United States

Department

of Agriculture

Forest Service

Rocky Mountain

Research Station

August 2002

Forest Resources

of the Black Hills

National Forest

Larry T. DeBlander
Rocky Mountain Research Station

324 25th Street

Ogden, UT 84401

About the author __________________________

Larry T. DeBlander is a Forester with the Interior West Forest Inventory and

Analysis Program, Rocky Mountain Research Station in Ogden, Utah.

Contents __________________________________

Page

What forest resources are found on the Black Hills

National Forest? ................................................................................................... 1

How does the forest change? ................................................................................. 8

What other information is available about the forest land on

the Black Hills National Forest? ...................................................................... 10

How was the inventory conducted? ................................................................... 11

Documentation ....................................................................................................... 13

For further information ......................................................................................... 13

Cover photo by Blaine Cook, Forest Silviculturist,

Black Hills National Forest
1

91%

1% 8%

Nonreserved forest land

Reserved forest land

Nonforest and water

Forest Resources of the Black Hills

National Forest

Larry T. DeBlander

The Interior West Forest Inventory and Analysis (IWFIA)

Program of the USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, as part of our National Forest System cooperative inventories, conducted a forest resource inventory

on the Black Hills National Forest using a nationally standardized mapped-plot design (for more details see section “How was the inventory conducted?” page 11). This

report presents the highlights of this 1999 periodic inventory using commonly requested variables and summaries.

The data could be summarized in other ways for different

purposes (see “For further information” on the inside

back cover). The information presented in this report is

based solely on the IWFIA inventory sample (USDA 1999).

Supplementary documentation and inventory terminology

can be located in USDA (2002b). Additional data collected

by the Black Hills National Forest and used separately or

in combination with IWFIA data may produce varying results. Changes since the inventory, such as the impact of

more than 130,000 acres burned from large fires on the

Forest (USDA 2002a), have not been incorporated into this

report. Annual inventories will soon replace periodic inventories to help monitor these changes at shorter intervals. References to the “Black Hills” in this report pertain

to National Forest System lands and not the general geographic area.

What forest resources are found

on the Black Hills National

Forest?

The Black Hills National Forest administers 1,246,985

acres (USDA 2000; 2002b) of which 92 percent is forest land

and 8 percent is nonforest or water (fig. 1). One percent of

the total area on the Black Hills National Forest is in a reserved designation in the Black Elk Wilderness. Reserved

lands are those areas that have been withdrawn from management for production of wood products, such as wilderness areas or National Parks. This report focuses on forest

resources of all the forest land administered by the Black

Hills National Forest, including reserved lands.

Forest type—Forest resources are often described using

a forest type classification. Forest type refers to the predominant tree species in a stand, based on plurality of tree

stocking. Stocking is an expression of the extent to which

growing space is effectively utilized by live trees.

Forest types are dynamic and can change slowly through

forest succession, or rapidly due to disturbances such as

timber harvest, fire, or insect and disease epidemics. On

the Black Hills, ponderosa pine at 85 percent is the most

common forest type by percentage of total forest land

area. Ponderosa pine is followed in abundance by white

spruce forest type at 5 percent, aspen, bur oak, and paper

birch at 3 percent each, and juniper woodland at less than

1 percent (fig. 2).

Figure 1—Percent area by land class and reserved

status, Black Hills National Forest, 1999.
2

Figure 3—Number of live trees on forest land by diameter class, Black Hills National Forest, 1999.

Figure 2—Percent of forest land area by forest type, Black Hills

National Forest, 1999.

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Juniper woodland

Paper birch

Bur oak

Aspen

White spruce

Ponderosa pine

Forest type

Percent of forest land area

Size—The size distribution of trees in a stand is an indicator of structural diversity. Figure 3 displays the tree size

distribution by diameter class on the Black Hills. Overall,

this shows a typical diameter distribution with a higher

number of small trees than large trees.

Stand-size class is a classification of forest land based on

the predominant diameter-size of live trees that contribute to

the majority of stocking. The large diameter class includes

softwoods 9.0 inches diameter and greater, and hardwoods

11.0 inches diameter and greater; the medium diameter

class includes softwoods 5.0 to 8.9 inches diameter, and

hardwoods 5.0 to 10.9 inches diameter; and the saplings/

seedlings class includes all trees under 5.0 inches diameter.

In terms of stocking, fewer large-diameter trees compared

to small-diameter trees are required to fully utilize a site.

Figure 4 displays a breakdown of forest land on the Black

Hills by area and stand-size class. Sixty-six percent of the

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

 1.0-2.9 3.0-4.9 5.0-6.9 7.0-8.9 9.0-10.9 11.0-12.9 13.0-14.9 15.0-16.9 17.0-18.9 19.0-20.9 21.0-22.9 23.0+

Diameter class (inches)

Million trees

stands have a majority of stocking from large

trees and only 2 percent are nonstocked,

such as stands that have been recently harvested or burned.

Figure 5 shows the area of forest land by

forest type and stand-size class on the Black

Hills. Sixty-one percent of the total forest

land area is in the ponderosa pine, large tree

category.

Number and basal area of live trees—Another way to assess forest diversity is by examining the composition of forest land by

tree diameter and species. Figure 6 shows total number of live trees by species in three diameter-size

classes. Sixty percent of all live trees on the Black Hills are

from 1.0 to 4.9 inches diameter, 24 percent are from 5.0 to

8.9 inches diameter, and 16 percent are 9.0 inches diameter

and greater. Ponderosa pine makes up 76 percent of the

total number of trees; aspen, 8 percent; paper birch, 5 percent; bur oak and white spruce, 4 percent each; Rocky

Mountain juniper, 3 percent; and a trace of green ash. Species that are scarce may not be encountered with the extensive sampling strategy used for this inventory.

Basal area is the cross-sectional area of a tree stem/bole

(includes bark) at the point of diameter measurement,

usually expressed in square feet. Figure 7 displays the total

number of live trees and basal area for all species combined by 2-inch diameter classes.

Figure 8 shows the number of live trees by species and

elevation class. Elevation is associated with variations in local climate. For example, precipitation generally increases

with rising elevation, while temperature decreases. These

factors have a profound impact on a tree species’ ability to

compete with other species at various elevations. On the

Black Hills, the predominant species at all elevations is
3

Figure 5—Area of forest land by forest

type and stand-size class, Black Hills

National Forest, 1999.

Figure 4—Forest land area by stand-size

class, Black Hills National Forest, 1999.

Large diameter includes softwoods 9.0"+

and hardwoods 11.0"+; medium diameter

includes softwoods 5.0" to 8.9" and

hardwoods 5.0" to 10.9"; saplings/

seedlings include trees <5.0".

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800

 Nonstocked 

 Saplings/seedlings 

 Medium diameter 

 Large diameter

Stand-size class

Thousand acres

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

Ponderosa pine White spruce Aspen Bur oak Paper birch Juniper

woodland

Forest type

Thousand acres

 Large trees 

 Medium trees 

Saplings/seedlings

Nonstocked

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

Ponderosa pine Aspen Paper birch Bur oak White spruce Rocky Mountain

juniper

Species

Million trees

1.0" - 4.9"

5.0" - 8.9"

9.0" and greater

Figure 6—Number of live trees 1.0 inch

diameter and greater on forest land by

species and diameter-size class, Black

Hills National Forest, 1999.
4

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

 5.0-6.9 7.0-8.9 9.0-10.9 11.0-12.9 13.0-14.9 15.0-16.9 17.0-18.9 19.0-20.9 21.0-22.9 23.0-24.9 25.0+

Million

Diameter class (inches)

Number of trees

Basal area

ponderosa pine. After ponderosa pine, bur oak, Rocky

Mountain juniper, and paper birch are the predominant

species at lower elevations, and aspen and white spruce at

higher elevations.

Number and weight of dead trees—Standing and down

dead trees are an important component of forest ecosystems, with many uses such as providing habitat for wildlife

and functioning as nutrient sinks. Approximately 10.9 million standing dead trees (snags) and 18.5 million down dead

trees 5.0 inches diameter and greater are on forest land on

the Black Hills. If trees 1.0 inches diameter and greater are

included there are 40.5 and 60.1 million, respectively.

Many animals are dependent upon snags, but the species, size, and density of snags required for quality habitat

vary according to the species of wildlife. Large diameter

snags are generally scarce relative to smaller snags. Considering snags 11.0 inches diameter or larger, an estimated

2.7 per acre occur on Black Hills forest land. Of the very

large snags (19.0 inches diameter or larger) there is an estimated 0.3 per acre. Ponderosa pine and white spruce were

the only species sampled with snags in the 19-inch and

larger category.

0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000 60,000 70,000

3000-3900

4000-4900

5000-5900

6000-6900

7000-7900

Elevation class (feet)

Thousand trees

Ponderosa pine

Aspen

White spruce

Bur oak

Paper birch

Rocky Mountain juniper

Green ash

Figure 7—Total number of live trees and basal area (sq. ft.) on forest land by diameter class, Black Hills National

Forest, 1999.

Figure 8—Number of live trees 5.0 inches diameter and greater on forest land by species and elevation class, Black

Hills National Forest, 1999. Sample site elevation determined to nearest 100 feet.
5

The amount of dead material can contribute significantly to forest fuel loads. About 2 million tons of down

dead trees and 1.9 million tons of standing dead trees are

on Black Hills forest land. This estimate includes the merchantable bole and bark of trees 5.0 inches diameter and

greater. Figure 9 shows the weight per acre of down dead

trees by stand-size class for the six predominant types and

all forest types combined. For all forest types combined,

the saplings/seedlings stand-size class has the highest

weight at 2.0 tons per acre, followed by the large tree class

at 1.7 tons per acre. For all stand-size classes combined,

the white spruce type has the highest weight at 5.6 tons

per acre, followed by paper birch at 3.7 tons per acre.

Some class breakdowns such as the white spruce saplings/

seedlings class may not be representative due to small

sample size.

Stand age—Figure 10 displays the percent of forest land

area by forest type and stand-age class on the Black Hills.

This figure shows the 81- to 90-year class as the most common on the Forest. Stand age can indicate the duration

since the last extensive disturbance of the forest overstory.

 Stand age for this report is estimated from core samples

of live trees. Estimation of stand age is limited to trees with

diameters that fall within a stand’s designated stand-size

class. Many other factors affect the number of sample

trees available for determining stand age. In general, stand

age for dense stands that contain more core sample trees

is probably more representative than stand age for sparse

stands that contain less.

Wood volume, biomass, and basal area of live trees—

Estimates of cubic-foot volume and basal area include all

live trees 5.0 inches diameter and greater. Biomass estimates

include boles, bark, and branches of all live trees 1.0 inches

diameter and greater. The net volume of wood on the

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

Aspen Bur oak Juniper woodland Paper birch Ponderosa pine White spruce All types

Forest type

Tons per acre

Large trees

Medium trees

Saplings/seedlings

Nonstocked

Black Hills is estimated to be in excess of 1.6 billion cubic

feet. Total biomass of wood on the Black Hills is estimated

at over 32 million tons. Table 1 is a breakdown of volume

and biomass by species.

Figure 9—Weight of down dead trees 5.0 inches diameter and greater on forest land by forest type and stand-size

class, Black Hills National Forest, 1999.
6

Figure 10—Percent of forest land area by forest type and stand-age class, Black Hills National Forest, 1999.

Table 1—Net volume and biomass on forest land by

species, Black Hills National Forest, 1999.

Volume Biomass

(Million (Million

Species cubic-feet) tons)

Ponderosa pine 1,535.3 30.1

White spruce 92.7 1.5

Aspen 19.8 0.5

Paper birch 4.2 0.2

Rocky Mountain juniper 3.3 0.1

Bur oak 3.2 0.1

Green ash 0.3 *

Total 1,658.8 32.5

* – Less than 100,000

Figure 11 displays the percent net cubic-foot volume of live trees by diameter class. Over 80 percent of

this volume is in the 9.0- to 10.9-inch and greater diameter class. As expected, a breakdown by species

shows approximately 84 percent of white spruce and

81 percent of ponderosa pine volume are in trees 9.0

inches diameter and greater. In contrast, about 31 percent of aspen volume is in trees 9.0 inches diameter

and greater.

Another way to look at wood volume is by forest

type, for which estimates per acre can be computed

along with basal area (table 2). These numbers include

the many different species that can occur together

within each forest type. The highest volume per acre

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

Nonstocked 1-10 11-20 21-30 31-40 41-50 51-60 61-70 71-80 81-90 91-100 101-110 111-120 121-130 131-140 141-150 151-160 161-170 181-190 201-210 211-220

Stand-age class

Percent of forest land area

Juniper woodland

Paper birch

Bur oak

Aspen

White spruce

Ponderosa pine

on the Black Hills is in the white spruce forest type. The

highest basal area per acre is in the ponderosa pine forest

type. Volume and basal area per acre for juniper woodland may not be representative due to the small sample

size. One characteristic of the mapped-plot design is that

a plot may sample more than one condition (see last two

columns of table 2). A forest condition is generally defined

as an area of relatively homogeneous vegetative cover that

meets the criteria for forest land. Forest type is one of several attributes that define and separate conditions identified on the plot.
7

Figure 11—Percent net cubic foot volume of live trees on forest land by diameter class, Black

Hills National Forest, 1999.

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

20

 5.0-6.9 7.0-8.9 9.0-10.9 11.0-12.9 13.0-14.9 15.0-16.9 17.0-18.9 19.0-20.9 21.0-22.9 23.0-24.9 25.0-26.9 27.0+

Diameter class (inches)

Percent of total volume

The net volume of sawtimber trees (sawtimber volume)

on the Black Hills is estimated to be over 6.1 billion board

feet (International 1

⁄4-inch rule). This includes all growingstock trees 9.0 inches diameter and greater for softwoods,

and 11.0 inches diameter and greater for hardwoods. Figure 12 illustrates the sawtimber volume on forest land by

diameter class on the Black Hills. The 13.0- to 14.9-inch diameter class has the most volume at 21 percent, followed

by the 15.0- to 16.9-inch class at 20 percent. Ninety-four

percent of the total sawtimber volume on the Black Hills is

from ponderosa pine.

Table 2—Net volume per acre, basal area per acre, number of conditions, and

condition proportions on forest land by forest type, Black Hills National

Forest, 1999.

Net cubic- Basal area

foot volume sq. ft. Number of Condition

Forest type per acre per acre conditionsa proportionsb

White spruce 1,586 65 12 8.6

Ponderosa pine 1,542 75 183 159.5

Juniper woodland 591 60 1 1.0

Aspen 576 47 11 6.7

Paper birch 564 28 6 5.3

Bur oak 288 25 9 7.5

Total 222 188.6

a

Number of conditions by forest type that were sampled. These numbers are

often greater than the total number of plots by forest type because a plot may

sample more than one forest condition. b

Sum of the condition proportions of plots by forest type that were sampled.

These numbers are often less than the total number of plots by forest type because of nonforest condition proportions (from plots containing both forest and

nonforest conditions) that are not included here.
8

How does the forest change?

Stocking category—Many factors influence the rate at

which trees grow and thrive, or die. As tree size and density increase, competition for available resources also increases. As mentioned earlier, stocking is an expression of

the extent to which growing space on a site is effectively

utilized by live trees. Information about stocking can apply

to many issues, such as timber production and management, wildlife habitat suitability, and risk of attack by insects or disease. For this analysis, stocking of all live trees

is presented in three classes. High stocking sites are those

that are 60 or more percent stocked with live trees. Medium stocking sites are those 35 to 60 percent stocked with

live trees. Low stocking sites are those that are less than 35

percent stocked with live trees.

The percent area by stocking category and forest type is

shown in figure 13. High stocking indicates conditions

where tree growth begins to slow and tree vigor starts to

decrease, which can make trees more susceptible to attack

by insects or disease. By this definition, about 27 percent of

all forest land on the Black Hills is estimated to be in the

high stocking category. This includes about 76 percent of

the paper birch and 50 percent of the aspen forest types on

the Black Hills. The juniper woodland type contains only

one sample plot.

Growth—Another measure of forest vigor is net annual

growth. Net annual growth is the difference between gross

annual growth and losses due to mortality. Gross annual

growth of live trees (5.0 inches diameter and greater) of all

0

200

400

600

800

1,000

1,200

1,400

 9.0-10.9 11.0-12.9 13.0-14.9 15.0-16.9 17.0-18.9 19.0-20.9 21.0-22.9 23.0-24.9 25.0-26.9 27.0-28.9

Diameter class (inches)

Million board feet

Figure 12—Sawtimber volume (International 1⁄

4-inch rule) on forest land by diameter class, Black Hills

National Forest, 1999.

Photo by Blaine Cook
9

0

20

40

60

80

100

Aspen Bur oak Juniper woodland Paper birch Ponderosa pine White spruce All types

Forest type

Percent area

High stocking 

Medium stocking

Low stocking

Figure 13—Percent area of live tree stocking category on forest land by forest type, Black Hills National

Forest, 1999.

forest land on the Black Hills is estimated to be 43.1 million

cubic feet, and net annual growth is 37.8 million cubic feet.

Gross annual growth is compared to mortality for five high

volume species in figure 14. Mortality of all forest land on

the Black Hills is about 12 percent of gross annual growth,

with the largest mortality-to-growth ratio for the five high

volume species occurring in aspen. No mortality trees

were sampled for Rocky Mountain juniper or green ash.

Mortality—Field crews assess which trees have died

in the past 5 years; these trees are used to estimate an

average annual mortality. Based on this estimate, in

1998, 5.2 million cubic feet of wood from live trees (5.0

inches diameter and greater) died on the Black Hills.

About 69 percent of the mortality was caused by

weather, 10 percent by insects, and 9 percent each by

disease or fire. Eighty-one percent of the mortality occurred in ponderosa pine, 13 percent in white spruce,

and 5 percent in aspen.

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

Bur oak

Paper birch

Aspen

White spruce

Ponderosa pine

High volume species

Million cubic feet

Gross growth

Mortality

Figure 14—Gross annual growth of all live trees 5.0 inches diameter and greater compared to mortality

for five high volume species on all forest land, Black Hills National Forest, 1999.
10

What other information is

available about the forest land

on the Black Hills National

Forest?

Accessibility—All forested plots visited by field crews

were assigned a “distance to road” category. Based on this

information, it is estimated that 64 percent of the forested

area on the Black Hills is less than a half mile from an improved road; 21 percent is between a half and 1 mile; 14

percent is between 1 and 3 miles; and 1 percent is between

3 and 5 miles. No plots were sampled greater than 5 miles

from an improved road.

Burn and cutting history—Each forested plot was assessed separately for evidence of fire and cutting. Based on

this 57 percent of the forested area on the Black Hills had

some evidence of past fire that impacted the stand as a

whole. Eighty-three percent of the forested area had some

evidence of past timber or wood harvesting.

Type of disturbance—Field crews also evaluate each forested plot for the predominant human-caused influence or

natural phenomenon that impact the stand. From this it

was estimated that 5 percent of the forested area on the

Black Hills had no visible signs of disturbance; 64 percent

had evidence of fire and/or cutting; 6 percent each had evidence of wind or weather; 5 percent had evidence of road

building; 2 percent each had evidence of insects or disease;

about 1 percent total had evidence of animal damage or

chaining; and 9 percent had evidence of other disturbance.

Understory vegetation—Understory vegetation provides

forage and cover for wildlife, contributes to forest fuel

load, and can be an indication of the successional stage of

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

Aspen Bur oak Rocky Mountain

juniper

Paper birch Ponderosa pine White spruce

Forest type

Average percent cover

Trees

Shrubs

Forbs

Graminoids

Figure 15—Average percent cover of trees (saplings/seedlings), shrubs, forbs, and graminoids on forest

land by forest type, Black Hills National Forest, 1999.

the forest community. On each plot field crews visually estimated crown canopy coverage for four plant groups—

tree seedlings/saplings, shrubs, forbs, and graminoids (see

USDA 1999 for details). Figure 15 shows the average percent cover of plant groups on forest land by forest type.
11

How was the inventory

conducted?

Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) provides a statisticalbased sample of forest resources across all ownerships

that can be used for planning and analyses at local, State,

regional, and national levels. IWFIA uses a two-phase sampling procedure for all inventories. Phase one of the inventory is based on a grid of sample points systematically located every 1,000 meters across all lands in the State. Phase

one points are assigned ownership and vegetative cover attributes using maps and remotely sensed imagery. Field

crews conduct phase two of the inventory on a subsample

of the phase one points that occur on forest land. The sampling intensity is one field plot every 5,000 meters, or about

every 3 miles. Phase two plots are stratified based on phase

one ownership and vegetation information, and weights

are assigned to each stratum based on the proportion of

phase one points in that stratum.

Phase two plots were sampled using the mapped-plot

design. There were 205 field plots on the Black Hills National Forest. Of these, 173 plots sampled only forest conditions, 22 sampled both forest and nonforest conditions,

and 10 sampled only nonforest conditions. A total of 222

forest conditions were sampled on 195 plots that contain

188.6 forest and 6.4 nonforest condition proportions.

About the mapped-plot design—The mapped-plot design was adopted by Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA)

nationwide by 1995. Its predetermined, subplot layout

uses boundary delineation, when necessary, to classify differing conditions. Most plots sample one forest condition.

Therefore, delineating conditions is often not required.

Conditions were separated or mapped on differences in

any of five attributes: forest/nonforest, forest type, standsize class, stand origin, and stand density. The condition

proportion is the fraction of plot area sampled on each

condition. The sum of all condition proportions for a plot

equals 1.00. Therefore, the number and relative size of plot

conditions determines the weighted area (condition proportion multiplied by expansion factor) used for sample

expansion.

Standard errors—The sample was designed to meet national standards for precision in State and regional estimates of forest attributes. Standard errors, which denote

the precision of an estimate, are usually higher for smaller

subsets of the data. Forest-level estimates and percent

standard errors by land class or type of trees for various attributes are presented in table 3. Standard errors for other

estimates are available upon request (see “For further information” section on the inside back cover).
12

Table 3—Percent standard error for area estimate on total forest land, and percent

standard errors for estimates of net volume, net annual growth, and

annual mortality for all trees and growing-stock trees (5.0 inches d.b.h.

and greater) on total forest land, Black Hills National Forest.

Land class or Area or Percent

type of trees Attribute volume standard error

Total forest land Area 1,150,627 ±1.6

(acres)

All trees (cubic feet) Volume 1,658,818,667 ±4.9

Growth 37,865,032 ±6.3

Mortality 5,233,754 ±29.0

Growing-stock trees Volume 1,645,103,073 ±4.9

(cubic feet) Growth 37,207,277 ±6.4

Mortality 5,223,144 ±29.0

Photo by Blaine Cook
13

Federal Recycling Program Printed on Recycled Paper

Documentation _______________

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 1999. Forest

Survey field procedures, 1999. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest

Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station.

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 2000. Land

Areas of the National Forest System. FS-383. As of September 1999.

For further information ________

Interior West Forest Inventory and Analysis Program

Rocky Mountain Research Station

c/o Program Manager

507 25th Street

Ogden, UT 84401

Phone: 801-625-5388

FAX: 801-625-5723

World Wide Web: http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/ogden

Black Hills National Forest

c/o Forest Supervisor

Hwy 385 N - RR2 Box 200

Custer, SD 57730

Phone: 605-673-9200

FAX: 605-673-9350

Selected data for this Forest are part of a national data base that houses information for much of the forest land in the United States. This data base can

be accessed on the Internet at the following Web site:

http://www.ncrs.fs.fed.us/4801/fiadb/index.htm

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 2002a.

Black Hills National Forest large fire history. Unpublished report on file at: U.S. Department of Agriculture,

Forest Service, Black Hills National Forest, Custer, SD.

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 2002b.

Periodic mapped-plot design inventory terminology

(Draft). [Online]. Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/

ogden/state_reports/south_dakota/sd_nfs.html (also 

available on file at: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest 

Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Ogden, UT).
14

The Rocky Mountain Research Station develops scientific information and technology to improve management, protection,

and use of the forests and rangelands. Research is designed to meet the needs of National Forest managers, Federal and State

agencies, public and private organizations, academic institutions, industry, and individuals.

Studies accelerate solutions to problems involving ecosystems, range, forests, water, recreation, fire, resource inventory,

land reclamation, community sustainability, forest engineering technology, multiple use economics, wildlife and fish habitat,

and forest insects and diseases. Studies are conducted cooperatively, and applications may be found worldwide.

The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of race,

color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political beliefs, sexual orientation, or marital or family status. (Not all

prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities who require alternative means for communication of program

information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact USDA’s TARGET Center at (202) 720-2600 (voice and TDD).

To file a complaint of discrimination, write USDA, Director, Office of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 1400

Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call (202) 720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity

provider and employer.

Photo by Blaine Cook