the seral stage to shrub/forb. This represents a significant 

loss of late seral habitat, one of the key features of the LSR system. The mid mature and late 

mature seral stages also suffered from high severity wildfire, with 29 and 26 percent of their extent 

reset to the shrub/forb seral stage. These two seral stages are very important to the old growth 

seral stage, since they are the source of in-growth. In light of the above data, it is doubtful that 

LSR 305 is adequately functioning at the landscape level in providing late-successional habitat for 

the northern spotted owl and other late seral dependent species. 

2.6 What possible management practices, if any, are needed to facilitate the recovery of 

habitat for these species? 

The desired condition within LSRs is to provide late-successional forest in which structure and 

composition is consistent with site conditions and ecological processes. Management objectives 

within LSRs are designed to protect and enhance conditions of late-successional forest 

ecosystems, which serve as habitat for late-successional dependent species such as the northern 

spotted owl (USDA, USDI 1994). Protection includes reducing the likelihood of large-scale 

disturbances, including stand-replacing fire, insects, and disease epidemics, and major human 

caused activities. Enhancement includes silvicultural treatments designed to accelerate the 

development of late-successional stand characteristics. 

Given the significant impacts of the Megram Fire on late mature and old growth habitats, it is 

critical that emphasis is placed on maintaining and protecting these habitats for late-successional 

dependent species. The HLMTT area is currently below the RMRs for the late mature and old 

growth seral stages. This triggers the next focus, which is an emphasis on accelerating the 

growth of early mature and mid mature stands toward late mature and old growth habitat 

conditions. By emphasizing the acceleration of these two seral stages, late-successional habitat 

will be achieved sooner for late-seral dependent species such as the northern spotted owl. 

The amount of shrub/forb habitat also greatly increased due to the effects of the Megram Fire. 

Management activities should focus on reforestation within these areas for development into late 

mature and old growth habitat. Expedient reforestation is critical for providing habitat for late-seral 

dependent species as well as increasing the functionality of the LSR in the long term. Given the 

extreme fuel loadings within areas of high intensity, management emphasis should focus on 

reducing fuels to reduce the hazard and future risk to adjacent habitats. Many of these stands 

have fuel loadings in excess of 100 to 400 tons per acre. By reducing fuels within these areas, 

fire risk will be further reduced within the new stand, and impacts to seedlings as dead trees 

decay and fall will be minimal. 

The Forest-wide LSRA identifies strategies for a system of shaded fuelbreaks throughout LSR 

305. Opportunities exist for utilizing prescribed underburning in concert with a strategically 

developed system of shaded fuelbreaks to reduce the effects of future wildfires. Using these two 

management tools at the landscape level would provide a significant benefit to the LSR by 

providing a higher level of protection for late seral habitats. An equally critical benefit would be 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

4-16 
Synthesis and Interpretation 

the enhanced protection of mature seral stage habitats that provide the in-growth for late mature 

and old growth habitats. 

Issue 3: Fire, Fuels, and Air Quality 

Fire Risk 

3.1 What is the trend of fire risk within and adjacent to the HLMTT watersheds? 

Lightning has been the cause of the majority of fires within and just east of the Six Rivers portion 

of the HLMTT watersheds, accounting for 97 percent of the acreage burned and 63 percent of the 

wildfires. The Megram Fire, which spread to the Forest from the east, ignited as part of an 

onslaught of nearly 300 lightning fires during a single storm on August 23, 1999. This area has 

had one of the highest lightning occurrence rates on the SRNF. Lightning strikes somewhat follow 

ridges, but overall seem to fit a random pattern of occurrence. 

Human fire occurrence is relatively low within these three watersheds, but a high incidence of fire 

starts is “clustered” along Highways 96 and 299, directly west and southwest of the HLMTT area. 

Private inholdings southwest of Waterman Ridge and on the Hoopa Valley Indian Reservation 

provide the locale for potential future human-caused wildfires. 

The average number of fires per year has remained essentially the same within the analysis area, 

with a noticeable increase during the period from 1990 to 1999, mainly due to a high lightning rate 

in 1990 and 1991. Before the Megram Fire, most fires were kept to small acreages due to the 

following factors: 

• extensive initial attack coverage from several crew bases within relatively close proximity 

• good access to locations of frequent fire starts

• good detection coverage from local residents and lookouts

• local volunteer fire departments that contributed to the fire fighting efforts

The effects of the Megram Fire could have a substantial impact on future fire statistics. Extensive 

areas of dead and dying trees and shrubs (which are easier to ignite than living fuels) are now 

interspersed across a landscape that already had higher than historic densities and fuel loadings. 

In addition, a tremendous number of snags has been created and will continue to be created within 

the severely burned areas as trees are killed by insects and burn-related stresses. This extensive 

snag component, in combination with the relatively high lightning occurrence in the area, and a 

hazardous fuel situation, presents the possibility of increased lightning ignitions and potentially 

large stand-replacing wildfires. 

In some areas (e.g. ridgetops), leaving snags may increase the risk of spotting during a wildfire, 

especially under extreme weather events. If this happens during resource drawdown periods, 

when firefighting forces are not readily available, the wildfire could become larger and produce 

greater damage. Firefighter safety would also be a concern in areas with a large number of snags. 

During an ongoing wildfire, all snags that occur along proposed suppression control lines and 

pose potential safety or spotting problems would be cut down. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

4-17 
Chapter 4 

Future Risk 

To assess past fire occurrence trends and expected future fire occurrence, a risk rating is 

calculated using a standard formula. This standard risk formula is based on the number of fire 

starts, the number of years of historical information, and the number of acres involved: 

Risk rating = [(x/y)*10]/z 

where x = number of starts recorded for the chosen area 

y = number of years records cover 

z = number of acres analyzed, displayed in thousands (65.54) 

Risk ratings and ranges of values used in this assessment are shown in Table 4-3. 

Table 4-3. Fire Risk Ratings and Values 

Risk Values Interpretation 

Low 0 - .49 At least one fire expected every 20 or more years per thousand acres 

Moderate .5 - .99 At least one fire expected in 11-20 years per thousand acres 

High > 1.0 At least one fire expected in 0-10 years per thousand acres 

Table 4-4 shows the risk values and ratings for the Six Rivers portion of the watershed to provide 

a sense of the trend in risk for various periods of time between 1911 to 1999. 

Table 4-4. Risk Values and Ratings for the SRNF Portion of the HLMTT Area 

Period Number Number of Years Risk Value Risk Rating 

1911-19 12 9 0.20 low 

1920-24 15 5 0.46 low 

1930-39 35 10 0.53 moderate 

1940-49 32 10 0.49 low 

1950-59 26 10 0.40 low 

1960-69 22 10 0.34 low 

1970-79 40 10 0.61 moderate 

1980-89 37 10 0.56 moderate 

1990-99 65 10 0.99 moderate 

1911-99 284 84 0.52 moderate 

1911-49 94 34 0.42 low 

1950-99 190 50 0.58 moderate 

1970-99 142 30 0.72 moderate 

The moderate risk rating since 1970, which indicates at least one fire expected in 11 to 20 years 

per thousand acres, coincides with increased access, detection, and recreation activities on the 

National Forest. The substantially higher risk rating for the 1990s (almost in the high category) is 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

4-18 
Synthesis and Interpretation 

mainly due to a high number of lightning fires during this period, including 24 reported lightning 

fires in 1991. The high human-caused fire occurrence immediately adjacent to the HLMTT 

watersheds (within the Hoopa Indian Reservation and along Highways 96 and 299) combined with 

the frequency of lightning strikes on the adjacent Shasta-Trinity wilderness area would increase 

the overall “risk rating” associated with this analysis area. In addition, as mentioned earlier, the 

fuel structure created by the Megram Fire (i.e. tremendous number of snags, large expanses of 

standing dead fuels, future in-growth of grass and shrubs, and large areas that will not be treated 

within the wilderness) could result in higher ignitions and larger wildfires in the future. Given all 

these factors, this area is expected to experience a high risk rating in the future, (i.e. at least one 

fire in the next 10 years per thousand acres). This risk potential, in combination with the state of 

the fuels within and adjacent to these watersheds, would present a substantial threat to local 

communities and the Hoopa Indian Reservation. 

Opportunities for Reducing Wildland Fire Risk 

Management efforts can be instrumental in reducing human-caused wildfire risk. These strategies 

would include increased prevention and focused fuel treatment efforts to deter human-caused fire 

starts and transportation planning to determine the benefits vs. costs of road closures during 

periods of high fire danger. 

Accelerated prevention efforts and transportation management strategies could help reduce the 

human-caused risk both within and adjacent to the HLMTT watersheds. Prevention efforts could 

include local educational campaigns and increased patrols. Local educational efforts may not 

reach recreationists, other visitors who are passing through the area, or arsonists. Increased 

patrols during periods of high visitor use or high fire danger may instead be more effective with 

these groups. Public awareness programs should be accelerated through fire prevention and 

vegetation management program efforts, especially before and during high visitor usage periods 

(e.g., hunting season). 

Road closures (both permanent and seasonal) could assist in eliminating some human-caused 

fires. A Transportation Plan is necessary to address the tradeoffs of access for fuel treatments 

and fire suppression versus road closures that eliminate certain human-caused ignitions or would 

help reduce sedimentation. Roads that pass through or are within burning proximity of a high 

hazard area should be considered for seasonal closure during periods of high fire danger and 

possibly hunting season. Proper signing and education of users would be critical to explain the 

purpose of closures. 

Especially in areas where road closures are not feasible, fuel treatments along roads should be 

pursued in high risk and value areas (e.g., near communities, within and adjacent to LSRs and 

activity centers), with regular maintenance schedules to keep the fuel loadings in check. The risk 

of wildfires burning onto or from inholdings and tribal lands could be reduced with strategically 

placed fuels treatments (e.g., fuelbreaks and/or prescribed burns) and through well-maintained 

defensible spaces around residences. In these areas cooperative fuels treatment, involving 

private landowners, the Hoopa Tribe, and the California Department of Forestry and Fire 

Protection, would be critical to make these fuel treatments effective on a landscape scale. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

4-19 
Chapter 4 

Fire Hazard and Mortality (3.2, 3.3) 

Aggressive prevention and suppression efforts over the past 80 years have lengthened fire return 

intervals, resulting in higher fuel loadings and densities. Even before the Megram Fire, large 

portions of the HLMTT watersheds had the potential for high to extreme fire behavior, especially 

late in the summer when recreation, traffic and lightning occurrence are typically at their highest 

levels. The Megram Fire has compounded this situation due to the extensive, contiguous areas of 

stand-replacing and mixed mortality fire effects across the vast majority of the HLMTT area (see 

Figures 3-12 through 3-17). The potential for re-burning in these areas is high solely due to the 

inherent factors associated with these watersheds (i.e. steep slopes, frequent lightning 

occurrence, and summertime drying). In addition, the extensive amounts of killed and stressed 

trees that resulted from the Megram Fire will provide extremely high levels of standing and surface 

dead fuel available to burn during the next series of wildfires. Initially, finer fuel (needles and small 

branches) will prevail over much of the ground in the burned area, but in three to five years, more 

trees will fall over and extensive carpets of shrubs will grow back due to the removal of canopy. 

Modeling of current fire behavior (year 1) shows that 40 percent of the HLMTT area has the 

potential for high to extreme ROS and FL in August. The highest continuous concentrations of this 

immediate projected threat are in the lower reaches of Horse Linto Creek, outside the Megram Fire 

area. Within a one-mile buffer of the HLMTT watershed, a continuous area just southwest of 

Waterman Ridge also displays the potential for high to extreme fire behavior in August. This area 

is steep and is comprised of predominantly pole and shrub stands, which typically would display 

this hazardous fire behavior. Modeled future fire behavior shows that this late summer, high to 

extreme hazard would exist for approximately 46 percent of the watershed area in 5-7 years, and 

43 percent in 10 to 12 years. There is not much spatial difference in the location of this potentially 

hazardous fire behavior between these three time periods, with the highest continuous 

concentrations in the lower Horse Linto Creek watershed and the area just outside the southwest 

boundary of the HLMTT area. It can be projected that similar hazardous conditions will continue 

well beyond the next 12 years until a substantial overstory component has been reestablished. 

Even the June high to extreme fire behavior results increased over time in this modeling period, 

from 16 percent in year 1 to 21 percent in the 10 to 12 year period. 

When the next wildfire occurs in this area, the extremely large (one to three miles in length and 

width in some places) continuous patches of standing dead trees could easily extend further into 

the adjacent low to moderately burned areas. Modeled mortality from future wildfires is also quite 

extensive in all three time periods, with the highest extent in years 5-7 with 41 percent of the area 

in the lethal, stand-replacing category. Adjacent areas of untreated fuels in neighboring private 

inholdings, the Hoopa Valley Indian Reservation, or within the Trinity Alps Wilderness, roadless 

areas, or the Shasta-Trinity portion of LSR305 add to the equation of an extensive and continuous 

hazardous fuels situation at a landscape level. The east-west orientation of most major drainages 

in this area also presents the scenario of dry easterly winds pushing a fire towards the Hoopa 

Indian Reservation or private inholdings to the southwest of the Horse Linto watershed. 

Since this area recently experienced a large catastrophic wildfire event, active management will be 

just as critical to reduce the risk of even more detrimental effects from the next wildfire. Areas that 

have been treated within the watersheds (and survived the wildfire) can provide some discontinuity 

in these expanses of homogeneous high to extreme fuel loadings. Fire behavior during Megram 

Fire showed which ridges and roads were strategically located to benefit suppression efforts. All 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

4-20 
Synthesis and Interpretation 

of these areas need to be used and built on as much as possible to break up this continuity of 

hazardous conditions and to assist future suppression efforts. 

During suppression resource draw-down (e.g. fire season 1996 and 1999), this area would again 

have a lower priority than more populated watersheds, which could result in larger more intense 

wildfires. Therefore, access for initial attack is critical to locate and fight potentially damaging fires 

when they are small. Permanent road closures could negatively impact access both for 

suppression and fuel treatment activities. 

Riparian Areas (3.2, 3.3, 4.4, 4.6) 

Aggressive past fire suppression and prevention efforts in addition to mortality from the Megram 

Fire has produced high levels of fuel accumulations in some riparian areas. A continuous 

concentration of heavy fuels along this linear chimney path from the bottom of the drainage to the 

top creates the potential for future crown fires and increased tree mortality and riparian habitat 

degradation. The affected riparian area will recover over time due to its shading pattern and 

moisture conditions, but in the meantime sediment load to the streams will probably be increased. 

The LRMP states “In Riparian and Late-Successional Reserves, the goal of wildfire suppression is 

to limit the size of all fires.” This strategy, which was traditionally called “the 10-acre policy”, is 

counter to the complaints aimed at five to eight decades of aggressive fire suppression which has 

resulted in “significant increases in accumulated fuels” (FSEIS ROD B-7). Lightning fire 

occurrences and traditional burning techniques used by local Native Americans indicate that fire 

has been and will be a major player in virtually every ecosystem on the Forest. Skinner's study (in 

preparation) shows that fire is also a frequent player in riparian areas on the west and east side of 

the Shasta-Trinity Divide in the Klamath Mountains. Even though their fire return intervals are 

longer and more variable, certain conditions (e.g. long-term droughts, south or west-facing slopes) 

could make fires behave in a similar fashion to nearby upland sites. 

Rather than limiting the size of all fires within riparian areas, a more realistic and achievable goal is 

to minimize the negative impacts of wildfires that might burn into and through Riparian Reserves. 

Fuel treatment practices, which include fuelbreaks, understory burning, and fuel removal, can 

assist this goal by reducing excess fuel loadings and vertical and horizontal fuel continuity. Fuel 

treatment and fire suppression “strategies should recognize the role of fire in ecosystem function 

and identify those instances where fire suppression or fuels management activities could be 

damaging to long-term ecosystem function” (FSEIS ROD C-35). Fuels management that attempts 

to isolate an area by only treating outside it could be even more damaging by leaving continuous 

and higher fuel loadings within the area of concern. This is especially true of Riparian Reserves, 

which are linear features that go from the bottom of the slope to the top of the ridge - an excellent 

wick to carry the fire. 

“In LSRs in the Klamath Province, silviculture aimed at reducing the risk of stand-replacing fires 

may be appropriate. Treatments may include thinning and underburning. Due to fire suppression, 

some forests have become quite dense and multistoried, primarily from the invasion of shadetolerant species. Density reduction in mid-level canopy layers by thinning may reduce the 

probability of crown fires” (ROD, B-7). In Riparian Reserves, it does not appear that shade 

tolerant species are the problem, since these areas have typically had denser canopies. What 

appears to have changed is the density and continuity of ground fuels within these corridors. With 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

4-21 
Chapter 4 

more “natural” fire frequencies, a more typical mosaic pattern of succession and recruitment would 

have occurred and the multistory, ladder situation would not have been so extensive. 

Opportunities to Reduce Fire Hazard (1,3, 2.5, 3.4, 3.5, 5.5) 

In the Recovery Plan for the Northern Spotted Owl, Agee and Edmonds (1992) found that a 

“hands-off” policy was not recommended for any of the areas associated with the northern spotted 

owl. Active management was deemed “particularly necessary” in the Klamath subregion due to its 

high catastrophic risk level from wildfires: “Fire suppression in this region has helped to create a 

broader landscape pattern of multiple-canopied stands with thick understories, thought to be 

suitable for northern spotted owl habitat. The forest protection strategies recommended here (i.e. 

fuelbreaks and underburning) will reduce some of that habitat to more effectively protect the rest. 

Such forests, in their present condition, are also more likely to be catastrophically disturbed 

because of higher physiological stress, caused by increased tree density, higher fire hazard, and 

higher horizontal and vertical fuel continuity. Recommendations to reduce owl habitat in order to 

save it may seem a paradox. We believe that such implementation will, in the long run, better 

protect owl habitat than a more short-sighted attempt to continue total protection. Active 

management in some areas to reduce the probability of large-scale catastrophic events is the most 

rational management direction...Fuel and fire specialists in the vicinity of each Designated 

Conservation Areas (DCA) [the precursor to LSRs] are the best qualified to develop the fuel 

management strategies. There is no reason to expect the strategy to be the same in each DCA. 

The expected result of any strategy will be a temporary to permanent reduction in preferred owl 

habitat within the manipulated area, with a higher probability of control of potentially catastrophic 

wildfires over the larger area.” (Agee and Edmonds 1992). The overall objective is to employ fire 

scientifically to realize maximum, long-term net benefits at acceptable damage and cost levels. 

Vegetation management and/or natural fuels reduction needs to be considered throughout the 

watersheds, taking into consideration existing and potential risk, hazard, and values. Brackebusch 

(1973) emphasized the importance of developing hazard reduction plans for large areas that 

incorporate a variety of strategies. He suggested that combinations of fuelbreaks, vegetation 

mosaics, and project-level treatment on a landscape scale would be more cost effective than 

project-level treatment alone. Due to the extensive effect of the Megram Fire within these 

watersheds, fuel treatments and wildland fire use need to be investigated with the goal of returning 

to more "natural" fire regimes of frequent, low intensity fires. 

Resource management activities should be designed and implemented so that the wildfire hazard 

level of the surrounding area is not increased to an unacceptable level. Concentrations of fuels 

created by management activities (e.g. slash from road clearing) should be reduced to acceptable 

levels and arrangements based on the site-specific wildfire risk and the needs of other resources. 

The selected treatment methods should consider resource values and environmental limitations 

(for example, topography, accessibility) as well as costs. 

The effectiveness of any fuel treatment program within the LSR will depend on its spatial 

distribution, the number of acres treated per year, and the duration of the beneficial effect of that 

treatment. Realistically, fuel treatment opportunities within this LSR may be difficult to accomplish 

because of the constraint realities of funding, weather, survey requirements, the environmental 

restrictions of air quality and burning during nesting periods, and competition from other high 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

4-22 
Synthesis and Interpretation 

priority treatment areas outside the HLMTT area. The burning windows for prescribed burns may 

be extremely short, with unpredicted weather shutting down a planned burn for an entire year. 

Spring burning is typically preferred because of reduced resource damage (air quality, soil, 

consumption of coarse woody debris) due to lower intensity burning, but the associated smoke 

may impact nesting wildlife. Helicopter ignitions are often preferred for large area ignitions in 

steep terrain, but helicopter noise is a concern in LSRs during the nesting period. Project 

planning and consultation with U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and National Marine Fisheries 

Service must address the short-term vs. long-term effects and benefits of fuel treatments 

(especially burning) within and adjacent to LSRs. 

Fuelbreaks 

Fuelbreak construction includes those activities necessary to permanently modify a strip of heavy, 

hazardous fuels with dense stand characteristics to a lighter, more open fuel type along a 

strategically located ridge, natural land feature, or road. “Compartmentalized landscape units of 

reduced fuel allow safe access for fire suppression crews and provide strategic locations for 

efficient fire suppression. Stands are manipulated to reduce continuity of canopies, boles are 

pruned on residual trees and significant quantities of understory fuels are removed” (ROD, B-7). 

Fuelbreak construction would entail manipulation of live vegetation by thinning young conifers, 

limbing larger trees and cutting brush. This activity may be done be manual and/or mechanical 

means, with prescribed burning as a key component in removing the fine fuels that carry a ground 

fire and the ladder fuels (e.g. low branches) that can carry the fire into the crown. Jackpot fuels 

(i.e. concentrations of natural or activity fuels) that increase the chance of high intensities, 

spotting, and torching are also reduced or eliminated during the construction of a fuelbreak. As 

was shown in the existing fuelbreaks within the Megram Fire, reducing canopy cover and snags 

also decreases the chance of a crown fire continuing throughout a stand and spotting into an 

adjoining drainage. Snags left within a fuelbreak could hamper suppression effectiveness. 

Therefore, if snags are left within the fuelbreak and a wildfire occurs within or downslope from the 

fuelbreak, all snags that could present safety or spotting problems would be cut down in a control 

suppression strategy. 

This strip of land on which the vegetation has been modified to a lower fuel loading and more open 

canopy is used for the purposes of: 

• breaking up expanses of continuous heavy fuels into smaller blocks which are more 

manageable from a fire suppression standpoint 

• providing safe access to suppression forces during fire control operations 

• providing a prepared line and anchor points from which fire suppression forces can 

backfire to remove hazardous fuels ahead of an oncoming wildfire 

• minimizing adverse resource impacts of control strategies and the need for intensive 

rehabilitation efforts in the event of a large, intense wildfire (e.g., wide dozer firelines) 

• providing the infrastructure necessary for adjacent, large area, landscape level prescribed 

burns to be implemented 

Shaded fuelbreaks could also be used to help isolate high-risk areas where understory burning is 

not desired or practical (e.g., plantations, adjacent to communities, Botanical Areas). In addition 

fuelbreaks allow fire control forces to conduct backfiring operations even with the bulk of forces 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

4-23 
Chapter 4 

deployed elsewhere (Agee et al., 2000). Individual examples of this occurred during the Megram 

Fire (Hostler pers. comm. 2000). 

Fuelbreaks often include “safety islands” (strategic areas where personnel and their equipment 

can be located safely if a fire is spreading all around them) and improved sources of water. 

Because of environmental dynamics and the long-term use and strategic nature of fuelbreaks a 

maintenance and reburn schedule is necessary to keep fuel loading and canopy closure at 

required standards. “Indefinite maintenance of the fuelbreak in low fuel condition is essential. In 

the Klamath subregion, the occurrence of sprouting hardwoods with substantial regrowth potential 

(Tappeiner et al. 1984) suggests maintenance intervals of a decade or less for fuelbreaks” (Agee 

and Edmonds). Subsequent treatments should be relatively easy and much less costly because 

the majority of ladder fuels and jackpots have already been eliminated. Under low to moderate 

weather conditions future wildfires would respond in a similar fashion to a prescribed burn, with 

resulting low to moderate fire severity. 

Prescribed Burning 

Prescribed fire is any fire ignited by management actions to meet specific objectives, and it 

includes understory burning (or underburning), pile burning, and jackpot burning. Due to the 

magnitude of hazard within and adjacent to the fire affected area, large area underburning is a 

landscape-level option that needs to be considered within the HLMTT watersheds. Regarding 

LSRs in the Klamath Province “Underburning can be used to reduce fuel loading and vertical fuel 

continuity. Wildfires in stands that are managed using underburning are generally less severe, 

and fire suppression is aided. To increase effectiveness, underburning should be implemented 

over large areas” (FSEIS ROD, B-7). 

Understory burning involves the application of prescribed fire to natural or management produced 

(e.g. thinning) fuels under an overstory canopy to reduce fuel loading and vertical fuel continuity. 

Conditions of weather, fuel moisture, soil moisture, and staffing are chosen that will allow the 

confinement of the fire to a predetermined area. At the same time prescriptions are designed to 

produce fire intensities and rates of spread required to accomplish certain planned benefits to one 

or more objectives of hazard reduction, silviculture, wildlife management, grazing, etc. Since 

underburning is an area treatment that eventually reduces total dead fuel loads and vertical fuel 

continuity (Agee and Edmonds 1992), “wildfires entering such stands under most conditions have 

less severe overstory scorch and allow direct control of the fire. To be effective, underburning 

must be implemented over wide areas...Underburn sites can be keyed into fuelbreaks to expand 

fuel-reduced areas. The underburning need not be done at historic return intervals. Monitoring of 

burned areas where owls exist should be done to determine what effects underburning has and 

how long they last.” 

Large area burns should be the norm (both for economic and ecological efficiency), but at the 

same time underburning includes some inherent risks. Burning large areas will involve some 

Riparian Reserves. Large areas may burn in mosaics with varying fire intensity and severity. 

While this may mimic natural underburning, there are risks associated with retaining coarse woody 

debris and preserving remaining trees and snags. The likelihood for reburning, spotting, and the 

killing of some trees is increased as is the possibility for a prescribed burn to escape the planned 

burn area. The mortality of standing trees would primarily involve younger, thinner barked, or fire 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

4-24 
Synthesis and Interpretation 

intolerant tree species, which, in turn, can contribute to future snags and coarse woody debris. 

However, it is anticipated that by prescribed burning under appropriate weather conditions, 

subsequent detrimental wildfire effects may be reduced by decreasing the amount of available fuel 

and breaking up the fuel ladder. To prevent further resource damage in the areas of moderate to 

high mortality within the Megram Fire area it would be important to remove as much excess heavy 

dead fuel material as possible before understory burning was undertaken. Piling and burning 

created fuels and burning natural concentrations of fuels (jackpots) would also be important in this 

removal effort. 

Fire Suppression 

Beyond fuel treatments that strategically address hazard reduction throughout the landscape, 

certain other strategies can help improve overall suppression effectiveness. Due to the 

dramatically increased hazard in this area, increased initial attack and detection forces would be 

critical for suppression effectiveness in future fire seasons. This increase would not be excess of 

the annual calculated MEL (Most Efficient Level) as determined by the fire budgeting program, 

NFMAS (National Fire Management Analysis System). During periods of high fire danger or 

multiple fire starts throughout the state, prepositioning of crews and equipment could help 

decrease arrival times. With reductions in fire hazard over time, this staffing increase would revert 

to current levels in approximately 15 years. 

Wildland fire use is the management of naturally ignited wildland fires to accomplish specific prestated resource management objectives in predefined geographic areas outline in Fire 

Management Plans (NPS et al., 1998). As designated in the LSRA (1999) the entire LSR complex 

was designated as a candidate for wildland fire use. The Wildland Fire Implementation Process 

will be used real-time to determine where wildland fires in the LSR would help to achieve resource 

benefits. Wildland fire use should be considered under the right weather and staffing parameters 

as a way to reduce the long term hazard for this area. This strategy should especially be 

considered in areas that have already been designated as good candidates for large area 

understory burns. 

Other suppression strategies that should be considered for use under the right weather and 

staffing parameters include the Minimum Impact Suppression Tactics (MIST) (Appendix H) which 

were developed in Region 1 primarily for use in wilderness areas, proposed wilderness, or other 

lands with similar land management objectives. The intention of these tactics was to reduce fire 

suppression or holding impacts on resources while insuring the actions taken were timely and 

effective. These low impact tactics for suppression, logistics, aviation, hazardous materials, 

rehabilitation, and demobilization should be considered throughout the watershed and carried out 

if at all possible in the LSR and wilderness and any other areas with significant resource concerns 

(e.g., near landslide areas), except during extreme burning periods when the need to aggressively 

suppress the wildfire overrides the resource concern. These low impact suppression actions may 

result in an increase in the amount of time spent watching, rather than disturbing, a dying fire to 

insure it does not rise again. They may also involve additional rehabilitation measures on the site 

that were not previously carried out. 

Of special importance to this area is cooperative wildland fire management between the Forest 

Service and federally recognized tribes as indicated in the MOU between Federally Recognized 

Tribes sited within the Six Rivers National Forest and the USDA Forest Service, Six Rivers 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

4-25 
Chapter 4 

National Forest (2000): “Such cooperation will benefit natural resources, the parties, and the 

public, and will provide a foundation for formal and informal consultation on a government-togovernment basis and, more specifically, will assure that Tribal concerns are effectively 

addressed by those managing incidents within areas of concern, and to do so in manners which, 

at a minimum, do not compromise firefighting safety and effectiveness, and which demonstrate a 

high regard for cost efficiency.” On extended attack fires, Tribal representatives will participate in 

both planning and implementation levels of the Incident Management Organization, and interact 

with all relevant resources. 

Considering the risk and hazard within this watershed, pre-attack planning should also be 

addressed and pursued to determine the need and placement of water sources, helispots, 

communication links, etc. It is known that access to water sources is deficient in this watershed 

and need to be developed. Pre-attack planning could also incorporate areas of special tribal 

management consideration regarding cultural or spiritual sites or attributes. 

Air Quality (3.4, 3.5) 

The social data indicates that the local communities have immense concern regarding the 

potential long-term impacts to individual health from lengthy exposure to wildfire smoke. 

Community safety during future fires in the analysis area was a concern that crossed the broad 

range of community views. 

The community strongly believes that the analysis area poses a threat to community safety and 

health due to a high risk for potential future fires resulting from fuel build-up after the Megram Fire. 

They believe that exposure to heavy smoke for long periods should not be a probable 

consequence of any future management activity or wildfire. Air quality as it relates to wildfires is 

directly related to the duration of fire, dispersion characteristics, and fuel loading. Local 

communities believe that removal of large amounts of fuel build-up will reduce the threat of future 

health-related risks from prolonged exposure to smoke. 

In terms of air quality, large, stand-replacing wildfires (as was shown by the Megram Fire) produce 

significantly greater amounts of pollutants than prescribed burning, with the potential for greater 

health impacts to residents and visitors during the summer months. Due to the duration and 

extremely high amounts of pollutants from the Megram Fire, health variables may have been 

affected for local residents who stayed within the impacted area for the duration of the fire. 

Repeated exposure to high levels of pollutants would only exacerbate the problem for these local 

residents. 

The extensive amounts of fire-killed and stressed trees provide extremely high levels of dead and 

down fuel available to burn during the next series of wildfires. This could potentially generate 

particulate levels equivalent to that produced when the Megram Fire burned through the blowdown 

area. This will be especially true in three to five years when the standing dead trees will fall over 

and be interspersed with extensive carpets of shrub and tree regrowth. 

Opportunities to Reduce Negative Air Quality Impacts 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

4-26 
Synthesis and Interpretation 

3.5 What possible management practices could reduce the potential for extended exposure to 

smoke from wildfire? 

Fuel treatments designed to reduce the overall fuel loading and the ladder component can 

decrease the amount of fuel available to burn in wildfires and break up the continuity of the fuels. 

Shaded fuelbreaks along roads and ridges, in combination with understory burning downslope 

from these areas, can also provide the infrastructure needed to more successfully keep wildfires 

confined to smaller areas. 

When implementing prescribed burning, the following smoke reduction practices should be 

considered for use to minimize negative impacts to nearby residents: 

• Remove or yard fuels in excess of resource and habitat requirements 

• Limit size of burn or fuel consumed each day. 

• Favor backing fires whenever possible. 

• Burn when fuel moisture is low for better combustion. 

• Burn minimal amounts of green material. 

• Burn with a high atmospheric mixing height. 

• Burn when conditions are not stagnant. 

• Limit smoldering combustion especially at night. 

• Be aware of other burning activities in the area. 

If possible, biomass utilization should be promoted in the local communities to reduce the amount 

of slash left on the ground and the resultant smoke that is generated during the prescribed 

burning. Firewood collecting opportunities should also be pursued and encouraged, especially 

along roads within shaded fuelbreaks as another way to remove excess fuels. 

Priorities for Treatment 

The Six Rivers portion of these watersheds provides several opportunities and challenges for 

implementing broad fuels treatment and fire prevention programs, with focused and cooperative 

efforts having the greatest chance for success. By following the Megram Fire with strategic, large 

area fuel treatments, negative impacts from future fires can be somewhat lessened. Initial fuel 

treatment focus should be directed along major roads and ridges, especially those that were 

effectively used during the Megram Fire, including Waterman Ridge and Packsaddle Ridge. 

Adjoining south and west facing slopes in the upper 1/3 slope position are also of highest benefit 

from treatments. As stated in the Federal Wildland Fire Management Policy, “Firefighter and 

public safety is the first priority in every fire management activity” (USDI and USDA 1995). Due to 

the extensive potential for future wildfires with high to extreme fire behavior, fuel treatments related 

to community and reservation protection are of the highest priority. Since a high number of 

plantations that were burned in this fire are also in close proximity to adjacent private land, 

treatment focus needs to include plantations, especially where they coincide with strategic 

fuelbreaks. Opportunities for cooperative fuel treatment projects exist and should be aggressively 

pursued along the border between public, tribal, and private lands, as a buffer between 

ownerships (i.e. the western and southwestern portion of the watershed). 

As mentioned in the LSRA (1999), treatments along frequently used roads and strategic ridges 

(Waterman Ridge, Packsaddle Ridge, Tish Tang a Tang Ridge, and Lone Pine Ridge), along the 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

4-27 
Chapter 4 

Reservation Boundary (Figure 4-1) and in the vicinity of both developed and dispersed camp sites 

(Groves Prairie, Happy Camp, Tish Tang, Box Camp, hunter camps) and wilderness trailheads 

(Grizzly Camp, Tish Tang, Red Cap) should be seriously considered. Due to the high humancaused fire occurrence along Highways 299 and 96, these would also be prime candidates outside 

the HLMTT watersheds for further fuel modification, including shaded fuelbreaks. 

Public awareness and fire prevention efforts should be accelerated within and around the 

communities of Willow Creek, Hoopa, Hawkins Bar, and Trinity Village, including reemphasizing 

the benefits of fuels treatments on private and tribal land. Developed and dispersed recreation 

sites, including hunter camps, would also be good sites for increased public fire awareness. 

Community participation and involvement should be encouraged as a mutually beneficial activity. 

There is an opportunity to develop a Community Safety Plan in partnership with the Forest 

Service, CDF and other organizations to assist communities in reducing private property risks from 

wildfires. As an alternate opportunity, implement the “Firewise” program developed by the 

National Wildland/Urban Interface Fire Protection Program. The concept is of providing 

workshops to communities using GIS mapping, role-playing and simulated exercises to develop a 

firewise community plan that would enable people to survive wildfire without using fire agencies. 

Riparian and Aquatic System 

Issue 4: Long-Term Health and Recovery of Riparian 

and Aquatic Systems and Species 

This section summarizes trends in erosion processes and their effects on water quality 

parameters, and particularly how the Megram fire may exacerbate those processes and 

conditions. The interactions between erosion processes and management in these watersheds 

are examined, including possible cumulative effects and the benefits of watershed restoration 

work. Finally, the likely consequences to aquatic and riparian species over both the short and long 

term are addressed. 

Erosion Processes and Water Quality 

4.1 How have natural and human-caused disturbances (floods, landsliding, fire & resource 

management) affected erosion processes in the watershed? What parts of the watershed 

have been most affected? 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

4-28 
Synthesis and Interpretation 

Figure 4-1. Potential Proposed Fuel Treatment Areas: 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

4-29
Chapter 4 

Erosion processes have been driven primarily by major storm/flood events, and historic sediment 

delivery to streams has resulted principally from mass wasting and secondarily from surface 

erosion. A large proportion of delivered sediment has been fine-grained, due to the geologic 

substrate of these watersheds, and it has had some adverse effects on water quality and fish 

habitat, especially following the 1964 flood. Before management began in the 1950s, 

mass wasting was comparable in the upper and lower watersheds, and surface erosion may 

actually have been somewhat higher on the diorite terrane underlying the upper watersheds. 

In contrast, the large pulse of sediment resulting from three large storms between 1960 and 1975 

originated largely from Galice terrane and older landslide deposits within the lower watersheds. 

Wildfire has probably had a moderate effect on erosion and sedimentation over the centuries, but 

there is little direct evidence of its historic role. In the recent past, aggressive fire suppression has 

greatly reduced the role of wildfire as an erosion agent until the recent Megram Fire, where 

elevated fuel levels are likely to have increased erosional effects. 

Parts of the lower watersheds had been intensively managed during the 1960s and 1970s, and 

this management probably resulted in disproportionately higher landslide delivery rates and total 

erosion. Resource management appears to have played a much larger role in sediment production 

in Tish Tang and Mill Creeks than in Horse Linto Creek. Two-thirds of sediment delivered by 

landslides in Tish Tang Creek but only one-fifth of sediment delivered in Horse Linto Creek can be 

attributed to management. Roads have definitely been associated with more sediment production 

and delivery from landslides than timber harvest. 

The Megram Fire has left extensive parts of all three watersheds vulnerable to accelerated 

surface erosion on steep slopes and to increased mass wasting on sensitive terrain, including 

headwalls, inner gorge and old landslide deposits. The greatest threat of accelerated erosion is in 

the Horse Linto watershed because of the greater proportion of high and moderate severity 

burned areas on steep, erodible slopes underlain by diorite. The current erosion potential in 

burned areas could have been exacerbated by the century of fire suppression that preceded the 

fire and left unnaturally high fuel levels. Erosion levels will gradually attenuate over the next 5 to 

10 years due to surface armoring, accumulation of organic debris and natural revegetation. 

The potential for increased mass wasting as a result of the fire is considered less, since the upper 

watersheds that experienced most of the severe fire effects have not experienced as much mass 

wasting historically as the lower watersheds. Moreover, acreage susceptible to mass wasting is 

less extensive than that at risk of accelerated erosion. However, the outcome with regard to mass 

wasting depends largely on whether a landslide-producing storm occurs during the next 5 to 15 

years of higher vulnerability, when root strength is diminished and groundwater levels are raised. 

Possible landslide initiation sites that burned with moderate to high severity appear to be more 

widespread in Horse Linto watershed than in Tish Tang or Mill Creeks. 

Extremely high fuel levels are expected to result from the Megram Fire on many thousand acres of 

high and moderate burn severity. Future wildfires in these areas will tend to burn with high 

severity again, and that would increase the likelihood of future accelerated surface erosion and 

possibly mass wasting delivering sediment to fish-bearing streams. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

4-30 
Synthesis and Interpretation 

4.3 To what extent are cumulative effects (as defined by the Environmental Protection Agency) 

evident in these watersheds? How may future management actions in response to the 

Megram Fire contribute to the level of cumulative effects? 

The effects of management activities on water resources can be cumulative. A cumulative impact 

results from the incremental effect of an action when added to other past, present and reasonably 

foreseeable future actions. Cumulative impacts can result from individually minor but collectively 

significant actions taking place over a period of time. While a watershed analysis is not the same 

as a cumulative effects analysis, it can provide most of the information on which to base a 

cumulative effects analysis and show what characteristics and processes the analysis should 

emphasize. Cumulative effects analysis is intended to evaluate whether or not a given proposed 

action may result in cumulative effects. Critical components include a description of what the past 

was like, how changes have occurred, and what the future may be like (Reid, 1998). A key part of 

watershed analysis is to characterize the cumulative disturbance (both natural and managementrelated) that has occurred and assess its bearing on future natural or human-caused 

disturbances. Thus, an understanding of past trends is critical in forecasting future trends in 

watershed processes. 

The preceding descriptions of erosional history and riparian and aquatic conditions indicate the 

relative contributions of natural and management-related sediment, the downstream impacts to 

aquatic habitat and beneficial uses, and the implications of the recent Megram Fire to hillslope 

erosion and its possible effects on the aquatic system. The Horse Linto watershed did not appear 

to be experiencing cumulative watershed effects (in terms of excessive sediment loads or high 

summer water temperatures) prior to the Megram Fire, and therefore was recovering well from 

past disturbances. Due to the vast extent of the fire in this watershed, however, downstream 

cumulative impacts to beneficial uses from future management activities in burned areas are 

possible and need to be evaluated in project design and mitigated where appropriate. 

In the Tish Tang and Mill Creek watersheds, cumulative watershed effects (including excessive 

sediment loads, high summer water temperatures, and low levels of existing and potential large 

woody debris) existed prior to the Megram Fire. Although the extent of burned acres is less in 

these two watersheds, additional cumulative watershed effects could result from management 

actions in burned areas. 

Prolonged fire suppression itself has had a cumulative effect on erosion processes by replacing 

the natural regime of frequent, moderate to low intensity fires with infrequent, high intensity fires 

like the Megram event that tend to have more serious erosional consequences. The post-fire 

potential for accelerated erosion and mass wasting has almost certainly been exacerbated by past 

fire suppression strategies. Consequently, allowing the area to recover without any intervention to 

reduce fuel levels or mitigate erosion resulting from the fire should not be construed as 

maintaining a natural condition in terms of watershed processes. Given the post-fire ground 

conditions in the upper parts of these watersheds, the threshold of sensitivity for cumulative 

effects has most likely been lowered. Therefore, future management activities should be 

designed with greater caution than would be appropriate had the fire not occurred to prevent 

adverse effects on downstream beneficial uses. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

4-31 
Chapter 4 

The following critical processes and attributes need to be addressed in future cumulative effects 

analysis for proposed actions. The factors that could influence these processes are storm events, 

wildfire and land management activities. 

1. Sediment delivery from potential mass wasting and surface erosion 

2. The likelihood of this sediment impacting downstream water quality and beneficial uses 

3. The condition of riparian corridors in terms of cover and large woody debris recruitment 

and how these elements might affect downstream beneficial uses 

Riparian and Aquatic Species and Habitats 

4.4 How have the abundance and distribution of riparian and aquatic species and their 

habitats changed as a result of natural and human-caused disturbances? 

Some riparian and aquatic species are thought to have declined greatly from their historical 

abundance due to declines in habitat quality. Coho are listed under the ESA, while steelhead and 

chinook are designated as sensitive species due to their overall decline in the Trinity Basin. The 

1964 flood is thought to be primarily responsible for the decline in habitat quality, but management 

that occurred before and after the flood very likely contributed to the decline. Different levels of 

recovery had occurred in the three watersheds prior to the Megram fire. 

Condition Trends in Horse Linto Creek 

Historic and recent data for the Horse Linto watershed indicate that riparian and aquatic habitats 

were recovering well from the extensive impacts that resulted from landsliding and sedimentation 

associated with the 1964 flood, as well as from sediment delivery associated with intensive timber 

management in the 1970s and 1980s. Both aerial photo analysis and stream surveys of habitat 

conditions document general recovery since about 1975. Very little sediment delivery from 

landslides has occurred in that time to threaten the recovery trends. In addition, extensive 

watershed restoration has treated the most critical landslide, road and landing sedimentation 

problems through stabilization, upgrading or decommissioning. The environmental baseline matrix 

also indicates that critical indices of aquatic health were functioning properly within the watershed. 

Horse Linto Creek was considered one of the best key watershed refugia on the Forest in terms 

of watershed condition and anadromous populations. 

Condition Trends in Tish Tang and Mill Creeks 

Historic and recent data for Tish Tang and Mill Creek watersheds indicate that they were severely 

impacted by floods between 1960 and 1975, and that management-related sedimentation has 

played a more dominant role than in the Horse Linto watershed. Aerial photo analysis indicates 

that Tish Tang and Mill Creeks have only partially recovered from the 1964 and later floods. The 

environmental baseline matrix shows that critical aquatic health indices are at risk in Tish Tang 

Creek and are not functioning properly in Mill Creek. Excessive sediment loads continue to be a 

problem for both Tish Tang and Mill Creeks, despite road-related restoration to reduce those 

problems. Riparian areas have been recovering slowly in terms of deciduous canopy that 

provides some shading, but the potential for large woody debris recruitment has been seriously 

reduced over the short and long term due to extensive inner gorge harvesting along many stream 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

4-32 
Synthesis and Interpretation 

channels. The large sediment loads still present in these systems suggest that significant 

cumulative watershed effects may be attributable to land management activities. The identified 

problems in the Mill and Tish Tang watersheds are predominately not related to USFS 

management, however. Improved land management practices, as well as current restoration 

efforts on the Hoopa reservation, should help to improve riparian and channel conditions, but full 

recovery will probably take many decades. 

4.5 How did the Megram Fire affect critical habitat components for the maintenance, protection 

and recovery of anadromous salmonid populations? What additional risks has the fire 

created for riparian and aquatic species and habitats? 

Impacts to watershed health resulting from the Megram Fire (in term of sediment, temperature, 

aquatic habitat and riparian reserves) are expected in all three watersheds. Because of prolonged 

and aggressive fire suppression during the last century in the analysis area, future high intensity 

burns will likely result in higher erosion rates than would have occurred under the natural fire 

disturbances regimes. 

Seventy-three percent of the Horse Linto watershed was burned (27 percent at high severity), 57 

percent of the Tish Tang watershed was burned (17 percent at high severity), and 34 percent of 

the Mill Creek watershed was burned (9 percent at high severity). The fire likely increased 

surface erosion potential and landslide susceptibility substantially on about one-third of the Horse 

Linto watershed, one-quarter of the Tish Tang watershed and one-fifth of the Mill Creek 

watershed where steep headwater slopes and other sensitive terrain burned with moderate to 

high severity. It is estimated that as much as 250,000 tons of additional fine-grained sediment 

could be delivered to streams over the next 5 to 10 years in Horse Linto Creek, mostly from 

surface erosion rather than landsliding. This level of increased sedimentation could temporarily 

set back the recovery of riparian and aquatic habitat in Horse Linto Creek. The projected levels of 

increased sediment delivery in Tish Tang and Mill Creeks are 57,000 and 40,000 tons 

respectively. While not as extreme as projections for the Horse Linto watershed, these impacts 

would further delay recovery of these watersheds and add to existing cumulative watershed 

effects. Elevated summer stream temperatures are also anticipated in the headwaters of all three 

watersheds because of the extensive reduction in riparian canopy along perennial streams and 

anticipated microclimate changes. Only through future monitoring will we know the extent of the 

subsequent effects, if any, on summer stream temperatures in downstream anadromous habitat. 

Effects to other riparian and aquatic species and habitats include alteration and loss of travel 

corridors and foraging habitats used by such species as fisher. Habitat attributes for 

herpetofauna were also altered by burning in riparian reserves. Many bryophytes (mosses and 

liverworts) and certain lichens require micro-habitat conditions that riparian areas provide. Mosses 

in particular are commonly associated with deciduous trees in riparian areas and humid microclimate conditions. Along stream reaches in high severity burn areas, substrate for non-vascular 

plant species were completely consumed. Due to their reliance on moisture and nutrient uptake 

from the atmosphere, smoke levels may have also deleteriously affected these species. 

Increases in peak flow and base flow are also anticipated in headwater channels, particularly in 

the most severely burned areas due to lowered infiltration and reduced evapotranspiration losses. 

The projected changes could be as much as 25 percent, which could result in modest channel 

adjustments such as bank erosion or downcutting. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

4-33 
Chapter 4 

On-site sedimentation increases could be substantial, given the miles of perennial and 

intermittent/ephemeral streams that burned with moderate to high severity (73 percent of IRRs in 

Horse Linto Creek, 54 percent of IRRs in Tish Tang Creek, and 36 percent of IRRs in Mill Creek). 

Sedimentation of streams will depend on the percentage of hillslope erosion that remains stored 

on hillslopes. In this terrain with predominantly granitic soils, it could be as much as a third, which 

would reduce the estimated tons cited above substantially. Nevertheless, surface erosion is 

expected to be the dominant process in burned areas and will tend to deliver mostly sand-sized 

and smaller particles. 

Short-term increases in large woody debris recruitment should be considerable and will result in 

excessive fuel loads in riparian corridors. On the other hand, long-term recruitment may be limited 

for many decades because of the rapid deterioration of true fir after it falls and the delay until new 

trees can reach maturity. Nearly all large woody debris resulting from the fire is expected to 

remain on site rather than being transported downstream. Headwater streams in the burned 

areas are generally not capable of transporting large wood, and historic evidence suggests that 

the debris flow potential in this terrain is low. 

Off-site effects are more difficult to gauge because of the complex hydraulic relationships involved. 

The texture (size distribution) of sediment mobilized from hillslopes and the extent of woody debris 

remaining both on hillslopes and in channels will determine the magnitude and duration of 

downstream impacts to a large extent. The smallest size fractions are likely to move through the 

system rapidly as suspended load, and turbidity monitoring will be able to track this impact. On 

the other hand, much of the coarsest material should remain in headwater reaches except during 

very high flows. The intermediate size fractions (including sand and fine gravel) are the most 

likely to produce aggradation in fish-bearing streams. These impacts will almost certainly affect 

resident habitat within the three watersheds and may also affect downstream anadromous habitat. 

The rate of sediment delivery downstream cannot be predicted with any confidence. The most 

likely scenario is that a substantial fraction of sediment delivered to streams in the burned areas 

will be stored in those headwater streams for an extended time, rather than being rapidly 

transported into the main fish-bearing streams. Peak flows are not predicted to increase 

sufficiently to increase stream power significantly, and most headwater streams do not appear to 

have experienced high sediment transport in the recent past. As noted above, the predominant 

downstream impact is expected to be periodic increases in turbidity rather than large sediment 

loads and blanketing of aquatic habitat as occurred with the 1964 and other floods. In summary, 

downstream impacts associated with the fire are likely, particularly in the Horse Linto and Tish 

Tang watersheds, but the degree and timing of the impacts are not yet known and will have to be 

tracked through monitoring. 

The longest lasting effect will probably be the loss of conifers along perennial stream reaches that 

burned severely enough to kill most of them. The overstory canopy within and near riparian areas 

contributes to microclimate regulation by providing adequate shade, thus affecting humidity and 

temperature conditions. There are only about 10 miles of perennial stream in this condition, but 

there are another 70 miles that experienced moderate loss of riparian conifers. Recovery of an 

effective canopy and its associated microclimate will likely take decades, while recovery of late 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

4-34 
Synthesis and Interpretation 

seral conditions and renewed recruitment of large woody debris could take a century or more. 

Riparian and aquatic species and their habitat are faced with years of effects from this fire and the 

additional risk of similar problems in the future if another catastrophic fire occurs. 

The Megram Fire has also increased future fire risk, particularly in moderate to high severity 

burned areas where residual fuel loads will be very high for decades. Future wildfires in these 

heavy fuels could be very detrimental to beneficial uses in all three watersheds, perhaps even 

surpassing the effects of the Megram Fire. Areas that experienced lower severity burning are less 

susceptible to re-burning because they burned in a patchy mosaic. These lightly burned areas 

are also less sensitive to ground disturbing management activities in terms of potential water 

quality impacts because damaged riparian areas and sensitive soils are less extensive. 

Opportunities to Benefit Water Quality and Restore Riparian 

and Aquatic Habitats 

4.6 What possible management actions or practices are needed to facilitate recovery of 

habitat for riparian and aquatic species? What factors need to be considered when 

proposing activities in response to the fire, especially in riparian areas? 

The Forest Plan and LSR assessment provide direction on desired conditions for fisheries habitat 

in general. In light of the likely effects of the Megram Fire on sedimentation processes, the 

following should be emphasized for this analysis area in particular: 

• maintain the Horse Linto watershed as a properly functioning refugia in the short and long 

term 

• continue to manage USFS lands in the Mill and Tish Tang watersheds to contribute 

towards obtaining properly functioning refugia 

It is important to identify and evaluate key processes and functions operating within riparian areas 

when assessing potential impacts of land management activities on beneficial uses. 

Key processes to consider include: 

• the likelihood of increasing peak flows at the site; 

• the role of large woody debris both in the channel and downstream 

• the influence of canopy cover on microclimate 

• stream channel stability and sediment delivery potential 

• unique riparian vegetation that indicates an elevated water table 

• nutrient cycling and retention 

It is very difficult to quantify the magnitude of future effects of the Megram Fire on anadromous 

habitat or to predict the maximum duration of those effects. Sediment loads that move into a 

headwater stream may take several years to reach anadromous sections. At least several years 

of monitoring are probably necessary before we can gauge the long-term effects of sediment 

delivery from the fire on anadromous habitat, as well as other riparian and aquatic habitats. 

However, this uncertainty about the fire’s effects on riparian and aquatic species, their habitat or 

water quality should not preclude implementation of reasonable management actions within the 

analysis area. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

4-35 
Chapter 4 

Any management strategy applied to these severely burned areas poses some future risk to 

riparian and aquatic resources. If no fuel reduction projects are implemented, future fire intensity 

and erosional consequences could be extreme in areas with fuel loads far in excess of conditions 

prior to the Megram Fire. On the other hand, logging practices to remove excess fuels from 

moderate to high severity burn areas could have some erosional consequences. It is our 

judgment that the former risk is collectively much greater than the latter. The elevated fuel 

conditions will be a long-term and potentially self-reinforcing liability, whereas log removal to 

reduce those fuels would be a short-term impact. In addition, about 3,000 acres of intensive 

timber management has occurred in Horse Linto Creek in the past 35 years, yet aquatic and 

riparian habitats do not appear to have suffered; the watershed is still considered to be functioning 

properly for key ecological indicators of health. Historic evidence strongly suggests that 

cumulative watershed effects result largely from poorly located or constructed roads and from 

imprudent logging practices on steep slopes, but not from timber harvest in general. 

Postponing actions designed to reduce fuel loads and future erosional consequences could 

preclude some remedial options for logistical or economic reasons. The Forest’s responsibility for 

management of the LSR, achieving ACS objectives, and protecting Tribal resources would be best 

served by pursuing some fuels reduction and erosion prevention projects immediately that could 

directly or indirectly benefit riparian and aquatic values in burned areas. 

Within the analysis area, the Horse Linto watershed has the greatest current value as an 

anadromous refugia; it is also the watershed most affected by moderate to high severity fires 

within perennial reaches. Projects designed to improve or protect habitat for fish and other 

riparian associated species would probably have the greatest benefits if pursued in Horse Linto 

Creek. However, work could still be of value in the other two watersheds, even though they do 

not currently qualify as refugia. 

Projects that are likely to benefit riparian and aquatic habitat fall into several categories: 

• reduction of erosion, sedimentation and turbidity where feasible 

• addition of downed woody debris to perennial channels where it is lacking and expected to 

be lacking in the short or long term 

• protection of stream corridors from future high severity wildfire at such a large scale, 

especially existing habitat that remains in those reaches that were burned at low to 

moderate severity 

• decommissioning, upgrading or relocating roads that pose a risk to fish and water quality, 

especially valley bottom roads (such as the end of 7N53) 

• establishing monitoring sites and a methodology to assess effects of livestock grazing 

within these watersheds through interdisciplinary field discussions prior to livestock turnout 

• planting deciduous and conifer species along stream reaches in high severity burn areas 

All activities in and adjacent to riparian areas should be planned to avoid the risk of measurably 

increasing erosion, since there are already short-term problems as a result of the fire. Fuel 

reduction goals should be balanced against the need to maintain some woody debris across the 

landscape, especially along perennial stream corridors. In addition, the needs of woody debris 

available on the ground in the IRRs should be balanced against the potential for future recruitment 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

4-36 
Synthesis and Interpretation 

from standing dead trees. Retention of large standing snags (rather than falling these to provide 

immediate recruitment of wood) may be especially important in some areas because LWD 

recruitment from new live trees may be delayed for more than a century. 

4.2 How can restoration efforts following the Megram Fire influence erosion processes and 

benefit water quality, thereby protecting the domestic water supply in Mill and Tish Tang 

watersheds and enhancing the values that make Horse Linto a key watershed? How long 

will it take for the effects of restoration to be evident? 

Only a portion of planned BAER treatments were implemented before winter rains and snowfall 

restricted access into higher elevations. The types and locations of future treatments are 

somewhat uncertain because a majority of the burned area will have gone through one rainy 

season without any rehabilitation. The extent of future treatments and where they will be effective 

needs to be evaluated in the field. However, given the extent of riparian areas that were impacted 

by the Megram Fire, it is certain that some hillslope and channel treatments will occur in FY 2000. 

Treatments such as aerial seeding, contour felling, strip mulching, grade control structures and 

road-stream crossing improvements are planned, and steps to accomplish the restoration work are 

underway. These kinds of treatments applied in severely burned areas can effectively reduce 

erosion and sedimentation locally. 

Some of the severely burned areas have been identified as susceptible to debris flows because of 

lost root strength and increased groundwater levels. It is probably not practical to treat these sites 

to reduce the debris flow potential, but any road-stream crossings on steep drainages below these 

sites are vulnerable to plugging and failure. If they haven’t failed already this winter, these 

crossings could be evaluated for upgrading to reinforce the crossing, increasing the culvert 

capacity or efficiency, reducing diversion potential, or decommissioning the road in the near 

future. 

Part of watershed restoration is to re-establish a more natural fire regime of frequent, lower 

intensity fire. Overall fuel reduction and breaking up fuel continuity are the principal means of 

accomplishing this goal. Some fuel reduction treatments will require logging systems to remove 

heavy fuels. The literature suggests that post-fire logging on steep slopes and sensitive soils may 

exacerbate erosion. Given the extent and severity of the fire and the erodibility of soils in burned 

areas underlain by diorite, beneficial uses could become degraded to a moderate degree in all 

three watersheds merely as a result of the fire. Therefore, caution is certainly warranted in 

designing or implementing most land disturbing activities to restore burned areas. In terms of 

post-fire watershed restoration, the desired condition is to leave sufficient organic material on 

sensitive hillslopes to anchor the site through recovery without leaving an undesirable fuel load 

that could re-burn at high intensity. 

Potential impacts of log removal in high and moderate severity burned areas could be reduced in 

a variety of ways, such as minimizing construction of new roads, ensuring that any new roads are 

in stable locations, and applying conservative standards in designing logging systems even for 

moderate slopes. In addition, logging residue could actually decrease erosion in post-fire logged 

sites by impeding overland flow, particularly if additional contour felling occurred in riparian areas 

and on steeper hillslopes. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

4-37 
Chapter 4 

It is difficult to predict how long it will take for restoration efforts to be evident due to differences in 

the purpose of the treatments, when they’re implemented and site conditions. The emergency, 

post-fire rehabilitation work that was completed has reduced the amount of erosion caused by the 

fire and fire-fighting activities. Additional erosion control treatments will likewise have immediate 

visible benefits, yet erosion and subsequent negative effects to water quality and fisheries habitat 

could remain elevated in these watersheds for a decade or more. Projects designed to reduce the 

risk of another large catastrophic fire would take several years to implement and be fully effective 

at the site scale. Fully implementing complementary fuels projects across all three watersheds will 

likely take a number of years. 

Social System 

Issue 5: Human Uses, Values, and Expectations 

Human Values and Expectations 

Trends 

The local communities have strong views regarding how their economic viability depends on the 

landscape around them. They have concerns that not managing the LSR through salvage and 

appropriate timber harvesting would result in a landscape that is susceptible to catastrophic 

events, particularly fire. They believe that such events cause great social and economic impacts 

and stress to communities that last longer than the event itself. 

Another view held by community members is that managing with a light hand allows natural 

processes to govern and thus allows the landscape to recover more quickly. 

Recreational fishing within the region and local area is a major attraction that contributes to the 

local economies. A concern is the potential for sediment flow from the burned areas into the 

creeks and ultimately into the Trinity River, affecting fish populations. 

People have fears and concerns regarding the health-related impacts of prolonged exposure to 

high PM10 levels and poor air quality during the Megram Fire. An immense concern is the 

potential for long-term impacts to individual health due to the lengthy exposure to smoke. 

Some people believe that the community suffered economically due the media coverage and the 

poor air quality. The normal inflow of recreationists was disrupted, and low visitation to the 

affected the annual income of several businesses. 

Synthesis and Interpretation 

Social data for this assessment were gathered from written comments and from input provided at 

public meetings in Willow Creek, Hoopa and Eureka. People were asked why the HLMTT 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

4-38 
Synthesis and Interpretation 

watersheds were important to them, what resources they valued in the watersheds, what activities 

they wanted to be implemented, and what activities they did not want to be implemented? These 

questions seemed to focus the discussion around economics, salvage, fuel loading and public 

safety. Discussions at the Eureka meeting surfaced differences among participants whose natural 

resource management values were often diametrically opposed to each other. Two main 

perspectives were voiced: some people did not want the Forest to undertake management 

activities is the fire area, and believed that it was better to allow for purely natural recovery from 

the fire on the landscape; others believed that recovery from the fire should include management 

activities such as salvage. Many considered these two perspectives as trading one value for 

another, with each value being exclusive of the other. 

Many people in the local communities believe that management of the natural resources maintains 

a healthy environment. Timber harvest and salvage are considered as tools that can create a 

healthy forest and local economy. The communities support an active rehabilitation program for 

the analysis area that considers the local economic needs along with the landscape needs for a 

viable healthy ecosystem. 

To a number of participants in the Eureka public meeting, the intrinsic values of the ecosystem are 

more significant to the environment, and thus to potential tourism, than the opportunity of shortterm economic gains from timber harvesting. They view timber harvest, including salvage, as 

achieving only economic objectives, not as a tool for achieving environmental or landscape 

management objectives. A strongly held value is that the overall management goal must be to 

preserve and to re-establish fire and other disturbance regimes that maintain ecological systems 

and processes, while protecting human life and property. 

Recreation and associated tourism play a major economic role in the communities along the 

Trinity River. The analysis area does not play major economic role, but rather serves as a 

backdrop for the economic viability of recreation and tourism in the area. 

The analysis area contributes to the fisheries of the Trinity River. Fishing is part of the rural 

community lifestyle and yearly subsistence. This activity has a high value among the local people 

and those visiting the area. Tribes, communities, organizations, and state/federal agencies have 

focused on the Trinity River fisheries and have invested a lot of work in recent years in both in 

research and rehabilitation efforts. There are concerns about the impacts of the fire on these 

efforts. 

Fears and concerns about community safety from future fires occurring in the same area crossed 

the broad range of community views. Non-community members expressed the view that the role 

of the Forest Service is to assist communities in making their private property safe, but not to 

utilize public lands to fire safe communities. The local communities believe strongly that the 

Forest Service has the responsibility to protect the local communities from the effects of 

catastrophic wildfires that start on or have the risk of starting on National Forest lands. 

The Forest Service needs to work with local communities to address their fears and concerns 

regarding health issues related to air quality from burns and wildfires. The scope and importance 

of these issues will increase as humans continue to populate wildlands, thus expanding the 

wildland/urban interface. As populations increase, firefighting efforts will focus on the protection of 

private property, dwellings and communities at the potential expense of natural resources on 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

4-39 
Chapter 4 

National Forest lands. These competing priorities increase the complexity of fire fighting within 

the framework of environmental, social, political, and safety concerns. 

Local Community Economies 

5.1 How do these watersheds contribute to the economies of local communities? What fire 

recovery efforts might contribute to local economies? 

Synthesis and Interpretation 

The local communities experienced economic loss during the lengthy Megram Fire and desire to 

regain some of that loss through economic opportunities generated from rehabilitative or 

restoration efforts. One community point-of-view is that a rehabilitation strategy for the analysis 

area needs to be active and consider the potential economic benefits to local communities. 

Another community point-of-view is that the landscape should be left to recover on its own with 

either no or a very light hand in managing that effort. 

Within the analysis area, approximately 98 percent of the land outside wilderness is designated as 

LSR. Management activities within the LSR must serve to maintain, protect and restore late 

successional and old growth habitat. Therefore, economic benefits are a byproduct, not a driver, 

of management activities. Given this, local communities do not expect the analysis area to 

produce a regular, dependable source of commodity outputs. Rather, the analysis area serves as 

a backdrop to the local communities’ recreational economic base, with the Trinity River itself as 

the primary attractant. Although not designed for economic purposes, some of the opportunities 

identified in this chapter could contribute to local economies. 

Opportunities to Contribute to Local Economies 

Vegetation Management/Fire and Fuels 

There are several vegetation management opportunities that could contribute to local economies 

on the North Coast. However, it is difficult to predict how much fire recovery efforts would 

contribute to local communities. Economic benefits depend on which of the recommendations in 

Chapter 5 are implemented, the extent to which they are implemented, when and where the 

actions would occur, and who does the work. Therefore, this section presents the potential 

benefits that could occur should a given management recommendation be implemented to the 

fullest extent possible. Benefits are presented in terms of commercial value (i.e. harvest volume), 

or contractual values (i.e. service contracts). The following economic opportunities are linked to 

the opportunities identified in the “Vegetation Management” and “Fire, Fuels, and Air Quality” 

sections of this chapter. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

4-40 
Synthesis and Interpretation 

Opportunity: Reforest high severity burn areas and reduce fuel concentrations 

Possible management practices associated with this opportunity include removal of high fuel 

concentrations through salvage harvesting, planting conifer seedlings in harvested areas, and 

subsequent release and precommercial thinning of the new stands. This analysis focuses on 

salvage opportunities in the LSR, as vegetation management is prohibited in the wilderness, and 

there is little salvage opportunity in either the General Forest or Partial Retention management 

area allocations. 

The Six Rivers LRMP and Forest-wide LSR assessment outline the conditions under which 

salvage may occur in the LSR. In general, volume from large-scale events that result in mortality 

surplus to reasonably predictable late-successional habitat needs is intended to be available for 

salvage. Salvage harvest, for the purpose of this analysis, is defined as a regeneration type of 

stand treatment. Opportunities for salvage exist where high severity fire severely damaged 

mature and old growth timber stands, effectively returning these stands to the shrub/forb seral 

stage. According to the Forest-wide LSRA, salvage may occur where: 

• The stand has been severely damaged by an event such as wind, fire, insect infestation, 

or disease 

• Canopy closure has been reduced below 40 percent 

• The size of area below 40 percent canopy closure is a contiguous 10 acres or larger 

• For LSRs larger than 5,000 acres, no more than 10 percent of the LSR acreage is 

salvaged 

• For disturbance events larger than 1,000 gross acres, no more than 35 percent of the area 

of disturbance is salvaged 

Of the 50,830 acres of LSR in the analysis area, 35,890 acres were burned during the Megram 

Fire. According to the 35 percent guideline, up to 12,560 acres could be available for salvage. 

However, a maximum of 5,083 acres could be salvaged under the 10 percent guideline for LSRs 

greater than 5,000 acres in size. 

Approximately 7,590 acres of potentially commercial stands were severely damaged in the 

Megram Fire. This acreage occurs in high severity burn areas (fire severity ratings of 3, 4a, and 

4b) and includes early mature, mid-mature, late mature, and old growth stands within the Douglasfir, tanoak, white fir, and red fir vegetation series. Table 4-5 presents a comparison of the 

estimated net salvage volume and value associated with these stands over a 10-year period of 

time. Note that the table presents estimates for the entire 7,590 acres and also pro-rates that 

volume and value to the maximum 5,083 acres allowed under current guidelines. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

4-41 
Chapter 4 

Table 4-5. Comparison of Salvage Value and Volume over Time 

Prior to fire 1 year after fire 2 years after fire 3-5 years after 

fire 

6-10 years after 

fire 

Watershed Acres Net MBF 

Value 

(MM$) 

Net 

MBF 

Value 

(MM$) 

Net 

MBF 

Value 

(MM$) 

Net 

MBF 

Value 

(MM$) 

Net 

MBF 

Value 

(MM$) 

Roaded 

Horse Linto 3,071 90,905 21.23 74,363 11.70 23,373 4.07 12,393 2.40 7,438 1.55 

Mill Creek 903 27,871 6.31 22,589 3.51 6,256 1.06 2,872 0.54 1,543 0.32 

Tish Tang 228 7,059 1.52 5,660 0.86 1,314 .20 412 0.07 133 0.03 

Total Roaded 4,202 125,836 29.06 102,612 16.07 30,943 5.33 15,676 3.01 9,114 1.90 

Roadless 

Horse Linto 1,673 49,862 5.52 40,235 1.68 10,477 0.66 4,406 0.44 2,189 0.31 

Mill Creek 591 18,368 3.95 14,635 2.27 3,016 0.47 641 0.10 00.0 0.00 

Tish Tang 1,123 33,466 7.73 27,147 4.33 7,633 1.31 3,478 0.66 1,870 0.39 

Total Roadless 3,387 101,697 17.20 82,017 8.28 21,126 2.44 8,525 1.20 4,058 0.70 

Total of Potential 

Treatment Areas 7,590 227,533 46.26 184,629 24.35 52,069 7.77 24,201 4.21 13,173 2.60 

Total Prorated to 

Maximum Acres 5,083 152,378 30.98 123,645 16.31 34,870 5.20 16,208 2.82 8,822 1.74 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

4-42
Synthesis and Interpretation 

Post-salvage opportunities exist in the form of new stand establishment activities. These activities 

are typically implemented under service contracts. Table 4-6 presents the estimated total 

contractual value of these activities and the time frame in which they would likely occur. 

Table 4-6. Potential Post-Salvage Opportunities 

Activity Maximum Acres Estimated 

Contractual 

Value per Acre 

Estimated Total 

Contractual 

Value 

Time Frame 

Planting 5,083 $120.00 $609,960 Within 0-2 years 

of harvest 

Release for 

Survival 5,083 $175.00 $889,520 Within 2-5 years of planting 

Precommercial 

thin/release for 

growth 

5,083 $250.00 $1,270,750 Within 10-15 

years of planting 

Opportunity: Maintain remaining early mature and mid mature stands that burned with a low to 

moderate severity and accelerate their development into the late mature and old growth seral 

stages. 

Possible management practices associated with this opportunity include mechanical removal of 

high concentrations of fuels (dead fuels and live trees that will die in the next 10 years), thinning to 

improve stand health and vigor where appropriate, and slash and prescribed fire treatments to 

reduce ground fuels. 

There are approximately 11,734 acres in the low to moderate severity burn areas (fire severity 

ratings of 1, 2, and 2a), within the early mature and mid-mature stands within the Douglas-fir, 

tanoak, white fir, and red fir vegetation series. Table 4-7 presents the estimated potential 

maximum volume and value that could be derived if all these stands were treated. Volume 

estimates are based on pre-fire conditions, given that mortality varies considerably within these 

stands. Value is estimated based on the assumption that, on average, roughly 75 percent of the 

volume removed would be dead with the remainder predicted to die within 10 years. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

4-43 
Chapter 4 

Table 4-7. Estimated timber volume and value associated with fuels reduction 

treatments 

Watershed Acres Estimated Net MBF Estimated Value 

Roaded 

Horse Linto 4,015 23,517 $ 4,944,000 

Mill Creek 2,355 15,499 $ 2,930,600 

Tish Tang 354 2,752 $ 438,200 

Total Roaded 6,724 41,768 $ 8,312,800 

Roadless 

Horse Linto 1,154 7,237 $ 709,100 

Mill Creek 2,565 17,197 $ 3,226,100 

Tish Tang 1,291 7,929 $ 1,324,100 

Total Roadless 5,010 32,363 $ 5,259,300 

Total 11,734 74,131 $ 13,572,100 

Subsequent fuels treatments could include the cutting and piling of sub-merchantable live and 

dead trees to reduce ladder fuels, and piling of cut materials and existing fuels. The contractual 

value of fuels treatments over the 11,734 acres is estimated at $500.00 per acre for a total of 

$5,867,000. 

Opportunity: Manage burned plantations, based on burn severity, as needed to reestablish 

healthy conifer stands. 

There are 6,960 acres of plantations within the analysis area. It is estimated that 4,630 acres 

were burned in the fire. Approximately 2,760 acres suffered a high degree of mortality due to high 

severity fire. Moderate and low degrees of mortality occurred on 690 and 1,180 acres 

respectively. Reestablishment of plantations would include site preparation, planting, release for 

survival, and precommercial thinning for growth. 

It is expected that all of the plantations within the high severity category will need to be reestablished. Of these, an estimated 80 percent (2,200 acres) would require some site preparation 

prior to planting. It is unknown at this time how many acres in the moderate severity category will 

require site preparation and/or planting. No treatment is expected in the plantations within the low 

burn severity category. Table 4-8 presents the estimated maximum total contractual value of 

reestablishment activities and the time frame in which they would likely occur. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

4-44 
Synthesis and Interpretation 

Table 4-8. Plantation Re-establishment Opportunities 

Activity Estimated 

Acres 

Estimated Contractual 

Value per Acre 

Estimated 

Total 

Contractual 

Value 

Time Frame 

Site Preparation 2,200 $250.00 - $500.00 

(depending on 

treatment) 

$550,000 -

$1,100,000 

Within 1-5 years 

of fire 

Planting 2,760 $120.00 $331,200 Within 1-5 years 

of fire 

Release for 

Survival 

2,760 $175.00 $483,000 Within 2-5 years 

of planting 

Precommercial 

thin for growth 

2,760 $250.00 $690,000 Within 10-15 

years of planting 

Opportunity: Construction of Shaded Fuelbreaks 

Approximately 90 miles (3,610 acres) of shaded fuel breaks could be constructed within the 

analysis area. Activities associated with this recommendation include thinning, cutting small 

ladder fuels such as brush, seedlings, saplings, and poles, pruning, piling ground fuels, and 

prescribed burning. Some of these activities were accomplished during the Megram Fire. The 

economic value associated with this recommendation is similar to that of fuels reduction and stand 

maintenance in early and mid-mature stands. If implemented, it is estimated that thinning within 

the fuel breaks would produce an average of 6 MBF per acre at a value of $200 per MBF, for a 

total commercial value of $4.3 million. The contractual value of subsequent ground fuels 

treatments is estimated at $575.00 per acre for a total of $2.1 million. 

Other Opportunities 

Burned Area Emergency Rehabilitation Efforts 

Ongoing Burned Area Emergency Rehabilitation (BAER) activities present opportunities for shortterm economic benefits to local communities. Approximately $2.7 million worth of fire rehabilitation 

work has been planned. Some of this work was completed in the fall of 1999, with the remainder 

expected to occur in the spring and summer of 2000. A wide variety of activities are planned to 

reduce fire-induced short-term negative impacts to upslope areas, stream channels, roads, and 

trails, much of which can be accomplished through service contracts. 

Ecotourism 

Local communities could see increased tourism if people come to see first hand how the 

landscape recovers from the Megram Fire. Concerns have been raised that Forest Service fire 

recovery and rehabilitation activities could negatively impact the potential for increased 

ecotourism. 

The Six Rivers, for the most part, could be called a “backyard” forest. Most of the recreation use 

on the Forest is by local people. Although people may stop within the Forest on their way to other 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

4-45 
Chapter 4 

locations, the Forest is not a typical destination point for non-local recreationists. Therefore, it is 

unlikely that natural recovery within the Megram Fire area would lead to the large increases in 

tourism seen at Yellowstone, Mt. St. Helens or other destination locations where large 

catastrophic events have occurred in the past. 

While significant increases in tourism are not expected, an opportunity does exist for local 

entrepreneurs to develop interpretive programs that may draw non-local recreationists to the area. 

Given the size of the fire area, the complexity of management direction, resource and public 

concerns, and limited funding, management activities would be limited within the fire area. As a 

result, a large percentage of the fire area would remain untreated. Interpretive programs could 

compare and contrast the progress and results of managed versus natural fire recovery within the 

Megram Fire area. 

Recreation 

5.2 What recreational opportunities were impacted by the Megram Fire? What possible 

management practices could be implemented to restore or maintain these opportunities in 

areas that were affected by the fire? 

Synthesis and Interpretation 

• The mountain ecosystem was identified by local businesses as the second greatest 

recreational asset after the Trinity River. Visitors liked best the river, the climate 

(heat/sun), and the beauty, scenery, and solitude. 

• Twenty-three recreation activities were identified as occurring within the analysis area. 

Hiking, hunting, fishing, relaxing or hanging out in the outdoors and driving for pleasure 

are the most common activities in the analysis area. 

• The analysis area receives the highest concentration of trail use on the district because of 

the trail network and access to the Trinity Alps Wilderness. Still, trail use is low compared 

to use in other areas of the Trinity Alps. Trails are important for historic, tribal cultural and 

spiritual values. They also provide access to some special places. 

• Research conducted in large-scale burned wilderness areas concerning recreationists’ 

preferences indicated that fire has very little impact on peoples’ recreation choices. There 

is a tendency to view fire as a component of the natural environment. The greatest effects 

to recreationists occurred when the fire was burning, i.e. smoke, blocked access to roads 

and trails. 

• People are curious about the damage to some of their special places and the trail system. 

Several expressed the desire to visit the burned area as soon as conditions allow. 

• Local citizens’ attitudes towards the fire’s impacts on recreation opportunities ranged from 

no impact to long-term impacts to certain activities. Both positive as well as negative 

benefits were identified. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

4-46 
Synthesis and Interpretation 

• The greatest fire impacts on recreation opportunities are to the trails (34 miles affected) 

and to wilderness values. 

• The greatest impact to the 56-mile trail system is in the high intensity burn class (approx. 

14 miles) and in the moderate intensity burn class (approx. 20 miles). All trails have not 

been surveyed for damage. Surveys need to be completed this summer. 

• Short-term impacts to recreation included loss of hunting grounds, firewood cutting, fishing 

guide business opportunities due to loss of access, smoke and air quality among overall 

loss of recreation opportunities during the suppression period. Some trails may need to be 

posted and closed due to hazardous trail conditions. Impacts to the wilderness were 

caused by fire suppression activities: fire crew camps, fire lines may be mistaken for trails, 

etc. 

• There may be opportunities to reroute trail segments that were damaged and that were 

previously causing resource impacts, i.e. trail through a meadow. 

• Longer-term impacts are potential loss of trail mileage due to obliteration by fire and low 

priority for restoration due to funding availability and low use. 

• Local citizens’ recommendations for managing the large fuel buildup resulting from the 

Megram fire ranged from using chainsaws and salvage operations in the wilderness to 

doing nothing and allowing natural processes to occur. 

• Wilderness users expressed a desire that visual qualities of the wilderness be maintained 

and suggested that the fire, by opening up the landscape, gave the opportunity to 

recognize historic trails, thereby giving the Forest Service the opportunity to compensate 

for the road closures that have taken place there. 

• Concern was expressed regarding safety for individuals, family, and pack stock. 

• Local residents were also concerned with trail repair, hazard tree removal along trailheads 

and trails. Concerned that hazard tree removal along trails will not have as high a priority 

as along the road system. 

Conclusions 

• Need to focus rehabilitation efforts on restoring wilderness attributes and values that were 

impacted by suppression efforts. 

• Trail rehab priority needs to be on National Recreational Trails and high use trails in high 

intensity burn areas. Other recreation facilities such as signs and SSTs damaged by the 

fire need to be replaced or repaired. 

• There needs to be an education and awareness effort of local communities concerning the 

role of fire in wilderness and wildlands, management efforts, and natural restoration 

processes to gain understanding and support of our efforts. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

4-47 
Chapter 4 

• Chainsaw use authority for wilderness work may be needed to clear trails of hazard and 

downed trees due to season limitations and worker and visitor safety. 

• There are short-term efforts that need to be done to rehab the damage caused by the fire; 

longer-term efforts that may not be as high a priority, but would be considered for longterm tourism and recreation benefits also need to be identified. 

• Trail work needs to be appropriate for the type and amount of use received. 

• There may be opportunities to reroute trail segments that were damaged and that were 

previously causing resource impacts, i.e. trail through a meadow. 

Trends and Opportunities 

• Recreation use in the HLMTT is relatively low, but intrinsic values such as scenery, 

solitude, and remoteness are important to local communities and residents. 

• More group activities are occurring in the HLMTT area. 

Opportunity: The fire has possibly cleared historic trails that were previously 

covered by vegetation. This might present an opportunity for a Passport-in-Time 

project that would enhance historical resources. 

• The community of Willow Creek is increasingly interested in developing and enhancing 

recreation opportunities in the area. 

Opportunity: Identify potential projects for development in partnership with the 

community. 

• Can probably expect an increase in visitor use during the first season after the fire due to 

curiosity about the fire’s damage in general and to special places. 

Opportunity: Visitor curiosity and desire for information presents an education 

opportunity. This could be addressed with information posted at trailheads, around 

town where people buy supplies, and forest offices. 

• Use of the internet is becoming increasingly widespread and a common method for 

accessing information. 

Opportunity: Develop fire information for the Forest web site. Photos, project 

descriptions and progress, rehabilitation methods, fire’s role and forest recovery 

are just some of the topics that could be available to the public. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

4-48 
Synthesis and Interpretation 

Tribal Trust Resources 

5.3 How has the Megram Fire affected the Hoopa and Yurok Tribes’ federally reserved rights 

in the Trinity and Klamath fisheries? 

The known anadromous habitat in the Mill and Tish Tang watersheds are all within Hoopa Valley 

Indian Reservation lands, though steelhead may sometimes ascend Mill Creek beyond tribal 

lands. The Hoopa Valley Tribe assisted in this analysis by providing information about the fish 

and their habitat. 

It is likely that the Megram Fire’s effects on anadromous fish and their habitat will last at least a 

decade. The stream habitat quality ranged from fair to excellent condition for anadromous and 

resident salmonids prior to the Megram Fire. Both Mill and Tish Tang creeks were judged to not 

be properly functioning refugia prior to the fire while Horse Linto was a properly functioning 

refugia. The fire effects in headwater riparian reserves are expected to trickle down to the 

anadromous habitat. The most deleterious effects to anadromous fish are expected to be erosion, 

sedimentation, and water quality. Headwater riparian reserve health is the fisheries environmental 

baseline factor that is expected to take longest to recover. 

Mill Creek fisheries habitat received less direct impacts from the fire than the other two 

watersheds. Approximately 19 percent of Mill Creek watershed fish-bearing habitat was burned. 

However, none of the anadromous stream corridor was burned. Thirty-four percent of the riparian 

reserves were burned at a moderate to high severity, so indirect post fire fisheries problems are 

likely to occur to resident and anadromous fish habitat. 

Approximately 50 percent of the Tish Tang watershed fish-bearing habitat was burned; however, 

none of the Tish Tang anadromous stream corridor was burned. 

The Hoopa Valley Tribe manages the lower basin lands of Tish Tang and Mill Creek watersheds 

while the upper basin lands are managed by the Forest Service. In 1990 and 1995 Pacific 

Watershed Associates prepared watershed assessments for both Tish Tang and Mill Creek for 

the Hoopa Tribe and Six Rivers National Forest. The results of their inventory identified that most 

of the current erosion was closely associated with past land use and road construction. Less than 

1% of the past eroded sediment was generated from National Forest lands, located in the upper 

Tish Tang Creek basin. The preponderance of past erosion in lower basin areas was due to 

more extensive logging and road building on Hoopa lands, as well as the occurrence of steeper, 

more unstable hill slopes areas in the basin. (Pacific Watershed Associates 1995:I) 

Mill Creek watershed ownership is similarly situated. Most of the current erosion is closely 

associated with past land use and road construction. Five percent of the eroded sediment was 

generated from National Forest lands, located in the upper Mill Creek basin. (Pacific Watershed 

Associated 1990:I) 

The Yurok Tribe’s Reservation is on the Klamath River, to which the Trinity River is a tributary. 

Effects to the Yurok Tribal fisheries are distant to non-existent based on current information. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

4-49 
Chapter 4 

5.4 How may degraded water quality resulting from the fire affect federally reserved water 

rights of the Hoopa and Yurok Tribes with respect to domestic use and subsistence 

fishing? 

The Hoopa Tribe depends on Mill Creek for domestic water supply for the eastern portions of the 

Reservation with approximately 280 metered service connections (Hoopa Valley Tribe 1997:31). 

Due to high turbidity levels during high flows, the water supply is periodically shut down for water 

quality purposes. 

Tish Tang Creek is under an engineering feasibility and design study for use as domestic water 

supply. Currently their Water Quality Plan identified a goal to reduce turbidity during high flows on 

Reservation domestic water supply streams that lead to unacceptable water quality problems 

during the winter months on Mill Creek and Tish Tang Creek. 

A significant percentage of the intermittent and ephemeral stream network within the analysis area 

was impacted by moderate and high burned fire severities. It is anticipated that increases in 

stream temperatures in perennial stream channels within or downstream of burned areas will 

occur and persist until riparian cover is re-established. Mill Creek currently has the highest 

sedimentation among of the watersheds in the analysis area; it is considered “sediment-impacted” 

by Hoopa Tribal staff. 

Sedimentation of stream channels within the burned areas and downstream of burned areas on all 

three watersheds is expected to occur, particularly given the extent of moderate and severely 

burned acreages and number of miles of perennial, intermittent and ephemeral watercourses 

impacted. 

5.5 How can the Forest minimize the threat from future wildfires and pest infestation to Tribal 

trust resources? 

The threat to Tribal trust resources from future fires can be minimized through the opportunities 

identified to reduce fire hazard; fuelbreaks, prescribed burning and fire suppression. Refer to the 

discussion under “Forest Hazard and Mortality” provided on pages 4-20 to 4-28. 

Pest infestation is restricted to insects. Insect infestation is expected to occur, but not reach 

epidemic levels; rather, it will be related to individual trees and small group mortality. Insects will 

spread to trees under stress from fire damage; these trees will likely succumb to insects. It is not 

expected that insects will leave the fire area in large numbers and impact nearby unburned 

stands. The biggest risk from insect infestation is that “long after trees are killed by fire or insects, 

snags invite lightning and can increase the cost, difficulty, and danger of controlling the resulting 

fire. Fire kills or stresses trees that breed insects and insects can help set the stage for another 

fire” (Furniss & Carolin 1977). Refer to the discussion under “Pests” provided on page 4-9. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

4-50 
Synthesis and Interpretation 

Tribal Spiritual and Traditional Uses 

5.6 What are the effects to contemporary spiritual locations used by Hupa traditionalists in the 

Trinity Summit area and along the Trail of the Blue Sun? What possible management 

practices could be implemented to mitigate adverse impacts? 

Traditional Cultural Properties (TCP) represent sites that contain both tangible and non-tangible 

properties. That is, there may be artifacts or features present, but natural and environmental 

attributes such as viewsheds, natural rock features, or isolation may be more critical and of 

significant importance to the TCP. 

The De-No-To District is a TCP on the National Register of Historic Places and is identified as a 

critical cultural resource from the National Forest perspective as well as from the Hoopa Tribe 

perspective. The Forest has developed a treatment program to identify what values of the TCP 

would be at risk due to the deteriorated watershed associated with the Megram fire. 

The inventory phase includes consultation with traditional practitioners and members of the Hoopa 

Tribe to identify if any values of the TCP are at risk from the deteriorated watersheds, and what 

measures, if any, need to be implemented to protect those values. It is conceivable that the 

inventory and consultation may result in the formulation of treatment measures. 

5.7 What are the short and long-term effects of the fire on the availability and quality of 

culturally significant vegetation and animals? What possible management practices could 

be implemented to mitigate adverse impacts? 

A significant use of the analysis area is for gathering of native plants to sustain cultural life ways of 

the Hupa. Subsistence gathering and hunting are major human uses of the analysis area and the 

most consistent use over the years. Large numbers of Hupa, and some Tsnungwe, continue to 

gather in this area as their ancestors did within their aboriginal territories. This activity is rooted in 

the past for Indian cultures and will likely continue into the future. 

The Hoopa Tribe has completed field investigations which included the identification of what they 

refer to as Traditional Hupa species which were designed as such due to their historical and 

ceremonial use, and because today, their abundance has declined significantly. The Forest 

Service has extensive ethnographic data that included information on gathering for this analysis 

area. The Tribe’s work identified specific habitat conditions needed for some of the species of 

concern. The following are from field investigations that located these species on reservation 

lands adjacent to National Forest lands in the analysis area: 

• Some traditional Hupa species have narrow light and moisture requirements. Polypodium 

californicum and Woodwardia fimbriata are such species. Other species, such as 

Polystichum munitum, appear to thrive in shady areas with a more mesic regime. 

• All of these species would be directly impacted by the removal of substantial canopy cover. 

Appropriate edaphic conditions are moderate to extensive canopy, low-density shrub layer 

and accumulations of organic duff/litter layer. 

• Some species appear to respond favorably to disturbance. Corylus cornuta var. California 

produces better shoots for basket weaving following a burn and was traditionally burned to 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

4-51 
Chapter 4 

encourage good shoot formation. Vaccinium ovatum reportedly responds well to 

disturbance and/or partial pruning, and bears more heavily following such disturbance. 

The fire has directly affected culturally significant vegetation. In order to answer this question, 

further fieldwork and consultation with traditional users and a botanist is needed to document the 

normal plant community succession pattern and potential for introduction of invasive species. 

Consultation with the traditional gatherers is needed to identify what resource values will be lost if 

invasive species out compete these critical ethnobotanical resources and prohibit the 

reestablishment of these critical resources. The Forest’s strategy is to conduct an ethnobotanical 

inventory and a resource value inventory to identify any treatment measures for potential 

implementation. 

In areas where habitat decreased due to the removal of a high amount of canopy, it may be 

necessary to thin out the shrub layer in moderate canopy areas to encourage species 

establishment. (Theiss 1992:28). 

Heritage Resources 

5.8 What effects did the fire have on known cultural resource properties located within these 

watersheds? What kinds of fire recovery efforts might contribute to conserving the values 

of these sites? 

Heritage resources were a priority throughout the Big Bar Fire Complex. The Hoopa Valley Tribe, 

its representatives and resource managers were involved throughout the fire. Reasonable efforts 

were made to protect cultural resources, to assess fire and fire suppression damages to these 

resources and to address all incident-related damages (USDI-BAER 1999:76). There were 

coordinated efforts to protect previously documented cultural resources as well as resources that 

were undocumented due to cultural sensitivity. Additionally, cultural resources maintained a high 

priority for both the USDA and USDI BAER rehabilitation mission and tasks. 

Subsequent to the fire, heritage resource staff mapped the locations of all known cultural 

resources sites within the burn area. Using GIS fire intensity maps, each site was evaluated for 

potential effects resulting from the fire based on whether it was located within a no burn, low, 

moderate, or high intensity burn area. The results are shown in Table 4-9. 

Table 4-9. Megram Fire Burn Severities for Cultural Resource Sites 

Watershed no burn low/moderate moderate/high high 

Horse Linto 2 1 9 5 

Mill 2 4 12 1 

Tish Tang 1 0 20 2 

Effects to known cultural resource properties cannot be determined at this time. The field 

inventory phase will include consultations with traditional practitioners and the Hoopa Tribe to 

identify if any values or cultural resources are at risk from the deteriorated watersheds, and what 

measures, if any, need to be implemented to protect those values. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

4-52 
Synthesis and Interpretation 

The Forest has developed a treatment program, which includes mitigation of effects from fire 

suppression activities and an inventory program to identify what Traditional Cultural Property 

values of the De-No-To National Register District could be at risk due to the deteriorated 

watershed within the analysis area. 

Access 

5.9 Has the Megram fire altered the conclusions of the Lower Trinity Access and Travel 

Management (ATM) Plan? 

Most of the ATM’s proposed actions – which listed specific roads to be upgraded, 

decommissioned, or put into maintenance level 1 (ML1) status and made hydrologically 

maintenance-free -- had been completed prior to the Megram Fire. During the fire, several 

decommissioned roads were temporarily reopened in order to provide emergency access for 

firefighting and, in one case, medical evacuation. After the fire, various Forest resource 

specialists were consulted to determine whether the plan’s conclusions are still valid under current 

conditions. The review suggested that only minor adjustments to the plan are needed, some of 

which are unrelated to the fire. 

In brief, it is suggested that two roads proposed for decommissioning be left open temporarily that 

may be necessary to facilitate fire rehabilitation access, and four short spur roads proposed for 

ML1 closures be left open indefinitely. Specifically, Forest roads 7N04R and 7N04S were 

proposed for decommissioning. These roads, which are currently ML2 roads, are located in the 

south end of Groves Prairie in the Horse Linto watershed. Road 7N04R follows relatively flat 

terrain and has two culverts that would be removed if decommissioned. Road 7N04S also stays 

on relatively flat ground and terminates on a flat ridge about one-quarter mile above Cedar Creek. 

These roads total about 2.49 miles in length. Decommissioning should be deferred on both of 

these roads, as use of the roads may be necessary to facilitate access for fuel treatment and other 

post-fire restoration efforts. The long-term disposition for these roads should be analyzed in any 

Environmental Assessment covering fire rehabilitation and fuel treatment work in the area. 

Depending on the quantity and duration of such activities, it may be preferable to retain these as 

ML2 roads, or possibly ML1, rather than decommission them. 

Roads 7N04G, 7N04M, 7N04N 7N04P are located in Groves Prairie, and were proposed for 

downgrading to ML1 status. They are currently ML2 roads, totaling approximately 1.24 miles in 

length. Only one of the roads, 7N04G, has culverts which would be removed. These are low 

impact roads due to their location on the flat, and are needed to access existing dispersed 

recreation sites in Groves Prairie. These four roads should be kept open and retained in ML2 

status to allow continue public access into Groves Prairie. The recommended change is not 

related to the Megram Fire. 

As mentioned above, several decommissioned roads were reopened to provide emergency 

access during the fire. Although this could be interpreted as evidence that the roads should not 

have been decommissioned in the first place, the original premises for closing the roads remain 

intact: 1) the Forest does not have sufficient funding to adequately maintain all of its existing 

roads; 2) road decommissioning can result in long-term reductions in sedimentation; and, 3) the 

ATM team determined that these particular roads were no longer needed; they were constructed 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

4-53 
Chapter 4 

to support commercial timber harvest, which is no longer a primary management objective for this 

area. Though decommissioning may increase initial attack response times (and resulting fire 

sizes), these trade-offs are weighed against the potential benefits of such actions before the 

decision to decommission is made. In some cases, potential fire access may be an overriding 

factor in keeping a road open. In this area, emergency conditions warranted reopening the roads 

temporarily. Such actions were entirely appropriate under the circumstances, but they do not alter 

the original conclusions set forth in the ATM plan. 

5.10 Which roads pose the greatest threat for failure and erosion if inadequately maintained? 

There are two categories of threats related to failure and erosion of roads: the first involves the 

function, condition and ultimately the maintenance of the road and related structures. The 

second comes from off-site influences that are not necessarily related to road maintenance. 

Though this latter category falls outside the scope of this key question, this type of threat could 

potentially have far greater consequences in the aftermath of the Megram Fire. 

The first category described above, and the key question itself, addresses the threat for failure 

and erosion of roads due to inadequate maintenance. Erosion problems on roads may occur on 

the running surface, fill slopes, cut slopes, ditches, or areas immediately below the road. More 

than two-thirds of the Forest roads in these three watersheds have some type of improved surface 

(pit run, aggregate, chip seal, or asphalt); it is the native surfaced and, in some cases, pit run 

surfaced roads, that are of prime concern in regards to the running surface, particularly due to the 

presence of decomposed granite soils. These unimproved surfaces can rut badly if driven in wet 

weather and if not properly maintained. Approximately 3.5 miles of road 7N04 is of concern since 

it contains a section of granitic “pit run” which has since broken down. Road 7N53, a native 

surfaced road, is also of concern, as are the remaining short spur roads with native surfaces. We 

have a data gap as to the condition of many of these lower standard roads and whether or not 

gates are present; these roads need to be reviewed in the upcoming field season. In general, all 

of the native surfaced roads and some of the pit run surfaced roads may offer a threat of erosion if 

driven in wet weather. These roads need to be bladed as needed to provide proper drainage. 

Drivable dips or other drainage devices should be installed where needed. Gates or other closure 

devices may be needed on some roads as to restrict wet weather use. 

Ditches need to be maintained on all roads in the area. Culverts and inlets need to be kept clean, 

and all drainage structures maintained. These practices will minimize the erosion and failure 

potential to the degree that these events are controllable by road maintenance. However, as 

mentioned above, offsite influences may play an even greater role in influencing erosion and 

failure of roads in the burned area. Logs and woody debris may enter ditches, culverts and inlets 

in far greater quantities than was normal in pre-fire conditions. Such obstructions increase the 

likelihood of culvert plugging or ditch blockage, which could result in diversions or culvert failure. 

Similarly, slugs of sediment may plug culverts and ditches with the same potential adverse effects. 

These off-site influences are likely to be greatest where roads pass through or below areas of 

high or moderate burn intensity. Such affects were analyzed and addressed under the “Riparian 

and Aquatic System” heading, which should be referenced for the locations of primary concern. 

Culvert inlet basins at these stream crossings may need to be oversized to accommodate debris 

and increased sediment loading. Extra diligence should be used to frequently inspect ditches and 

inlet basins in these areas to insure they are cleaned whenever required. Hazard tree felling 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

4-54 
Synthesis and Interpretation 

operations should insure that all logs and woody debris are removed from ditches and stream 

channels. All road maintenance activities that were identified earlier as fire-related or 

suppression-caused damage should be completed as soon as ground conditions permit. 

5.11 Where is the potential hazard to the public and Forest employees from fire-damaged trees 

falling on Forest development roads? How should these trees be removed to reduce this 

hazard in a manner that minimizes potential impacts to other resources? 

An initial inventory of hazard tree densities was completed. Figure 4-2 shows which road 

segments have hazard trees, including the density of trees per mile. In general, the highest 

potential hazard to road users is in areas where roads cross through moderate to high burn 

severities. However, there is some degree of hazard anywhere in the burn area, especially where 

there are dead and dying trees within close proximity to the road (one tree length, or more where 

tree is upslope from the road). The safety risk is increased for persons traveling the roads during 

felling and removal of the hazard trees. Hazard tree treatment operators should post signs and 

lookouts along affected roads if complete road closure is not necessary. Some roads may need to 

be closed to public use prior to hazard tree felling if hazard tree conditions make road use 

inherently unsafe. 

The scoping document for the hazard tree EA states that “All heavy equipment would operate only 

within existing roadways, landings, and other previously disturbed clearings. End-lining or 

winching for distances up to 150 feet may be necessary to retrieve all portions of hazard trees that 

are required to be removed.” These activities may serve to reduce resource impacts on the 

ground, but at the cost of increased road damage. In order to minimize such damage, the use of 

tracked vehicles should be prohibited on paved surfaces; rubber-tired equipment should be used. 

All logs and woody debris resulting from hazard tree felling or removal should be cleaned out of 

stream channels, culvert inlet basins, and ditches. Any damage to the road prism, culverts, or 

other drainage structures caused by felling or skidding operations should be repaired or replaced 

immediately. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

4-55 
Chapter 4 

Figure 4-2. Hazard Trees along Roads in the HLMTT Area: 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

4-56
Synthesis and Interpretation 

Roadless 

5.12 What factors should be considered when evaluating possible management practices within 

the remaining portions of the Roadless Area? 

When evaluating possible management practices within the roadless area, consider the effects of 

the proposed activities on: 1) the six roadless characteristics and wilderness features (natural 

integrity, apparent naturalness, solitude, remoteness, special/unique features, 

manageability/boundaries); 2) special places and special values; and 3) the cumulative roadless 

environment. 

These effects may: 1) eliminate the potential for the area to be considered for future wilderness 

designation; 2) change the roadless area’s size, characteristics and wilderness features; or 3) 

have no effect on the area’s roadless characteristics and wilderness features. 

It is anticipated that the Chief of the Forest Service will soon be making a decision that may 

influence management activities within remaining roadless areas. This decision is commonly 

referred to as the “Roadless Rule” or “Roadless Initiative”. The results of this decision must be 

considered and applied when evaluating possible management practices within the roadless area. 

Grazing 

5.12 What criteria for resuming grazing will prevent adverse impacts to high elevation 

meadows and riparian areas that were affected by the Megram fire? 

The following key has been developed to assess high elevation meadows and riparian areas 

affected by the fire to determine if grazing can be resumed. 

CATTLE TURN OUT KEY 

1) Forest land adjacent to areas grazed by cattle not damaged to extent where cattle 

wandering onto it will cause adverse effects: soil erosion, impede revegetation (natural or 

artificial), etc. 

Yes Go to 2 

No Consider keeping cattle in another portion of the unit or off the allotment until healing has 

occurred. If not possible, go to 6 

2) Stream channels leading into and out of areas grazed by cattle still vegetated. 

Yes Go to 3 

No Consider fencing to restrict cattle access to stream channel. If not possible, go to 6 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

4-57 
Chapter 4 

3) Meadows not affected by fire or have recovered from effects of fire. 

Yes Go to 4

No Consider keeping cattle in unaffected meadows. If not possible, go to 6

4) Range readiness inspection shows meadows are ready for cattle. 

Yes Go to 5 

No Consider offering alternative allotment area to permittee, if available. If not possible, go to 

6 

5) Cattle can be turned out. 

6) Keep cattle off allotment unit. 

Adaptive Management 

5.13 What are the opportunities to learn from the fire? 

There are numerous opportunities to learn from the Megram Fire. These opportunities can be 

built as learning objectives into project design. They also can be met through developing 

partnerships with county, state and federal agencies, Tribal governments, educational institutions, 

and interested publics. Opportunities are identified in Chapter 5. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

4-58 
Management Recommendations 

CHAPTER 5

MANAGEMENT RECOMMENDATIONS

Introduction 

The purpose of this final step is to present a set of management recommendations that respond to 

the issues and key questions identified in Chapter 2 and are based on the synthesis of data in 

Chapter 4. This watershed analysis focuses principally on the effects of the Megram Fire on the 

HLMTT watersheds in order to identify opportunities and possible management practices that 

could be implemented to meet the objectives of the Forest Supervisor: 

6. Recovery of high intensity burned areas 

7. Recovery of burned plantations 

8. Watershed restoration in Tish Tang, Mill, Horse Linto and Red Cap drainages 

9. Fuels management for community protection and protection of the LSR 

10. Long term health and recovery of the LSR 

The term “recovery” has several implications and meanings. For the watershed analysis team, 

“recovery” means moving from the existing post-fire conditions to the desired conditions identified 

in the Six Rivers LRMP and the Forest-wide LSRA. Therefore, the team relied heavily on both the 

LRMP and the Forest-wide LSRA for desired conditions and management direction during the 

analysis process. Although the above objectives are specific to the Megram Fire, they link closely 

with the management objectives identified in the Forest-wide LSRA: 

1. Protect existing and potential late-successional habitat from catastrophic loss to maintain 

habitat for late-successional associated species 

2. Accelerate the development of late-successional habitat to increase the amount and 

quality of habitat for late-successional associated species 

3. Retain, restore and protect watershed functions that promote high quality habitat for native 

fish and other aquatic organisms 

4. Manage access to reduce adverse effects to late-successional associated species and 

aquatic habitats 

During the synthesis step of the watershed analysis, the watershed analysis team overlayed the 

maps and findings of individual team members and sub-groups to generate an interdisciplinary, 

landscape picture of watershed conditions and needs. Team members came to the conclusion 

that many of the opportunities discussed in Chapter 4 could meet multiple objectives if combined. 

Integration of these objectives from the various resource areas allows accomplishment of multiple 

goals by focusing efforts on the highest priority locations in these watersheds. Integration of 

objectives from the various resource areas would allow accomplishment of multiple goals focused 

on the highest priority locations in these watersheds. Because these opportunities and possible 

management practices are designed to meet multiple objectives, thereby linking many of the 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

5-1 
Chapter 5 

issues and key questions, this chapter is organized by opportunity to emphasize these links and 

avoid repetition. 

Opportunities and Possible Management Practices 

Almost all of the land outside wilderness in these three watersheds is within LSR 305. The 

overriding goal of management in LSRs is to maintain, protect, and restore conditions of latesuccessional and old-growth forest ecosystems, which serve as habitat for late-successional and 

old-growth associated species. As discussed in the introduction, many of the opportunities in this 

chapter are designed to meet both the management objectives in the Forest-wide LSRA and those 

identified by the Forest Supervisor. In addition, the watershed analysis team identified 

opportunities that respond to the issues and key questions in Chapter 2. The opportunities are 

summarized below. 

1. Reduce fuel levels in strategic locations to lower the potential for future catastrophic fire. 

2. Protect remaining mature and old growth stands from catastrophic loss. 

3. Accelerate the development of late-successional habitat. 

4. Protect adjacent communities from future wildfires and extended exposure to smoke. 

5. Restore watershed functions and manage access to protect high quality habitat for riparian 

and aquatic species as well as domestic water supplies. 

6. Minimize impacts on Tribal trust resources on the Hoopa Reservation and mitigate adverse 

impacts on spiritual and traditional uses. 

7. Provide safe roads for the public and forest employees. 

8. Emphasize those activities that will benefit local and regional economies through fire 

recovery efforts 

9. Minimize the introduction and spread of noxious weeds. 

10. Monitor and further analyze habitat conditions and trends for threatened, endangered and 

sensitive species, survey and manage species and species of concern. 

11. Protect heritage resource sites affected by the fire. 

12. Minimize grazing impacts to meadow and riparian habitats. 

13. Restore recreational facilities and opportunities affected by the fire. 

14. Learn from the fire. 

The following section discusses the possible management practices that could be implemented for 

each opportunity. Some management practices are listed under a number of the opportunities. 

Criteria for selecting treatment areas, considerations and criteria for treatment, and data gaps are 

also identified where relevant. The opportunities provide the purpose and need for action under 

NEPA, while the possible management practices provide a framework for future proposed actions 

under NEPA. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

5-2 
Management Recommendations 

Opportunity 1 Reduce fuel levels in strategic locations to 

lower the potential for future catastrophic 

wildfire 

Key Findings 

The size and severity of the Megram Fire is unprecedented in the recent history of the Klamath 

Province. The resulting continuity and level of fuels poses an increased fire hazard across the 

landscape of the HLMTT area, with a high potential for high severity re-burn. Large areas of the 

moderate to high severity burned areas fell within the wilderness, where fuel treatments will not be 

undertaken. An extensive portion of the roadless area, which also suffered high to moderate 

severity burning, is located between the Hoopa Square and the wilderness. Breaking up the 

continuity of fuels and reducing fuel levels in strategic locations can reduce the potential severity 

and extent of future wildfires. Shaded fuelbreaks along major roads and ridges would form the 

“backbone” for fuel reductions (Figure 4-1). Large area burns are proposed in concert with these 

fuelbreaks. Specific fuelbreaks locations include: 

• Happy Camp Mountain and vicinity 

• Tish Tang Ridge, south of Hoopa Reservation Boundary 

• Groves Prairie and vicinity 

• Waterman Ridge 

• Lone Pine Ridge 

• Packsaddle Ridge 

This combination of fuelbreaks and fuel reduction projects meets multiple objectives, including: 

• Protect remaining mature and old-growth stands in order to achieve RMRs 

• Protect remaining mature and old-growth habitat for plant, wildlife and riparian species of 

concern 

• Mitigate impacts to Tribal trust resources 

• Protect adjacent communities from future wildfires and extended exposure to smoke 

• Protect soil and water resources from even greater impacts due t0 future wildfires 

Figures 5-1 and 5-2 show the location of proposed shaded fuelbreaks, high severity burn areas 

and remaining mature and old-growth stands. Fuel reduction treatments should be strategically 

located to reduce hazards to remaining stands. 

Possible Management Practices 

Table 5-1 lists the possible management practices that would be appropriate to meet Opportunity 

1. Implementation of any of these practices would also meet Opportunity 2,3 and 4. They are 

provided below and are referenced under the discussion on Opportunities 2-4. Refer to Table 5-5 

for a summary of possible management practice for Opportunity 1, 2, 3 and 4.The "Notes" column 

provides further explanation about the practices, where necessary. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

5-3 
Chapter 5 

Table 5-1. Possible Management Practices to Meet Opportunities 1, 2, 3 and 4

Possible Management 

Practice 

Notes 

Prescribed Fire May require successive, large area treatments to adequately 

reduce hazard levels. onjunction with 

fuelbreaks, thinnings and coarse woody debris removal to reduce 

fuel loading prior to burning. 

Hand-Piling and Burning Use in stands where fuel conditions or other resource conditions 

prevent a successful prescribed fire (e.g. disturbed sites in the 

Megram Fire that have excess fuel loading). 

Mechanical Treatment Use in stands where fuel conditions or other resource conditions 

prevent a successful prescribed fire (e.g. disturbed sites in the 

Megram Fire that have excess fuel loading). 

Shaded Fuelbreak Use in strategic areas to reduce the size and extent of future 

wildfires. 

Wildland Fire Use Wildland Fire Use is the management of naturally ignited wildfires 

to accomplish specific prestated resource management objectives. 

Apply where fuels and conditions are at levels conducive for use of 

wildland fire. 

Remove merchantable 

trees killed by fire or 

insects in early and midmature stands within low 

and moderate burn 

severity burn through 

fuel treatment 

Follow-up with treatments of slash and unmerchantable material 

using hazardous fuels and KV funds. 

Reduce concentrations 

of large fuel in high 

intensity burn areas 

through salvage and fuel 

treatment 

Follow-up with treatments of slash and unmerchantable material 

using hazardous fuels and KV funds. 

practices used in plantation restoration. 

Remove dead trees and 

trees of low vigor in early 

and mid-mature stands 

within low and moderate 

burn severity to reduce 

stand density 

This will maintain growth and accelerate development of late seral 

stand structural attributes. 

on groups of existing dead trees, removal of some individual dead 

trees and low vigor trees that will likely die within 10 years. 

Should be used in c

Reforest using similar 

This entails creation of gaps centering 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

5-4
Management Recommendations 

Figure 5-1. Remaining Early and Mid-Mature Stands with Fuel Treatment Areas: 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

5-5
Chapter 5 

Figure 5-2. Remaining Late Mature and Old-Growth Stands with Fuel Treatment Areas: 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

5-6
Management Recommendations 

Criteria for Selecting Treatment Areas 

Below is a list of the criteria, not in priority, to be used in determining which areas have the highest 

priority for treatment. In many cases, areas or stands may meet two or more of the criteria and the 

criteria may vary based on which opportunity is being met. 

1. Areas that have a strategic location for fire suppression and resource protection 

2. Areas with a high fire behavior potential 

3. Low and moderate severity burn areas adjacent to strategic fuelbreaks and late seral 

stands 

4. Areas in close proximity to late mature and old-growth stands (to increase patch size) 

5. Along highly traveled roads 

6. Naturally disturbed areas 10 acres or greater in size 

7. Areas located in owl circles around activity centers that are deficient in nesting, roosting 

and foraging habitat 

8. Areas where treatment could improve habitat for other late-successional associated 

species 

9. Areas in the upper third of slopes 

10. South and west-facing slopes 

11. Early mature and mid-mature stands in low and moderate severity burn areas that would 

benefit from treatment to increase resilience to catastrophic loss 

12. Remaining late mature and old-growth stands in low and moderate severity burn areas 

adjacent to strategic fuelbreaks 

13. Areas in close proximity to private land and the Hoopa Reservation 

14. Areas that are accessed by the existing transportation system 

15. Areas where additional wildfire poses a significant threat to watershed values 

16. Existing, planned fuel reduction units that were being implemented prior to the Megram 

Fire 

In some cases, functional late-successional habitat may be treated if it is located in areas that 

meet the above criteria. For example, late-successional habitat may be treated when located in a 

strategic location for fire suppression or resource protection, such as a patch of habitat located 

between two anchor points in a fuel break. Only certain types of treatments are considered 

appropriate in late-successional stands, including low intensity understory burns, hand-piling and 

burning, and mechanical/manual treatment and burning (in areas with large continuous fuels, for 

example). 

Considerations/Criteria for Treatment 

• Minimize loud and continuous disturbances during critical nesting periods 

• Field review all projects in diorite soils on slopes greater than 10 percent, and in other soil 

types on slopes greater than 35 percent. Design mitigations to minimize surface erosion. 

• Design treatments to meet Aquatic Conservation Strategy objectives 

• Leave sufficient organic material on sensitive hillslopes to anchor the site through recovery 

without leaving an undesirable fuel load that could re-burn at high severity 

• Avoid building any new permanent roads. Temporary roads should be confined to ridge 

tops or other stable terrain (to be evaluated in the field) as much as possible. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

5-7 
Chapter 5 

• Design and layout projects within and adjacent to riparian areas to minimize negative, 

long-term effects to riparian-dependent species. All activities in and adjacent to riparian 

areas should be planned to minimize erosion. 

• In some cases, riparian reserves may need to be considered for fuel treatments. Special 

conditions that would indicate a need to evaluate these riparian areas for fuel treatment 

include: 

a) high, continuous fuel loading both within and adjoining riparian area 

b) close proximity to high fire occurrence 

c) middle and upper slope position 

d) overlap of riparian area with strategically-placed shaded fuelbreaks 

e) absence of unstable terrain within riparian area 

f) outside the inner gorge but within the IRR 

g) substantial distance from fish-bearing stream 

h) IRRs that coincide with anadromous streams 

i) proximity to road-stream crossing 

j) presence of a water source where excessive fuel loading and high fire hazard could 

hinder its use during suppression. 

k) IRRs without a change in vegetation near the stream or swale 

l) IRRs where the high hazard would hinder the effective use of a water source for fire 

suppression 

Data Gaps 

Wildfires do not respect either watershed or administrative boundaries. Therefore, further 

analysis and discussion with the Hoopa tribe, adjacent landowners, and the Shasta-Trinity 

National Forest would be necessary to better determine fire hazard and associated effective fire 

suppression and fuel treatment strategies for the HLMTT watersheds. 

Our data on fire regimes (distribution, intensity, and frequency) are somewhat limited for this area. 

Prior to our fire reporting period from the 1910's fire frequency data is lacking. Further data 

analysis would be of interest to determine the fire regime for this watershed. This could include 

fire frequency studies using fire slabs or the reconstruction of fire perimeters and severity based 

on fire scars and stand ages. 

Fire effects data are also lacking, including effects on native and exotic plant and animal species. 

Localized data collection and analysis are critical to refining and improving prescriptions and 

assessments of fire effects. Models such as FOFEM (First Order Fire Effects Model), which was 

used to assess wildfire mortality based on species, trees/acre, dbh, tree height, and flamelengths, 

should be validated using Megram Fire and future prescribed fire mortality. Fire monitoring plots 

should be initiated in the watershed in selected vegetation types of interest (e.g. mature and old 

growth) to assess the short and long-term effects of fire on the ecosystem. The preferred protocol 

would be that developed by the Western Region of the National Park Service which collects data 

to document basic information, to detect identified trends, and to ensure that fire and resource 

management objectives are met (National Park Service 1992). 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

5-8 
Management Recommendations 

Opportunity 2 Protect remaining mature and old growth 

stands 

Key Findings 

The late mature and old growth seral stages were outside the HRV for the central zone even 

before the fire in the tanoak and Douglas-fir series due to past harvests. The fire exacerbated this 

in these series, and also reduced the late mature and old growth seral stages below the RMR in 

the white fir and red fir series. 

Approximately 27 percent of the old growth seral stage habitat was affected by high severity 

wildfire. Mid mature and late mature seral stage habitats were also affected to a high degree by 

high severity wildfire. Due to the fire effects, which reduced and fragmented old growth and late 

mature habitats, it is doubtful that LSR 305 is functioning at the landscape level in providing latesuccessional habitat for the northern spotted owl. It is therefore essential to protect remaining 

mature and old growth habitat from future, catastrophic disturbance. 

Possible Management Practices 

Table 5-1 lists the possible management practices that would be appropriate to meet Opportunity 

2, as well as Opportunity 1, 3, and 4. Refer to Table 5-5 for a summary of possible management 

practice for Opportunity 1, 2, 3 and 4. Table 5-2 lists the possible management practices that are 

designed specifically to meet Opportunity 2. The "Notes" column provides further explanation 

about the practices, where necessary. 

Table 5-2. Possible Management Practices to Meet Opportunity 2 

Possible Management 

Practice 

Notes per Criteria 

Seasonal Road Closures Use in areas with high road density and high potential for humancaused fires. 

fire danger. 

Firewood Gathering Use to reduce fuel loadings in directed areas. 

treatment prior to implementing shaded fuel break. 

Fire Prevention Focus educational and awareness programs on local residents and 

forest visitors. 

much as possible. 

Fire Preparedness Increase initial attack and detection resources along with preattack 

planning. 

Seasonal closure would occur during periods of high 

Can be used as a 

Involve local communities and tribal members as 

Considerations/Criteria for Treatment 

• None 

Data Gaps 

• None 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

5-9 
Chapter 5 

Opportunity 3 Accelerate the development of latesuccessional habitat 

Key Findings 

The late mature and old growth seral stages are below the RMRs for the central zone, and below 

the desired conditions outlined in the Forest-wide LSRA. There are opportunities to accelerate 

the development of early and mid-mature habitats toward the desired condition of functional 

mature and late successional stands. Reforesting burned plantations and other severely burned 

stands will also accelerate their development towards late-successional characteristics. 

Many of the possible management practices identified to meet Opportunity 1 can also be used to 

accelerate the development of late-successional habitat. 

Use hazard reduction techniques and apply silvicultural prescriptions to low and moderate severity 

burn stands to reduce stand density. This will maintain growth and accelerate development of late 

seral stand structural attributes. This entails creation of gaps centering on existing dead trees, 

removal of some individual dead and low vigor trees that will likely die within 10 years. 

Possible Management Practices 

Table 5-1 lists the possible management practices that would be appropriate to meet Opportunity 

3, as well as Opportunity 1, 2, and 4. Refer to Table 5-5 for a summary of possible management 

practice for Opportunity 1, 2, 3 and 4. Table 5-2 lists the possible management practices that are 

designed to specifically meet Opportunity 3. The "Notes" column provides further explanation 

about the practices, where necessary. 

Table 5-3. Possible Management Practices to Meet Opportunity 3 

Possible Management 

Practice 

Notes per Criteria 

Reforest plantations lost 

to the fire. 

Include release treatments at age 3 to 6 to ensure survival and 

rapid early growth. 

Young Stand Thinning Applicable to plantations that are in the shrub/forb or pole-seral 

stages. Includes appropriate fuel treatment. 

Criteria for Selecting Treatment Areas 

• High severity burned plantation should be reforested first 

• Plantations needing site prep are second priority for reforestation 

• Moderate severity burn plantations would be reforested based on extent of loss 

Data Gaps 

Field evaluate all plantations for burn severity and rehabilitation needs. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

5-10 
Management Recommendations 

Opportunity 4 Protect adjacent communities from future 

wildfires and extended exposure to smoke 

Key Findings 

Hazardous fuels conditions existed before the Megram Fire. This fire, which was the largest in Six 

Rivers recorded history, has contributed to this situation, resulting in extensive, continuous areas 

of high to extreme hazard throughout the HLMTT landscape. Lightning has been the predominant 

cause of wildfires within these watersheds, with this area having the highest lightning occurrence 

on the Forest. Human-caused fires are also frequent and widespread in the vicinity of these 

watersheds. The extent and distribution of this fire hazard and risk presents a substantial threat to 

local communities, both from wildfires and high levels of smoke, for many years into the future. 

Fears and concerns of long-term public health issues are significant to the local communities, as is 

preventing a future similar episode from occurring. Community and property safety is a driving 

issue.

The possible management practices in opportunities 1, 2, 3 and 4 will also meet this opportunity. 

Additional possible management practices are identified below.

Possible Management Practices 

Table 5-1 lists the possible management practices that would be appropriate to meet Opportunity 

4, as well as Opportunity 1, 2, and 3. Table 5-4 lists the possible management practices that are 

designed to specifically meet Opportunity 4. Refer to Table 5-5 for a summary of possible 

management practice for Opportunity 1, 2, 3 and 4. The "Notes" column provides further 

explanation about the practices, where necessary. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

5-11 
Chapter 5 

Table 5-4. Possible Management Practices to Meet Opportunity 4 

Possible Management 

Practice 

Notes 

Seasonal Closure Use in areas with high road density and high potential for humancaused fires. 

fire danger. 

Firewood Gathering Use to reduce fuel loadings in directed areas. 

treatment prior to implementing shaded fuel break. 

Fire Prevention Focus educational and awareness programs on local residents and 

forest visitors. 

much as possible. 

Fire Preparedness Increase initial attack and detection resources along with preattack 

planning. t during periods of high 

fire danger or multiple fire starts occurring elsewhere. 

Develop a Community 

Safety Plan 

Develop in partnership with the Forest Service, CDF, Hoopa Tribe, 

Humboldt County Office of Emergency Services, local volunteer fire 

departments, homeowners’ associations, and other organizations to 

assist communities in reducing private property risks from wildfires. 

Develop a Firewise 

Community Plan 

“Firewise”, which is managed by the National Wildland/Urban 

Interface Fire Protection Program, should also be investigated. 

concept provides workshops to communities using GIS mapping, role 

playing, and simulated exercises to develop a Firewise Community 

Plan that would enable people to survive wildfires without using 

agencies. 

Seasonal closure would occur during periods of high 

Can be used as a 

Involve local communities and tribal members as 

Preposition forces and equipmen

The 

Considerations/Criteria for Treatment 

None 

Data Gap 

Air quality impacts from the Megram Fire were severe due to the high amounts and duration of the 

smoke. Since the majority of residents did not evacuate during the fire, it is important to follow the 

health of the residents to see, what, if any impacts can be attributed to the smoke levels 

experienced during this fire. The Center for Disease Control has initiated a smoke-related study 

to follow the health of residents in Hoopa over time. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

5-12 
Management Recommendations 

Table 5-5. Possible Management Practice Summary for Opportunities 1, 2, 3 and 4

Possible Management Practice Opportunity 1 

Fuels Reduction 

Opportunity 2 

Protect mature 

and old growth 

Opportunity 3 

Develop -

successional 

habitat 

Opportunity 4 

Protect 

Communities 

Prescribed Fire X X X X 

Hand-Piling and Burning X X X X 

Mechanical Treatment X X X X 

Shaded Fuelbreak X X X X 

Wildland Fire Use X X X X 

Remove merchantable trees killed by 

fire or insects in early and mid-mature 

stands within low and moderate burn 

severity burn through fuel treatment 

X X X X 

Reduce concentrations of large fuel in 

high intensity burn areas through 

salvage and fuel treatment 

X X X X 

Apply silvicultural prescriptions in early 

and mid-mature stands within low and 

moderate burn severity to reduce stand 

density 

X X X X 

Reduce concentrations of large fuel in 

high intensity burn areas through 

salvage and fuel treatment 

X X X X 

Reforest plantations lost to the fire. X 

Seasonal Road Closures X X 

Fire Prevention X X 

Fire Preparedness X X 

Firewood Gathering X X X 

Young Stand Thinning X 

Develop a Community Safety Plan X 

late

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

5-13
Chapter 5 

Develop a Firewise Community Plan X

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

5-14
Management Recommendations 

Opportunity 5 Restore watershed functions to provide high 

quality habitat for riparian and aquatic species 

and protect domestic water supplies 

Key Findings 

Historic sediment delivery to fish-bearing streams has resulted mostly from flood-induced mass 

wasting in the lower parts of these watersheds. Resource management appears to have played a 

much larger role in sediment production in Tish Tang and Mill Creeks than in Horse Linto Creek, 

and roads have clearly been associated with higher levels of sediment production and delivery 

than timber harvest. As a result of the Megram Fire, extensive parts of all three watersheds are 

now vulnerable to accelerated surface erosion on steep slopes and increased mass wasting on 

sensitive terrain. The greatest threat is in Horse Linto Creek because more acres of high and 

moderate burn severity are located on steep, erodible slopes in that watershed. Short-term 

increases in large woody debris recruitment will be considerable, while long-term recruitment may 

be limited for many decades. Riparian and aquatic species and their habitat are faced with years 

of effects from this fire and the additional risk of similar problems if another large high severity fire 

occurs. 

The following general response to the fire would help meet ACS objectives and the specific needs 

of anadromous and resident fish. 

Horse Linto Creek: Maintain good habitat conditions in areas that did not burn and rehabilitate 

stream corridors and riparian areas damaged by the fire through watershed restoration, flood 

proofing and road decommissioning. Maintain or enhance coarse woody debris loading and large 

roughness within channels as deemed appropriate by field review to provide suitable habitat 

conditions for anadromous and resident fish. Monitor range allotment use and utilize livestock 

exclosures as needed to meet ACS objectives for stream and riparian habitat. 

Mill and Tish Tang Creeks: Reduce fine sediment input to channels through watershed 

restoration, flood proofing and road decommissioning. Rehabilitate stream corridors and riparian 

areas damaged by the fire as deemed appropriate by field review to provide suitable habitat 

conditions for anadromous and resident fish. Monitor range allotment use and utilize livestock 

exclosures as needed to meet ACS objectives for stream and riparian habitat. 

The considerations and criteria for treatments to reduce fuel levels in all watersheds (as 

discussed under Opportunity 1 will reduce future risk to riparian and aquatic species and habitats 

by lowering the long-term potential for surface erosion. BAER treatments and fire suppression 

rehabilitation will also reduce these risks. 

Potential slope failure and erosion are generally related to the design, location, and maintenance 

of a road and its structures. Off-site influences of the Megram Fire could have substantial adverse 

effects on road-related erosion, even with adequate routine on-site road maintenance. Roadstream crossings on steep channels with heavy organic debris loading that lie below areas 

susceptible to debris flows or greatly elevated surface erosion are especially at risk of plugging 

and failure. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

5-15 
Chapter 5 

One objective of the Forest-wide LSRA is to “manage access to reduce adverse effects to latesuccessional associated species and aquatic habitats”. The ATM for this analysis area 

recommended about 25 miles of road for restoration (including decommissioning). About 20 miles 

had been treated prior to the fire (either decommissioned or made hydrologically maintenance 

free), but two miles were re-opened for suppression efforts during the Megram Fire. After the fire, 

the ATM was revisited to re-evaluate the other five miles of untreated roads and determine how 

much the decommissioned roads had hampered fire suppression effectiveness. It was concluded 

that there was no significant impact. 

Possible Management Practices 

Table 5-6 lists management practices that could be appropriate to meet Opportunity 5. The 

"Notes" column provides further explanation about the practices where necessary. 

Table 5-6. Possible Management Practices Used to Meet Opportunity 5 

Possible Management 

Practice 

Notes 

Erosion Control 

Treatments 

Use in areas where it appears likely that sediment would be 

delivered to streams. 

strip mulching, installing energy dissipaters at culvert outlets, aerial 

seeding, installing waterbars on roads and skid trails. 

Stream Channel 

Stabilization 

Add large woody debris to stream channels where it is lacking and 

expected to be lacking in the short or long term; focus on perennial 

streams affected by the fire, especially in areas where future LWD 

recruitment may be deficient. 

Revegetation of Riparian 

Areas 

Plant native riparian shrubs in moderate to high severity burn riparian 

corridors. 

Reforestation of burned 

plantations 

Emphasize restoring the conifer component along riparian zones that 

were included within the former harvest unit. 

Road upgrades and 

decommissioning 

Implement remaining decommissioning projects associated with the 

ATM. 

increases in sediment, woody debris and runoff. 

Install rocked rolling dips to reduce diversion potential, especially in 

moderate and high severity burn areas. 

Maintain Level 2,3 and 4 

roads 

Roads within and adjacent to burned areas should be maintained as 

necessary to minimize erosion and failure potential. Clean ditches 

and culverts to minimize chances of plugging. 

damage caused by the fire or suppression activities, as well as 

maintenance needs, should be implemented as soon as ground 

conditions permit. 

Control road use in areas 

of concern 

Close roads or restrict use to prevent surface erosion and damage to 

roads during wet weather and lower the risk of fire ignitions in very 

dry weather. 

Kinds of treatments include contour falling, 

Focus on upgrading stream crossings to handle anticipated 

All identified road 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

5-16 
Management Recommendations 

Criteria for Selecting Treatment Areas 

Criteria to be used in determining the highest priority treatment areas to meet Opportunity 5 are 

listed below. In many cases, areas may meet two or more of the criteria. 

• Areas that experienced high or moderate severity burning 

• Areas where future wildfire poses a significant threat to watershed values 

• Areas located in middle or lower slope positions that are more likely to deliver sediment to 

streams 

• Hillslopes susceptible to mass wasting 

• Areas containing stream crossings at risk of failure 

• Native surface and other roads that are prone to rutting. Inventoried native surface roads 

include 6N50, 7N02A, 7N04S, 7N06, 7N06A, 7N09, 7N30, 7N53, 8N03, 8N03J, 8N03T, 

8N03U, 8N15, 8N33C, 8N33D, 8N41, and 10N02B. In addition, surfacing along a 3.5-mile 

segment of 7N04 has broken down to the extent that it now acts as a native surface road. 

Considerations/Criteria for Treatment 

• Exercise caution during the layout and design of projects, particularly in riparian areas. All 

activities in and adjacent to riparian areas should be designed and executed to avoid the risk 

of measurably increasing erosion. 

• Design treatments to meet Aquatic Conservation Strategy objectives 

• Field review all projects on slopes greater than 10 percent in diorite soils, and on slopes 

greater than 35 percent in other soil types; design mitigation measures to minimize surface 

erosion and sediment delivery to streams. 

• Leave sufficient organic material on sensitive hillslopes to anchor the site through recovery 

without leaving an undesirable fuel load that could re-burn at high severity 

• Provide for adequate retention of downed woody debris and future recruitment, especially 

along perennial streams. 

• Avoid building any new permanent roads, and confine temporary roads to ridge tops or 

other stable terrain (to be evaluated in the field) as much as possible. 

Data Gaps 

Review the condition of lower standard roads in the area, especially maintenance level 2 roads 

with native surface. Confirm the location and condition of gates and other closure devices. 

Monitoring 

Continue the existing monitoring in Horse Linto Creek to meet our tribal trust responsibilities 

regarding fish and water quality. This includes annual juvenile and adult fish monitoring, turbidity 

and stream temperature monitoring. Additional water temperature monitoring sites should be set 

up in more of the headwaters such as East Fork Horse Linto, Cedar, Groves Prairie, Mill, and Tish 

Tang Creeks to better understand post-fire conditions.

A systematic field examination of surface erosion evidence (soil pedestals, rilling, accumulations of 

soil wash) should be conducted for several years to validate the predicted levels of elevated 

erosion in this analysis. Monitored areas should include both treated and untreated areas to 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

5-17 
Chapter 5 

gauge the effectiveness of erosion prevention practices on different slopes and soil types. 

Sediment levels in nearby headwater channels should also be documented (photographic record) 

to verify the extent of sediment delivery from eroding hillslopes. The disposition and movement (or 

lack of movement) of large woody debris within riparian areas should be monitored through 

photographic records or tagging of individual pieces of debris. 

Opportunity 6 Mitigate impacts on Tribal trust resources on 

Hoopa Reservation and spiritual and 

traditional uses 

Key Findings 

Insect infestation is expected to affect individual trees and small groups of trees, but should not 

reach epidemic levels. Insects will attack individual trees under stress from fire damage, causing 

additional mortality. It is not expected that insects will leave the fire area in large numbers and 

impact unburned stands. Therefore, there is little risk of insect infestation spreading onto the 

Hoopa Reservation. The affect from insect activity lies in increased mortality contributing to fuel 

build-up and helping to set the stage for future fires. 

The known anadromous habitat in the Mill and Tish Tang watersheds are all within the Hoopa 

Valley Indian Reservation. It is likely that the Megram Fire’s effects on anadromous fish and their 

habitat will last at least a decade. The stream habitat quality for both Mill and Tish Tang creeks 

were judged to not be properly functioning refugia prior to the fire, while Horse Linto was properly 

functioning refugia. The fire effects in the headwaters riparian reserves are expected to trickle 

down to the anadromous habitat. Sedimentation of stream channels within and downstream of the 

burned areas on all three watersheds is expected to occur. 

The Yurok Tribe’s reservation is on the Klamath River, with the Trinity River as a tributary. 

Effects to the Yurok Tribal fisheries are distant to non-existent based on current information. 

The Hoopa Tribe depends on Mill Creek for domestic water supply for the eastern portions of the 

Reservation. Due to high turbidity levels during high flows, the water supply is periodically shut 

down for water quality purposes. Tish Tang Creek is under an engineering feasibility and design 

study for use as domestic water supply. 

The De-No-To Cultural District is eligible for the National Register of Historic Places, which makes 

it an important cultural resource from the National Forest and Hoopa Tribe perspective. Fire 

suppression activities and the fire itself damaged aspects of the National Register property. 

A significant use of the analysis area is gathering of native plants to sustain cultural life ways of 

the Hupa. Subsistence gathering and hunting are major human uses of the analysis area and the 

most consistent use over the years. The Hupa traditional species of concern would be directly 

impacted by the removal of substantial canopy cover. Some species appear to respond favorably 

to disturbance. The fire has directly affected culturally significant vegetation. The degree of 

effect, and whether some plants were enhanced in the low severity burned area, is not known at 

this time. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

5-18 
Management Recommendations 

Possible Management Practices 

Table 5-7 lists management practices that could be appropriate to meet Opportunity 6. The 

"Notes" column provides further explanation about the practices where necessary. All treatments 

will meet Aquatic Conservation Strategy objectives to protect watershed values. 

Table 5-7. Possible Management Practices Used to Meet Opportunity 6 

Possible Management 

Practice 

Notes 

Identify areas of high 

potential for future fires 

spreading on to the 

Hoopa Reservation and 

reduce this potential risk 

Cooperatively identify these areas and conduct appropriate 

management activities to reduce this potential risk. 

Hoopa - Ensure 

protection of fishing 

related rights. 

Tribal scientific staffs are requesting that off-reservation jurisdictional 

agencies coordinate and consult with the Council on rehabilitation 

and monitoring efforts associated with the Big Bar Complex fires 

(USDI – memo November 1, 1999) 

Yurok - ensure protection 

of fishing related rights 

Tribal scientific staffs are requesting that off-reservation jurisdictional 

agencies coordinate and consult with the Council on rehabilitation 

and monitoring efforts associated with the Big Bar Complex fires 

(USDI – memo November 1, 1999) 

Develop partnerships to 

monitor water quality in 

Tish Tang, Mill, and 

Horse Linto watersheds 

Cooperative partnership with BIA, Hoopa Tribe and Forest Service to 

conduct long-term water quality for T&E habitat and domestic water 

sources monitoring and treatment of watershed emergencies in these 

watersheds by increasing the number of sampling and monitoring 

sites. 

years to assess impacts on fisheries and domestic water quality 

(USDI-BAER). Monitoring to occur at various control points (off 

reservation) for monitoring the affected watershed areas and any 

fire-affected drainages flowing into reservation lands jointly selected 

these locations. Provide result of water quality and fisheries 

monitoring information from Tish Tang, Horse Linto, and Mill Creeks 

to the Yurok Tribe. 

Assess fire impacts to the 

De-No-To District 

Conduct an assessment of the nature and extent of the damage to 

the integrity of the on the De-No-To Cultural District working with 

individual practitioners, seeking the perspectives and data from the 

Hoopa Tribe. 

Assess impacts of fire on 

spiritual and traditional 

properties 

Inventory, including consultation with traditional practitioners to 

identify if any values are at risk from the deteriorated watersheds and 

identify what measures if any need to be implemented to protect 

those values. 

Conduct spawning 

surveys 

Cooperatively conduct spawning surveys within the analysis 

Jointly monitor water quality for a period of no less than three 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

5-19 
Chapter 5 

Data Gaps 

• Work with Individual traditional practitioner of the De-No-To cultural district to determine 

how suppression efforts and fire-related landscape changes affect their uses, the qualities 

needed in the landscape and the resources utilized in their activities. 

• Need to assess the degree the fire affected culturally significant vegetation 

Opportunity 7 Provide safe access for the public and forest 

employees 

Key Findings 

There is a potential hazard to the public and Forest employees from fire-damaged trees falling on 

Forest development roads. The highest potential hazard to road users is generally in areas where 

roads cross through moderate to high burn severities. However, there is some degree of hazard 

anywhere in the burned area where there are dead and dying trees within close proximity to the 

road. Use of the roads during hazard tree felling and removal could also present a safety risk. 

Impacts to other resources from hazard tree removal can be minimized with restrictions on heavy 

equipment use and protection of roadways and drainage structures. 

Possible Management Practices 

Table 5-8 lists the possible management practices that would be appropriate to meet Opportunity 

7. The "Notes" column provides further explanation about the practices, where necessary. 

Table 5-8. Possible Management Practices Used to Meet Opportunity 7 

Possible Management 

Practice 

Notes 

Road closures or road 

use restrictions 

Issue road closure orders or road use restrictions to prohibit or 

restrict public access if hazard tree conditions make a road inherently 

unsafe for travel. 

place until hazard tree reduction activities have been completed or 

the hazardous condition is otherwise remedied. 

orders to minimize inconvenience to the public. 

Hazard tree removal 

along Level 2, 3, and 4 

roads 

Reduce the safety threat along area roadways by felling designated 

hazard trees. 

with other resource management goals and restrictions 

Road maintenance Repair, replace, or maintain all damage or wear that hazard tree 

operations cause to road surfaces, cutslopes, fillslopes, culverts, 

ditches, or other road structures. 

Such closures or restrictions should remain in 

Publicize any such 

Remove and utilize those trees in locations compatible 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

5-20 
Management Recommendations 

Considerations/Criteria for Treatment 

• Close or restrict road use only when such measures are necessary to insure public safety. If 

available, provide alternative routes to the closed roads. 

• Hazard trees should be designated as defined in the “Megram Roadside Hazard Tree Project 

Scoping Document” (February 2000). The Environmental Assessment for this project will 

reference other project design features, management requirements, and mitigation measures. 

• The primary areas designated for hazard tree reduction are shown in Figure 4-2. Actual 

treatment areas may vary as ground conditions are verified in the upcoming field season. 

• During hazard tree felling and removal, close or restrict use on the affected roads, or require 

warning signs and flag persons if road closure is not necessary to insure public safety. 

• Restrict heavy equipment use to roads, landings, and other previously-disturbed areas. 

• Prohibit the use of tracked vehicles on paved surfaces; require rubber-tired equipment on 

these roads. 

• Require all activity generated slash and debris be removed from stream channels, ditches, and 

culvert inlets. 

• Manage felling, endlining, and skidding operations in order to minimize the physical impacts of 

these activities on roadbeds, cutslopes, fillslopes, stream channels, and adjacent lands. 

Opportunity 8 Contribute to local economies through fire 

recovery efforts 

Key Findings 

Although the management objectives for LSR and wilderness do not include economic benefits, 

many of the opportunities and possible management practices proposed would contribute to local 

economies through fire recovery efforts. 

Possible Management Practices 

Refer to Opportunity 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 12 and 13 

Considerations/Criteria for Treatment 

• Hire local people 

• Partnerships 

• Stewardship contracts 

• Package projects so that local small businesses can compete 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

5-21 
Chapter 5 

Opportunity 9 Minimize the introduction and spread of 

noxious weeds 

Key Findings 

Noxious weeds have been documented in the analysis area and include scotch broom and yellow 

starthistle. Noxious weeds readily spread into disturbed area with minimal canopy cover. The fire 

and activities related to wildfire suppression could have favored noxious weed introduction and 

establishment. Subsequent recovery efforts could also bring about the introduction and spread of 

these weeds. 

Possible Management Practices 

Table 5-9 lists the possible management practices that would be appropriate to meet Opportunity 

9. The "Notes" column provides further explanation about the practices, where necessary. 

Table 5-9. Possible Management Practices Used to Meet Opportunity 9 

Possible Management 

Practice 

Notes 

Survey to locate noxious 

weed sites 

Survey before and after project implementation 

Roadside 

reconnaissance 

Conduct a reconnaissance of roadsides to locate noxious weed site 

Reduce introduction and 

spread of noxious weeds 

Depending on risk, recommendations could include: immediate 

removal of satellite populations (relatively small and local 

occurrences), removal of more extensive populations along a stretch 

of the roadway to provide a “weed break” between occupied and 

unoccupied settings, and equipment cleaning. 

Data Gaps 

Undertake a roadside reconnaissance of the area within the first year after the fire to monitor for 

noxious weeds. At this time, populations would be mapped. Once more detail is generated, the 

management recommendations can include a risk assessment based upon mapped findings. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

5-22 
Management Recommendations 

Opportunity 10 Monitor and further analyze habitat conditions 

and trends for threatened, endangered and 

species, survey and mange species and 

species of concern. 

The Megram Fire altered habitat conditions for many of the TES species dependent on latesuccessional habitat. The Megram Fire reduced the amount of late mature and old growth habitat 

by 21 percent and increased the amount of shrub/forb habitat by 400 percent. 

Prior to the fire, 29 of the 37 NSO activity centers in LSR 305 were above the “take” threshold for 

nesting and roosting habitat at the 1.3-mile radius. Additionally, the baseline analysis for the 

northern province determined that LSR 305 was functioning at a high level for providing habitat for 

northern spotted owls. Based on the mapping of burn severity, only 21 of the 37 activity centers 

are currently above the “take” threshold at the 1.3-mile radius. 

Additionally, many other species dependent on late-successional habitat may have been 

significantly impacted. Specific effects to riparian dependent species are currently unknown; 

however, given the levels of high severity wildfire within riparian reserves, it is probable that 

impacts to habitat may be significant to these species. The majority of S&M species predicted to 

occur within the analysis area are vulnerable to fire even at low burn intensities. The effect of the 

Megram Fire on these species has yet to be determined in the absence of limited monitoring data 

after the fire. It is expected that in the areas of high burn severity, species were consumed and the 

area is no longer considered habitat, however, species may have survived in adjacent areas of 

unburned habitat or areas of low to moderate burn severities. 

Outside of the intensely burned areas, sites of plant species of concern are for the most part 

dated, having not been visited since the 1980s. Suitable habitat exists within the analysis area in 

the low to moderately burned areas. 

Possible Management Practices 

Table 5-10 lists the possible management practices that would be appropriate to meet Opportunity 

10. The "Notes" column provides further explanation about the practices. 

Data Gaps 

• Re-analyze the baseline assessment for LSR 305 utilizing vegetation data that has been 

field verified during the spring and early summer of 2000. 

• Identify special habitats including caves, mines, old buildings, wooden bridges, ponds, 

seeps, talus deposits. Survey and inventory special status species associated with these 

special habitats. 

• Current surveys are needed to determine presence and extent of plant species of concern. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

5-23 
Chapter 5 

Table 5-10. Possible Management Practices to Meet Opportunity 10 

Possible Management 

Practice 

Notes 

NSO Activity Center 

surveys and monitoring 

Conduct surveys and monitor spotted owl activity centers that were 

impacted by the fire, specifically activity centers that are below the 

“take” threshold. 

Review “take” 

assessment 

Review preliminary “take” assessments after field verification of 

stand conditions 

Monitor know survey and 

manage species sites 

Monitor known sites for survey and manage species. 

monitoring efforts on sites with moderate and high burn severities. 

Monitor sensitive species 

dens and/or sites 

Monitor known nest and/or den sites for Forest sensitive species 

Survey for plant species Survey for the presence and extent of plant species of concern. 

Monitor and survey for 

riparian dependent 

species 

Monitor and survey for riparian dependent species, specifically within 

riparian habitats affected by moderate and high burn severities. 

Emphasize 

Opportunity 11 Protect heritage resource sites affected by the 

fire 

Key Findings 

The analysis area is within the aboriginal territory of the Hupa people. It has had consistent 

historic and contemporary use of hunting, gathering, and cultural-spiritual activities.

The analysis area has not been subject to systematic research but rather several dozen reports 

prepared in support of agency efforts to comply with the National Historic Preservation Act.

There is documented presence of cultural resource localities, including artifact scatters, possible 

camp areas, prayer sites, trails, as well as historic period sites.

Heritage resources were a priority throughout the Big Bar Complex fire, and the Hoopa Valley 

Tribe, as well as other tribes, and their representatives and resource managers were involved 

throughout the fire. Despite this some sites were impacted from fire suppression activities and the 

fire itself.

Possible Management Practices 

• Conduct a field inventory, in consultation with traditional practitioners and the Hoopa 

Tribe, to identify any values or cultural resources at risk from the deteriorated watersheds 

and what measures, if any, need to be implemented to protect those values. 

Data Gaps 

• The lack of definitive data related to the age and function of archaeological sites within the 

analysis area makes the evaluation of significance of prehistoric sites problematic. 

• The thermal effects of the Big Bar complex fire on cultural resources are unknown at 

present. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

5-24 
Management Recommendations 

Opportunity 12 Cattle grazing and meadows/riparian areas 

Key Findings and Considerations/Criteria for Treatment 

Based on an initial assessment of the meadows and associated riparian areas, it appears as if 

they experienced a low to moderate burn severity. Additional field review needs to be conducted 

before a determination is made on whether or not cattle can be turned out on the allotments 

affected by the Megram Fire. The Cattle Turn Out Key following will be utilized to make this 

determination. 

CATTLE TURN OUT KEY 

The following key will be used to determine when cattle may be turned out on allotments affected 

by the Megram Fire. 

7) Forest land adjacent to areas grazed by cattle not damaged to extent where cattle 

wandering onto it will cause adverse effects: soil erosion, impede revegetation (natural or 

artificial), etc. 

Yes – Go to 2

No – Consider keeping cattle in another portion of the unit or off the allotment until 

healing has occurred. If not possible, go to 6

8) Stream channels leading into and out of areas grazed by cattle still vegetated. 

Yes – Go to 3

No – Consider fencing to restrict cattle access to stream channel. If not possible, 

go to 6

9) Meadows not affected by fire or have recovered from effects of fire. 

Yes – Go to 4

No – Consider keeping cattle in unaffected meadows. If not possible, go to 6

10) Range readiness inspection shows meadows are ready for cattle. 

Yes – Go to 5

No – Consider offering alternative allotment area to permittee, if available. If not 

possible, go to 6

11) Cattle can be turned out. 

12) Keep cattle off allotment unit. 

Data Gaps 

Need to assess meadow and riparian conditions this spring. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

5-25 
Chapter 5 

Opportunity 13 Restore recreational facilities and 

opportunities affected by the fire 

Key Findings 

Some trails were extensively used during fire-suppression efforts and need maintenance and 

some rehabilitation. Trails located in high severity burn areas have risks from hazard trees and 

pose risk from surface erosion. Currently, the highest priority for facilities is to implement shortterm actions to restore or maintain the roads, trails and other facilities that were affected by the 

Megram Fire. 

Some of the roads identified for decommissioning in the ATM have been used historically to 

access dispersed recreation sites in Groves Prairie (7N04G, 7N04M, 7N04N, and 7N04P). These 

roads should stay open to provide continued access to these sites. 

Possible Management Practices 

Table 5-11 lists the possible management practices that would be appropriate to meet Opportunity 

13. The "Notes" column provides further explanation about the practices, where necessary. 

Table 5-11. Possible Management Practices to Meet Opportunity 13 

Possible Management 

Practice 

Notes 

Maintain 7N04G, 7N04M, 

7N04N, and 7N04P as 

ML2 roads 

Keep these roads open (status quo) due to historic use of the roads 

to access existing dispersed recreation sites 

Complete trail surveys Complete trail surveys on unsurveyed trails to assess damage from 

the fire and rehabilitation needs. 

Trail maintenance/ 

reconstruction 

Perform trail maintenance and/or reconstruction on trails that were 

impacted/damaged by the fire or fire suppression efforts. 

chainsaw exemption for wilderness to remove hazard and downed 

trees along trails due to season limitations and employee and visitor 

safety. ransportation and Access 

section of Chapter 3) when identifying trees to remove. 

Sign trailheads Post signs at trailheads regarding safety hazards, or close and sign 

severely impacted trails to the public until repair work is completed. 

Install new or replace signs damaged by the fire. 

keep signing to a minimum and as unobtrusive as possible. 

national sign standards for both wilderness and non-wilderness 

trails. 

Request a 

Apply hazard tree guidelines (see T

In the wilderness, 

Follow 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

5-26 
Management Recommendations 

Table 5-11. Possible Management Practices to Meet Opportunity 13 (continued) 

Possible Management 

Practice 

Notes 

Complete fire 

suppression rehab 

activities 

Restore wilderness attributes altered by fire suppression activities 

such as fire crew campsites and fire rings, and fire lines that may be 

mistaken for trails. 

Conduct trails analysis Evaluate trails in the analysis area to determine if all are needed. 

Identify high priority trails and secondary use trails. 

consider previously existing and little used trails that were affected 

by the fire. 

Reroute trails causing 

resource impacts 

Reroute any sections of trail where there are resource impacts due 

to original poor location (i.e. through meadows) to eliminate further 

damage by hikers and stock. 

Repair damaged 

recreation structures 

Repair any recreation structures such as SSTs that may have been 

damaged by the fire. 

Educate public on fire 

rehabilitation efforts, 

closures, projects, etc. 

Develop information on fire rehabilitation efforts for posting at 

trailhead bulletin boards, around town, and at forest offices. 

Establish web pages about the fire rehabilitation efforts, projects, 

recovery status, closures, etc. on the Forest’s web site for public 

access and information. 

Especially 

The following possible management practices would benefit the recreation and tourism 

opportunities in the area. They are lower priority actions than those dealing with the immediate 

effects of the fire and its impacts, and would be considered as opportunity and resources allow. 

Table 5-12. Additional Possible Management Practices to Meet Opportunity 13 

Possible Management 

Practice 

Notes 

Improve trailhead 

facilities 

• Improve trailhead facilities including signing, bulletin boards, and 

parking. 

an SST (toilet). nity for turnaround loop for 

parking for easier access/staging for stock use. 

Install facility signs • Install facility signs at all facilities such as Grove’s Prairie. 

Assess Horse Linto 

camping facility 

• Include Horse Linto camping facility in the forest-wide recreation 

facility analysis to determine its future status and maintenance 

needs to achieve Meaningful Measures standards. 

Improve directional 

signing 

• Improve directional signing along highways and forest roads to 

trailheads and other recreational facilities. 

Develop interpretive 

information 

• Develop interpretive information about the historical significance 

of Grove’s Prairie, Trinity Summit area, the historical trails, etc. 

Inform public about 

recreational opportunities 

• Highlight through a variety of means the recreation opportunities 

and facilities within the analysis area that can be accessed via 

the proposed Bigfoot Scenic Byway (State Highway 96) after it is 

designated and the Trinity Scenic Byway (State Highway 299). 

Consider if visitor use and impacts to resources warrant 

Consider opportu

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

5-27 
Chapter 5 

Criteria for Selecting Treatment Areas 

• Priorities for trail rehabilitation are National Recreation Trails and high use trails in high 

severity burn areas. 

Considerations/Criteria for Treatment 

• Coordinate trail work and other rehabilitation mitigations in the wilderness with the ShastaTrinity National Forest to more effectively and efficiently use resources and perform 

needed trail rehab work. 

• Install trail features such as waterbars, etc. to reduce impacts to soil and water resources. 

Opportunity 14 Learn from the Fire 

Key Findings 

There are numerous opportunities to learn from the Megram Fire. These opportunities can be 

built as learning objectives into project design. They also can be met through developing 

partnerships with County, State and Federal Agencies, Tribal Governments and Educational 

Institutions. 

Possible Management Practices 

• Seek research opportunities with educational institutions, graduate students, PSW, PNW, 

the Joint Fire Science Program, local communities, the Trinity County Fire Safe Council, 

Hoopa Tribe, grants, etc. 

• Design learning objectives into fire rehabilitation projects and other project proposals. 

• Use untreated burned areas as a control and for monitoring and research projects to 

compare with treatment areas. 

• Pursue research opportunities within riparian areas impacted by the fire for neo-tropical 

birds, amphibians, and survey and manage species. 

• Pursue research opportunities on northern spotted owl utilization of habits burned by 

varying degrees of fire severity. 

Due to the extent and variability within the Megram Fire, the list of research or further analysis 

opportunities is vast and varied, touching virtually every resource discussed in this document. 

This list includes the following: 

1. How effective were the fuel treatments that coincided with the Megram Fire? How was 

the survival of these fuel treatment areas affected by their design and the environmental 

conditions that were burning around them? 

2. How well will this LSR survive into the future? Has its functionality been compromised 

and, if so, for how long will this status exist? 

3. How will affected activity centers and NSOs function in the future? 

4. What will be the recovery rate and pattern for displaced wildlife species? 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

5-28 
Management Recommendations 

5. What will be the recovery rate for survey and manage species within the high and 

moderate severity burn areas? Were survey and manage species affected in the low and 

moderate severity burn areas? And if so, to what extent? Are there refugia in the high 

severity burn areas? 

6. What will be the vegetational and fuel succession patterns throughout the Megram 

landscape? How can vegetation management affect these patterns? 

7. What were the smoke impacts from the Big Bar Complex? Besides evacuation what 

measures can be taken to lessen smoke impacts for local residents? 

8. How was the fire progression affected by environmental variables (e.g., topography, fuel 

loading and distribution, weather patterns)? 

9. What impact did fire suppression have on the fire progression? 

10. How can fire severity be more accurately mapped in a short time frame? 

11. How will unburned blowdown areas recover over time compared to areas with similar 

blowdown levels that were consumed in the fire? 

12. Were the weather patterns experienced in this fire unusual for this area? 

13. How can management lessen further degradation of resources or future wildfire impacts? 

At what scale can active management “make a difference”? 

14. How can fire and air quality information be better distributed to our publics real-time? 

15. How does this fire compare with the Hog Fire of 1977 or the Dillon Complex of 1987? 

What can be learned from how these fires look after 20 or 10 years? 

16. What affect did the fire have on riparian areas, and how will this impact change over time? 

17. What information can be gleaned from monitoring the approximately 20 Continuous Forest 

Inventory plots that are within the Megram Fire boundary? 

18. What impact will “no management” in the wilderness have on adjacent areas, both in 

terms of wildfire damage and smoke? 

19. How can vegetation management affect the invasion of noxious plants? 

20. How can the community benefit from the Megram Fire – economically, educationally, etc.? 

21. How would the fire progression compare with results from fire progression models (e.g., 

FARSITE) and what is the reason for differences? 

22. How will Native American spiritual areas be affected by this fire? Is the effect a beneficial 

or a detrimental one? 

23. How does sediment delivery to streams (ephemeral, intermittent) differ by burn severity 

and by treatment or no treatment? 

24. How do areas left to “natural succession” compare with treated areas (e.g., thinning, 

density management in mature stands)? 

25. How valid are the fuel model assignments made by subseries and seral stage? 

26. What is the pattern and extent of reburning in larger stand-replacing wildfires in the 

Klamath Mountains? 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

5-29 

Literature Cited 

APPENDIX A

LITERATURE CITED

Accord, Tom and Mort Scott. February 7, 2000. Personal communication. Redwood Chapter of 

the California Backcountry Horsemens Association and Six Rivers National Forest 

volunteers. 

Adams, S., and O.J. Sawyer. 1980. “Past fire incidence in mixed evergreen forests of 

northwestern California.” Unpublished document, California State University Humboldt, on 

file at Six Rivers National Forest Supervisors Office, Eureka, CA. 22pp. 

Agee, J.K. 1991. “Fire history along an elevational gradient in the Siskiyou Mountains.” Northwest 

Science. 65(4):188-198. 

Agee, James K.; Huff, Mark H. 1980. First year ecological effects of the Hoh Fire, Olympic 

Mountains, Washington. In: Martin, Robert E.; Edmonds, Donald A.; Harrington, James B.; 

[and others], eds. Proceedings, 6th conference on fire and forest meteorology; 1980 April 

22-24; Seattle, WA. Bethesda, MD: Society of American Foresters: 175-181. 

Agee, J.K. and R.L. Edmonds. 1992. “Forest protection guidelines for the Northern Spotted Owl.” 

Appendix F in Recovery Plan for the Northern Spotted Owl - Draft. p. 419-480. 

Agee, J. 1993. Fire ecology of Pacific Northwest forests. Island Press. Washington, D.C. 493 p. 

Agee, J.K., B. Bahro, M.A. Finney, P.N. Omi, D.B. Sapsis, C.N. Skinner, J.W. van Wagtendonk, 

and C.P. Weatherspoon. 1998. “The use of fuelbreaks in landscape fire management.” 

Wildfire Magazine. May 1998. 14 pp. 

Anderson, H.E. 1982. “Aids to determining fuel models for estimating fire behavior.” USDA Forest 

Service General Technical Report INT-122. Intermountain. Forest and Range Experiment 

Station, Ogden, UT. 22 pp 

Andrews, P.L. 1986 BEHAVE: Fire Behavior Prediction and Fuel modeling System - BURN 

Subsystem, Part 1. USDA Forest Service General Technical Report INT-194. 

Intermountain Forest and Range Experimental Station, Ogden, Utah. 130 pp. 

Atzet, Thomas; Wheeler, David L. 1982. Historical and ecological perspectives on fire activity in 

the Klamath Geological Province of the Rogue River and Siskiyou National Forests. 

Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region. 

16 p. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

A-1 
Appendix A 

Atzet, T., D. Wheeler, and R. Gripp. 1988. “Fire and forestry in southwest Oregon.” FIR Report 

9(4):4-7. 

Barbour, M.G., et. al. 1998. Terrestrial plant ecology, 3rd edition. Menlo Park, CA 

Benjamin/Cummings, an imprint of Addison Wesley Longman, Inc. 

Barrett, L.A. 1935. “A record of forest and field fires in California from the days of the early 

explorers to the creation of the Forest Reserves.” San Francisco, CA. 171 pp. 

Baumhoff, Martin A. 1958. “California Athabascan Groups.” University of California 

Anthropological Records 16(5):157-238. Berkeley, CA. 

Bledsoe, A.J. 1885. “Indian Wars of the Northwest.” (Reprint) BioBooks, Oakland, CA 

Blomstrom, Greg. Hoopa Valley Forest Planner. Personal Communication. February, 2000. 

Boberg, Jerry. 1996. Draft “Multi-year Population Assessment of Anadromous Salmonids in 

Horse Linto Creek, California 1990-1996”. USDA, Six Rivers National Forest, Eureka, CA. 

Boorman, B.T. et. al. 1998. “Adaptive management.” In: Information and Data Management. 

Forest Service. 

Burcell, Suzanne, D. Miller, and W. Sulllivan. 1994. “Economic Diversification Study of the 

Potential Economic Impacts of a Hardwood Sawmill and other Value-added Manufacturing 

on the Hoopa Valley Reservation.” Prepared for Hoopa Tribal Business Council, Hoopa 

Valley Indian Reservation, Hoopa Valley, California. 

California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection. 1999. “The 20 largest California Wildland 

fires (by acres burned).” www.fire.ca.gov/20largestfires_acres.html. 

Castellano, M.A., and T. O’Dell. 1997. “Management recommendations for survey and manage 

fungi”. Regional Ecosystem Office. Portland, OR. 

Chapman, Laura. 1999. “Big Bar Complex Trail Condition Surveys.” Eureka, CA: Six Rivers 

National Forest. 

Citizens for Better Forestry. 2000. Letter to Six Rivers National Forest on Watershed Analysis for 

Horse Linto Creek, Tish Tang Creek, Mill Creek, Red Cap Creek, and New River 

Watersheds. January 26, 2000. Arcata, California. 

Clark, Susan T.; Pagen, Dezh. 1995. Trinity River Strategic Planning Business and Visitors 

Surveys. Willow Creek, CA. 

Cole, David N. 1996. “Wilderness Recreation in the United States – Trends in Use, Users, and 

Impacts.” International Journal of Wilderness, 2(3):14-18. 

Curtis, E. S. 1924. “The North American Indian.” Vol. 13, Norwood, IL. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

A-2 
Literature Cited 

Davy, J.B. 1902. “Stock ranges of northwestern California”. USDA Bulletin No. 12. 

Deeming, J. E., R.E. Burgan, and J.D. Cohen. 1977. “The National Fire-Danger Rating System --

1978.” USDA Forest Service General Technical Report INT-39, Intermountain Forest and 

Range Experimental Station, Odgen, UT. 63 pp 

Dugan, Ed. February 8, 2000. Telecommunication. Willow Creek resident and fishing guide. 

Dunne and Leopold. 1978. Water in Environmental Planning. W.H. Freeman and Company. New 

York, NY. 

Dunning, D. 1942. “A site classification for the mixed-conifer forests of the Sierra Nevada.” USDA 

Forest Service, California Forest and Range Experiment Station. Res. Note 29. Berkeley, 

CA. U.S.A. 21pp. 

Elsasser, Albert B. “Mattole, Nongatl, Sinkyone, Lassik, and Wailaki.” In: Handbook of the North 

American Indians, Volume 8, California. Robert F. Heizer, ed. pp.190-204. Smithsonian 

Institution, Washington D.C. 

Everett, R. 1995. “Review: Wildfire and salvage logging by Betschta et al.” In Research Review 

– Betschta, et al. Paper. U.S. Forest Service Washington Office Memo. 8/23/95. File 

code 4100. 

Fischer, R.T. 1901. Report on the proposed Trinity Forest Reserve, referred to in Barrett, L.A. “A 

record of forest and field fires in California from the days of the early explorers to the 

creation of the Forest Reserves.” p. 160. 

Flynn, K. and W. G. Roop. 1975. Archaeological Testing of 4-HUM-245 and 4-HUM-246, Pine 

Ridge, Humboldt County, California. 

Foster, George. 1944. “A summary of Yuki Culture.” University of California 

Anthropological Records 5:3 155-244. Berkeley, CA 

Fountain, Suzy Baker. N.d. “Suzy Baker Fountain Papers.” MS. on file Humboldt Room. 

Humboldt State University, Arcata, CA. 

Fredriksen, R.L. 1971. Comparative chemical water quality – natural and disturbed streams 

following logging and slash burning. Pages 125-137 in Krygier and Hall (1971). 

Freel. M. 1991. “A literature review for the management of the marten and fisher on National 

Forests in California.” USDA Forest Service, San Francisco, CA. 136p. 

Fritts, H.C. and G.A. Gordon. 1980. “Annual precipitation for California since 1600 reconstructed 

from western North American tree rings.” Laboratory of Tree-Ring Research. University of 

Arizona. California Department of Water Resources. Agreement No. B53367. July 1980. 

45 pp. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

A-3 
Appendix A 

Fuller, David. 1991. “Stream Report: Horse Linto Creek, Summary of Inventories and Project 

Work 1979-1990”. USDA, Six Rivers National Forest, Lower Trinity Ranger District, Willow 

Creek, CA. 

Furniss, R.L. & V.M. Carolin. 1977. “Western Forest Insects.” U.S. Department of Agriculture 

Miscellaneous Publication 1339. 654p. 

Furniss, M.M. 1965. “Susceptibility of fire-injured Douglas-fir to bark beetle attack in southern 

Idaho.” Journal of Forestry 63 (1): 8-11 

GAO (Government Accounting Office) 1999. “Western National Forests. A cohesive strategy is 

needed to address catastrophic wildfire threats.” Report to the subcommittee on forests 

and forest health, committee on resources, House of Representatives. GAO/RCED-99-65. 

60 pp. 

Gmoser, Glenn. 1984. “Hoopa Timber Sale Archaeological Reconniassance Report.” On file in 

heritage resources office, Six Rivers National Forest. Eureka, CA. 

Goddard, Pliny. 1903. “Life and Culture of the Hupa.” UCPAA&E 1(1):1-88. Berkeley, CA 

Green, Lisle R. 1977. “Fuelbreaks and other fuel modification for wildland fire control. USDA Agr. 

Hdbk. 499. 

Guckeen, Dennis. February 7, 2000. Telecommunication. Willow Creek resident and Lion’s 

Club sponsor of the Tish Tang Tang mountain bike event. 

Hall, P. 1984. “Characterization of nesting habitat of goshawks (Accipiter gentiles) in 

Northwestern California.” Masters Thesis, Humboldt State University, Arcata, CA. 

Halpern, C.B. 1989. “Early successional patterns of forest species: interactions of life history 

traits and disturbance.” Ecology 70(3):704-720. 

Hammer, T.E., and S.K. Nelson. 1995. “Characteristics of marbled murrelets nest trees and 

Nesting stands.” Ecology and Conservation of the marbled murrelet. Pacific 

Southwest Research Station. 1995. 

Harpel, J. et. al. 1998. “Management recommendations for bryophytes”. Regional Ecosystem 

Office. Portland, OR. 

Harpel, J. 2000. Bryophyte taxonomist. Personal communication. January 10, 2000. 

Harper, J.L. and J. White. 1974. “The demography of plants.” Annual Review Ecological 

Systems. 5:419-463. 

Harrington, M.G. 1996. “Fall rates of prescribed fire-killed ponderosa pine.” U.S. Department of 

Agriculture Intermountain Research Station Research Paper N489 (May). 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

A-4 
Literature Cited 

Harris, J.H., S.D. Sanders, and M.A. Flett. 1987. “Willow flycatcher surveys in the Sierra Nevada.” 

W. Birds 18: 27-36. 

Harrod, R.J., R. Everett. 1993. “Preliminary observations on seed dispersal and seed production 

of Cypripedium fasciculatum.” [abstract] Northwest Science Association Meeting, March 

1993. Northwest Science 67(2):131. 

Harrod, R.J., D. Knecht. 1994. “Preliminary observations of the reproductive ecology of 

Cypripedium fasciculatum.” [abstract]. North Science Association Meeting, 23-24 March 

1994. Northwest Science 68(2):129. 

Harrod, et. al. 1997. “Effects of the Rat and Hatchery Creek fires on four rare plant species.” 

Unpublished paper on file at USDA Forest Service, Region 6, Wenatchee National Forest, 

Leavenworth, Ranger District. 

Haskins, D.M., Correll, C.S., Foster, R.A., Chatoian, J.M., Fincher, J.M., Strenger, S., Keys, J.E. 

Jr., Maxwell, J.R., & King, T. 1998. “A geomorphic classification system.” USDA, Forest 

Service, Washington Office. 

Hayes, John F. and William R. Hildebrant. 1985. “Archaeological Investigation on Pilot Ridge: 

Results of the 1984 Field Season.” On File Six Rivers National Forest, Eureka, CA 

Heffner, Kathy. 1983. “Ethnohistoric Study of the Trinity Summit, Humboldt County, California.” 

On file Six Rivers National Forest, Eureka, CA. 

Heffner, Kathy. 1986. “Shadow of the Rocks.” On file Six Rivers National Forest, Eureka, CA. 

Heffner, Kathy. 1986. “Trail of the Blue Sun. Cultural Resource Interviewing for the Crogan 

Compartment, Lower Trinity Ranger District,” Six Rivers National Forest, Eureka, 

California. 

Hermann, Richard K.; Lavender, Denis P. 1990. Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco Douglasfir. In: Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H., technical coordinators. Silvics of North 

America. Volume 1. Conifers. Agric. Handb. 654. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Forest Service: 527-540 

Herr, Leonard. 1999. “Air Quality Impacts from the Megram and Onion Wildfires in Northern 

California.” North Coast Unified Air Quality Management District. Report on file. 6 pp. 

Hildebrandt William R. and John F. Hayes. 1983. “Archaeological Investigations on Pilot Ridge, 

Six Rivers National Forest.” On File Six Rivers National Forest, Eureka, CA. 

Hildebrandt William R. and John F. Hayes. 1984. “Archaeological Investigations on South Fork 

Mountain, Six Rivers and Trinity National Forests.” On File Six Rivers National Forest, 

Eureka, CA. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

A-5 
Appendix A 

Hillemeier, David and Mitch Farro. 1995. “Review and Evaluation of Horse Linto Creek Rearing 

facility. 1985 – 1994.” Report on file with USDA, Six Rivers National Forest, Lower Trinity 

Ranger District, Willow Creek, CA. 

Hom, D. and R. Kersh. 1996. “Interim late-successional reserve assessment for late-successional 

reserve RC-305 for fire hazard reduction.” Report on file, Six Rivers National Forest 

Supervisor's Office, Eureka, CA. 

Hoopa Tribe – Tribal Forestry. “Hoopa Valley Indian Reservation Forest Management Plan, Vol. 1 

for the Period 1994-2003.” Prepared by Tribal Forestry and adopted by Tribal Resolution 

94—19, 4/20/94. 

Hoopa Valley Tribal Environmental Protection Agency. 1997. “Hoopa Valley Indian Reservation 

Water Quality Control Plan, July 1997.” Prepared by the Hoopa Valley Tribal 

Environmental Protection Agency, Hoopa, California. 

Hostler, Clarence. Forester. Personal communication. Six Rivers National Forest. February, 

2000 

Hotelling, Wesley E. 1978. MS. On file in heritage resource office, Six Rivers National Forest, 

Eureka, CA. 

Huenneke, L.F. 1995. “Ecological impacts of plant invasion in rangeland ecosystems.” 

Proceedings of the alien plant invasions: increasing deterioration of rangeland ecosystem 

health, symposium for The Society of Range Management. 

Huff, M.J. et. al. 1996. “Great Gray Owl Survey Status and Evaluation of Guidelines 

For the Northwest Forest plan.” Unpublished Report, USDA Forest Service, 

Portland Regional Office, OR. 47 p. 

Jennings, M.R., M.P. Hayes, and D.C. Holland. 1993. “Petition to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife 

Service to place the California red-legged frog and the western pond turtle on the 

List of endangered and threatened wildlife and plants.” 21p. 

Jimerson, T.M. and D.W. Jones. 1993. “Combining ecological classification and silvicultural 

prescriptions to achieve desired future forest conditions.” U.S. Department of Agriculture 

Southeastern Forest Research Station. GTR SE-88. p 99-112. 

Jimerson, T.M., K.A. Wright, L.M. Chapman, and E.A. McGee. 1997. “Using past and present 

forest seral stage distribution to develop an ecologically based management strategy for 

the Six Rivers National Forest in California.” Pp. 107-131. In proceedings of First biennial 

North American Forest Ecology Workshop, June 24-26, 1997. North Carolina State 

University, Raleigh, NC. 

Johnson-Maynard, J.L., P.A. McDaniel, D.E. Ferguson, and A.L. Falen. 1998. “Changes in soil 

solution chemistry of Andisols following invasion by bracken fern.” Soil Science 163-No. 

10. 8pp. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

A-6 
Literature Cited 

Kauffman, J. Boone; Martin, Robert E. 1985. Shrub and hardwood response to prescribed burning 

with varying season, weather, and fuel moisture. In: Proceedings, 8th conference on fire 

and forest meteorology; 1985 April 29-May 2; Detroit, MI. Bethesda, MD: Society of 

American Foresters: 279-286. 

Keter, T.S. 1993. “Mus-yeh-sait-neh: A Tolowa Village on the Smith River.” Document on file, Six 

Rivers National Forest. Eureka, CA. 29 p. 

Keter, Thomas S. 1995a. “Environmental History and Cultural Ecology of the North Fork Eel River 

Basin.” USDA Forest Service Pacific Southwest Region. R5-EM-TP-002. 116 p. 

Keter, Thomas S. 1995a. “An Environmental and Cultural History of the Pilot Creek Watershed.” 

Ms. on file in heritage resources, Six Rivers National Forest, Eureka, CA. 

Keter, Thomas S. 1996a. “Environmental and Cultural History of the Smith River Basin.” 

Ms. on file in heritage resources, Six Rivers National Forest, Eureka, CA. 

Keter, Thomas S. 1996b. “Environmental and Cultural History of the Eel River Basin.” 

Ms. on file in heritage resources, Six Rivers National Forest, Eureka, CA. 

Kimmey, J.W. and R.L. Furniss. 1943. “Deterioration of fire killed Douglas-fir.” U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Technical Bulletin 851. 61p. 

Knecht, D. 1996. “The reproductive and population ecology of Cypripedium fasciculatum 

(Orchidaceae) throughout the Cascade Range.” [MSc. Thesis]. Ellensberg: Central 

Washington University. 

Kroeber, Alfred L. 1925. “Handbook of the Indians of California.” Washington: Bureau of 

Ethnology, Bulletin No. 78. 

Kroeber, Alfred L. and Edward W. Goifford. 1949. “World Renewal: A cult system of Native 

Northwest California. University of California Anthropological Reocrds 13(1):1-156. 

Berkeley, CA. 

Kruckeberg, A.R. 1992. “Plant life of western North American ultramafics”. in B.A. Roberts and J. 

Proctor, eds., The Ecology of Areas with Serpentinized Rocks: A World View. Kluwer 

Academic Publishers, the Netherlands. p. 31-73. 

Lanini, W.T. et. al. 1996. “Yellow starthistle: Electronic version of Pest Notes Number 3”. 

University of California. 5 p. 

Lesher, R. 1999. “Management recommendations for survey and manage lichens.” Regional 

Ecosystem Office. Portland, OR. 

Licht, L.E. 1971. “Breeding habits and embryonic thermal requirements of the frogs, Rana aurora 

Aurora and Rana pretiosa pretiosa.” in the Pacific Northwest. Ecology. 52(1): 116-124. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

A-7 
Appendix A 

Linfoot, C.S. 1997. Risk assessment - Draft. Report on file, Six Rivers National Forest 

Supervisor's Office, Eureka, CA. 6 pp. 

Love, Timothy G.; Watson, Alan E. 1992. “Effects of the Gates Park Fire on recreation choices.” 

Res. Pap. INT-402. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 

7pp. 

Luer, C.A. 1975. “The native orchids of the United States and Canada excluding Florida.” New 

York: New York Botanic Garden. 361 p. 

Marcot, B.G. and R. Hill. 1990. “Flammulated owls in northwestern California.” W. Birds 

11: 141-49. 

Martin, Steve. February 2, 2000. Personal communication. Seasonal National Park Service 

ranger; USDA Forest Service wilderness ranger, professor – Humboldt State University. 

McClain, Margaret S. 1990. Bellboy: a mule train journey. Santa Fe, NM. New Mexico 

Publishing Company. 

McClintock, E. 1985. “Escaped exotic weeds in California. Fremontia: a journal of the California 

Native Plant Society. 12(4):3-6. 

McDonald, Philip M.; Tappeiner, John C., II. 1987. Silviculture, ecology, and management of 

tanoak in northern California. In: Plumb, Timothy R.; Pillsbury, Norman H., technical 

coordinators. Proceedings of the symposium on multiple-use management of California's 

hardwood resources; 1986 November 12-14; San Luis Obispo, CA. Gen. Tech. Rep. 

PSW-100. Berkeley, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific 

Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station: 64-70. 

McRae, J.D. 1998. “Sensitive plant monitoring plan for Cypripedium montanum.” USDA, Six 

Rivers National Forest, Eureka, CA. 

Menges, E.S. 1990. “Seed germination percentage increases with population size in a 

fragmented prairie species.” Conservation Biology 5(2):158-164. 

Menke, J. W., C. Davis and P. Beesley. 1996. “Plant indicators of livestock grazing effects.” 

Sierra Nevada Ecosystem Project Rangeland Assessment. University of California, Davis, 

CA. 

Miller, J.M., and F.P. Keen. 1960. “Biology and control of western pine beetle.” U.S. Department 

of Agriculture, Miscellaneous Publication 800, 381p. 

Mohr, Francis; Petersen, Gary J. 1984. Underburning on white fir sites to induce natural 

regeneration and sanitation. Fire Management Notes. 45(2): 17-20. 

Morrison, Peter H.; Swanson, Frederick J. 1990. Fire history and pattern in a Cascade Range 

landscape. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-254. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 77 p. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

A-8 
Literature Cited 

Murray, M.P. 1991. “Meadow vegetation change in the subalpine zone of the Marble Mountains 

Wilderness.” [MS Thesis] Humboldt State University, Arcata, CA. 52 p. 

Nelson, J. 1999. “Vascular plant species risk assessment.” Shasta–Trinity National Forests. 

Redding, CA. 

Nelson, Byron, Jr. “Our Home Forever: A Hupa Tribal History.” University of Utah Printing 

Service, Salt Lake City, UT. 

Norton, J. “Cultural history a land and her people: A summary account of the Hupa.” In Hoopa 

Valley Indian Reservation Master Plan, Hoopa Valley Business Council. Unpublished MS. 

Nyland, R.D. 1996. Silviculture; concepts and applications. First edition. McGraw-Hill p 97-102. 

Ottmar, Roger D.; Vihnanek, Robert, and Alvarado, Ernesto. 1993. “Forest health assessment: air 

quality tradeoffs.” In: Proceedings of the 12th Conference on Fire and Forest Meteorology. 

Society of American Foresters. Jekyll Island, Georgia. P. 47-61. 

Pacific Watershed Associates. 1995. “Tish Tang Creek Watershed Assessment Report. An 

Erosion Inventory and Plan of Action for Erosion Prevention and Erosion Control in Tish 

Tang Creek Watershed, Hoopa, California.” Prepared for Hoopa Tribal Fisheries 

Department, Hoopa Valley Business Council, and Six Rivers National Forest by Pacific 

Watershed Associates, Arcata, California. 

Pacific Watershed Associated. 1990. “Mill Creek Watershed Assessment Report: A Plan of 

Action for Erosion Prevention and Erosion Control in the Mill Creek Watershed, Hoopa, 

California”. Prepared for the Tribal Fisheries Department, Hoopa Valley Business Council, 

and the Six Rivers National Forest by Pacific Watershed Associated, December 1990. 

Painter, D.L. 1995. “Threats to the California flora: ungulate grazers and browsers.” University of 

California Publication Madrono 42(2):180-188. 

Peterson, David L.; Arbaugh, Michael J. 1989. Estimating postfire survival of Douglas-fir in the 

Cascade range. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 19: 530-533. 

Plumb, Timothy R.; McDonald, Philip M. 1981. Oak management in California. Gen. Tech. Rep. 

PSW-54. Berkeley, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest 

Forest and Range Experiment Station. 11 p. 

Pfister, Stanley. Fuels specialist. Personal communication. Six Rivers National Forest. 

February, 2000 

Pierson, E.D. 1988. “The status of Townsend’s big-eared bat (Plecotus townsendii) In California. 

Preliminary Results: P.t. townsendii in Coastal California, 1987-1988.” 

Department of Fish and Game, Wildlife Management Division, Sacramento, CA. 

Powers, Stephen. 1976. “Tribes of California.” University of California Press, Berkeley. [Reprint] 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

A-9 
Appendix A 

Reinhardt, E.D. and K.C. Ryan. 1988. “How to estimate tree mortality resulting from 

underburning.” In Fire Management Notes Vol. 49, No. 4 1988: p30-36 

Reinhardt, E.D., R.E. Deane, and J.K. Brown. 1997. “First Order Fire Effects Model: FOFEM 4.0, 

User’s Guide.” General Technical Report INT-GTR-344. USDA Forest Service, 

Intermountain Research Station Ogden, UT, 65 p. 

Robichaud, Peter. Winter 2000. “Forest Fire Effects on Hillslope Erosion: What We Know.” 

Watershed Management Council Networker. 

Robichaud, P. R. and T.M. Monroe. 1997. “Spatially varied erosion modeling using WEPP for 

timber harvested and burned hillslopes.” Presented at 1997 Annual International Meeting, 

Paper No. 97-5015. ASAE, St. Joseph, MI. 

Rowley, Mark. February 8, 2000. Telecommunication. Willow Creek resident and river outfitter 

and guide business owner. 

Rowley, Max. February 7, 2000. Telecommunication. Willow Creek resident and local historian. 

Roy, Douglass R. 1974. Lithocarpus densiflorus (Hook. & Arn.) Rehd. Tanoak. In: Schopmeyer, C. 

S., tech. coord. Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agriculture Handbook No. 

450. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service: 512 514. 

Scrivener, J.C. 1982. Logging impacts on the concentration patterns of dissolved ions in 

Carnation Creek, British Columbia. Pages 64-80 In Hartman (1982). 

Seevers, J. and F. Lang. 1998. “Management recommendations for mountain lady’s-slipper 

(Cypripedium montanum Douglas ex Lindley)”, v.2.0. Regional Ecosystem Office, 

Portland, OR. 

Serena, M. 1982. “The status and distribution for the willow flycatcher.” Region 1, USFWS, 

Portand, OR. 

Simons, Dwight D. 1983. “Holocene Environmental Changes. In Archaeological Investigations on 

Pilot Ridge Six Rivers National Forest.” On file Six Rivers National Forest, Eureka. 

Simons, Dwight D. 1986. “Site Catchment Analysis.” In Archaeological Data Recovery at CAMEN-320/643 by Janet P. Eidsness. U.S. Forest Service, Mendocino National Forest, 

Willows, CA. 

Skinner, Carl N. “Change in spatial characteristics of forest openings in the Klamath Mountains of 

northwestern California, USA.” Landscape Ecology volume 10 number 4 pp. 219-228. 

SPB Academic Publishing bv, Amsterdam. 1995. 

Skinner, Carl N. “Fire history in riparian reserves of the Klamath Mountains.” Presented at the 

Symposium on Fire in California Ecosystems: Integrating Ecology, Prevention, and 

Management. Novermber 17-20, 1997. San Diego, CA. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

A-10 
Literature Cited 

Skinner, Carl N. Pacific Southwest Research Station geographer. Personal communication, 

February 23, 2000. 

Skinner, Carl N. and Chi-Ru Chang. “Fire regimes, past and present.” In Sierra Nevada 

Ecosystem Project: Final report to Congress, volume II. Davis: University of California, 

Centers for Water and Wildland Resources, 1996. 

Smith, M.E. Geologist. personal communication. Six Rivers National Forest. February, 2000. 

SPSS Inc. 1999. SPSS base 10.0 users guide. Chicago, IL. 537 pp. 

Stromberg, M.R. and J.R. Griffin. 1995. “Long-term patterns in coastal California grasslands in 

relation to cultivation, gophers, and grazing.” Ecological Applications 6(4):1189-1211. 

Stuart, J.D. 1997. “Fire History of California white fir (Abies concolor var. lowiana) forests on the 

Six Rivers National Forest”. Final Report Participating Agreement #PA-5-94-10-027. 

Report on file, Six Rivers National Forest Supervisor's Office, Eureka, CA. 31 pp. 

Tappeiner, John C.; McDonald, Philip M. 1984. Development of tanoak understories in conifer 

stands. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 14:271-277. 

Taylor, A.H. and C.N. Skinner. 1998. “Fire history and landscape dynamics in a late-successional 

reserve, Klamath Mountains, California, USA.” Pennsylvania State University. Forest 

Ecology and Management 111(1998)285-301. 

Taylor, D. W. 1976. “Disjunction of Great Basin Plants in the Northern Sierra Nevada.” Madrono 

23:301-310. 

Theiss, K. 1992. “Hoopa Valley Indian Reservation South Tish Tang Compartment Botanical 

Survey.” Prepared for Hoopa Valley Business Council, Hoopa Valley Indian Reservation, 

Hoopa Valley, California. 

Theiss, K. 1994. “A Discussion of the Ecology and Uses of Selected Hupa Species.” Prepared 

for the Hoopa Valley Business Council, Hoopa Valley Indian Reservation, Hoopa, 

California. 

Theiss, K. 1994. “Vegetative habitat analysis, Long Ridge compartment”, Hoopa Valley Indian 

Reservation. Karen Theiss and Associates, McKinleyville, CA. 6 p. 

Theiss, K. 1996. “Vegetative habitat survey, Box Camp salvage sale”, Hoopa Valley Indian 

Reservation. Karen Theiss and Associates, McKinleyville, CA. 20 p. 

Theodoratus, Dorthea, J. 1979. “Cultural/Historical Overview: Six Rivers National Forest.” Ms. on 

file Six Rivers National Forest, Eureka, CA. 

USDA Forest Service, February 1997. Riparian Reserve Evaluation Techniques and Synthesis: 

Supplement to Section II of Ecosystem Analysis at the Watershed Scale: Federal Guide for 

Watershed Analysis. Version 2.2. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

A-11 
Appendix A 

USDA Forest Service. 1996. A Field Guide to the Tanoak and the Douglas-fir Plant 

Associations in Northwestern California. Pacific Southwest Region. 

USDA Forest Service. 1999. “Strategic Overview of Large Fire Costs: An Examination of the Big 

Bar and Kirk Complexes”. Second draft. Prepared by USDA Forest Service, State & 

Private Forestry. December 20, 1999. 

USDA Forest Service, Six Rivers National Forest. 1995. “Land and Resource Management Plan.” 

On file at the Six Rivers National Forest Supervisor’s Office, Eureka, CA. 

USDA Forest Service, Six Rivers National Forest. 1997. “Large-scale vegetation assessment.” 

On file at the Six Rivers National Forest Supervisor’s Office, Eureka, CA. 

USDA Forest Service, Six Rivers National Forest. 1997. Revised 2000. “Forest-wide Reference 

Document for Biological Assessment/Evaluation Threatened, Endangered, Proposed, and 

Forest Service Sensitive Species”. USDA, Six Rivers National Forest, Eureka, CA. 

USDA Forest Service, Six Rivers National Forest. 1999. “Forest-wide Late Successional Reserve 

Assessment.” On file at the Six Rivers National Forest Supervisor’s Office, Eureka, CA. 

USDA Forest Service, Six Rivers National Forest. 1999. “1998 to 1999 Horse Linto Creek 

Anadromous Monitoring Spawning and Downstream Migrant Trap Report”. USDA, Six 

Rivers National Forest, Lower Trinity Ranger District, Willow Creek, CA. 

USDA Forest Service and USDI Bureau of Land Management. 1994. Record of Decision for 

Amendments to Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management Planning Documents 

Within the Range of the Northern Spotted Owl and Standards and Guidelines for 

Management of Habitat for Late-Successional and Old-Growth Forest Related Species 

Within the Range of the Northern Spotted Owl. (FSEIS ROD). Portland, OR. Apr 13, 

1994. 

USDA Forest Service and USDI Bureau of Land Management. 1994. “Final Supplemental 

Environmental Impact Statement on management for late-successional 

And old-growth species within the range of the northern spotted owl.” (FSEIS) Portland, 

OR. 

USDI, Bureau of Indian Affairs, Southern Burned Area Emergency Rehabilitation Team. 1999. 

“Big Bar Fire Complex Burned Area Emergency Rehabilitation Plan Hoopa Valley Tribe.” 

Prepared by USDI, Southern States Burned area Emergency Rehabilitation Team. 

November 4, 1999. 

USDI, USFWS. 1999. Environmental Impact Statement for the Trinity River Fisheries 

Restoration. 

USDI Fish and Wildlife Service. 1992. Final Draft Recovery Plan for the Northern Spotted 

Owl. Washington, D.C. 662 p. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

A-12 
Literature Cited 

Veirs, Stephen D., Jr. 1982. Coast redwood forest: stand dynamics, successional status, and the 

role of fire. In: Means, Joseph E., ed. Forest succession and stand development research 

in the Northwest: Proceedings of the symposium; 1981 March 26; Corvallis, OR. Corvallis, 

OR: Oregon State University, Forest Research Laboratory: 119-141. 

Vitousek, P.J. 1986. “Biological invasions and ecosystem properties: Can species make a 

difference?” pp. 163-178 in H.A. Mooney and J. Drake (eds.), Biological invasions of 

North America and Hawaii. Springer-Verlag, New York. 

Volland, Leonard A.; Dell, John D. 1981. Fire effects on Pacific Northwest forest and range 

vegetation. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific 

Northwest Region, Range Management and Aviation and Fire Management. 23 p. 

Wagener, W.W. 1961. “Guidelines for estimating survival of fire-damaged trees in California.” U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, Miscellaneous Paper No. 60. 11p. 

Wallace, William J. 1978. “Hupa, Chilula, and Whilkut. Handbook of North American Indians, 

Volume 8: California.” Robert F. Heizer ed. Smithsonian Institution, Washington D.C. 

Watson, Alan and Peter Landres. 1999. Changing Wilderness Values in Outdoor recreation in 

American life: a national assessment of demand and supply trends. Champaign, IL: 

Sagamore Publishing: 384-388. 

Weatherspoon, C. Phillip. 1985. Preharvest burning for shrub control in a white fir stand: 

preliminary observations. In: Proceedings, 6th annual forest vegetation management 

conference; 1984 November 1-2; Redding, CA. 

Weatherspoon, C.P. 1987. “Evaluating fire damage to trees.” In Proceedings of 9th Annual Forest 

Vegetation Management Conference, Nov. 4-5, 1987. 

Weatherspoon, C. Phillip and C. Skinner. “Landscape-level strategies for forest fuel 

management.” In Sierra Nevada Ecosystem Project: Final report to Congress, volume II. 

Davis: University of California, Centers for Water and Wildland Resources, 1996. 

West, G. James. 1983. “Holocene Environmental Changes.” In Archaeological Investigations on 

Pilot Ridge Six Rivers National Forest. Hilldebrandt and Hayes on File Six Rivers National 

Forest, Eureka, CA. 

West, G. James. 1993. “The Late Pleistocene-Holocene Pollen Record and Prehistory of 

California's North Coast Ranges.” In There Grows a Green Tree: Papers in honor of 

David Fredrickson. Publication 11:219-236. Center for Archaeological Research at Davis, 

Davis, CA. 

Westbrooks, R.G. 1998. ”Invasive plants: changing the landscape of America.” Federal 

Interagency Committee for the Management of Noxious and Exotic Weeds. Washington, 

D.C.109 p. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

A-13 
Appendix A 

Whistler, Kenneth. 1979. “Linguistic Prehistory of Northwest California Coastal Area.” In A Study 

of Cultural Resources in Redwood National Park. On file at Redwood National Park, 

Arcata, Ca. 

White, M. and R.H. Barret. 1979. “A Review of the Wolverine in California, with 

Recommendations for Management.” Unpublished Paper. Prepared for the USDA 

Forest Service by the Department of Forestry and Resource Management, College 

Of Natural Resources, University of California, Berkeley. 71p. 

Wills, Robin D. 1991. “Fire history and stand development of Douglas-fir/hardwood forests in 

Northern California.” M.S. thesis. Humboldt State University, Arcata. 69 pp. 

Winter, Joseph C., et al. 1979. “De-No-To: a Study of Indian Use of the Trinity Summit Area.” On 

file in heritage resources, Six River National Forest, Eureka, CA. 

Wooden, Don. February 7, 2000. Telecommunication. Willow Creek resident and scoutmaster. 

Wrobal, James. Unpublished. Tish Tang Fisheries Report. 

Young, J.A., and C.G. Young. 1992. Seeds of Woody Plants in North America. Portland, OR. 

Dioscorides Press. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

A-14 
Acronyms 

APPENDIX B

LIST OF ACRONYMS

AQMD North Coast Air Quality Management District

AUM Animal Unit Month

BAER Burned Area Emergency Rehabilitation

BIA Bureau of Indian Affairs

B.P. Before Present

BMP Best Management Practices

CCC Civilian Conservation Corps

CDF California Department of Forestry

cfs Cubic Feet per Second

CHU Critical Habitat Unit

CNPS California Native Plant Society

DBH Diameter at Breast Height

DOI Department of Interior

EA Environmental Assessment

EPA Environmental Protection Agency

ESA Endangered Species Act

ESU Evolutionary Significant Unit 

FEIS Final Environmental Impact Statement

FL Flame Length

FOFEM First Order Fire Effects Model

FSEIS Final Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement

FY Fiscal Year

GIS Geographic Information System

HLMTT Horse Linto, Mill, and Tish Tang Creek Watersheds

HRV Historic Range of Variability

HVIR Hoopa Valley Indian Reservation

HVT Hoopa Valley Tribe

IRR Interim Riparian Reserve

KSDB Known Sites Database

LRMP Land and Resource Management Plan

LSR Late-Successional Reserve

LSRA Late-Successional Reserve Assessment

LWD Large Woody Debris

ML1 Maintenance Level 1

ML2 Maintenance Level 2

NEPA National Environmental Policy Act

NF National Forest

NR Nesting and Roosting Habitat

NRF Nesting, Roosting, and Foraging Habitat

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

B-1 
Appendix B 

NRT National Recreation Trail

NSO northern spotted owl

NTU Turbidity Units

NWFP Northwest Forest Plan

PM10 Particulate Matter Smaller than 10 Microns

RARE Roadless Area Review and Evaluation

RMR Recommended Management Range

ROD Record of Decision

ROS Rate of Spread

ROS Recreation Opportunity Spectrum

RNA Research Natural Area

S&M Survey and Manage

SIS Special Interest Species

SLID Specimen Label Information Database

SRNF Six Rivers National Forest

SST Sweet-Smelling Toilet 

TCP Traditional Cultural Property

TES Threatened, Endangered, and Sensitive

TMDL Total Maximum Daily Load

TRpz Triassic-Paleozoic Belt

USDI United States Department of the Interior

USFWS U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

USLE Universal Soil Loss Equation

VQO Visual Quality Objective

WA Watershed Analysis

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

B-2 
Roadless Characteristics 

APPENDIX C

ROADLESS CHARACERISTICS

This appendix provides a detailed description of the current conditions and the roadless 

characteristics of each of the three portions of the Orleans Mountain “C” Roadless Area. 

North Portion 

The northern parcel incorporates 1,840 acres, all of which are located within the Mill Creek 

watershed. All lands within this parcel are National Forest System lands. This parcel 

encompasses the headwaters and mid-slope portions of South Fork Mill Creek and Domingo 

Creek. The east side of this parcel is adjacent to the Trinity Alps Wilderness. Forest road 10N02 

(maintenance level 3) generally parallels the north and west sides of this parcel and the south side 

is bordered by Forest Road 8N10 (maintenance level 2). Elevations within this parcel range from 

approximately 4,560 feet at the bottom of South Fork Mill Creek to 5,800 feet at the top of Horse 

Trail Ridge. 

White fir is the dominant (71 percent) vegetation series within this parcel and typically occupies 

high elevation areas associated with upper and mid-slope areas. Red fir is the second most 

common (16 percent) vegetation series and is located in the higher elevation areas found in the 

northeast portion of this parcel. Small scattered stands of alder, typically associated with moist 

areas, are scattered amongst the white and red fir stands. 

Approximately 128 acres of vegetation within the northern parcel of the roadless area show 

indications of harvest and logging activities (skid roads, skid trails and landings) that occurred in 

the late 1960s and early 1970s. Twenty-four of these acres are currently within the pole seral 

stage, and 104 acres are represented by mid-mature seral stage stands. The locations of 

previously harvested areas, skid roads and landings are shown in Figure 3-3. 

Seventy-two percent (1,327 acres) of the area in the northern parcel was burned during the 1999 

Megram fire. Extreme fire intensities, where almost all of the vegetation cover was killed, occurred 

on 279 acres. High intensity fire, where greater than 70 percent of the vegetation cover was 

killed, occurred on 379 acres. Moderate intensity fire, where 25 to 70 percent of the vegetation 

cover was killed, occurred on 669 acres. Ninety-eight percent of the extreme and high fire 

intensity acres are concentrated in the northern one-third of this parcel (Figure 3-4). 

Approximately 1.7 miles of fireline (0.8 mile dozer line, 0.9 mile hand line) is located within the 

northern portion of the roadless area (Figure 3-4). This fireline was constructed in 1999, in an 

effort to suppress the Megram fire. 

There are approximately 3 miles of trail within this area, including 2.2 miles of the Horse Ridge 

National Recreation Trail. There are several undeveloped campsites along the trail in the vicinity 

of Red Cap tree. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

C-1 
Appendix C 

The Horse Trail, Red Cap Prairie, and Mill Creek Lake units of the Mill Creek grazing allotment 

overlap the northern parcel of the roadless area. Cattle represent the primary type of livestock 

grazed on these units. There are two corrals located on the perimeter of the roadless area near 

trailheads. Both corrals are utilized in conjunction with this grazing allotment. 

Roadless Characteristics 

Natural Integrity 

The long-term ecological processes within the northern portion of the roadless area appear to be 

intact and functioning on 93 percent (1,703 acres) of this area. Firelines, skid roads/trails and 

landing construction have affected long-term ecological process on seven percent (138 acres) of 

this area (Figure 3-5). All of the trees, shrubs, and ground cover have been removed from these 

areas. Compaction and topsoil loss associated with these areas decreases the rates of vegetation 

reestablishment and water infiltration. It is expected that the hand lines will recover in the next 

year or two, while the dozer line will take longer to recover. 

Multiple decades of cattle grazing have affected the plant species composition in the mountain 

meadows. It appears that the balance of annual to perennial grasses has been altered, as well as 

the ratio of native to non-native species. 

Apparent Naturalness 

Ninety-six percent (1,768 acres) of the landscape within the northern parcel appears mostly to 

have been affected by the forces of nature. Although human activities associated with timber 

harvest are located within this parcel, they tend to be disappearing due to natural process and are 

not obvious to the casual observer. It is evident that firelines constructed in association with the 

recent Megram fire are not a natural occurrence. Human activities associated with fireline 

construction have affected the apparent naturalness on approximately four percent (73 acres) of 

the landscape (Figure 3-5). The hand lines will recover and are expected to appear natural in a 

year or two, but the dozer line will take longer to return to a natural appearance. 

Human activities are also evident in small isolated areas associated with undeveloped campsites, 

and along trails. The presence of, and indicators left by cattle, detracts from the apparent 

naturalness of this area and are most evident in areas of concentrated use. 

Remoteness 

The northern parcel is perceived to be quite remote, as this area is buffered from the main road 

(10N02) on the west by a substantial distance, and is bordered to the east by the Trinity Alps 

Wilderness. Large expanses of land exist where there are no trails or evidence of humans. 

Benchy topography and dense stands of large conifers dominate the landscape and screen much 

of the area from human impacts. Any loss of perceived remoteness would be limited to the south 

and north perimeter areas where roads, trailheads, and corrals may be apparent. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

C-2 
Roadless Characteristics 

Solitude/Primitive Recreation Opportunities 

The opportunity to experience solitude ranges from moderate in small isolated areas along the 

north and south perimeter of this parcel to high in the remainder of the area. The proximity of 

roads, trailheads, corrals and firelines to the north and south borders of this parcel increases the 

chances of seeing or hearing other visitors or of being exposed to the developments of humans. 

The physical setting (including alterations to vegetation, trails, firelines, and dispersed campsites) 

does not meet the recreation opportunity spectrum criteria associated with a primitive recreation 

experience. The northern parcel currently meets criteria consistent with a semi-primitive nonmotorized recreation experience. 

Unique Features 

There are no unique features associated with this area, however the western portion of Red Cap 

Prairie is a popular destination point and Redcap Tree is a locally known landmark. 

Special Places or Values 

The northern portion of the roadless area is valued by Hupa for culturally important plants and 

ceremonial activities. 

Manageability/Boundaries 

The northern parcel encompasses less than the 5,000 acres typically required for an area to be a 

candidate for future wilderness designation. However, since this parcel is contiguous with the 

Trinity Alps Wilderness it could still be a candidate for wilderness designation. 

The boundaries of the northern portion of the roadless area are currently difficult to identify on the 

ground, as they frequently do not correspond to topographic features such as streams, ridgelines, 

or specific elevations. In areas where roads dictated the extent of the roadless area, the distance 

between the roads and roadless area boundary tends to change frequently and significantly. 

Central Portion 

The central parcel is a 9,720-acre tract of which 5,820 acres are in Tish Tang watershed and 

3,900 acres are in Horse Linto watershed. Eleven of the acres within the Tish Tang watershed 

are located in the Hoopa Valley Indian Reservation, the remaining acres are comprised of National 

Forest System lands. The south and east sides of this parcel are adjacent to the Trinity Alps 

Wilderness. The north side of this parcel is bounded by a combination of features including, from 

east to west, the Trinity Alps Wilderness, Forest Roads 8N10, 10N02, 8N15 and an unnamed 

ridge. The Hoopa Valley Indian Reservation, South Fork Tish Tang Creek and Horse Linto Creek 

border the western side of this parcel. Elevations within this parcel range from approximately 

1,360 feet along Horse Linto Creek to 6,200 feet in the Trinity Summit area. 

This parcel includes the headwaters and mid-slope portions of Tish Tang a Tang, Bret, South 

Fork Tish Tang a Tang, and Horse Linto Creeks. Horse Linto Creek provides some of the highest 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

C-3 
Appendix C 

value habitat for anadromous fish in Northern California and is a major contributor to fish 

populations in the Klamath and Trinity Rivers. 

White fir is the dominant (50 percent) vegetation series within this parcel; it typically occupies the 

upper and mid-slope areas. Tanoak is the second most common (19 percent) series followed by 

red fir (12 percent). Small scattered stands of alder and several meadow areas are scattered 

amongst the white and red fir stands. Red fir stands are concentrated in the higher elevation 

areas found in the northeast portion of this parcel. The mid to lower slope areas are comprised of 

Douglas-fir stands. The lower slope or elevation areas are typified by tanoak stands with a 

scattering of canyon live oak and white oak. 

Approximately 84 acres of vegetation within the central parcel of the roadless area show 

indications of harvest and logging activities (skid roads, skid trails and landings) that occurred in 

the late 1960s and early 1970s. Twenty-six of these acres are currently in the shrub/forb seral 

stage, 21 acres are classified as pole, 14 acres are mid-mature, and 23 acres are within late 

mature stands. The locations of previously harvested areas, skid roads and landings are shown 

in Figure 3-3. 

Ninety-six percent (9,371 acres) of the acres in the central parcel were burned during the 1999 

Megram fire. Extreme fire intensities, where almost all of the vegetation cover was killed, occurred 

on 781 acres. High intensity fire, where greater than 70 percent of the vegetation cover was 

killed, occurred on 1,475 acres. Moderate intensity fire, where 25 to 70 percent of the vegetation 

cover was killed, occurred on 7,005 acres. The remaining 110 acres incurred low intensity fire, 

where less than 25 percent of the vegetative cover was killed. Sixty-six percent of the extreme 

and high fire intensity acres are concentrated in the central portion of this parcel (Figure 3-4). 

Approximately 5.5 miles of hand-constructed firelines are located within the central portion of the 

roadless area (Figure 3-4). These firelines were constructed in 1999, in an effort to suppress the 

Megram fire. 

There are approximately 14 miles of trail within the central parcel of the roadless area, and 

numerous undeveloped campsites. There is a short (about 100 feet) section of fence separating 

McKay Meadows from a nearby campsite. 

The Water Dog Lake, Ferguson, and Haypress units of the Trinity Summit grazing allotment 

overlap the central parcel of the roadless area. Cattle represent the primary type of livestock 

grazed on these units. There is one corral located on the western perimeter of the roadless area 

near Tish Tang trailhead. 

Two cabins are associated with the central parcel of the roadless area; one was located at 

Patterson Meadows and the other is at Trinity Summit. The Patterson Meadows Cabin, which 

was primarily used by grazing permittees, burned during the Megram fire. The Trinity Summit 

Cabin (guard station) is located on Horse Trail Ridge between the roadless area and the Trinity 

Alps Wilderness. Fire and wilderness patrol personnel have used the Trinity Summit Cabin. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

C-4 
Roadless Characteristics 

Roadless Characteristics 

Natural Integrity 

The long-term ecological processes within the central portion of the roadless area appear to be in 

tact and functioning on 95 percent (9,270 acres) of this area. Firelines, skid roads/trails and 

landing construction have affected long-term ecological process on five percent (445 acres) of this 

area (Figure 3-5). All of the trees, shrubs, and ground cover have been removed from these 

areas. Compaction and topsoil loss associated with these areas decreases the rate of vegetation 

reestablishment and water infiltration. It is expected that the hand lines will recover in the next 

year or two. 

Multiple decades of cattle grazing have affected the plant species composition in the mountain 

meadows. It appears that the balance of annual to perennial grasses has been altered, as well as 

the ratio of native to non-native species. A small area associated with the Trinity Summit Cabin 

has been affected by the building site itself, and the trampling and compaction resulting from 

concentrated human activity. 

Apparent Naturalness 

Ninety-five percent (9,260 acres) of the landscape within the central parcel appears mostly to 

have been affected by the forces of nature. Some human activities associated with timber harvest 

tend to be disappearing due to natural process and are not obvious to the casual observer, while 

other harvest areas remain apparent. It is evident that firelines constructed in association with the 

recent Megram fire are not a natural occurrence. Human activities associated with timber harvest 

and fireline construction have affected the apparent naturalness on approximately five percent 

(455 acres) of the landscape (Figure 3-5). The hand lines will recover and are expected to appear 

natural in a year or two. 

Human activities are also evident in small scattered isolated areas. These areas are associated 

with undeveloped campsites, short segments of fence, the Trinity Summit Cabin, and along trails. 

The presence of, and indicators left by cattle, detracts from the apparent naturalness of this area 

and are most evident in areas of concentrated use. 

Remoteness 

The central parcel is perceived to be quite remote. The size, shape, topography and vegetation 

associated with this area contribute to the perceived feeling of being remote. Large expanses of 

land exist where there are no trails or evidence of humans. Benchy ridgelines, steep side slopes, 

and dense stands of large conifers dominate the landscape and screen much of the area from 

human impacts. Any loss of perceived remoteness would be limited to the western perimeter 

where roads, trailheads, and corrals may be apparent. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

C-5 
Appendix C 

Solitude/Primitive Recreation Opportunities 

The opportunity to experience solitude ranges from moderate in small isolated areas along the 

west perimeter of this parcel to high in the remainder of the area. The proximity of roads, 

trailheads, corrals and firelines to the western portion of this parcel increases the chances of 

seeing or hearing other visitors or of being exposed to the developments of humans. 

The physical setting (including alterations to vegetation, trails, firelines, fence line, cabin and 

dispersed campsites) does not meet the recreation opportunity spectrum criteria associated with a 

primitive recreation experience. The central parcel currently meets criteria consistent with a semiprimitive non-motorized recreation experience. 

Unique Features 

Trinity Summit Cabin, located within the central portion (on the boundary with Trinity Alps 

Wilderness) is potentially eligible for listing in the National Register of Historic Places. Although 

not considered unique, many prominent land marks, topographic features and popular destination 

points including McKay Meadows, Patterson Meadows, Trinity Summit Cabin, Bret Hole, Tish 

Tang Point, Graveyard Prairie, Ladder Rock and Bell Swamps are located in this area. 

Special Places or Values 

The central area is valued by Hupa for culturally important plants and ceremonial activities. Corral 

Creek in the vicinity of McKay Meadows is valued for hunting and brook trout fishing. The rocky 

area associated with Bret Hole is valued as a good hunting area. 

Manageability/Boundaries 

The central parcel encompasses more than the 5,000 acres typically required for an area to be a 

candidates for future wilderness designation and is located adjacent to the Trinity Alps 

Wilderness. 

Portions of the north and west boundaries of the central portion of the roadless area are currently 

difficult to identify on the ground as they do not correspond to topographic features such as 

streams, ridge-lines, or specific elevations. In areas where roads dictated the extent of the 

roadless area, the distance between the roads and roadless area boundary tends to change 

frequently and significantly. 

Southern Portion 

The southern parcel includes 940 acres, all of which are located within the Horse Linto watershed. 

All lands within this parcel are National Forest System lands. This parcel encompasses the area 

between the Trinity Alps Wilderness and the East Fork of Horse Linto Creek. This parcel is 

bordered to the north by the Trinity Alps Wilderness, to the south and west by East Fork Horse 

Linto Creek, and to the east by Forest Road 7N53 (maintenance level 2). Elevations within this 

parcel range from approximately 2,100 feet at the bottom of East Fork Horse Linto Creek to 5,100 

feet along the ridgeline bordering the Trinity Alps Wilderness. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

C-6 
Roadless Characteristics 

White fir is the dominant (62 percent) vegetation series within this parcel, and occupies the higher 

elevation area in the eastern half of this parcel. Tanoak is second most common (24 percent) 

vegetation series followed closely by Douglas-fir (13 percent). 

All of the acres in the south parcel were burned during the 1999 Megram fire. Extreme fire 

intensities, where almost all of the vegetation cover was killed, occurred on 187 acres. High 

intensity fire, where greater than 70 percent of the vegetation cover was killed, occurred on 300 

acres. Moderate intensity fire, where 25 to 70 percent of the vegetation cover was killed, occurred 

on 455 acres. There are two separate areas in this parcel where extreme and high intensity fire 

areas are concentrated; one is in the northeast portion of this parcel between Forest Road 7N53 

and the Trinity Alps Wilderness, and the other is in the western side of this parcel between the 

East Fork Horse Linto Creek and the Trinity Alps Wilderness (Figure 3-4). 

The Grizzly Camp trailhead is within the southern parcel of the roadless area. Facilities 

associated with this trailhead include a concrete restroom building, trail informational signs and 

three fire pits. 

Roadless Characteristics 

Natural Integrity 

The long-term ecological processes within the southern portion of the roadless area appear to be 

in tact and functioning throughout this area. A minor (less than one acre) amount of human 

induced change is evident in the Grizzly Camp area where compaction and trampling have 

resulted from the development and use of trailhead facilities (restroom, parking, fire pits). 

Apparent Naturalness 

The landscape within the southern parcel appears primarily to have been affected by the forces of 

nature. Evidence of human activity is only apparent in the Grizzly Camp trailhead area where it is 

obvious that existing facilities were constructed and placed by humans. 

Remoteness 

The central and western portion of the southern parcel is considered remote. Perceived 

remoteness is impacted on approximately 210 acres in the northeast portion of this parcel (Figure 

3-5), which is closely bordered by road 7N53. Grizzly Camp (which includes a trailhead, restroom, 

fire pits and parking areas) is located on road 7N53 and is also adjacent to the roadless area. 

Extreme and high intensity fires burned throughout the northeast corner of this parcel killing most 

of the vegetation that previously screened out some of the sights and sounds associated with road 

and trailhead use. 

Solitude/Primitive Recreation Opportunities 

The opportunity to experience solitude ranges from low in the northeast corner of this parcel to 

high in the remainder of the area. The northeast corner of this area is immediately adjacent to a 

road (7N53), a popular trailhead (Grizzly Camp), and a developed campsite, all of which increase 

the potential of seeing or hearing other visitors or of being exposed to the developments of 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

C-7 
Appendix C 

humans. In addition extreme and high intensity fire burned throughout the northeast area and 

killed most of the vegetation that previously screened out some of the sites and sounds 

associated with human use. This area, with low opportunity for solitude, corresponds with the 

210-acre area described in the previous section, where remoteness is impacted. 

The social setting (associated with remoteness and solitude) does not meet the recreation 

opportunity spectrum criteria associated with a primitive recreation experience. The southern 

parcel currently meets criteria consistent with a semi-primitive non-motorized recreation 

experience. 

Unique Features 

There are no unique features associated with the southern portion of the roadless area. 

Special Places or Values 

No specific special places or values were identified as a result of public involvement associated 

with this analysis. 

Manageability/Boundaries 

The southern parcel encompasses less than the 5,000 acres typically required for an area to be a 

candidate for future wilderness designation. However, since this parcel is contiguous with the 

Trinity Alps Wilderness, it could still be a candidate for wilderness designation. 

The boundary of this parcel is, for the most part, readily locatable on the ground, as it tends to 

follow creeks and ridgelines that are readily locatable. The exception is in the area where road 

7N53 dictates the extent of the boundary. The distance between the road and the roadless area 

boundary fluctuates frequently. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

C-8 
Plant Species of Concern 

APPENDIX D

PLANT SPECIES OF CONCERN

Table D-1. Known and Potential Vascular Plant Species of Concern in HLMTT Area 

Species Status1 Known or 

Potential 

General Habitat 

Allotropa virgata 

sugarstick 

S&M-1,2 Known Forest 

Bensoniella oregana 

bensoniella 

FS, S&M1,2 Known Meadows, riparian 

Collomia tracyi 

Serpentine collomia 

CNPS Known Rocky, gravelly 

serpentine 

Cypripedium fasciculatum 

fascicled lady’s slipper 

FS, S&M1,2 Potential Forest 

Cypripedium montanum 

mountain lady’s slipper 

FS, S&M1,2 Potential Forest 

Draba howellii 

Howell’s draba 

CNPS Known Outcrops 

Gentiana plurisetosa 

Klamath gentian 

CNPS Known Meadows 

Iliamna latibracteata 

California globe mallow 

CNPS Known Meadows 

Lewisia cotyledon var. heckneri 

Heckner’s lewisia 

SIS Known Outcrops, cliffs 

Lewisia cotyledon var. howellii 

Howell’s lewisa 

CNPS Known Outcrops, cliffs 

Lilium washingtonianum ssp. purpurascens 

purple-flowered Washington lily 

CNPS Known Forest, chaparral, rocky 

sites 

Lilium rubescens 

redwood lily 

CNPS Known Forest, chaparral 

Listera cordata 

heart-leafed twayblade 

CNPS Known Forest 

Lupinus tracyi 

Tracy’s lupine 

CNPS Known Gravelly barrens, exposed 

ridges 

Piperia candida 

white-flowered rein orchid 

CNPS Known Forest 

Pityopus californicus 

California pinefoot 

CNPS Known Forest 

Pleuropogon refractus 

nodding semaphore grass 

CNPS Known Meadows 

Sedum divergens 

Cascade stonecrop 

CNPS Known Gravelly barrens 

Sedum laxum ssp. flavidum 

pale yellow stonecrop 

SIS Known Outcrops 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

D-1 
Appendix D 

Table D-1. Known and Potential Vascular Plant Species of Concern in HLMTT Area 

(continued) 

Species Status1 Known or 

Potential 

General Habitat 

Sedum laxum ssp. heckneri 

Heckner’s stonecrop 

CNPS Known Outcrops 

Sedum paradisum 

Canyon Creek stonecrop 

FS Potential Outcrops, gravelly barrens 

Sidalcea oregana ssp. eximia 

coast checkerbloom 

SIS Known Meadows 

Stellaria obtusa 

obtuse starwort 

CNPS Known Moist forest sites, riparian 

Tauschia glauca 

glaucous tauschia 

CNPS Potential Gravelly barrens, serpentine 

Tauschia howellii 

Howell’s tauschia 

FS Potential Gravelly barrens, 

granitics 

Thermopsis robusta 

robust false lupine 

FS Potential Early successional habitats in forest 

Trientalis arctica 

Arctic starflower 

CNPS Known Meadows 

Veratrum insolitum 

Siskiyou false hellebore 

CNPS Known Forest openings, grasslands 

1

Status refers to the category of rarity assigned to the species below being either Forest Sensitive (FS), Special Interest 

Species on the Forest (SIS), California Native Plant Society rare (CNPS) or Survey and Manage (S&M, the numbers 

following refer to the categories in the Record of Decision, 1=manage known sites, 2=surveys are required prior to 

ground disturbance. 

Table D-2. S&M Plant Species Requiring Management and Surveys in the HLMTT Area 

Species Survey 

Strategy 

Habitat Range Management 

Recommendation 

Survey 

Protocol 

Bryophytes 

Buxbaumia viridis Protection 

Buffer 

Well rotted logs 

(decay class 4 and 

5) and peaty soil and 

humus, in moist 

coniferous forests.1 

From low to 

middle 

elevations 

from 

Northern CA 

into WA.2 

Yes-Maintain decay class 

3, 4, and 5 logs, leaving 

windfalls in place to 

provide structurally 

diverse habitat and 

maintain a dense 

overstory to maintain 

humidity, with greater 

than 70% canopy 

closure.1 

Yes-Surveys 

must be 

conducted 

when mature 

sporophytes 

are visible.2 

Ptilidium 

californicum 

Strategy 1, 

2, 3 

In N. CA attached to 

base of white fir or 

Doug-fir old growth 

forests under 5000 ft. 

elevation.2 

Known 

through out 

the Pacific 

Northwest 

including 3 

sites on 

federal land 

in CA.3 

Yes-Retain occupied 

substrate, associated 

stand and microclimatic 

conditions near 

populations. 

activities that alter stand 

and microsite conditions 

or affect occupied 

substrate.3 

Yes – Survey 

anytime area 

is accessible. 

Restrict 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

D-2 
Plant Species of Concern 

Table D-2. S&M Plant Species Requiring Management and Surveys in the HLMTT Area 

(continued) 

Species Survey 

Strategy 

Habitat Range Management 

Recommendation 

Survey 

Protocol 

Bryophytes (continued) 

Ulota 

megalospora 

Protection 

Buffer 

On twigs and 

branches of conifers, 

hardwoods and 

shrubs. Substrates 

on Forest have 

included Douglas-fir 

and tanoak. Shrubs 

are also potential 

substrates. Moist to 

mesic micro-climate. 

Endemic to 

Pacific 

Northwest. In 

Humboldt and 

Del Norte 

Counties, 

inclusive of the 

Outer North 

Coast Range 

and lower 

elevation 

Klamath River.2 

Yes-Retain occupied 

substrate. 

widespread, manage 

a sample as known 

sites. 

Yes-Conduct 

any time of 

year when 

bryophytes 

are visible.2 

Fungi 

Bondarzewia Polypore 

Bondarzewia 

mesenterica 

= (B. montana) 

Strat. 1, 2, 3 Often associated 

with stumps or snags 

in late successional 

conifer forests.4 

Known from 

Northern CA to 

Washington. 

Known sites in 

Del Norte and 

Humboldt Cos.4 

Yes – Maintain current 

habitat conditions and 

micro-climatic 

conditions. 

Yes-Survey 

when fruits 

mature; Aug. -

Dec. 

Noble Polypore 

Bridgeoporus 

nobilissimus 

= (Oxyporus 

nobilissimus) 

Strat. 1, 2, 3 On live trees, 

standing dead trees, 

snags, stumps and 

on the ground on 

collars and root 

crowns in mesic to 

wet microsites in 

forests of all seral 

stages in the range of 

Pacific Silver Fir and 

Noble Fir.6 

Known from 

Oregon to 

Washington. 

Suspected 

range includes 

Northern CA.6 

Yes - Maintain current 

habitat conditions and 

micro-climatic 

conditions. 

a 600 acre Temporary 

reserve around known 

site until all potential 

habitat is inventoried 

within that reserve 

area. 

Yes – Survey 

anytime of 

year when 

area is 

accessible.8 

Resupinates and Polypores 

Otidea leporina Protection 

Buffer 

Associated with 

Picea spp., 

Pseudotsuga 

menziesii, and Tsuga 

heterophylla. 

4 

Known from 

Northern CA and 

Oregon. 

sites in Del 

Norte and 

Humboldt Co.4 

Yes – Maintain current 

habitat conditions and 

micro-climatic 

conditions. 

Yes– Survey 

when fruits 

mature; Oct. -

Dec.11 

O. onotica Protection 

Buffer 

Associated with 

Pseudotsuga 

menziesii dominated 

forests.4 

Known from 

Northern CA to 

Washington. 

Known sites in 

Del Norte Co.4 

Yes – Maintain current 

habitat conditions and 

micro-climatic 

conditions. 

Yes-Survey 

when fruits 

mature; Aug. -

Dec.11 

O. smithii Protection 

Buffer 

Solitary to gregarious 

on exposed soil, duff 

or moss under 

Populus trichocarpa, 

Pseudotsuga 

menziesii, and Tsuga 

heterophylla. 

4 

Known from 

Northern CA to 

Washington. 

Known sites in 

Del Norte Co.4 

Yes – Maintain current 

habitat conditions and 

micro-climatic 

conditions. 

Yes – Survey 

when fruits 

mature; Aug. -

Dec.11 

If locally 

Establish 

Known 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

D-3 
Appendix D 

Table D-2. S&M Plant Species Requiring Management and Surveys in the HLMTT Area 

(continued) 

Species Survey 

Strategy 

Habitat Range Management 

Recommendation 

Survey 

Protocol 

Resupinates and Polypores 

Sowerbyella 

rhenana 

Protection 

Buffer 

Associated with 

accumulated duff and 

humus in low to midelevation mixed conifer 

or conifer-hardwood 

forests. 

Known from 

Northern CA to 

Washington. 

Known sites in 

Humboldt Co. 4 

Yes- Maintain 

current habitat 

conditions and 

micro-climatic 

conditions. 

Yes- Survey 

when fruits 

mature; Oct.-

Dec. 11 

Black Chantarelle 

Polyzellus 

multiplex 

Protection 

Buffer 

Associated with the 

roots of Abies sp. In 

late-successional, midelevation, montane, 

coniferous forests. 

Known from the 

coast and 

Cascade 

Ranges of WA, 

OR, and CA. 

Yes—Maintain 

current habitat 

conditions and 

micro-climatic 

conditions. 

Yes- Survey 

when fruits 

are mature; 

Oct.- Dec. 11 

Cup Fungi 

Sarcosoma 

mexicana 

Protection 

Buffer 

Solitary to gregarious 

on or near decaying 

wood, or on litter and 

soil. 

forests from low to 

high elevation.4 

Known from 

Northern CA to 

Washington. 

Known sites in 

Del Norte, 

Siskiyou, and 

Mendocino Cos.4 

Yes – Maintain 

current habitat 

conditions and 

micro-climatic 

conditions. 

Yes – Survey 

when fruits 

mature; Nov. 

–May.10 

Vascular Plants 

Allotropa virgata 

sugarstick 

Strat. 1, 2 Occurs under partial 

or full shade, on dry, 

well drained, acidic 

soils; canopy cover is 

high, low shrub and 

herb cover; leaf litter is 

high, associated with 

decaying wood. 

Occurs in young 

stands but with older 

predoms.8 

Known from CA 

to British 

Columbia. 

None necessary on 

the Forest.10 

Yes-Conduct 

during 

flowering or 

fruiting 

periods (May 

through 

September) 

when plants 

are most 

easily seen 

and 

identifiable.8 

Bensoniella 

oregana 

Bensoniella 

Strat. 1, 2 Associated with wet 

sites including 

meadows, seeps, and 

riparian areas. 

Structural diversity 

such that understory 

canopies filter light, 

overstory canopies 

provide peripheral 

shade, and down logs 

provide shade and act 

as reservoirs for 

moisture.8 

Known from the 

Klamath Mountain 

Province and 

Coast Range of 

southwest Oregon 

and northwest 

California.8 

Yes- See 

management 

recommendations 

for survey and 

manage for 

vascular plants in 

appendix.10 

Yes-Conduct 

during 

flowering or 

fruiting 

periods (mid 

June through 

mid August) 

when plants 

are most 

easily seen 

and 

identifiable.8 

Fruiting in conifer 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

D-4 
Plant Species of Concern 

Table D-2. S&M Plant Species Requiring Management and Surveys in the HLMTT Area 

(continued) 

Species Survey 

Strategy 

Habitat Range Management 

Recommendation 

Survey 

Protocol 

Vascular Plants 

Cypripedium 

fasciculatum 

fascicled lady’s 

slipper 

Strat. 1, 2 Variety of habitats 

from, partial shade, 

generally >60% 

cover, in drier areas 

appears to be 

associated with 

riparian areas.8 

Known from 

within a broad 

distribution in the 

western U.S.8 

Yes- See 

management 

recommendations 

for survey and 

manage for 

vascular plants in 

appendix. 10 

Yes-Conduct 

during 

flowering or 

fruiting periods 

(mid April 

through 

August) when 

plants are 

most easily 

seen and 

identifiable.8 

Cypripedium 

montanum 

mountain lady’s 

slipper 

Strat. 1, 2 Variety of habitats; 

partial shade; 

generally 60%-80% 

cover; acidic, 

sandy, dry soils; 

generally northerly 

aspect.8 

Known from 

within a broad 

distribution in the 

western U.S and 

Canada.8 

Yes- See 

management 

recommendations 

for survey and 

manage for 

vascular plants in 

appendix. 10 

Yes-Conduct 

during 

flowering or 

fruiting periods 

(May through 

August) when 

plants are 

most easily 

seen and 

identifiable.8 

1

1996. Harpel, J. Draft Management Recommendations Bryophytes, Installment 1, Version 1.1. 2

1997. Harpel, J. Survey Proptocols for Survey and Manage Component 2 Bryophytes, Version 2.0. 3

1999. Harpel, J. Survey Protocols for Protection Buffer Bryophytes. Version 2.0. 4

1998. Harpel, J. Management Recommendations for Bryophytes. Version 2.0 5

1999. USDA. Handbook to Strategy 1 Fungal Species in the Northwest Forest Plan. USDA Forest Service 

General Technical Report PNW-GTR-476. 6

1994. Appendix J2 of the Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement for Management of Habitat for LateSuccessional and Old-Growth Related Species Within the Range of the Northern Spotted Owl. 7

1998. Hibler, C., T.E. O’Dell. Survey Protocols for Bridgeoporus (=Oxyporus) nobilissimus. Version 2.0. 8

1997. Castellano, M.A., T.E. O’Dell. Management Recommendations for Survey and Manage Fungi. Version 

2.0. 9

1998. Whiteaker, L., et. al. Survey Protocols for Survey & Manage Strategy 2 Vascular Plants. Version 2.0. 101998. Wogen N. and L. Hoover and R. Holmes, J.Seevers and F. Lang. Management Recommendations for 

Vascular Plants. 111999. O’Dell, T.E. Survey Protocols for Bondarzewia mesenterica, Otidea leporina, O. onotica, O. smithii, 

Polyzellus multiplex, Sarcosoma mexicana, Sowerbyella rhenana. Version 1.3. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

D-5 
Appendix D 

Management Recommendations for Survey and Manage Plant Species 

The following management recommendations are for: Bridgeoporus (=Oxyporus) nobilissimus, 

Otidea leporina var. leporina, Otidea onotica, Otidea smithii, Polyzellus multiplex, Sarcosoma 

mexicana, and Sowerbyella rhenana1 

For sites within land allocations that protect populations from timber management maintain current 

habitat conditions and micro-climatic conditions. 

1. Maintain dominance of specific overstory tree associates. 

2. Minimize loss or disruption of host tree snags and stumps, particularly from management, 

road, trail and campground construction or recreational activities. 

3. Manage tree diseases in the area to minimize loss of overstory trees. 

4. Relative to Bridgeoporus nobilissimus for sites not in land allocations that protect 

populations from timber management create 600 acre temporary reserve around them 

until: (1) all of the potential habitat within the reserve is inventoried for additional 

Bridgeoporus nobilissimus conks and potential hosts and (2) a site specific Bridgeoporus 

nobilissimus management plan is prepared. 

Management Recommendations for Vascular Plants2 

Allotropa virgata 

Populations in the California Coast Range (Six Rivers NF) will not receive any special 

management. 

Bensoniella oregana 

1. Manage timber adjacent to known sites and selected experimental populations in a manner 

that will minimize blowdown potential. 

2. Design, construct, and maintain roads to avoid hydrologic impacts at known sites. 

Redesign or decommission existing roads when it is necessary to restore hydrologic 

processes. 

3. Maintain partial shade and edge habitat. Avoid logging prescriptions, firewood cutting or 

other management activities that would result in direct sunlight to occupied habitat for 

extended periods. 

4. Maintain coarse woody debris to provide micro-site shading and to retain soil moisture. 

5. Manage livestock to avoid consumption of plants, trampling of plants, soil compaction, 

increased soil erosion, and the introduction of nonnative vegetation. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

D-6 
Plant Species of Concern 

6. Manage recreation to avoid trampling of plants, removal of coarse woody debris, soil 

compaction, and increased soil erosion. 

7. Control exotic vegetation, noxious weeds, and encroaching native vegetation competitive 

with Bensoniella. 

Cypripedium fasciculatum 

1. Maintain or restore habitat conditions in areas with populations of C. fasciculatum. 

2. Maintain canopy closure at 60 percent or greater. 

3. Maintain down logs, snags, and duff layer within the habitat area for soil moisture and 

mycorrhizal associates. Provide for future recruitment of coarse woody debris. 

4. Avoid activities that alter soil, duff, down wood, and the mycorrhizal community in the 

habitat area. 

5. Maintain/secure known sites from prescribed burns except in Adaptive Management Areas 

where research should be conducted to determine the role of fire in C. fasciculatum 

habitat. 

6. Manage population sites to include an area large enough to maintain current habitat and 

associated microclimate, primarily temperature and moisture. The size should be 

determined by a field visit and should consider factors such as canopy cover, slope, 

aspect, topographic position, vegetations structure (growth form, stratification, and 

coverage), and species composition. 

7. Manage for biological (mycorrhizae and pollinators) and ecological (soil temperature, 

moisture, and organic matter) requirements at each life stage. Each life stage may require 

specific mitigation. Ensure that indiscribminate insecticide spray does not affect the 

populations of bees or other insects this species depends on for pollination. 

Cypripedium montanum 

1. Maintain or restore habitat conditions in areas with populations of ..montanum. 

2. Maintain canopy closure at 60 percent or greater. 

3. Maintain down logs, snags, and duff layer within the habitat area for soil moisture and 

mycorrhizal associates. Provide for future recruitment of coarse woody debris. 

4. Avoid activities that alter soil, duff, down wood, and the mycorrhizal community in the 

habitat area. 

5. Maintain/secure known sites from prescribed burns. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

D-7 
Appendix D 

6. Manage population sites to include an area large enough to maintain current habitat and 

associated microclimate, primarily temperature and moisture. The size should be 

determined by a field visit and should consider factors such as canopy cover, slope, 

aspect, topographic position, vegetations structure (growth form, stratification, and 

coverage), and species composition. 

7. Given the long life-span of individuals, manage C. montanum and associated communiteis 

to be responsive to short-term (wildfire, soil disturbance) and long-term (ecological 

succession) environmental changes and maintain the species evolutionary potential. 

8. Manage for biological (mycorrhizae and pollinators) and ecological (soil temperature, 

moisture, and organic matter) requirements at each life stage. Each life stage may require 

specific mitigation. Ensure that indiscriminate insecticide spray does not affect the 

populations of bees or other insects this species depends on for pollination. 

End Notes 

1

1997. Castellano, M.A., T.E. O’Dell. Management Recommendations for Survey and mange 

Fungi. Version 2.0 

2

1998. Wogen, N. and L. Hoover and R. Holmes, J.Seevers and F. Lang. Management 

Recommendations for Vascular Plants. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

D-8 
Wildlife Species of Concern 

APPENDIX E

WILDLIFE SPECIES OF CONCERN

Forest Service Sensitive Species 

Northern Goshawk 

Goshawks in northern California use older pole-sized, mature, and old-growth conifer forests with 

relatively dense canopy closures, usually little understory vegetation, close proximity to riparian 

corrodors, and flat or moderately sloped terrain. Moderate and high quality habitats contain 

abundant large snags and large logs for prey habitat and plucking perches (Hall 1984). The 

general habitat in this area consists of Douglas-fir and white fir in the mid-mature, late mature, and 

old-growth seral stages. Prior to the Megram Fire, approximately 43,850 acres of suitable habitat 

for the northern goshawk existed within the watershed analysis area. After the fire, there are 

presently 33,930 acres of suitable habitat within the analysis (represents a loss of 23 percent due 

to the Megram Fire). 

There are four known and two suspected goshawk territories in the watershed analysis area. 

South Fork Mill Creek, Ladder Rock, Tish Tang East, and Tish Tang West are known territories. 

Grove's Prairie and Horse Trail are suspected territories. The Ladder Rock and the Horse Trail 

territories were extensively impacted by loss of habitat by high intensity wildfire. The South Fork 

Mill Creek, Tish Tang East, Tish Tang West and Groves Prairie territories were affected by a 

combination of low and moderate wildfire intensity levels. Future impacts to habitat may be 

expected in the future due to additional conifer mortality from insects and fire related stress. 

This species is considered to be declining in numbers and distribution over the past several 

decades. Factors cited as contributing to this decline include alterations in habitat distribution 

patterns and the availability of suitable habitat. 

Marten 

Marten prefer multi-storied mature and old-growth true fir and mixed conifer forests with moderate 

to dense canopy closure. The species is most abundant within forested areas adjacent to 

meadows and/or riparian corridors. Marten utilize travelways comprised of closed canopy forests 

to move between foraging areas (Freel 1991). Marten are generally limited to habitats greater 

than 4,000 feet in elevation. Moderate and high quality habitat contains 2 to 3 large snags and 10 

to 20 large logs per acre; these habitat elements are important for foraging, denning, and resting. 

Habitat for this species is considered to be provided for within Late-Successional Reserves. 

In 1995 through 1997, Bill Zielinski of Redwood Sciences Laboratory and Carlos Caroll of Oregon 

State University completed extensive surveys for forest carnivores within and adjacent to the 

analyis area. No detections of marten occured during the surveys within the analysis area. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

E-1 
Appendix E 

However, there are records of marten within the analysis area. The majority of these sighting 

records have been associated within the true fir habitats within the analysis area. Post-fire effects 

to marten habitat at this time are largely unknown, but given the extent of true fir communities 

affected by high wildfire intensities, it is likely that this species habitat was altered to a significant 

degree. 

Fisher 

The fisher occupies habitat similar to that used by the marten and northern spotted owl. Their 

habitat consists of multi-storied mature and overmature conifer forests with moderate to dense 

canopy closure and scattered patches, with six to eight large snags per acre and abundant down 

logs (Buck et al., 1983). This carnivore forages primarily in dead wood; therefore, both standing 

and snag and downed log densities are important indicators of habitat quality. Fisher utlize 

travelways along ridges and streams comprised of closed canopy forests. Habitat for the fisher is 

considered to be provided for within Late-Successional Reserves. Numerous or heavily traveled 

roads can disrupt movement of this species. 

There are records of the Pacific fisher within the analysis area. Within and adjacent to the 

analysis area, Bill Zielinski of the Redwood Sciences Laboratory and Carlos Carroll of Oregon 

State University have completed extensive surveys for forest carnivores (fisher and marten) using 

trach plates and cameras in 1995-1997. These surveys yielded detections of fisher at four of four 

stations within the analysis area. Prior to the Megram Fire, there were approximately 43,850 

acres of habitat for the fisher within the watershed analysis area. As a result of the Megram Fire, 

the current level of suitable habitat has been reduced to 33,930 acres. 

Willow Flycatcher 

Willow flycatchers' breeding habitat is typically moist meadows with perennial streams, lowland 

riparian woodlands dominated by willows, cottonwoods, or smaller spring fed boggy areas with 

willows or alders (Serena 1982 and Harris et al. 1987). Willow flycatchers prefer wet meadows or 

riparian zones dominated by willow with open areas for foraging. 

The willow flycatcher has been extirpated as a breeding bird from most of its California range. 

This decline has been attributed to habitat loss, cowbird parasitism, livestock grazing, loss of 

meadow habitat due to hydroelectric power development, and conifer encroachment in meadows 

(Harris etal. 1987, Serena 1982). 

Although willow flycatchers have been found during the fall season along several northern 

California rivers and within the analysis area adjacent to Groves Prairie, they are not known to 

nest on the Forest. Potentially suitable habitat is limited on the Forest, and the species could 

occur in willow stands within several high elevation meadow systems near the Trinity Summit area 

and the adjacent meadow systems found within the Trinity Alps Wilderness. The amount of 

habitat degradation that occurred from the Megram Fire for this species is currently unknown. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

E-2 
Wildlife Species of Concern 

Wolverine 

Wolverines utilize a variety of habitats in large undisturbed areas, most often at higher elevations. 

The species tends to use talus slopes and large downed woody debris for denning (White and 

Barret 1979). The wolverine may be dependent on access to mature conifer forest habitat, 

especially in winter. During the winter, wolverines may follow herd animals (deer) down to lower 

elevations, where they may feed on salmonid carcasses. Home range size varies between 62 and 

550 square miles (USDA 1994). The Forest has over 60 reported sightings of the California 

wolverine; however, only 11 records have occurred since 1980 and there have been no reported 

sightings in the 1990s. There are are 11 sighting records within the analysis area and several 

more within the Trinity Alps Wilderness Area, the Hoopa Valley Indian Reservation and along the 

Trinity River. Potential habitat for this species exists within the Trinity Alps Wilderness Area. 

Habitat for this species is considered to be provided for within Late-Successional Reserves. 

Numerous or heaviliy traveled roads can disrupt movements of this species. 

Great Gray Owl 

The great gray owl is not known to occur in the watershed analysis area. Suitable habitat 

consists of mature and old-growth red fir, mixed conifer, or lodgepole pine forest adjacent to large 

meadows at 4,500 to 7,500 feet in elevation. This species has been found to winter along the 

northern California coast; however, they are not known to nest on the SRNF. Potential suitable 

habitat is limited on the Forest. An expert panel on the great gray owl met in May of 1996 to 

reassess the status of the species within the area of the Northwest Forest Plan. This conference 

and status report (Huff et al. 1996) determined that none of the habitats on the SRNF were likely 

to be used by this species. 

Peregrine Falcon 

There are two historic peregrine falcon territories within the analysis area, which include the Mill 

Creek and Horse Linto territories. Both territories are entirely located within the watershed 

analysis area. The Horse Linto Territory, specifically the foraging habitat, was extensively 

impacted by a combination of high and moderate intensity wildfire. The foraging habitat within the 

Mill Creek Territory was affected to lower degree given the lower wildfire intensities that occurred 

within this territory. Presently, the specific amount of habitat degradation is unknown. However, 

peregrine falcons are known to forage within a wide variety of habitats of which are specific to 

containing high populations of avian prey. The areas within and adjacent to the existing territories 

may offer a unique guild of prey items in the near future for the species. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

E-3 
Appendix E 

Special Status Species 

The following species list includes species that are either USFWS species of concern, survey and 

manage species, or protection buffer species listed within the SRNF LRMP. 

White-Headed Woodpecker, Flammulated Owl, and Pygmy 

Nuthatch 

Flammulated owls are secondary cavity-nesters that use cavities in snags and live trees. 

Territories occur in loose loose colonies in mixed woodland habitats containing either ponderosa 

or Jeffery pine, or California black oak (Marcot and Hill 1980). There are reported detections of 

the flammulated owl within the analysis area. 

The white-headed woodpecker is thinly distributed throughout higher inland montane pine and fir 

forests with large trees and snags. There are reported sightings of the white-headed woodpecker 

within the analysis area. 

The pygmy nuthatch utilizes mature ponderosa and Jeffery pine habitat and requires cavities in 

trees and snags for roosting and nesting. There are no known sightings in the watershed and the 

species is not likely to occur within the watershed analysis area. 

Bats 

Eight species of special status bats are suspected to occur in the watershed analysis area. 

These species are listed within Appendix J2 of the FSEIS ROD and/or are USFWS Species of 

Concern. They fall into four groups: 

1. Small, nonmigratory, crevice-roosting bats with widespread distributions. These bats use 

snags, decadent trees, buildings, bridges, and caves for roosting and hbenating (includes 

long-eared myotis, fringed myotis, long-legged myotis, and the pallid bat). 

2. Large, solitary, migratory, obligatory foliage-roosting bats with widespread distribution 

(hoary bat) 

3. Large, migratory, widely distributed, snag and decadent tree-roosting bat. This bat may 

occasionally use buildings and caves for roosting (silver-haired bat). 

4. Coastal species. These nonmigratory, uncommon species are extremely sensitive to 

disturbance of roosting sites. They require caves, mines, tunnels, buildings, or other 

human-made structures for roosting (Pacific western big-eared bat and Pale Townsend's 

big-eared bat). 

No specific surveys for bats or their habitats have been conducted on federal lands within the 

watershed analysis area. There are no known caves in the analysis area. However, suitable 

habitat is present in the form of rock outcrops, cliff crevasses, snags, and within the undersides of 

several bridges. Although, no specific surveys for bats or their habitats have been completed in 

the watershed analysis area, there have been demonstrated and hypothesized decreases in bat 

populations throughout the region (Pierson 1988, Gellman and Zielinski in press). Decreases in 

bat populations are thought to be due largely to loss of roosting habitat and disturbance. There is 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

E-4 
Wildlife Species of Concern 

a strong concern that loss of snags and and decadent trees from widespread cutting of old-growth 

forests, destruction of caves and mines, demolition of old bridges and buildings, and human 

disturbance have significantly reduced the availability of potential roost sites for all these species. 

Since these species also forage over riparian zones, there is concern that previous timber harvest 

practices and over grazing may have significant impacts on bats, as riparian vegetation is a critical 

component in the life cycle of the bat's preferred prey species (Idaho State Conservation Effort 

1995). 

Herpetofauna 

Numerous reptiles and amphibians are dependent on riparian habitat. The northwestern pond 

turtle, red-legged frog, foothill yellow-legged frog, and southern torrent salamander are sensitive 

riparian-dependent species that are suspected in the watershed analysis area. 

Northwestern Pond Turtle 

Northwestern pond turtles are often concentrated in low velocity and low gradient sections of 

creeks and rivers, especially in sloughs, side channels, and backwater areas. They prefer creeks 

that have deep, still water and sunny banks. Hatchlings are small and cryptic, and require shallow 

edgewater areas with minimal currents. Adults concentrate in deep-water pools with lots of 

underwater debris. For nesting and overwintering, turtles require an adjacent terrestrial area 

(within 500 meters of the watercourse) with uncompacted soil and a duff layer (Jennings et al. 

1993). 

Although pond turtles have been eliminated from an estimated 30 to 40 percent of their historic 

range, habitat conditions and population trends are largely unknown in the HLMTT watershed 

analysis area. Major threats to this species are loss or alteration of habitat (including wetland 

reclamation, water diversions, dams, and grazing), fragmentation of habitat, over-exploitation, and 

spread of exotic species (especially bullfrogs and bass) (Jennings et al. 1993). 

There are no known records of western pond turtles within the analysis area. Surveys for this 

species have occurred within the several of the streams and lakes within the analysis area and 

have not yielded any detections. However, this species is a habitat generalist and inhabits a wide 

variety of habitats and is very likely to occur in some of the pools associated with low gradient 

streams within the analysis area. 

Red-Legged Frog 

Northern red-legged frogs require ponds, pools in slow streams, marshes, or reservoirs with 

submerged vegetation for egg attachment, a depth greater than one meter to accommodate 

singing males, and a maximum stream width greater than two meters. This frog is found in 

coniferous/mixed hardwood forests with greater than 50 percent canopy closure, and with downed 

logs in and out of water. It requires cool water, having the lowest upper (21 degrees Celsius) and 

lower (4 degrees Celsius) lethal embryonic temperature of any North American ranid frog (Licht 

1971). 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

E-5 
Appendix E 

Threats to this species are similar to those discussed under the northwestern pond turtle (e.g. 

loss, fragmentation, or alteration, of habitat resulting in increased water temperatures, decreased 

pool depths, or decreased riparian vegetation, and introduction of exotic fishes or bullfrogs). 

Riparian reserves are expected to provide adequate protection for these species. There are no 

known records for red-legged frogs within the watershed analysis area. 

Foothill Yellow-Legged Frog 

Foothill yellow-legged frogs inhabitat rocky, higher gradient, shallower streams with less 

vegetative streamside cover than red-legged frogs. Both species require partially submerged 

rocks and logs for basking and cover. The yellow-legged frog population is considered stable in 

the north coast area. Surveys for this species have been accomplished in many of the streams 

associated with anadramous fish surveys. Yellow-legged frogs have been recorded in the 

watershed analysis area, specifically within Horse Linto Creek and its drainages. 

Southern Torrent Salamader 

Southern torrent salamaders reside in headwaters, springs, seeps, and first to third order streams 

with high canopy closure. This species is an aquatic obligate, sensitive to dessication, increased 

sedimentation, and habitat alteration. Torrent salmanaders require cold water temperatures that 

consistently range from 8 to 12 degrees Celsius in summer. Their headwater stream habitat has 

declined substantially due to extensive logging. There are three records of the the southern 

torrent salamander within the analysis area, all of which are located within the Horse Linto 

drainage. 

Management Indicator Species 

The Six Rivers National Forest selected 41 species as management indicator species (MIS) or 

species assemblages (groups of species with similar habitat requirements); these species utilize a 

wide variety of habitats affected by resource management activities on the Forest. Indicator 

species were selected based on their roles in their respective biotic assemblages or community. 

Many MIS occupy a niche in their particular assemblage that may be extremely sensitive to 

management related activities. Other MIS were selected based on concern for their current 

population status. MIS are indicative of the integrity of communities as a whole, and provide an 

assessment of the overall health of the represented habitats or ecosystems. Table E-1 lists the 

MIS species and species assemblages for the Forest. 

Species Assemblages 

Many special habitats occur within the HLMTT area. These include wetlands, springs, ponds, 

meadows, cliffs, talus slopes, and hardwood stands. These habitats may support endemic or rare 

wildlife species in the watershed. However, little has been done to adequately survey these 

areas, and so the status of these sites and potentailly associated species is unknown. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

E-6 
Wildlife Species of Concern 

In 1991, the Six Rivers National Forest wildlife department mapped the location of many special 

habitat areas across the Forest from aerial photographs. Many small areas, such as bogs and 

springs, may not have been visible and are most likely under-represented. 

Table E-1. Management Indicator Species 

Individual Species River/Stream/Creek Assemblage 

Northern Spotted Owl Tailed frog 

Pileated Woodpecker Common merganser 

Black Bear Winter wren 

American Marten Winter Wren 

Fisher American dipper 

Black-tailed deer Yellow-breasted chat 

Cutthroat trout 

Bog/Seep/Wet Meadow Assemblage Steelhead/rainbow trout 

Olympic salamander Summer Steelhead 

Down Woody Material Assemblage Marsh/Lake/Pond Assemblage 

Arboreal salamander California red-legged frog 

Clouded salamander Wood duck 

Blue grouse Western pond turtle 

Dusky-footed woodrat 

Western fence lizard Black Oak/White Oak Assemblage 

Acorn woodpecker 

Snag Assemblage Scrub jay 

Flammulated owl Lazuli bunting 

White-headed wodpecker Western gray squirrel 

Western screech owl 

Vaux’s Swift Tanoak/Madrone Assemblage 

Red-breasted sapsucker Hammond’s flycatcher 

Western bluebird Western tanager 

Downy woodpecker 

Brown creeper 

Hairy woodpecker 

Douglas squirrel 

Bog/Seep/Spring/Wet Meadow/Talus Assemblage 

There are 550 acres of wet meadow habitats, 3 bog/seep areas, and 3 springs known in the 

watershed analysis area. It is likely that other suitable habitat for the species in this assemblage 

exists within the watershed. Special microhabitat characteristics are required by the species in 

this assemblage. Most are especially sensitive to variations in water temperature, chemistry, 

siltation levels, adjacent forested habitats, downed woody debris, and disturbance. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

E-7 
Appendix E 

Marsh/Lake/Pond Assemblage 

There are 3 lakes and approximately 80 acres of wetlands located throughout the analysis area. 

The wood duck occurs within the watershed. Documented presence of the California red-legged 

frog and western pond turtle have not been reported for the analysis area. Special microhabitat 

characteristics are required by the species dependent on these habitat types. As with other 

aquatic species, all are extremely sensitive to any change in microhabitat, temperature, chemistry 

or siltation levels. The level of impacts from the Megram Fire is currently unknown for these 

specific habitats. 

River/Stream/Creek Assemblage 

The full effects of the recent Megram Fire on riparian vegetation associated with this assemblage 

is yet to be verified; however, some information can be extrapolated from aerial photographs and 

preliminary field visits. The fire covered extensive headwater areas within the analysis area. Burn 

severity within perennial, intermittent and ephemeral streams is discussed within Chapter 3 under 

the heading ‘Megram Fire and Interim Riparian Reserves’. All of the species in the assemblage 

are or suspected to occur in the analysis area with the exception of summer steelhead. Resident 

populations of trout are found in several of the upper stream reaches within the watershed 

analysis area. 

Black Oak/White Oak Assemblage 

Prior to the Megram Fire there were aproximately 480 acres in the white oak series, which 

comprise one percent of all series within the watershed. These series are primarily associated 

with the white fir, Douglas-fir and canyon live oak series. The amount of black oak in the analysis 

area is negligible and is reflective of less than half of one percent. The specific impact of the fire 

on this assemblage is unknown. However, it is expected that many of these oaks are now snags, 

which will become an important component for species that depend on this assemblage. 

Tanoak/Madrone Assemblage 

Tanoak and Pacific madrone are common components for the Douglas-fir/mixed evergreen type. 

Tanoak produces acorns and possesses more natural cavities than conifers and therefore is very 

valuable for wildlife. Madrone produces berries which provides an important food source for 

wildlife, particularly in the fall, and madrone is also used as a nest tree by cavity excavators 

(USDA, Forest Service 1995). Prior to the Megram Fire there were approximately 12,070 acres of 

tanoak habitat in the early mature, mid mature, late mature, and old growth seral stages. The 

effects of the Megram Fire resulted in a loss of approximately 2,000 acres of tanoak habitat due to 

high intensity wildfire. All of the species associated with this assemblage are present in the 

watershed analysis area; Hammond’s flycatcher, western tanager, and the black-headed 

grosbeak. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

E-8 
Wildlife Species of Concern 

Down Woody Material Assemblage 

All of the species in this assemblage are known to occur in the watershed analysis area, except 

the clouded and arboreal salamanders. These two species have not been recorded in the 

analysis area, but their range includes the HLMTT watershed analysis area. 

Snag Assemblage 

All of the species in the snag assemblage are known to occur in the watershed. Snag density 

estimates for the Forest are based on ecology plot and ecological unit inventory information for the 

vegetation series and seral stages across the Forest. The Forest-wide LSRA identified desired 

ranges of snags and downed logs, which are shown in Table E-2. These levels are a refinement 

of the desired snag and log levels specified in the SRNF LRMP, and reflect the desired to 

maintain higher levels of snags and logs in LSRs than in other land allocations. Snag and 

downed log levels are currently much higher than levels due to the Megram Fire. 

Table E-2. Snag and Downed Log Densities by Series and Seral Stage 

Series/Seral Stage Snags/Acre1 Downed Logs/Acre2 

Tanoak/Douglasfir 

Early Mature 2-5 8-12 

Mid-Mature 3-6 4-8 

Late Mature 1-3 1-3 

Old-Growth 3-8 8-12 

White-fir 

Early Mature 1-4 3-7 

Mid-Mature 4-8 3-7 

Late Mature 4-8 7-11 

Old-Growth 4-10 10-16 

1

Snags greater than 20-inches dbh and 20 feet tall 

2

Downed logs greater than 20-inches dbh and 20 feet long 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

E-9 
Appendix E 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

E-10
LSR 305 Habitat Assessment 

APPENDIX F

LSR 305 NSO HABITAT ASSESSMENT

In 1994, the Northwest Forest Plan (NWFP) established a network of Late Successional Reserves 

(LSRs) and accompanying management direction. The network of reserves is intended to provide 

late-successional forest habitat, provide for populations of species that are associated with latesuccessional habitat, and to help maintain the viability and diversity of late-successional species. 

This direction was incorporated into the Six Rivers National Forest’s Land and Resource 

Management Plan (LRMP) in 1995. 

Management objectives within LSRs are designated to protect and enhance conditions of latesuccessional forest ecosystems, which serve as habitat for late-successional dependent species 

such as the NSO (northern spotted owl) (USDA, USDI, 1994). Protection includes reducing the 

likelihood of large-scale disturbance, including stand-replacing fire, insect and disease epidemics, 

and major human-caused activities. Enhancement includes silvicultural treatments designed to 

accelerate the development of late-successional stand characteristics. 

LSR 305 is contiguous with the Trinity Alps Wilderness to the east. Several other LSRs ring the 

Trinity Alps Wilderness, making this the largest reserve complex in the Klamath Province. The 

USFWS and the U.S. Forest Service have, over the last four years, been involved in a landscape 

level evaluation of LSRs relative to their ability to provide habitat for the northern spotted owl. As 

a result of this analysis, LSR 305 was determined to be functioning at a high level in regard to 

providing a high level of habitat for spotted owls. The analysis also determined that all of the 

LSRs on the Six Rivers National Forest were functioning at this level as well. 

Habitat Conditions before the Megram Fire 

Before the Megram Fire, there were approximately 47,000 acres of nesting/roosting habitat and 

22,410 acres of foraging habitat for the NSO within LSR 305. Capable (e.g. foraging and 

dispersal) habitat is defined as stands with the capability of becoming suitable habitat. Specific to 

LSR 305, there are 86,390 acres that are capable of providing suitable NSO habitat. The acreage 

identified as capable reflects that approximately 91 percent of LSR 305 is capable of providing 

habitat for the northern spotted owl. Table F-1 displays a summary of suitable NSO habitat in 

LSR 305 by ownership prior to the Megram Fire. Figure 3-18 displays suitable northern spotted 

owl habitat prior to the Megram Fire within LSR 305. 

Table F-1. Northern Spotted Owl Habitat Prior to Megram Fire within LSR 305 

Habitat Type SRNF Acres STNF Acres Private Acres Total Acres 

Foraging 10,710 11,390 300 22,410 

Nesting/Roosting 29,100 17,800 100 47,000 

Unsuitable 17,420 7,590 280 25,280 

Total Habitat 39,810 29,200 680 69,130 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

F-1 
Appendix F 

Before the Megram Fire, LSR 305 supported 37 activity centers for the northern spotted owl. It 

provided a total of 69,130 acres of suitable NSO habitat. An additional 17,260 acres are capable 

or have the potential to mature into suitable NRF (nesting/roosting/foraging) habitat. While 91 

percent of LSR 305 is capable of providing suitable habitat, before the Megram Fire approximately 

80 percent of the capable acres were providing suitable habitat. Within LSR 305, approximately 

50,830 acres are designated as critical habitat for the northern spotted owl (CHU CA-30). 

The USFWS considers an owl territory to be taken when the amount of NR habitat drops below 

500 acres within 0.7-mile radius around the activity center and 1,340 acres within a 1.3-mile radius 

circle. Preliminary take assessments have been conducted on the 37 activity centers located 

within LSR 305 before the Megram Fire (see Table F-3). 

Before the Megram Fire, the preliminary take assessments for the activity centers located within 

LSR 305 determined that 20 activity centers were below the “take” threshold within the 0.7-mile 

radius, with 8 of these also below the “take” threshold within the 1.3-mile radius. Seventeen 

activity centers are above the “take” threshold completely. Table F-3 summarizes the NSO 

assessment of suitable habitat within activity centers. 

Table F-2. NSO Activity Centers (AC) within LSR 305; Assessment of Nesting, Roosting 

(NR), and Foraging (NRF) Habitat within 0.7 and 1.3 mile Radius 

Total Activity 

Centers within 

LSR 305 

# AC > 500 

acres NR within 

0.7 Miles 

# AC > 500 

acres NRF 

within 0.7 Miles 

# AC > 1,340 

acres NR 

within 1.3 Miles 

# AC >1,340 

acres NRF 

within 1.3 

Miles 

37 17 32 29 35 

The draft recovery plan for the northern spotted owl predicted this LSR (as DCA CD-45 and at 

95,900 acres) would support 20 current Projected Federal owl pairs and 25 Future Projected owl 

pairs (Table 3.23 in Recovery Plan). The Hoopa Valley Indian Reservation boundary adjustment 

affected two of the owl activity centers. The habitat conditions prior to the Megram Fire did 

provide suitable habitat for 17 activity centers above the “take” threshold; however, the analysis 

displayed that the amount of suitable habitat did not meet the habitat requirements for 20 current 

Projected Federal owl pairs and 25 Future Projected Federal owl pairs as projected in the draft 

recovery plan. 

Habitat Conditions after the Megram Fire 

Habitat conditions have been greatly altered greatly by the recent Megram Fire; and this section 

focuses on the current conditions. Current habitat conditions have been derived from aerial 

photograph interpretation and a limited amount of field verification. The acreage of habitat 

degraded or removed by the Megram Fire is expected to change as future mortality occurs and 

conditions are verified on the ground. This analysis is intended to be utilized as a tool to display 

the conditions based on preliminary post-fire findings. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

F-2 
LSR 305 Habitat Assessment 

Table F-3. Acres of Suitable NSO Habitat within 0.7 and 1.3 Miles of Known Activity 

Centers in LSR 305 Prior to the Megram Fire. 

Owl 

Number 

Territory Name NR 

Acres 

0.7 Mile 

F Acres 

0.7 Mile 

Total 

NRF 

Acres 

0.7 Mile 

NR 

Acres 

1.3 Mile 

F Acres 

1.3 Mile 

Total 

NRF 

Acres 

1.3 Mile 

Status1 

98 Whitey’s 451 22 473 1,159 393 1,552 P 

99 Lockhart 395 229 624 1,038 469 1,507 P 

106 NF Mill Creek 545 303 848 1,428 1009 2,437 P 

108 Middle Fork 214 68 282 1,356 168 1,524 P 

113 Mill Creek 445 70 515 1,030 374 1,404 P 

114 Tish Tang Pt 200 132 332 800 348 1,148 P 

115 SF Tish Tang 662 68 730 2,281 418 2,699 T 

116 Tish Tang East 807 50 857 2,242 545 2,787 P 

117 Tish Tang Creek 473 219 692 1,418 521 1,939 P 

118 C Lone Pine 641 243 884 1,719 1042 2,761 T 

119 W Lone Pine 521 283 804 1,613 903 2,516 P 

120 McKay Meadows 347 14 361 1,149 195 1,344 T 

121 Ladder Rock 622 178 800 1,828 540 2,368 T 

123 EF Horse Linto 483 208 691 1,547 682 2,229 P 

124 E Lone Pine 419 371 790 1,982 718 2,700 T 

125 Cedar Creek 541 200 741 1,882 574 2,456 P 

126 Groves Prairie 439 287 726 1,530 832 2,362 P 

127 E Cedar Creek 624 196 820 1,977 737 2,714 P 

128 S Cedar Creek 386 352 738 1,342 705 2,047 P 

130 N Waterman 393 306 699 1,336 1149 2,485 P 

131 Horse Range C 711 166 877 2,240 428 2,668 P 

132 Horse Creek 561 88 649 2,250 321 2,571 P 

133 W Maple Spring 328 296 624 1,222 1367 2,589 T 

134 E Waterman 460 237 697 1,644 543 2,187 P 

135 Horse Range 478 309 787 1,712 987 2,699 P 

136 C Waterman 438 78 516 1,403 514 1,917 P 

137 S Waterman 665 71 736 1,655 593 2,248 P 

273 Corral South 590 174 764 2,345 451 2,796 T 

274 Corral North 639 168 807 1,914 472 2,386 T 

319 Groves Prairie C 406 288 694 1,477 805 2,282 T 

335 Horse Linto 721 160 881 2,289 560 2,849 T 

358 W Horse Ridge 652 59 711 2,123 466 2,589 T 

ST 403 STNF 578 255 833 1,780 1123 2,903 P 

ST 404 STNF 436 400 836 1,566 1027 2,593 P 

ST 502 STNF 124 275 399 449 341 790 T 

ST 503 STNF 493 91 584 1,501 486 1,987 P 

ST 504 STNF 634 238 872 2,096 880 2,976 P 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

F-3 
Appendix F 

1

P=Pair; T=Territorial Single 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

F-4
LSR 305 Habitat Assessment 

After the Megram Fire, there are now approximately 37,620 acres of NR habitat and 24,910 acres 

of foraging habitat within LSR 305 for the northern spotted owl. The total acreage of suitable 

spotted owl habitat after the fire represents a loss of approximately 10 percent of suitable habitat 

for the northern spotted owl. Presently within LSR 305, approximately 72 percent of the capable 

acres are currently providing suitable habitat, as compared to 80 percent prior to the Megram Fire. 

Table F-4 displays a summary of suitable spotted owl habitat by ownership post Megram Fire, 

and Table F-6 displays the preliminary take assessments for the 37 activity centers within LSR 

305 post Megram Fire. Figure 3-19 displays suitable habitat for the northern spotted owl post 

Megram Fire within LSR 305. 

Table F-4. Northern Spotted Owl Habitat Post Megram Fire within LSR 305. 

Habitat Type SRNF Acres STNF Acres Private Acres Total Acres 

Foraging 13,271 11,342 300 24,913 

Nesting/Roosting 20,453 17,072 94 37,619 

Unsuitable 23,499 8,371 282 32,152 

Total Habitat 33,724 28,414 394 62,532 

Post Megram Fire, the preliminary take assessments for the activity centers located within LSR 

305 determined that 27 activity centers are below the “take” threshold within the 0.7 mile radius, 

with 21 of these also below the “take” threshold within the 1.3 mile radius. Eleven activity centers 

are above the “take” threshold completely. Table F-5 summarizes the NSO assessment of 

suitable habitat within activity centers for both pre and post habitat conditions of the Megram Fire. 

Table F-5 NSO Activity Centers (AC) within LSR 305; Assessment of Nesting, Roosting 

(NR), and Foraging within 0.7 and 1.3 mile Radius and Comparison of Pre 

and Post Megram Fire Habitat Conditions. 

Time Period Total Activity 

Centers 

within HTMTT 

Watersheds 

# AC > 500 

acres NR 

within 0.7 

Miles 

# AC > 500 

acres NRF 

within 0.7 

Miles 

# AC > 1,340 

acres NR 

within 1.3 

Miles 

# AC > 1,340 

acres NRF 

within 1.3 

Miles 

Pre-Megram 37 17 32 29 35 

Post Megram 37 11 29 16 32 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

F-5 
Appendix F 

Table F-6. Acres of Suitable NSO Habitat within 0.7 and 1.3 Miles of Known Activity 

Centers in LSR 305 Post Megram Fire. 

Owl 

Number 

Territory Name NR 

Acres 

0.7 Mile 

F Acres 

0.7 Mile 

Total 

NRF 

Acres 

NR 

Acres 

1.3 Mile 

F Acres 

1.3 Mile 

Total 

NRF 

Acres 

Status 

98 Whitey’s 451 22 473 1159 393 1,552 P 

99 Lockhart 395 229 624 1038 469 1,507 P 

106 NF Mill Creek 360 349 709 895 943 1,838 P 

108 Middle Fork 214 68 282 957 441 1,398 P 

113 Mill Creek 445 70 515 1030 374 1,404 P 

114 Tish Tang Pt 160 145 305 714 333 1,047 P 

115 SF Tish Tang 509 126 635 1,600 560 2,160 T 

116 Tish Tang East 807 50 857 2,180 596 2,776 P 

117 Tish Tang Ck 472 219 691 1,412 520 1,932 P 

118 C Lone Pine 641 243 884 1,714 1,042 2,756 T 

119 W Lone Pine 521 282 803 1610 902 2,512 P 

120 McKay Meadows 32 253 285 163 740 903 T 

121 Ladder Rock 97 239 336 362 795 1,157 T 

123 EF Horse Linto 4 323 327 166 851 1,017 P 

124 E Lone Pine 177 583 760 751 1,263 2,014 T 

125 Cedar Creek 222 390 612 822 991 1,813 P 

126 Groves Prairie 260 395 655 783 1283 2,066 P 

127 E Cedar Creek 404 269 673 978 968 1,946 P 

128 S Cedar Creek 337 353 690 995 841 1,836 P 

130 N Waterman 386 306 692 1,324 1,151 2,475 P 

131 Horse Range Ck 711 166 877 2,209 443 2,652 P 

132 Horse Creek 514 118 632 2,004 305 2,309 P 

133 W Maple Spring 327 297 624 1,216 1,371 2,587 T 

134 E Waterman 458 237 695 1,603 520 2,123 P 

135 Horse Range 434 306 740 1,217 1,073 2,290 P 

136 C Waterman 428 80 508 1,375 472 1,847 P 

137 S Waterman 640 69 709 1,576 556 2,132 P 

273 Corral South 572 186 758 1,890 546 2,436 T 

274 Corral North 348 152 500 1,133 528 1,661 T 

319 Grove Prairie Ck 392 279 671 1,333 843 2,176 T 

335 Horse Linto 175 183 358 641 920 1,561 T 

358 W Horse Ridge 619 84 703 1,997 468 2,465 T 

ST 403 STNF 578 255 833 1,780 1,123 2,903 P 

ST 404 STNF 436 400 836 1,566 1027 2,593 P 

ST 502 STNF 124 275 399 449 341 790 T 

ST 503 STNF 493 91 584 1,501 486 1,987 P 

ST 504 STNF 634 238 872 2,096 880 2,976 P 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

F-6 
LSR 305 Habitat Assessment 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

F-7
Appendix F 

Summary of Findings 

The draft recovery plan for the northern spotted owl predicted this LSR would support 20 Current 

Projected Federal owl pairs and 25 Future Projected Owl pairs. Given the habitat conditions after 

the Megram Fire, LSR 305 does not meet the level of suitable habitat necessary to provide for 20 

Current Projected Federal owl pairs nor the 25 Future Projected Federal owl pairs as per the 

Recovery Plan. The Megram Fire reduced the amount of NR habitat by approximately 20 percent 

and the amount of foraging habitat by 10 percent. Currently only 72 percent of the capable 

spotted owl habitat within LSR 305 is classified as suitable. The preliminary assessment exhibits 

that LSR 305 is only providing for suitable habitat that is above the “take” threshold for 11 of the 

37 activity centers. In light of the above data regarding the effects of the Megram Fire on NSO 

habitat, it is doubtful that LSR 305 is adequately functioning at the landscape level in providing 

late-succesional habitat for the northern spotted owl. Given the loss of approximately 20 percent 

of the total nesting/roosting habitat, it is critical that nesting and roosting habitat be maintained 

and management activities focus on the maintenance and acceleration of early-mature and midmature seral stages within activity centers below the “take” threshold for development into nesting 

and roosting habitat for spotted owls. Additional management direction should also focus on 

reducing the future wildfire risk associated with areas that burned with moderate and high 

severities during the Megram Fire. By reducing the high accumulations of fuels that resulted from 

the Megram Fire, this additional protection would reduce the hazard and would therefore increase 

the probabilities needed to allow the early mature and mid-mature stands to reach late-seral 

habitat conditions. The long-term beneficiaries would ultimately be the northern spotted owl and 

late-seral dependent species. 

The baseline analysis for the northern spotted owl will be updated after field verification of stands 

affected by the Megram Fire within LSR 305. This analysis should be completed later this year 

and will yield a ground-verified evaluation of the LSR relative to its ability to provide habitat for 

northern spotted owls. The evaluation within this appendix is intended to display the habitat 

conditions both pre and post Megram Fire using the most current information from recent aerial 

photograph analysis with limited ground validation. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

F-8 
Fire Effects 

APPENDIX G

FIRE EFFECTS

General Fire Effects 

The presettlement composition and structure of Pacific Northwest forests were greatly influenced 

by fire. Fire plays a direct role in processes associated with vegetation succession, nutrient 

cycling, and soil structure and stability. However, fire is a dynamic process. Ecosystem response 

to fire will vary depending on the amounts of organic matter consumed, season of burn, time since 

the last burn, and the many variables associated with biotic, physical, climatic, and anthropogenic 

features of an ecosystem (Kauffman 1990). 

In addition to genetically adapted traits (e.g. serotinous cones, sprouting from below-ground plant 

organs), several other factors will influence plant response to fire. Characteristics of the individual 

plant include age and vigor. Specific adaptations and the capacity to survive a fire often will 

change with age. Environmental conditions which influence survival include type of fire (surface or 

crown fire), fire frequency or return interval, season of burn (during the active or the dormant 

growing season), fuel consumption, fire intensity, physical site characteristics (slope, aspect, soil 

type), and associated species. The high occurrence of younger seral stages indicates that 

mortality of these younger, less fire tolerant trees could be higher when wildfires do occur. 

It is clear that large, stand-replacing wildfires with very high to extreme fire behavior could 

drastically affect wildlife habitat, soils, vegetation, water quality, and channel morphology. At the 

same time it is important for forest managers to understand the positive role of fire in forest 

systems, vegetation adaptations to survival in fire regimes, and the effects of altering fire regimes 

on vegetation composition. Alterations of fire regime have resulted from active fire suppression in 

these watersheds, which historically had a much more frequent fire return interval. Fire regimes 

have also been altered by management activities, which shortened fire return intervals (e.g. 

logging followed by slash burning) or lengthened fire return intervals (e.g. aggressive fire 

suppression). These potential fire effects need to be considered in terms of wildfires and 

prescribed burns. Considering the predominant tree species within the HLMTT watersheds, this 

appendix includes a brief, generalized discussion of potential fire effects. 

Aggressive wildfire suppression actions, under a ground-based control strategy, could have 

detrimental effects, especially on unstable soils. Prescribed burning will result in some fire 

induced mortality, but this will mainly occur in the younger, less fire resistant seral stages or in the 

fire-intolerant vegetation types that would have been eliminated during more frequent fire return 

intervals. This substitute for the natural thinning process of light to moderate intensity wildfires 

would also remove some competition and could help accelerate the growth and vigor of the 

stronger, surviving trees. At the same time, mortality of any of the larger trees would contribute to 

the recruitment of snags and coarse woody debris. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

G-1 
Appendix G 

Fire Effects by Species 

The following is a brief, generalized discussion of potential fire effects for the predominant tree 

species listed for the HLMTT watersheds: 

Canyon live oak: Above-ground foliage of canyon live oak is sensitive to fire, and this plant is 

generally top-killed by fires of even relatively low intensity (Green 1980). Light ground fires can 

seriously damage or girdle this oak or produce fatal cambium injuries to the crown and trunk 

(Minnich 1977). The dead flaky outer bark is extremely flammable and can carry fire several feet 

up the trunk (Plumb and McDonald 1981). The bark is relatively thin and offers little protection 

when compared with other species of oak (Minnich 1977). The trunk appears to be sensitive to 

heat damage (Plumb 1980), which often extends up the trunk, far above any obvious signs of 

charring (Plumb and Gomez 1983). 

The total effect of fire on oaks varies according to fire intensity and severity, fire behavior, season 

of burn, and the size of the plants. Younger plants and those with smaller stems and lower crown 

heights tend to be most vulnerable (Plumb 1980). Trees with crown-to-ground distances of 15-30 

feet or more tend to be most resistant to damage. Larger trees have relatively little dead fuel in 

the crown since leaf fall occurs in early summer prior to typical fire seasons. The thicker bark of 

larger oaks provides some additional protection as does the greater living biomass, which 

decreases overall flammability (Minnich 1980). Trunks of oaks are, in general, more seriously 

damaged by slower moving, lower intensity fires than those of higher intensity, but shorter 

duration (Plumb and Gomez 1983). 

Crown damage is variable in oaks and the degree of damage can differ even within an individual 

crown. Damage may range from essentially none total removal of the foliage. Crown survival of 

larger trees is somewhat variable. Trees of 12 inches dbh have survived with wounds up to 20 

feet in height (Plumb 1980). 

The full effect of fire on oaks may not become obvious for some time. It may be necessary to wait 

for at least one growing season, and preferably three, before survival can be accurately 

determined. Undamaged leaf crowns of seemingly girdled canyon live oaks may appear alive for 

as long as eight years after a fire (Plumb and Gomez 1983). 

Canyon live oak generally sprouts prolifically after fire (Minnich 1980). Even seedlings are often 

capable of sprouting after disturbance (Mallory 1980), and moderate to dense regrowth of sprouts 

is typical after fire (Plumb and Gomez 1983). Canyon live oak sprouts vigorously from the 

subsurface rootcrown even when the upper canopy is only partially defoliated by burning or 

scorching (Minnich 1980). The rootcrown itself has been described as a ``basal woody mass'' but 

does not appear to be lignotuberous (Keely 1981). Post fire stump-sprouting occurs where 

portions of the stump remains intact (Mallory 1980). Under certain circumstances, some larger 

trees crown sprout if only ``marginally singed'' (Minnich 1980). However, this appears to be 

somewhat unusual, with resprouting typically occurring from the base and not the crown (Minnich 

1976). 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

G-2 
Fire Effects 

Where sprouting occurs, recovery of canyon live oak is generally rapid. On many sites following 

lighter fires, canyon live oak frequently forms dense, virtually impenetrable stands 3 to 10 feet in 

height within 15 to 30 years after fire. After 30 years, canyon live oak generally grows in 

multistemmed clumps, which form a closed canopy 15 to 30 feet high (Minnich 1980). Frequent 

fires favor shrublike growth forms of canyon live oak, which often dominates other species 

following several fires at fairly close intervals (Burcham 1974). Open woodlands of canyon live 

oak are temporarily replaced by live oak chaparral after repeated burning. However, protection 

from fire favors the reestablishment of oak woodlands as oak sprouts ultimately grow tall enough 

to outcompete other associated plants (Mallory 1980). 

A fuel management consideration is that, although the heat content of the outer bark of canyon 

live oak is relatively low when compared with other California oaks (Quercus spp.), its low density 

and flakiness contribute to heat buildup around the trunk (Plumb and Gomez 1983). In terms of 

prescribed burning, Plumb (1980) reports that ``the use of prescribed fire in the management of 

canyon live oak does not appear to be promising'' where primary goals include maintenance of 

oak woodlands. Trees are sufficiently sensitive to trunk girdling that even ground fires can kill the 

trunk surface. Prescribed fire can be used in stands of larger trees where fuel loading is low, or 

where trunks are protected from the direct effects of heat. Repeated fires at frequent intervals can 

maintain shrubby canyon live oak chaparral. 

Fire in California oak woodlands can create favorable, although transitory, habitat for birds such 

as the flicker and hairy woodpecker, which feed on insects present in the branches of fire-killed 

trees (Clark 1935). 

Douglas-fir: Low elevation Douglas-fir forests can be included with the Tanoak description below. 

But for higher elevation Douglas-fir the stands have a different composition and response to 

wildfires. In these forests, where summer moisture is quite limiting, adequate growing space for 

regeneration is often linked to forest disturbance, which creates sites for tree establishment as a 

result of overstory mortality. Historically, fire has been the most prominent disturbance in such 

stands. Multi-aged forests are a common result of moderate-severity fire regimes. Fire kills a 

portion of the canopy trees, and surviving trees often occur in patches. Many small trees are 

killed because of thin bark and low crowns. Some are killed immediately and others die slowly, 

weakened by decay that enters fire scars on stems and roots. Tree establishment occurs in the 

newly available growing space, and can continue for decades after fire. Such forests often have 

an “all-sized'' diameter distribution but the age class initiation is not continuous but rather pulsed 

after fire disturbance (Agee 1993). The thicker bark of older Douglas-fir trees make them much 

more fire resistant. 

Coastal Douglas-fir is more fire resistant than many of its associates and can survive moderately 

intense fires. Thick corky bark on the lower bole and roots protects the cambium from heat 

damage. In addition, the tall trees have their foliage concentrated on the upper bole, which makes 

it difficult for fire to reach the crown (Morrison and Swanson 1990). However, it should be noted 

that trees are typically not free of lower branches up to a height of 33 feet until they are more than 

100 years old (Hermann and Lavender 1990). Widely distributed as a canopy dominant in lower 

and middle elevation forests throughout the Pacific Northwest, Douglas-fir occupies forests with 

varied fire regimes. In general, the size and severity of natural fires tend to decrease, while fire 

frequency increases southward from western Washington to northern California (Morrison and 

Swanson 1990). 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

G-3 
Appendix G 

Crown fires commonly kill all trees over extensive areas. Hot ground fires that scorch tree crowns 

and char tree boles kill variable proportions of coast Douglas-fir (Agee and Huff 1980). Rapidly 

spreading ground fires tend to inflict more damage to Douglas-fir crowns, while slow spreading 

ground fires are damaging to the bole and can kill trees through cambial heating (Peterson and 

Arbaugh 1989). Crown scorching from summer fires is more damaging than late summer or fall 

fires because more buds are killed. During late summer, the buds are set and subsequent year 

needles are well protected (Wagener 1961). Seedlings and saplings are susceptible to and may 

be killed by even low-intensity ground fires (Volland and Dell 1981). 

Tanoak: Tanoak is a fire-sensitive species. Aboveground portions are extremely susceptible to 

fire mortality. The thin bark provides little insulation from radiant heat, which usually kills the 

cambium around the base of the stem (McDonald and Tappeiner 1987). As a result, low-intensity 

ground fires readily top-kill tanoak seedlings and sapling-sized stems (Tappeiner and McDonald 

1984), while larger, thicker barked trees occasionally survive light underburning. Bole injuries 

usually result following ground fires, however, and vertical wounds 4 to 10 feet long are common. 

Many older tanoak trees may initially survive light burns, but bole wounds facilitate the entry of 

insects, and disease and most injured trees eventually die (Roy 1974). In virgin redwood stands 

in Redwood National Park, Veirs (1982) found the oldest tanoak trees occupying sites where 

frequent underburning by indigenous peoples reduced fuel loadings to the point where only lightintensity ground fires occurred. Crown fires kill the aerial portions of all tanoak, regardless of age 

or size (Roy 1974). 

Tanoak is more susceptible to fire mortality when it occurs beneath a mature conifer overstory. 

Plants under these conditions are subject to increased stress and are less able to survive fires 

than when growing in a more open environment (Kauffman and Martin 1985). 

Tanoak resprouts following fire via dormant buds located on an underground regenerative organ 

(Plumb and McDonald 1981). Stored carbohydrates in the burl and an extensive taproot system 

aid in a rapid and aggressive portburn recovery. Unless fires are particularly severe, nearly all 

tanoak resprout to some extent during the first postburn growing season (McDonald and 

Tappeiner 1987). 

Sites which are particularly prone to the rapid development of a dense tanoak understory are 

those where the preburn vegetation consists of low conifer stocking combined with high tanoak 

densities. Fires aimed at suppressing the tanoak understory can be expected to be most effective 

when conducted in 30 to 75 year old conifer stands (Tappeiner and McDonald 1984). 

White fir: White fir's typically thin bark provides little insulation for the cambium during mild 

underburns until it reaches diameters greater than 8 inches. Smaller trees are either killed directly 

or weakened and later die from secondary infection of insects or disease (Atzet and Wheeler 

1982). The bark of old white fir trees tends to be moderately thick. Their shallow roots show a 

tendency towards root char as a common way of killing. This may be the cause of the large 

amounts of white fir snags along the northeast corner of the watershed. 

Sapling- and pole-sized white fir have thin bark that provides little insulation for the cambium, and 

shallow roots that are susceptible to soil heating. Because of its shade tolerance, white fir is slow 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

G-4 
Fire Effects 

to self-prune lower branches. These low-growing branches, which have slender twigs and finely 

divided foliage, easily ignite from burning undergrowth and provide a fuel ladder to the upper 

crown. Consequently, young white fir are often killed even by low intensity surface fires. Larger 

trees are more fire resistant. Mortality results from crown scorch, girdled stems from cambial 

heating, or root damage from soil heating. Trees damaged or weakened by fire are susceptible to 

attack by insects and disease. Fire wounds in contact with the ground provide an entry point for 

decay fungi. Fire-weakened trees that are attacked by insects can be killed within a few years. 

Following stand-replacing fires, white fir reestablishes via wind-dispersed seed. Exposed mineral 

soil seedbeds created by fire favor seedling establishment. However, seedling establishment and 

survival in sunny locations is often poor. Seedlings establish quickly after fire if a canopy remains 

but may take several years to establish if the canopy has been removed. 

Because sapling and pole-sized white fir are sensitive to even low-intensity fires, prescribed fire 

can be used as a thinning tool. In mixed conifer forests where white fir dominates the understory 

due to years of fire suppression, prescribed low-intensity surface fires will kill large numbers of 

white fir. This reduces the hazard of white fir providing a fuel ladder to ignite the crown of 

overstory trees and also restores tree species composition closer to that of pristine conditions. 

When fire prescriptions cannot ensure that young white fir will to ignite the crown of overstory 

trees, cutting all trees under a certain size before burning reduces this fire hazard. 

Underburning before timber harvesting with the shelterwood method in mixed conifer forests can 

be used to aid natural regeneration. The combination of cutting and burning can remove all 

advanced regeneration, thus sanitizing the site of heart rot that is present in many 5- to 6-inch 

diameter white fir. Following harvest seedling establishment of all conifers was abundant (Mohr 

and Petersen 1984). In some locations preharvest underburning is not recommended because it 

stimulates dormant shrub seeds to germinate and thus promotes the growth of shrubby vegetation 

which restricts the establishment and growth of conifers (Weatherspoon 1985). 

Exotics/rare plants: Exotic plants can displace native plants and alter or transform their habitat. 

Many aggressive exotic species are opportunistic invaders of openings, including those caused by 

fire or mechanical soil disturbance. When fires or machinery used in burning create openings they 

can provide opportunities for the spread of exotic plant species from external seed sources or from 

a latent on-site seed bank. Exotic grass species which are fire-conducting have been known to 

alter fire regimes by increasing fire frequency and, consequently, the composition of plant and 

animal communities adapted to less frequent fires. Also, rare plants or survey and manage 

species could benefit or be negatively impacted from burning. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

G-5 
Appendix G 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

G-6
Minimum Suppression Tactics 

APPENDIX H

MINIMUM SUPPRESSION TACTICS

Suppression

Hot-Line/Ground Fuels 

• Allow fire to burn to natural barriers. 

• Use cold-trail, wet line or combination when appropriate. 

• If constructed fireline is necessary, use only width and depth to check fire spread. 

• Consider use of fireline explosives for line construction. 

• Use high-pressure type sprayers on equipment prior to assigning to incident to help 

prevent spread of pathogens. 

• Constantly re-check cold trailed fireline. 

Hot-Line/Aerial Fuels 

• Minimize felling of trees and snags unless they threaten the fireline or seriously endanger 

workers. In lieu of felling, identify hazard trees with a lookout or flagging. 

• Scrape around tree bases near fireline if it is likely they will ignite. 

Mopup/Ground Fuels 

• Minimize bucking of logs to extinguish fire or to check for hotspots; roll the logs instead if 

possible. 

• Use gravity socks in stream sources and/or a combination of water blivits and fold-a-tanks 

to minimize impacts to streams. 

• Personnel should avoid using rehabilitated firelines as travel corridors whenever possible 

because of potential soil compaction and possible detrimental impacts to rehab work, i.e. 

water bars. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

H-1 
Appendix H 

Mopup/Aerial Fuels 

• Before felling consider allowing ignited tree/snag to burn itself out. Ensure adequate safety 

measures are communicated if this option is chosen. 

• Identify hazard trees with a lookout or flagging. 

Logistics 

Campsite Considerations 

• Coordinate with the Resource Advisor in choosing a site with the most reasonable qualities 

of resource protection and safety concerns. 

• New site locations should be on impact resistant and naturally draining areas such as 

rocky or sandy soils, or openings with heavy timber. 

• Avoid camps in meadows, along streams or on lakeshores. Locate at least 200 feet from 

lakes, streams, trails, or other sensitive areas. 

• Lay out the camp components carefully from the start. Define cooking, sleeping, latrine, 

and water supply. 

• Consider fabric ground cloth for protection in high use areas such as around cooking 

facilities. 

• Use commercial portable toilet facilities where available. If these cannot be used a latrine 

hole should be utilized. 

• Select latrine sites a minimum of 200 feet from water sources with natural screening. 

• Constantly evaluate the impacts that will occur, both short and long term. 

Personal Camp Conduct 

• Use "leave no trace" camping techniques. 

• Minimize disturbance to land when preparing bedding site. Do not clear vegetation or 

trench to create bedding sites. 

• Use stoves for cooking, when possible. If a campfire is used, limit to one site and keep it 

as small as reasonable. Build either a "pit" or "mound" type fire. Avoid use of rocks to ring 

fires. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

H-2 
Minimum Suppression Tactics 

• Use down and dead firewood. Use small diameter wood, which burns down more cleanly. 

• Don't burn plastics or aluminum - "pack it out" with other garbage. 

• Keep a clean camp and store food and garbage so it is unavailable to bears. Ensure items, 

such as empty food containers, are clean and odor free. Never bury them. 

• Select travel routes between camp and fire and define clearly. 

• Carry water and bathe away from lakes and streams. Personnel must not introduce 

soaps, shampoos or other personal grooming chemicals into waterways. 

Aviation Management 

Aviation Use Guidelines 

• Maximize back haul flights as much as possible. 

• Use long line remote hook instead of constructed helispots for delivery or retrieval of 

supplies and gear. 

• Take precautions to insure noxious weeds are not inadvertently spread through the 

deployment of cargo nets and other external loads. 

• Use natural openings for helispots and paracargo landing zones as far as practical. If 

construction is necessary, avoid high visitor use areas. 

• Consider maintenance of existing helispots over creating new sites. 

• Obtain specific instructions for appropriate helispot construction prior to the 

commencement of any ground work. 

• Consider directional falling of trees and snags so they will be in a natural appearing 

arrangement. 

• Buck and limb only what is necessary to achieve safe/practical operating space in and 

around the landing pad area. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

H-3 
Appendix H 

Retardant Use 

• During initial attack, fire managers must weigh the non-use of retardant with the probability 

of initial attack crews being able to successfully control or contain a wildfire. If it is 

determined that use of retardant may prevent a larger, more damaging wildfire, then the 

manager might consider retardant use even in sensitive areas. This decision must take 

into account all values at risk and the consequences of larger firefighting forces' impact on 

the land. 

• Consider impacts of water drops versus use of foam/retardant. If foam/retardant is 

deemed necessary, consider use of foam before retardant use. 

Hazardous Materials 

Fire Retardant/Foaming Agents 

• Do not drop retardant or other suppressants near surface waters. 

• Use caution when operating pumps or engines with foaming agents to avoid contamination 

of water sources. 

Fire Rehabilitation 

Rehabilitation is a critical need, which arises primarily because of the impacts associated with fire 

suppression and the logistics that support it. The process of constructing control lines, transport of 

personnel and materials, providing food and shelter for personnel, and other suppression activities 

has a significant impact on sensitive resources regardless of the mitigating measures used. 

Therefore, rehabilitation must be undertaken in a timely, professional manner. 

During implementation, the resource advisor should be available for expert advice and support of 

rehabilitation personnel as well as quality control. 

Rehabilitation Guidelines 

If impacted trails have developed on slopes greater than six percent, construct waterbars 

according to the following waterbar spacing guide: 

Trail Grade (%) Maximum Spacing (ft) 

6-9 400 

10-15 200 

15-25 100 

25+ 50 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

H-4 
Minimum Suppression Tactics 

• Where soil has been exposed and compacted (e.g., in camps, on user-trails, at helispots 

and pump sites) scarify the top 2-4 inches and scatter with needles, twigs, rocks, and dead 

branches. It is unlikely that seed and fertilizer for barren areas will be appropriate, in order 

to maintain the genetic integrity of the area. It may be possible, depending on the time of 

year and/or possibility of a rainy period, to harvest and scatter nearby seed, or to 

transplant certain native vegetation. 

• Tear out sumps or dams, where they have been used, and return site to natural condition. 

Replace any displaced rocks or streambed material that has been moved. Reclaim 

streambed to its predisturbed state, when appropriate. 

Demobilization 

Because demobilization is often a time when people are tired or when weather conditions are less 

than ideal, enough time must be allowed to do a good job. When moving people and equipment, 

choose the most efficient and least impactive method to both the landscape and fire organization 

mission. 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

H-5 
Appendix H 

HLMTT Watershed Analysis 

H-6