David N. Wear and

John G. Greis

The Southern Forest

Resource Assessment

SUMMARY . R EPORT

■ What are the history, status, and projected future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and species in the South? ■ What are the history, status and projected future of native

plant communities in the South? ■ What are the likely effects of expanding human populations, urbanization and infrastructure development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How have

land uses changed in the South and how might

changes in the future affect the area of forests?

■ What are the attitudes and values of southern

residents toward forests and their management,

and how have they changed over time, and do

they differ by demographic groups? ■ How do

current policies, regulations, and laws affect

forest resources and their management? ■ What

motivates private forest landowners to manage

their forest land and how are their management

objectives formed? ■ What role do forests play

in employment and local economies in the

South? ■ What are the supplies of and demands

for forest-based recreation and other noncommodity uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality of

life in the South? ■ What are the history, status

and projected future demands for and supplies

of wood products in the South? ■ What are the

status and trends of forest management practices

in the South? ■ How might existing and new

technologies influence forest operations and the

resultant conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of southern

forests? ■ How have biological agents including

insects and disease influenced the overall health

of the South’s forests and how will they likely

affect it in the future? ■ How have abiotic

factors, including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall health of

the South’s forests, and what are future effects

likely to be? ■ What are the history, status, and

likely future of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status, and

likely future of forested wetlands in the South?

■ How have forest management activities and other forest uses influenced water quality, aquatic habitat, and designated uses in forested watersheds? ■ What are

the implementation rates and effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What are the history, status, and likely future of aquatic habitats and species in the South?
About the Authors

David N. Wear is the Project Leader of the Economics of Forest

Protection and Management Research Work Unit, Southern Research

Station, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Research

Triangle Park, NC 27709.

John G. Greis is a State and Private Forestry Program Specialist, Southern

Region, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Atlanta, GA 30309.

Cover photo: A beautiful spring day in the southeastern United States is seen in this SeaWiFS

image. Several smoke plumes are visible including a rather large one that originates in Georgia,

midway between the Savannah and Altamaha rivers. A good-sized plume of turbid water can also

be seen flushing out of Mobile Bay. Photo courtesy of the SeaWiFS Project, NASA/Goddard Space

Flight Center, and ORBIMAGE.

October 2002

Southern Research Station

P.O. Box 2680

Asheville, NC 28802
i

■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are

the likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes and

values of southern residents toward forests

and their management, and how have they

changed over time, and do they differ by

demographic groups? ■ How do current

policies, regulations, and laws affect forest resources and their management? ■ What

motivates private forest landowners to

manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

David N. Wear and

John G. Greis

USDA Forest Service

Southern Research Station and

Southern Region, respectively

The Southern Forest

Resource Assessment

SUMMARY.R EPORT
ii

■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are the

likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes

and values of southern residents toward

forests and their management, and how

have they changed over time, and do they

differ by demographic groups? ■ How do

current policies, regulations, and laws affect

forest resources and their management?

■ What motivates private forest landowners

to manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

Acknowledgments

The Southern Forest Resource Assessment was a cooperative

effort involving contributions from many people and

organizations. We wish to express our grateful appreciation

to all who contributed to the Assessment, especially

the following:

The leaders of the cooperating Federal agencies: Elizabeth

Estill and Pete Roussopoulos, USDA Forest Service; John

Hankinson, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; Sam

Hamilton, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; and representatives

of cooperating State agencies: Fred Allen, Chairman of the

Southern Group of State Foresters; and Greg Duffy, President

of the Southeastern Association of Fish and Wildlife

Agencies, who initiated and lent support to completion

of the Assessment.

The Assessment Planning Team, comprised of Heinz Mueller,

Ben West, and Sharon Osowski (U.S. Environmental Protection

Agency); Lee Barclay and the late Tyler Sykes (U.S. Fish

and Wildlife Service); Jim Williamson and Harold Draper

(Tennessee Valley Authority); Tommy Loggins (Georgia

Forestry Commission); Brant Miller (Tennessee Wildlife

Resources Agency); and David Hoge (USDA Forest Service),

who provided guidance and agency coordination from the

Assessment’s inception to its completion.

The Assessment Team, comprised of the individual chapter

authors and coauthors, and the many individuals who assisted

them in the preparation and peer review of their chapters.

The Public Affairs Staff of the USDA Forest Service, Southern

Region and Southern Research Station, especially Angela

Coleman, Tony Dixon, Carol Ferguson, and Terry Seyden,

as well as the late Bruce Kinzel, who assisted with public

meetings and prepared and managed the entire

communications effort from start to finish.
iii

■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are the

likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes

and values of southern residents toward

forests and their management, and how

have they changed over time, and do they

differ by demographic groups? ■ How do

current policies, regulations, and laws affect

forest resources and their management?

■ What motivates private forest landowners

to manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

Nancy Walters (USDA Forest Service, Southern Research

Station), who provided invaluable assistance in the design

and facilitation of team meetings throughout the process.

Bruce Jewell (USDA Forest Service, Southern Research

Station), whose advice and guidance on the public

involvement process ensured that interested parties were

included and enabled to participate in a meaningful way.

The interested public, who worked from the beginning to

the end of the Assessment to make certain that it objectively

addressed the issues of vital interest to the public. Interest

in the Assessment and its findings has been intense, and

that bodes well for southern forests.

John Pye (USDA Forest Service, Southern Research

Station), who designed and managed the Assessment Web site

and the information structures that allowed the process, the

report, and the data to be accessible and user-friendly

for the authors and the public.

Renee Boozer (USDA Forest Service, Southern Research

Station), for her diligence in managing the correspondence

of the Assessment.

The Communications Office (USDA Forest Service,

Southern Research Station), especially Carol Ferguson,

Diana Corbin, and Rod Kindlund for the design and

production of the final reports.

Bob Biesterfeldt, the dean of forest science editors, for

his timely and highly professional editing services.

The Greis and Wear families, whose patience and support

during the 3-year Assessment period allowed the coleaders

to concentrate on the Assessment and to travel widely to

ensure its success.

Dave Wear and John Greis

Coleaders

Southern Forest Resource Assessment
iv

■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are the

likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes

and values of southern residents toward

forests and their management, and how

have they changed over time, and do they

differ by demographic groups? ■ How do

current policies, regulations, and laws affect

forest resources and their management?

■ What motivates private forest landowners

to manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

The Technical Report (General Technical Report SRS-53)

and this Summary Report are the culmination of more than

3 years of effort by more than 25 scientists and analysts from

the above agencies as well as southern universities. More than

100 scientists from universities, State and Federal agencies,

industry, and conservation organizations provided peer

reviews to enhance the reports’ accuracy and completeness.

This Summary Report is intended to provide its reader with

an overview of the many forces of change affecting southern

forests and the changes they produce. It summarizes the

detailed results reported by Assessment Team members in

individual chapters of the full Technical Report. The

information contained in the body of the Assessment should

enhance public understanding of southern forests, inform

public debate, and improve public policies that result.

Preface

The Southern Forest Resource Assessment was initiated in

1999 as a result of concerns raised by natural resource

managers, the science community, and the public regarding

the status and likely future of forests in the South. These

included changes to the region’s forests brought about by rapid

urbanization, increasing timber demand, increasing numbers

of satellite chip mills, forest pests, and changing air quality.

In response to these issues, leaders of four of the region’s

Federal natural resource agencies (USDA Forest Service,

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, U.S. Fish and

Wildlife Service), and the Tennessee Valley Authority, agreed

to work together to provide a careful evaluation of the overall

condition and ongoing changes of southern forests. State

forestry and fish and wildlife agencies were invited to take

part and have actively contributed to the effort. The USDA

Forest Service, through the Southern Region and Southern

Research Station, has provided overall leadership.
v

■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are

the likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes and

values of southern residents toward forests

and their management, and how have they

changed over time, and do they differ by

demographic groups? ■ How do current

policies, regulations, and laws affect forest

resources and their management? ■ What

motivates private forest landowners to

manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

Introduction. ........................................................................... 1

How the Assessment Was Conducted...................................... 2

Conditions of Southern Forests. .............................................. 4

Forces of Change. .................................................................. 7

Forecasting Change. ................................................................ 8

Land Markets. .......................................................................... 9

Timber Markets. ..................................................................... 12

Social Institutions. ................................................................. 16

Biological Factors................................................................... 18

Physical Factors. .................................................................... 20

Interactions. ...........................................................................22

Social and Economic Systems. ........................................... 23

Social Context. ....................................................................... 24

People and Forests. ................................................................ 27

Wood Products. ..................................................................... 30

Recreation. ............................................................................. 35

Quality of Life. ....................................................................... 40

Forest Area and Conditions. ............................................... 43

Forest Area and Ownership. .................................................. 43

Broad Forest Types. ................................................................ 46

Landscape Structure............................................................... 48

Forest Inventory. .................................................................... 51

Timberland Productivity. ....................................................... 53

Terrestrial Ecosystems. ....................................................... 57

Abundant Forest Communities. ............................................ 58

Rare Forest Communities. ..................................................... 64

Effects of Land Use Changes.................................................. 67

Effects of Forest Management................................................ 69

Wildlife Species of Concern. .................................................. 72

Conservation Issues. .............................................................. 75

Water Quality, Wetlands, and Aquatic Ecosystems. ........ 77

Water Quality. ........................................................................ 78

Forested Wetlands. ................................................................ 80

Aquatic Species of Concern. .................................................. 84

Conservation Issues. .............................................................. 89

Discussion. ...........................................................................91

Broad Findings. ...................................................................... 91

Subregions of Concern........................................................... 96

Implications for Ongoing Programs. ...................................100

Knowledge Gaps and Scientific Uncertainties. ....................102

Contents
vi
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are

the likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes and

values of southern residents toward forests

and their management, and how have they

changed over time, and do they differ by

demographic groups? ■ How do current

policies, regulations, and laws affect forest

resources and their management? ■ What

motivates private forest landowners to

manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

Southern Forest Resource Assessment Introduction ■1

Introduction

The South’s forests are expansive, diverse, and vital. Many

forces—ranging from development to environmental change

to timber management—continue to shape them. Although

change has been constant, the rate of change is accelerating

and has raised questions about the sustainability of southern

forests and the broad complement of values they provide.

Sustainability is a sweeping concept, ensuring opportunities

for the future as resources are used today. Pursuing

sustainability requires broad and long-term commitment

and ongoing monitoring, study, and action. The first step

is to understand and anticipate the forces of change that will

directly shape forested ecosystems and the social factors that

are likely to drive those changes. Ultimately, society must

manage change to achieve sustainability.

The Southern Forest Resource Assessment

documents and analyzes the many factors that are

affecting the forests of 13 Southern States (fig. 1).

Our goal has been to answer several specific

questions about southern forests and their uses,

and, in the process, to create a comprehensive

base of information about them. This undertaking

is complex, given the multiple factors that

influence forests, the diversity of the region’s

people and biota, and the history of land and resource uses.

The South has a strong regional identity that is shaped in

large part by its agrarian past and the predominantly private

ownership of its land. With more than 5 million private

owners controlling 89 percent of

southern forests, forest area and

conditions are influenced by

diverse landowner interests and

objectives. An ever-changing

patchwork of forest uses and

conditions has resulted.

Figure 1—The region

examined by the Southern

Forest Resource Assessment.

Mount Nebo at the Petit Jean State Park in Arkansas. B. Lea

Swamp in

South Carolina.

B. Lea
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are the

likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes

and values of southern residents toward

forests and their management, and how

have they changed over time, and do they

differ by demographic groups? ■ How do

current policies, regulations, and laws affect

forest resources and their management?

■ What motivates private forest landowners

to manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

■2 Introduction

Define assessment questions

(May 1999–February 2000)

Develop work plans

(February–April 2000)

Technical analysis

(March–December 2000)

Synthesis, review, and reporting

(January 2001–November 2002)

How the Assessment

Was Conducted

Not surprisingly, interest in these forests extends far beyond

landowners to all who use their varied goods and services. As

organizers of this Assessment, we have tried to convene these

many interests, elucidate and analyze their concerns with

science and data, and present findings in a useful way (fig. 2).

Monitoring change at a broad, multi-State scale and describing

cumulative changes is a logical and important role for

government in the area of private forestry.

This Assessment was organized around 23 questions that

summarized public concerns about southern forests and their

uses (table 1). These questions were refined during a process

that involved considerable public review in venues ranging

from large meetings to one-on-one discussions. More than 750

people participated in the meetings; hundreds more provided

written input. Once the questions were finalized, a rapid

scientific assessment process was developed and employed

to address each question using available knowledge and

data. Each question was addressed by subject experts who

comprised the Assessment Team, and their work is presented

Figure 2—Flow chart of the Southern Forest

Resource Assessment process.

as individual chapters in the Assessment’s Technical Report.

Data used in the Assessment have been assembled and made

available through a public Web site@http://www.srs.fs.fed.us/

sustain. This report synthesizes and provides some

interpretation of the detailed information contained in the

Technical Report, but does not provide an exhaustive

compilation of all of its findings.
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are

the likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes and

values of southern residents toward forests

and their management, and how have they

changed over time, and do they differ by

demographic groups? ■ How do current

policies, regulations, and laws affect forest

resources and their management? ■ What

motivates private forest landowners to

manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

Southern Forest Resource Assessment Introduction ■3

Table 1—Major questions addressed during the Southern Forest Resource Assessment

(each question is addressed in a chapter of the technical report)

Chapter Section Assessment question

13 Timber What are the history, status, and projected future

demands for and supplies of wood products in

the South?

14 Timber What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South?

15 Timber How might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests?

16 Health What are the history, status, and projected future

of southern forests?

17 Health How have biological agents including insects and

disease-causing organisms influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and how will they

likely affect it in the future?

18 Health How have abiotic factors, including

environmental stressors such as air pollution,

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and what are future effects likely to be?

19 Aquatic What are the history, status, and likely future of

water quality in southern watersheds?

20 Aquatic What are the history, status, and likely future of

forested wetlands in the South?

21 Aquatic How have forest management activities and

other forest uses influenced water quality,

aquatic habitat, and designated uses in

forested watersheds?

22 Aquatic What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMP’s in the South?

23 Aquatic What are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

Chapter Section Assessment question

1 Terrestrial What are the history, status, and projected future

of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and species in

the South?

2 Terrestrial What are the history, status, and projected future

of native plant communities in the South?

3 Terrestrial What are the likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization, and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

4 Terrestrial What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South?

5 Terrestrial What conditions will be needed to maintain

animal species associations in the South?

6 Social How have land uses changed in the South, and

how might changes in the future affect the area

of forests?

7 Social What are the attitudes and values of southern

residents toward forests and their management,

how have they changed over time, and do they

differ by demographic groups?

8 Social How do current policies, regulations, and laws

affect forest resources and their management?

9 Social What motivates private forest landowners to

manage their forest land, and how are their

management objectives formed?

10 Social What role do forests play in employment and

local economies in the South?

11 Social What are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity uses of

forests in the South?

12 Social How do forests and their uses influence the

quality of life in the South?
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are the

likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes

and values of southern residents toward

forests and their management, and how

have they changed over time, and do they

differ by demographic groups? ■ How do

current policies, regulations, and laws affect

forest resources and their management?

■ What motivates private forest landowners

to manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

■4 Introduction

The Assessment effort was designed by participating agencies

as a two-tiered approach. The Summary Report and the

Technical Report represent the first tier, a broad comprehensive

assessment of resource questions. The second tier will begin by

identifying small areas within the South for additional study at

finer scales. Findings from the broad-scale assessment will be

used to identify areas where forces and implications of change

are currently strongly focused or are expected to be strongly

focused. The number of subregional assessments sponsored by

the Assessment will depend on availability

of funding and other resources. Specific

questions to be addressed will be

determined by the issues faced in each

area and will be defined at a later date. In

addition, the findings of the Assessment

coupled with the identification of small

areas may prove useful for focusing the

efforts of future researchers.

Conditions of Southern Forests

The strong regional identity of the South belies its broad

ecological and cultural diversity. Its landscape is a patchwork

of land uses and forest conditions. Social and ecological

systems do not develop in isolation, and the use of land and

ecosystems has had a long-standing influence on economic

systems as well as on other aspects of life and livelihood in

the South. The region’s diversity and complexity of landscape,

economics, and culture also preclude general statements

and prescriptions regarding southern forests.

The South has been a heavily worked landscape. Its

forests are, almost without exception, the result of multiple

disturbances and land use changes. Nearly every forested acre

B. Lea

A. Tiarks

Long-term soil productivity

study in Louisiana.

Brice Creek on the Croatan

National Forest in North Carolina.
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are

the likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes and

values of southern residents toward forests

and their management, and how have they

changed over time, and do they differ by

demographic groups? ■ How do current

policies, regulations, and laws affect forest

resources and their management? ■ What

motivates private forest landowners to

manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

Southern Forest Resource Assessment Introduction ■5

Percent forest cover

0 – 20

21 – 40

41 – 60

61 – 80

81 – 100

in the South has been harvested at least once in the last two

centuries. Prior to European settlement, Native Americans

modified the composition and structure of forests with fire

and crop cultivation. Following European settlement, three

historical epochs in land use and resource extraction both

shaped the region’s landscape and influenced its cultural

history. They provide lessons regarding exploitation,

management, and renewal.

Agricultural exploitation on a landscape scale began in the

17th century and reached its zenith in the late 19th century as

a vast cotton industry stretched from the Atlantic to Texas.

Other crops supplanted cotton as the boll weevil ran its

course, and all have had influences on the land. A second

epoch involving widespread timber exploitation in the first

part of the 20th century had its roots in the disposal of a large

public domain in the years immediately after the Civil War.

The timber industry migrated to the South after timber stocks

were depleted in the Lake States. Some 20 years of extensive

logging heavily depleted southern timber stocks. By the

beginning of the Great Depression, much of the region was

forest-resource poor and its soil greatly degraded. Wholesale

land abandonment followed and set the stage for the third

epoch, a 40-year period of regrowth of southern forests.

Current conditions and opportunities reflect this history

of use. For example, much of the natural pine area originated

from the seeding of abandoned agricultural fields. Settlement

and agricultural development permanently displaced various

wildlife species and led to extinctions. Current sediment loads

in many streams are largely the result of agricultural activities

and logging in the 19th century. These sediment loads continue

to influence aquatic ecosystems.

The South is now a heavily forested region. Forests cover

more than 60 percent of most States (fig. 3). Agriculture

dominates on the upper Atlantic Coastal Plain, the Mississippi

Alluvial Valley, the Interior Plateau, and the Ridge and Valley

regions of Tennessee and Virginia. Elsewhere, forests cover an

even greater share of the landscape.

Figure 3—Shares of areas in southern counties in 1992

in forest [Multi-Resolution Land Characteristics land-cover

maps. (Source: Chapter 6, Figure 17a)].
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are the

likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes

and values of southern residents toward

forests and their management, and how

have they changed over time, and do they

differ by demographic groups? ■ How do

current policies, regulations, and laws affect

forest resources and their management?

■ What motivates private forest landowners

to manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

■6 Introduction

Coastal Plains,

Middle

Coastal Plains and Flatwoods, Lower

Everglades

Florida Coastal

Lowlands (Eastern)

Atlantic Coastal Flatlands

Middle Atlantic

Coastal Plain

Northern Ridge

and Valley

Blue Ridge

Mountains

Florida Coastal

Lowlands (Western)

Mississippi

Alluvial

Louisiana Coast Basin

Prairies and Marshes

Eastern Gulf

Prairies and

Marshes

Central Gulf

Prairies and

Marshes

Oak Woods

and Prairies

Osage Plains

Cross Timbers

and Prairie

Ouachita Mountains

Arkansas Valley

Boston Mountains

Ozark Highlands

Mid Coastal

Plains, Western

Coastal Plains

and Flatwoods,

Western Gulf

Upper Gulf

Coastal Plain

Southern Appalachian

Piedmont

Central Ridge

and Valley Southern

Cumberland

Plateau

Southern

Cumberland

Mountains

Southern Unglaciated

Allegheny Plateau

Interior Low

Plateau, Bluegrass

Interior Low Plateau,

Shawnee Hills

Interior Low

Plateau,

Highland Rim

Northern

Cumberland

Mountains

Figure 4—Ecological sections

of the South. The broad ranges of ecological conditions that comprise the

region demonstrate that its forests are diverse (fig. 4). Their

productivity and sensitivity to change vary greatly, reflecting

continued reshaping in response to several modern forces

of change.

In the sections that follow, we examine how several forces

of change have shaped and may continue to shape the forests

of the South. Forces of change include social, biological, and

physical forces. We then examine the history, status, and

possible future of southern forests in four different dimensions:

social and economic systems, forest area and conditions,

terrestrial ecosystems, and aquatic ecosystems. We conclude

by examining the broad implications of these findings and list

major knowledge gaps and scientific uncertainties.

In all sections, the Technical Report is the source of all of our

findings. Accordingly, individual sections that follow refer to

the specific chapters in the Technical Report from which the

findings are drawn, using the naming convention shown in

table 1. For example, chapter 6 is the first chapter in the Social

and Economic Systems section, which addresses the question:

“How have land uses changed in the South, and how might

changes in the future affect the area of forests?” Each section is

keyed to the chapters that are primary sources of findings. The

individual chapters provide indepth analysis of the issues and

extensive citations to primary references on each topic and

should be reviewed for more detailed information.

USDA Forest Service

College students bringing conservation

education to increasing diverse populations

at summer camps throughout the South.
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are

the likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes and

values of southern residents toward forests

and their management, and how have they

changed over time, and do they differ by

demographic groups? ■ How do current

policies, regulations, and laws affect forest

resources and their management? ■ What

motivates private forest landowners to

manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

Southern Forest Resource Assessment Forces of Change ■7

Forces of

Change

Several forces have shaped and continue to influence the

extent, structure, and function of the South’s forests. We

summarize these forces using five categories: (1) land markets

that ultimately determine the area of forests; (2) timber

markets that influence the location and extent of timber

harvesting, management approaches, and forest conditions;

(3) social institutions that organize the behavior of people

who own, manage, and use forests in the region; (4) biological

factors such as insects and diseases that affect the structure

of forests; and (5) physical factors that affect the structure

of forests, including hurricanes, fire, and ice storms, as well

as the ambient environment.

Pedestal Rocks Scenic Area

in the Ozark National Forest.

B. Lea
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are the

likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes

and values of southern residents toward

forests and their management, and how

have they changed over time, and do they

differ by demographic groups? ■ How do

current policies, regulations, and laws affect

forest resources and their management?

■ What motivates private forest landowners

to manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

■8 Forces of Change

Forecasting Change

Throughout the Assessment, we place emphasis on

understanding historical change and ongoing trends. We

also evaluate possible futures. Forecasting changes in forest

ecosystems and the values that derive from them is necessarily

fraught with uncertainty. Forests and linked social systems

change in response to multiple factors. Current trajectories

of change often reflect the legacies of historical land use and

resource management. Some past actions have irreversible

consequences, such as the hydrologic effects of dams. In other

cases, altered ecosystems may be restored or renewed. In all

situations, the future of forested ecosystems will be the product

of the working and adaptation of complex systems and the

impacts of unanticipated events.

We use an integrated modeling system to forecast timber

harvesting, forest investment, forest growth, and land use

up to the year 2040. This system, called the Southeastern

Regional Timber Supply Model is described in chapter 13.

It incorporates the land use model described in chapter 6.

Forecasting these outcomes requires that we make

assumptions about the future course of certain core

variables. Three key assumptions are:

■ Demand for timber products is projected to increase at the

rate of 1.6 percent per year. This is the demand projection

developed for the South in the most recent Resources Planning

Act assessment (see chapter 13) and is based on trends in

macroeconomic variables such as gross national product and

population as well as on trends in international timber markets

■ Population and income growth projections are those used

by the U.S. Global Change Program (see chapter 6). These

projections are constructed at the county level and hold

especially strong influence on projections of land uses.

■ The timber productivity of pine forests is based on the

expected adoption of management activities. Projected

adoption rates for industrial and nonindustrial private forests

are taken from expert surveys of industrial owners and States,

respectively (see chapter 14). Assumed productivity rates for

pine plantations owned by industry are consistent with

management regimes that include site preparation, planting,

fertilizer application, thinning, and vegetation control with

herbicides or other methods. For nonindustrial owners, the

management of plantations is assumed to be somewhat less

intensive but still would include site preparation, planting,

and some thinning. The resulting increase in productivity

from current levels to 2040 is assumed to be 75 percent

for industrial owners and 37.5 percent for nonindustrial

private owners.

As with any forecasting exercise, assumptions play a large

role in outcomes. To understand the sensitivity of models to

these assumptions, models were run with alternative scenarios.

These are discussed in detail in chapters 6 and 13. In this

Summary Report we refer strictly to the base scenario
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are

the likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes and

values of southern residents toward forests

and their management, and how have they

changed over time, and do they differ by

demographic groups? ■ How do current

policies, regulations, and laws affect forest

resources and their management? ■ What

motivates private forest landowners to

manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

Southern Forest Resource Assessment Forces of Change ■9

constructed with the assumptions previously described.

Sensitivity analysis reveals that future land uses and forest

conditions are especially sensitive to assumptions regarding

timber demand and productivity growth. For example, weaker

demand growth would lead to lower prices, less harvesting,

and less area of forest than projected for the base scenario.

If timber productivity growth were not realized, then timber

prices and the area of planted pine could be substantially

higher than was projected for the base scenario.

In the discussions that follow, we attempt to estimate the

direction of change and, in some case, explicitly forecast future

conditions. These forecasts explore possible futures and project

the potential consequences of ongoing and anticipated

changes. They should be viewed as “what could happen,”

rather than”“what will happen.”

Land Markets

Primary Question (chapter 6):

How have land uses changed in the South,

and how might changes in the future affect

the area of forests?

Related Question (chapter 20):

What are the history, status, and likely

future of forested wetlands in the South?

Private land dominates the southern landscape, and land use

is determined by the decisions of individuals and firms as they

attempt to put land to profitable and satisfying uses. Land use

has changed substantially over the past three centuries, and it

continues to change. In many areas, extensive agriculture

gave way to forest succession beginning in the early part

of the 20th century. Today, rapid economic and population

growth are fueling urbanization and low-density residential

Low-density residential development fueled

by economic and population growth.

Virginia Department of Forestry
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are the

likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes

and values of southern residents toward

forests and their management, and how

have they changed over time, and do they

differ by demographic groups? ■ How do

current policies, regulations, and laws affect

forest resources and their management?

■ What motivates private forest landowners

to manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

■10 Forces of Change

0

175,000

350,000

19451949195419591964196919741978198219871992

other cropland forest pasture urban

restructured southern ecosystems. Legacies of these massive

alterations still influence forest structure, many forest

functions, and aquatic systems. For example, severe soil

erosion and sedimentation of waterways strongly altered and

continue to influence aquatic habitat and species, especially

mussel and fish species.

■ Land clearing for agriculture greatly diminished the area of

forested wetlands in the South. In the Mississippi River Valley,

for example, more than 80 percent of bottomland forests has

been converted to agriculture since European settlement

(chapter 20).

We analyzed more recent land use changes and the

factors that drive them (chapter 6) and found that:

■ There has been essentially no net change of total forest land

area since the 1970s (fig. 5), and current forest area equals

about 91 percent of that recorded in 1907. However, this

stability at the regional level is the result of large offsetting

Figure 5—Land use shares

by type for Southern

States, 1945 to 1992 (note

that Texas and Oklahoma

are not included).

development in many parts of the South. Where urban land

uses do not dominate, rural land may switch between

agriculture and forest cover depending on the prices paid for

agriculture and timber products. Historical patterns reveal that

some forests are cleared as agricultural prices increase, and

marginal cropland and pasture are planted in forest cover as

agricultural prices fall.

Our analysis of historical land use change found that:

■ In the period following European settlement (1780 to 1930),

land clearing for agriculture and timber production completely

Losses of forest land to

urbanization towards the East.

USDA Forest Service
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are

the likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes and

values of southern residents toward forests

and their management, and how have they

changed over time, and do they differ by

demographic groups? ■ How do current

policies, regulations, and laws affect forest

resources and their management? ■ What

motivates private forest landowners to

manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

Southern Forest Resource Assessment Forces of Change ■11

Change in percent

< -10.0

-10 . – - 5.0

- 5. – - .5

- .5 – .5

.5 – 5.0

subregional changes: much forest has been converted to urban

and agricultural uses, and agricultural land has been converted

to forests through natural reseeding and tree planting.

■ The rate at which rural land (both forest and agricultural)

has been developed for urban and industrial uses in the 13

Southern States increased from about 667,000 acres per year

between 1982 and 1992 to about 1.1 million acres per year

between 1992 and 1997. Urbanization is forecast to continue

at the rate of 1.1 million acres per year through the year 2020.

The source of land for new urban uses is both agricultural

and forest land.

■ According to forecasting models described in chapter 6, the

South could lose about 12 million forest acres (about 8 percent

of forest land) to urbanization between 1992 and 2020. These

losses are forecast to be concentrated in a few places: the

Piedmont and Mountain areas of North Carolina, adjacent

Piedmont areas of South Carolina and Georgia, forested areas

of northern Florida including the Panhandle, and the Atlantic

and Gulf coastal areas. Smaller areas with high rates of loss

would include the forests around the cities of Nashville and

Birmingham and in northern Virginia between Washington and

Richmond (fig. 6). An additional 19 million acres of forest are

forecast to be developed between 2020 and 2040.

■ Forecasts indicate that agricultural land will continue to be

converted to forest in other parts of the South as rising timber

prices encourage tree planting. Forest gains from these sources

are projected to be about 10 million acres between 1992 and

Figure 6—Urban-growth scenario forecast of changes in

percentages of land in forest land use by county for 1992-

2020. Source: Chapter 6, Figure 13a.

New plantations westward should offset

losses of forest acreage due to urbanization.

B. Lea
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are the

likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes

and values of southern residents toward

forests and their management, and how

have they changed over time, and do they

differ by demographic groups? ■ How do

current policies, regulations, and laws affect

forest resources and their management?

■ What motivates private forest landowners

to manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

■12 Forces of Change

2020. Total forest area is forecast to increase in the Coastal

Plain of southwestern Georgia and in a small area centered on

the border between eastern North Carolina and Virginia. The

largest area of potential forest gains however, is in the lower

Gulf Coastal Plain, including large portions of Arkansas,

Mississippi, and Louisiana (fig. 6). An additional 15 million

acres of agricultural land are forecast to be planted to forest

between 2020 and 2040. The net result of these changes

is a westward shift in forest distribution. Note that these

shifts out of agricultural uses and toward forestry would not

logically arise if timber prices were not to rise relative to

agricultural prices.

Timber Markets

Primary Question (chapter 13):

What are the history, status, and projected

future demands for and supplies of wood

products in the South?

Related Questions (chapters 14 and 15):

What are the status and trends of forest management

practices in the South? How might existing and new

technologies influence forest operations and the

resultant conditions of forests?

The South, particularly the Coastal Plain and the Piedmont,

contains the most intensively managed forests in the world.

This one region of the United States produces more wood

products than any other single nation. Timber harvesting, tree

planting, and other forest investments have increased, and

forest inventories have expanded as harvesting and processing

technologies have changed in ways that favor southern timber.

Over the past several years, changes in processing technology

and in the location of large processing facilities (for example,

chip mills and oriented-strand-board mills) have changed the

intensity of timber harvesting within subregions of the South.

We examined changes in the world’s timber markets and

technology, searching for probable effects on markets for

The South leads the United States—and the

World—in timber production due to improved

technologies and larger facilities.

B. Lea
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are

the likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes and

values of southern residents toward forests

and their management, and how have they

changed over time, and do they differ by

demographic groups? ■ How do current

policies, regulations, and laws affect forest

resources and their management? ■ What

motivates private forest landowners to

manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

Southern Forest Resource Assessment Forces of Change ■13 Harvest volume share 1.00

0.80

0.60

0.40

0.20

0.00

Year

1952 1962 1977 1987 1992 1997

Pacific Rockies North South

Removals volume (billion cubic feet)

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

Year

1952 1954 1958 1963 1967 1972 1976 1986 1991 1996

Saw logs

Veneer logs

Pulpwood

Fuelwood

All other products

Figure 7—Shares of timber harvest volumes, by USDA

Forest Service Region of the United States, 1952 to 1997.

Source: Chapter 13, Figure 6.

Figure 8—Removals by destination product, Southwide, all species,

1952 to 1996 (data for 1954 to 1972 all other products include

fuelwood). Source: Chapter 13, Figure 14.

the South’s forest products (chapters 13, 14, and 15).

We found that:

■ Wood production continues to be an important part of

the U.S. economy. The United States is the world’s largest

producer, consumer, and importer of wood products. It is also

the second largest exporter of wood products after Canada.

■ Technology, public policy, and forest growth have all

combined to enhance the South’s position and share of the

forest products markets. Technology has allowed smaller

diameter trees and a wider variety of species to be used in

wood products. Public policies have reduced timber harvesting

from public land, which is concentrated in the Western

United States.

■ Forest regeneration and growth have expanded southern

timber inventories by 73 percent since the 1950s, and strong

timber markets have encouraged landowners to keep land

forested. As a result of these and other factors, the South’s

timber production more than doubled between 1952 and

1997. Its share of U.S. production rose from 41 to 58 percent

and its share of the world’s production from 6.3 to 15.8

percent (fig. 7).

■ The South provides a great variety of timber products, with

no single product dominating. Softwood saw logs represent the

largest product share at 28 percent of total output. Softwood

pulpwood and hardwood pulpwood now account for 25 and

16 percent of output, respectively (fig 8).

■ Since 1952, hardwood pulpwood has experienced the

greatest increase in product share, growing from 3 to 16

percent of output. This increase reflects a change in pulping

technology that allowed hardwoods to be substituted for more

expensive softwoods in the manufacturing of paper products.
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are the

likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes

and values of southern residents toward

forests and their management, and how

have they changed over time, and do they

differ by demographic groups? ■ How do

current policies, regulations, and laws affect

forest resources and their management?

■ What motivates private forest landowners

to manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

■14 Forces of Change

(A)

Pulp

Post and pole

Plywood and veneer

Other types

Composite

(B)

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040

Year

Volume (billion cubic feet)

Hardwood

Softwood

Figure 10—(A) Sawmills in the Southern United States. (B) Other woodusing mills in the Southern United States. Each mark indicates a town or

city in which at least one mill was located during mill censuses occurring

between 1992 (Virginia) and 1997 (Texas). Source: Chapter 13, Figures

11 and 12.

■ Models described in chapter 13 forecast that

timber production in the United States will

increase by roughly a third between 1995 and

2040. Nearly all production increases will come

from the South. The South’s timber production is

forecast to increase by 56 percent for softwoods

and by 47 percent for hardwoods between 1995

and 2040 (fig. 9).

Changing wood manufacturing technologies

have altered the type and size of timber materials

demanded and the location of processing and

harvesting (fig. 10). An example is chip mills,

Figure 9—Subregional Timber Supply Model projections of

total hardwood and softwood removals volumes, in billion

cubic feet, by private owners (where NIPF stands for

nonindustrial private forest land), 1999 to 2040, under

the base scenario.
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are

the likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes and

values of southern residents toward forests

and their management, and how have they

changed over time, and do they differ by

demographic groups? ■ How do current

policies, regulations, and laws affect forest

resources and their management? ■ What

motivates private forest landowners to

manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

Southern Forest Resource Assessment Forces of Change ■15

The South’s timber production is forecast to increase by

56 percent for softwoods and 47 percent for hardwoods.

USDA Forest Service

which have generated debate about timber harvesting in the

South. Chip mills sometimes lead to harvesting in areas not

previously subject to harvesting. Before the 1990s, pulp mills

and manufactured wood panel mills relied heavily on remote

log concentration yards and maintained large chipping

facilities at the site of panel and pulp manufacture. Today

pulpwood-sized logs increasingly are chipped away from the

mill as needed. Per unit of volume, moving wood in chipped

form is cheaper than moving pulp logs, providing a significant

economic benefit to pulpwood consumers and log producers

(chapter 13). Harvesting in new areas also leads to changes

in local forest conditions that can change wildlife habitat and

landscape aesthetics (chapters 4 and 12). However, wood

products markets are highly integrated, so it is very difficult

to isolate the effects of this or any other technological

component from all other demand and supply factors.

Data on chip mill output are limited to recent years. Chip

mills processed about 27 percent of pulpwood in the South

in 1999. They produced 47 million green tons of chips in

1998, 45 million green tons in 1999, and 39 million green

tons in 2000. In 1999, 42 percent of the material processed

in chip mills was softwood and 58 percent was hardwood

(chapter 13).

Large chipping facilities have been supplemented by portable

chip mills, which involve cheaper transportation of materials.

USDA Forest Service
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are the

likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes

and values of southern residents toward

forests and their management, and how

have they changed over time, and do they

differ by demographic groups? ■ How do

current policies, regulations, and laws affect

forest resources and their management?

■ What motivates private forest landowners

to manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

■16 Forces of Change

Social Institutions

Primary Question (chapter 8):

How do current policies, regulations, and laws

affect forest resources and their management?

Related Question (chapter 22):

What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South?

Various social institutions organize people’s use of land and

resources and therefore affect the structure of forests. Laws

and regulations define objectives and prescribe administrative

procedures for management of public land. Laws passed by

various jurisdictions also influence management of private

forest land. Public programs administered through resource

management agencies can influence the management and

structure of the region’s forests.

We evaluated the influences of various social institutions on

forest uses and forestry decisions in the South. We analyzed

effects of taxes, land use regulations, government subsidies,

and forest management standards (chapter 8) and found that:

■ The current income tax code has mixed impacts on longterm investments in forestry; inheritance taxes can encourage

forest liquidation and land parcelization.

■ Incentives programs that subsidize tree planting on private

land have a long and successful history in the South. This

suggests that subsidies can increase forest area and change

forest conditions. New programs with explicit wildlife and

environmental objectives now complement the older programs

that focused exclusively on timber production.

■ In urbanizing areas, a proliferation of local regulations

affecting land use and forest management can be seen as one

reaction to forest losses and to increasing scarcity of green

space. Local regulations affecting forest uses more than

doubled in the South between 1992 and 2000. Expanding

populations and development will likely continue this trend.

Regulatory uncertainty can discourage long-term investments

in forest land.

■ While still influencing a relatively small portion of the

region, conservation easements and outright purchases of

important habitats are becoming increasingly common in the

South. This approach can be used to protect wildlife habitats at

broad scales on private landscapes.

■ Compared to the number of regulatory statutes that apply

to Federal and State land, relatively few are specifically directed

at managing private forests. In the vast majority of situations,

forestry is affected only when certain activities are feared to

have the potential to impair water quality, air quality, or critical

habitat for endangered species (chapter 8).
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are

the likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes and

values of southern residents toward forests

and their management, and how have they

changed over time, and do they differ by

demographic groups? ■ How do current

policies, regulations, and laws affect forest

resources and their management? ■ What

motivates private forest landowners to

manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

Southern Forest Resource Assessment Forces of Change ■17

■ Most forestry operations are exempted from the permit

requirements of Federal and State nonpoint-source pollution

programs. Although provisions exist to encourage operators to

meet voluntary BMPs and to bring polluters into compliance,

these rely more heavily on education and technical assistance

than on fines and penalties (chapter 8).

■ More often than not, implementation and enforcement

duties for Federal protective regulatory statutes have been

delegated to the States (chapter 8).

Mitigation of wildfire risk has contributed to a

positive environment for investments in forests.

USDA Forest Service

■ A combination of factors—including strong markets,

private ownership, good market information, and widespread

mitigation of wildfire risk—has generated a positive

environment for forest investment in the South. A strong

competitive advantage explains the large investments wood

products industries have made in forests and processing

capacity in the South (chapter 10). Investment opportunities

for intensive forest management and wood product

manufacture have improved relative to other regions of the

United States, especially over the last 15 years (chapter 15).
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are the

likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes

and values of southern residents toward

forests and their management, and how

have they changed over time, and do they

differ by demographic groups? ■ How do

current policies, regulations, and laws affect

forest resources and their management?

■ What motivates private forest landowners

to manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

■18 Forces of Change

Biological Factors

Primary Question (chapter 17):

How have biological agents including insects

and disease-causing organisms influenced the

overall health of the South’s forests, and how

will they likely affect it in the future?

Related Question (chapter 3):

What are the likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization, and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

Ecological systems are often restructured from within. For

example, natural succession favors the replacement of pioneer

species with shade-tolerant species. Insect populations can

shift from endemic to epidemic status and quickly kill a

substantial share of overstory trees. Plant diseases reduce vigor

or cause localized mortality and selectively remove certain

plant species from the forest. Regeneration and growth that

follow mortality can change the species composition of the

subsequent forest.

While pathogens, insects, and mortality are natural

components of forested ecosystems, land use and management

can alter their effects. Introduced nonnative species, which are

prevalent in the South, can completely displace native plant

and animal species, thereby restructuring forest ecosystems.

Cultivating tree species beyond their natural range and altering

forest composition can predispose forests to insect and disease

outbreaks. Conversely, management strategies and direct

intervention can mitigate the spread of and damage caused by

these outbreaks.

The Assessment evaluated the dynamics of several biological

agents that have had or will likely have a substantial impact on

forest ecosystems or the values that people derive from them

(chapter 17). We found that:

Mimosa is one of the nonnative species that

have escaped from home sites to nearby

forest ecosystems.

J. Miller
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are

the likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes and

values of southern residents toward forests

and their management, and how have they

changed over time, and do they differ by

demographic groups? ■ How do current

policies, regulations, and laws affect forest

resources and their management? ■ What

motivates private forest landowners to

manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

Southern Forest Resource Assessment Forces of Change ■19

1–5

6–10

11–15

16–20

21–25

Years

■ In general, the dynamics of native disease agents and

native insects are heavily influenced by the availability and

condition of host materials. For those disease agents and

insects that target pine species, the concentration of pine

forests in some subregions has increased the availability

and contiguity of host material (see fig. 11). Mortality

caused by insects and diseases, especially southern pine

beetle and fusiform rust, could increase commensurate

with the expected increase in pine plantations, but this

will depend on the degree of management.

■ Nonnative plants (trees, shrubs, and vines) and animals

(birds and mammals) are having large impacts on forested

ecosystems. Expanding urban areas will increase the impact

of domestic animals on wildlife (chapter 3).

■ Nonnative pathogens and insects generally have a greater

potential to restructure forested ecosystems, especially

hardwood forests, than do native species because natural

enemies of nonnative species are absent or control methods

are ineffective at broad scales.

■ The impacts of nonnative pests are expected to grow as a

conservation concern in the South. Multiple nonnative insects,

such as gypsy moths, and nonnative diseases such as dogwood

anthracnose, will especially influence hardwood forest types

in the northern portions of the region. An insect, the balsam

woolly adelgid, interacting with environmental stressors is

causing tree mortality and altering habitat values in the rare

spruce-fir ecosystem of the South.

Figure 11—Counties in outbreak status for southern pine beetle; a 40-year

summary (U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service 1999). Source:

Chapter 17, Figure 8.

Altering forest composition can predispose forests

to attacks by southern pine beetles and other

native insects and diseases.

K. Klepzig
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are the

likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes

and values of southern residents toward

forests and their management, and how

have they changed over time, and do they

differ by demographic groups? ■ How do

current policies, regulations, and laws affect

forest resources and their management?

■ What motivates private forest landowners

to manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

■20 Forces of Change

Physical Factors

Primary Question (chapter 18):

How have abiotic factors including environmental

stressors such as air pollution influenced the

overall health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be?

Southern forests have evolved under the influence of a

number of physical disturbances. Among the most important

is fire. Fire-adapted ecosystems are maintained by frequent,

low-intensity fires but may be substantially altered by intense

fires. The suppression of fire—an objective of public forestry

programs throughout much of the 20th century—has altered

these systems. The effective use of fire in forested ecosystems

is an ongoing challenge for forest managers as humans

continue to populate forested areas, and safety and

smoke management concerns restrict burning options.

Wind-related disturbances also influence forests in much

of the South. Hurricanes alter forest structure over large areas

of the Coastal Plain and Piedmont, and microbursts and

tornadoes create smaller openings throughout the region.

Ice storms limit the northern range of some tree species.

In addition, the growth, development, and species

composition of forests depend on the ambient environment.

Alterations to the environment, especially through air

pollutants such as atmospheric ozone, have the potential to

affect forest health and vigor. The natural geographic range

in which forest species occur and thrive can be influenced by

temperature and moisture regimes. Some model scenarios

forecast that potential climate changes could alter the ranges

of commercially and ecologically important species. There

are some ecotypes that may be especially sensitive to small

changes in climate and environment.

As humans continue to

populate forested area, safety

and smoke concerns restrict

use of prescribed burning as a

management tool.

L. Korhnack

Figure 12—Three month maximum daily ozone

exposure for 1990 showing spatial variability in

ozone concentrations. Source: Chapter 18, Figure 4.
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are

the likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes and

values of southern residents toward forests

and their management, and how have they

changed over time, and do they differ by

demographic groups? ■ How do current

policies, regulations, and laws affect forest

resources and their management? ■ What

motivates private forest landowners to

manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

Southern Forest Resource Assessment Forces of Change ■21

We examined trends and potential future conditions for

various physical stressors in the South (chapter 18). We

found that:

■ While effects are variable, acid deposition does not pose a

significant threat to forest vegetation or to stream chemistry

through a vast majority of the South. The major exception is

the Southern Appalachians where, because of soil conditions,

continued acid deposition derived from sulfur dioxide and the

oxides of nitrogen is expected to alter plant communities and

stream chemistry.

■ Ozone pollution is forecast to increase anywhere from 20 to

50 percent between 1990 and 2025, but concentrations are and

will continue to be highly variable across the South (fig. 12).

Ozone has reduced and will continue to reduce the growth

rates of pine species in the South, and future ozone damage

could be exacerbated by a warming climate.

■ Atmospheric carbon (CO2

) is expected to rise throughout

the 21st century, and current models forecast a resulting

increase in air temperatures. Overall, the moderate increases

that are projected would enhance the growth of trees in the

South. However, these models suggest that if temperatures

were to rise somewhat more than expected, then the area

and the productivity of forests would decline. These changes

are uncertain and could vary across the region.

The effects of acid deposition,

ozone, and carbon dioxide will vary

considerably across the region.

B. Lea

■ There is a high

degree of uncertainty

about the direction and

magnitude of forest

impacts from projected

climate changes due to

the importance of

interactions among

precipitation, air

temperature, and forest growth.

■ Various studies show that there could be a general increase

in the number and/or severity of extreme weather events with

climate change. However, we lack the knowledge to predict

with confidence the magnitudes of these changes.

B. Lea

Severe weather events like Hurricane Andrew, which

killed these slash pines in Florida, could intensify with

carbon dioxide-induced climate change.
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are the

likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes

and values of southern residents toward

forests and their management, and how

have they changed over time, and do they

differ by demographic groups? ■ How do

current policies, regulations, and laws affect

forest resources and their management?

■ What motivates private forest landowners

to manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

■22 Forces of Change

No data 27–32

1–8 33–39

9–20 40–50

21–26

■ Southern forests could play an important role in

sequestering atmospheric carbon (fig. 13), which could aid

in mitigating the negative effects of climate change.

■ Southern vegetation has long been associated with fire

regimes. As in other regions, fire suppression has altered

species composition and forest structure and elevated the risk

of catastrophic fire. Reestablishing historical fire regimes is an

important part of efforts to restore longleaf pine systems, but

other forest types—including Table Mountain pine, shortleaf

pine-bluestem, and various oak types—could also benefit from

effective reintroduction of fire. Increasing population densities

in rural areas and regulations limiting smoke emissions will

make these activities more complicated.

Interactions

The forces of change described above rarely act alone in their

influence on the South’s forests. Rather, they interact and often

have compounding effects. The population dynamics of insects

can be influenced by climatic factors. For example, drought is

linked to southern pine beetle outbreaks. Pollutants such as

ozone may worsen the damage caused by insects. Acid

deposition may cause tree species to be more susceptible to

drought, insects, and diseases. Land use changes may shift

forests toward developed uses. Increased human populations

bring greater potential for invasive and aggressive nonnative

plants and animals, which can

result in displacement or loss

of native species. Increased

scarcity of timberland results

in upward pressures on timber

prices and motivates

landowners to intensify their

management. Expanding pine

plantations may help mitigate

predicted increases in

atmospheric carbon dioxide.

Cogongrass is a nonnative grass

invading longleaf pine ecosystems.

J. Miller

Figure 13—Total aboveground carbon per acre in southern forests.

Source: Chapter 18, Figure 4.
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are

the likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes and

values of southern residents toward forests

and their management, and how have they

changed over time, and do they differ by

demographic groups? ■ How do current

policies, regulations, and laws affect forest

resources and their management? ■ What

motivates private forest landowners to

manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

Southern Forest Resource Assessment Social and Economic Systems ■23

Social and

Economic Systems

Uses of land and forests are linked to the economic structure

of the region. Benefits flow from the region’s forests in several

forms. Timber harvests provide the largest flow of cash

revenue from forests, but other benefits are also substantial.

Recreational uses of forests are highly valued, including the

direct consumption of recreational experiences and aesthetic

and spiritual values that people place on nature. Forests

protect soil integrity and water quality and provide terrestrial

habitats for much of the region’s flora and fauna. Thus,

forests are vital in many ways.

In this section we examine the South’s growing population

and changing demographic profile. We then examine two

direct sources of benefits flowing from southern forests, timber

products and recreation. We conclude with a discussion of

the broader influence of forests on quality of life and the

implications of anticipated changes on these functions.

Throughout, we focus both on how human activities influence

forests and how benefits are derived from forests.

Upper Creek Falls on the Pisgah B. Lea

National Forest in North Carolina.
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are the

likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes

and values of southern residents toward

forests and their management, and how

have they changed over time, and do they

differ by demographic groups? ■ How do

current policies, regulations, and laws affect

forest resources and their management?

■ What motivates private forest landowners

to manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

■24 Social and Economic Systems

300

250

200

150

100

50

0

1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

Assessment area United States

Population (milion)

Year

(A)

Change in percent

< -10

-9 – 0

1 – 10

11 – 20

21 – 50

> 50

N/A

(B)

Change in percent

< -10

-9 – 0

1 – 10

11 – 20

21 – 50

> 50

N/A

Social Context

Primary Question (chapter 7):

What are the attitudes and values of

southern residents toward forests and their

management, how have they changed

over time, and how do they differ

among demographic groups?

Related Question (chapter 9):

What motivates private forest landowners

to manage their forest land, and how are their

management objectives formed?

Figure 15—Percent changes in the density of

population for (A) 1950 to 1960, and (B) 1990

to 1999. Source: Chapter 6, Figures 9B and 9C.

Figure 14—Population for the United States and for the

13 States in the Assessment area from 1890 to 2000.

Source: Chapter 6, Figure 8.
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are

the likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes and

values of southern residents toward forests

and their management, and how have they

changed over time, and do they differ by

demographic groups? ■ How do current

policies, regulations, and laws affect forest

resources and their management? ■ What

motivates private forest landowners to

manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

Southern Forest Resource Assessment Social and Economic Systems ■25

< 0

0– 2

2– 10

> 10

The population of the United States roughly doubled between

the late 1950s and 2000, and the population of the South has

grown at an even faster rate (fig. 14). The South’s population

grew by 13.7 percent between 1990 and 2000, and the share of

the U.S. population living in the South grew from 30.7 percent

in 1990 to 32.5 percent in 2000. Much of this growth has been

focused in urban areas such as Atlanta and Miami and along

the eastern coastline. The population of the 13 Southern States

stood at 91,486,129 people on April 1, 2000.

Historical data show that population contracted in rural areas

and expanded in urban counties from the 1950s to the 1980s,

but growth was spread across nearly every county in the region

between 1990 and 2000 (fig. 15). As a result, even the

population density near rural forests has expanded and will

likely expand in the future. The very few areas experiencing

depopulation between 1990 and 2000 were in the most rural

areas of the South.

Along with economic growth have come changes in the

various attributes of the region’s population. The population

has continued to increase in racial and ethnic diversity (fig.

16). Mean incomes have increased since the 1980s, but much

of these gains have been concentrated in the urban areas,

Figure 16—Change in percent of nonwhite

residents in the South, 1980 to 1990. Source:

Chapter 7, Figure 18.

USDA Forest Service

Population and economic growth means

increases in racial and ethnic diversity.
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are the

likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes

and values of southern residents toward

forests and their management, and how

have they changed over time, and do they

differ by demographic groups? ■ How do

current policies, regulations, and laws affect

forest resources and their management?

■ What motivates private forest landowners

to manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

■26 Social and Economic Systems

< 0

0– 15

15– 30

> 30

Data unavailable

Poverty rate (percent)

25

20

15

10

5

0

Year

1969 1979 1989 1999

13.7

21.1

12.4

15.7

13.1

16.1

11.8

14.3

United States South

primarily in the eastern half of the region (fig. 17). Increases

in education levels followed the same spatial patterns. Poverty

rates have fallen in the recent past and are approaching U.S.

averages (fig. 18).

The population has become older in many parts of the

region. Compared to the national median age of 32.8 years,

Florida’s is 42. The population is expected to age in all States,

changing the demand for various services, but the increase in

median age will be especially large in retirement destinations

such as Florida and the Southern Appalachians. These

changes portend changes in the demands placed by resident

populations on forests for aesthetic and recreational uses.

Upward trends in population along with change in other

demographic variables reflect changes in the way southerners

Figure 17—Percent change in median household income (adjusted

by Consumer Price Index) in the South, 1980 to 1990. Source:

Chapter 7, Figure 21.

L. Korhnack

Increased median age means more demands on

the natural resources of Florida, the Southern

Appalachians, and other retirement destinations.

Figure 18—Poverty rates in the United States and in the

South, 1969 to 1999. Source: Chapter 10, Figure 4.
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are

the likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes and

values of southern residents toward forests

and their management, and how have they

changed over time, and do they differ by

demographic groups? ■ How do current

policies, regulations, and laws affect forest

resources and their management? ■ What

motivates private forest landowners to

manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

Southern Forest Resource Assessment Social and Economic Systems ■27

view and use forests (chapter 7). Especially in the urbanizing

areas of the South, there is an unambiguous trend toward

increasing scarcity of certain forest services in urban areas as

populations increase rapidly coincident with a decline in the

area of forests (especially large contiguous forests). Perhaps

reflecting this increasing scarcity, public values about forests

and their management have changed over the past two

decades. Survey-based studies show values have shifted from

a largely commodity-oriented, anthropocentric perspective

on forest management toward inclusion of natural biological

factors in a biocentric approach (chapter 7). Southern residents

generally favor additional funding of environmental protection.

Perhaps surprisingly, we found little significant differences

between the attitudes and values held by rural and urban

residents. However, young people had more biocentric views

than older people, placing more value on scenic beauty and

less on wood production (chapter 7).

Surveys of forest owners (chapter 9) and the public in general

(chapter 7) indicate that conservation ranks high as a value

with both sets of people, and recent changes in attitudes reflect

a growing concern for environmental quality in addition to

the commodity benefits that flow from forests. It is clear that

forests play both direct and indirect roles in determining

quality of life in the South.

People and Forests

Primary Question (chapter 6):

How have land uses changed in the South, and how

might changes in the future affect the area of forests?

Related Question (chapter 1):

What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types

and species in the South?

Conversion of forests to developed uses is associated with

population growth. Substantial population and income growth

is forecast for about a third of the region’s counties.

B. Lea

Population increases mean

more housing construction.
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are the

likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes

and values of southern residents toward

forests and their management, and how

have they changed over time, and do they

differ by demographic groups? ■ How do

current policies, regulations, and laws affect

forest resources and their management?

■ What motivates private forest landowners

to manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

■28 Social and Economic Systems

Change in percent

-5. – -.5

- .5 – .5

.5 – 5.0

5. – 10.0

> 10.0

Percent

0 – 20

21 – 40

41 – 60

61 – 80

81 – 100

Urbanization will be concentrated in three large areas: the

Southern Appalachian Piedmont stretching from Raleigh/

Durham, NC, through Atlanta, GA; the Atlantic Coast from

the Carolinas through Florida, and a portion of the gulf

coast centered on Mobile Bay. Other centers of expanding

urbanization are around Nashville, TN, and Knoxville, TN,

and in northern and eastern Virginia (fig. 19).

Many developed areas of the South still retain much forest

cover. However, these forests are becoming fragmented,

suggesting that they do not have the potential to provide the

same ecological and economic values as forests in a rural

setting. One way to gauge fragmentation is to examine the

share of land in interior or unfragmented forest (that is, a

forest area that is completely surrounded by other forest areas).

A measure of forest cover developed from satellite imagery

shows that interior forest is especially scarce in the developing

areas mentioned above (chapter 6) (fig. 20).

The influence of urban areas on forests extends outward

into surrounding rural areas. Areas influenced by urban

development will likely experience growing human

populations and changes in the values and uses of forests.

For example, forest services such as recreation and

microclimate moderation may become more highly valued

in an urbanizing area. Timber management, on the other hand,

is generally inversely correlated with population density.

Timber harvesting near urban areas will likely decrease

Figure 19—Forecast changes in percent under the base

scenario of urban land use by county for 1992 to 2020.

Source: Chapter 6, Figure 13B.

Figure 20—Shares of areas in counties classified as

interior forest at a fine scale (7-ha neighborhood).

Source: Chapter 6, Figure 18A.
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are

the likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes and

values of southern residents toward forests

and their management, and how have they

changed over time, and do they differ by

demographic groups? ■ How do current

policies, regulations, and laws affect forest

resources and their management? ■ What

motivates private forest landowners to

manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

Southern Forest Resource Assessment Social and Economic Systems ■29

0 – 50

51 – 100

101 – 250

251 – 500

501 – 1,000

> 1,000

-28 – 52

52 – 170

170 – 384

384 – 732

732 – 1,198

substantially after the harvests associated with land

clearing and conversions (chapter 6).

One measure of human presence in the vicinity of forests

is forest population density (FPD), which is the number of

people per square mile (ppsm) of forest within a county. The

index ranges from about 20 ppsm in very rural areas of the

South to more than 1,000 in urbanized areas (we consider

1,000 ppsm a “saturated” condition). Figure 21 shows that,

as expected, FPD is highest in the vicinity of large cities.

Florida has the highest concentration of these saturated

areas, reflecting a very high population density through

much of its peninsula and low forest cover in the southern

half of the State. Three other areas along interstate highway

corridors had high FPD values in 1992: the I-85 corridor from

Raleigh/Durham, NC, to Atlanta, GA, the I-65 corridor from

Birmingham, AL, to Nashville, TN, and the I-81 corridor from

Chattanooga, TN, to Wytheville, VA. At the periphery of the

region in northern Kentucky and Virginia and along the gulf

coast, FPDs were also relatively high in 1992.

Forecasts of changes in FPDs from 1992 to 2020 indicate

continued outward growth of the urban centers of the South.

Figure 22 shows a characteristic “doughnut” pattern of growth

in FPD around Atlanta, GA, Nashville, TN, and Charlotte,

NC. Expansion in FPD is also forecast to be concentrated in

Atlantic Coastal areas of South Carolina and Florida and along

the Gulf coast. A similar pattern is also evident around the

concentration of public land in the Southern Appalachians.

Figure 21—Forest population density index (FPD) in people

per square mile of forest by county for 1992. Source:

Chapter 6, Figure 15A.

Figure 22—Forest population density index (FPD) in change

in FPD for 1992 to 2020. Source: Chapter 6, Figure 15B.
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are the

likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes

and values of southern residents toward

forests and their management, and how

have they changed over time, and do they

differ by demographic groups? ■ How do

current policies, regulations, and laws affect

forest resources and their management?

■ What motivates private forest landowners

to manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

■30 Social and Economic Systems

Wood Products

Primary Question (chapter 13):

What are the history, status, and projected

future demands for and supplies of wood

products in the South?

Related Questions (chapters 14 and 15):

What are the status and trends of forest management

practices in the South? How might existing and new

technologies influence forest operations and the

resultant conditions of forests?

Timber harvesting and wood-products manufacture yield

the largest direct revenue from forests in the South. Timber

produces a large share of land-based revenues in rural areas

and influences forest conditions. Timber harvesting changes

the structure of forests, but strong timber markets have also

encouraged landowners to keep land in forest cover, to convert

agricultural land to forest uses, and to otherwise invest in

silvicultural activities.

Since the 1960s, the consumption of wood products has

steadily expanded in the United States, and timber production

from western U.S. regions has declined. As a result, the South

now produces nearly 60 percent of the Nation’s wood output

since the 1990s. The South produces a highly diverse

complement of forest products. Both hardwoods and softwoods

are used for lumber, plywood, composite boards, poles, paper,

and other products (chapter 13).

Timber harvesting and management for timber production

are prevalent in all parts of the region, but especially on the

Atlantic Coastal Plain from South Carolina to northern Florida

and the Gulf of Mexico Coastal Plain from northern Florida

to eastern Texas. Recent developments in the wood products

industries have resulted in a shift outward from the Coastal

Plain to more western and northern parts of the region.

These shifts are explained by overall increases in wood

products demand but also by changes in wood products

technologies, which allow for the utilization of lower

Strong timber markets have encouraged

owners to return their land to forest.

B. Lea
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are

the likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes and

values of southern residents toward forests

and their management, and how have they

changed over time, and do they differ by

demographic groups? ■ How do current

policies, regulations, and laws affect forest

resources and their management? ■ What

motivates private forest landowners to

manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

Southern Forest Resource Assessment Social and Economic Systems ■31

quality and smaller sized timber, particularly hardwood

timber (see “Timber Markets” following).

Across the South, wood products industries have provided

large shares of employment and income. In 1997, the most

recent year for which complete data are available, timber

harvests led to more than 700,000 jobs in the wood products

sector and yielded more than $118 billion in total industry

output. The total impacts of activities in the wood products

sector were about 2.2 million jobs and $251 billion of total

industry output in 1997 (this includes indirect and induced

jobs and income). These totals represent 5.5 percent of jobs

and 7.5 percent of total industry output in the South (chapter

10). In addition:

■ Forests are important in the local and regional economies

of the South. The overall southern economy has grown since

1969, with total jobs increasing consistent with increases in

population in the national economy. This new economy is

less dominated by manufacturing and agriculture. Timber and

agriculture, the two major uses of rural southern land still

contribute over 6 percent to the southern economy.

■ The U.S. wood products industry continues to concentrate

in the South, which had 39.3 percent of U.S. wood products

jobs in 1997. The percentage of State-level jobs and income

in wood products declined between 1969 and 1997, yet

actual numbers have remained fairly constant.

Red and white oak air-drying for 90 to 120 days.

Timber and agriculture still contribute over

6 percent to the southern economy.

B. Lea

USDA Forest Service
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are the

likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes

and values of southern residents toward

forests and their management, and how

have they changed over time, and do they

differ by demographic groups? ■ How do

current policies, regulations, and laws affect

forest resources and their management?

■ What motivates private forest landowners

to manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

■32 Social and Economic Systems

Change in percent

-50 – 6

6 – 66

66 – 146

146 – 258

258 – 453

Inventory (billion cubic feet) 140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0

Year

1995200020052010201520202025203020352040 10

8

6

4

2

0

Growth and removals (billion cubic feet)

Inventory

Growth

Removals

Forecasts indicate continued expansion in timber harvests

between 1995 and 2040. Increased demands for southern

wood products will influence not only the amount of timber

harvested but also the location of harvesting. We examined

forecasts of timber harvesting and found (chapter 13):

■ Softwood and hardwood harvests are forecast to increase

by 56 and 47 percent, respectively, between 1995 and 2040.

■ Production of softwoods is currently concentrated on the

Coastal Plain and, to a somewhat lesser extent, in the

Piedmont. Softwood production in this core area is forecast

to increase somewhat over the next 50 years. Softwood

production is also forecast to increase to the north and west

of this core area, in central and western Tennessee, Oklahoma,

northern Arkansas, Kentucky, and western Virginia. In these

areas, softwood harvests are forecasted to increase by more

than 25 percent (fig. 23).

■ Declines in softwood harvests are forecast for northern

Georgia and for an area that includes portions of Louisiana,

eastern Texas, and northern Mississippi.

■ While regional softwood harvests are forecast to increase

substantially, the volume of softwood inventory would

also increase over the next 50 years (fig. 24). Strong and

relatively stable markets for wood products would encourage

landowners to continue to invest in growing timber. As a

result, the area of pine plantations in the South is forecast

to increase by more than 60 percent between 1995 and 2040

to 54 million acres. These pine plantations are forecast to be

Figure 24—Subregional Timber Supply Model projections

of softwood timber growth and removals volumes on private

timberland in the South, 1995 to 2040. Source: Chapter 13,

Figure 21A.

Figure 23—Forecast percent change in annual softwood

harvest levels, 1995 to 2040. Source: Chapter 13, figure 22A.
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are

the likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes and

values of southern residents toward forests

and their management, and how have they

changed over time, and do they differ by

demographic groups? ■ How do current

policies, regulations, and laws affect forest

resources and their management? ■ What

motivates private forest landowners to

manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

Southern Forest Resource Assessment Social and Economic Systems ■33

1995

2020

2040

Virginia

Pine plantation area (thousand acres)

10,000

8,000

6,000

4,000

2,000

0

Alabama

Arkansas

Florida

Georgia

Kentucky

Louisiana

Mississippi

North Carolina

Oklahoma

South Carolina

Tennessee

Texas

State

Cubic feet (billion)

16

14

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

Year

1995 2005 2015 2025 2035 2040

AL

AR

FL

GA

KY

LA

MS

NC

OK

SC

TN

TX

VA

to experience large increases in softwood inventories (fig. 26).

Louisiana is forecast to be the only State with a decline in

softwood inventory (decline of 6 percent between 1995 and

2040). All other Southern States are forecast to experience at

least a small increase in softwood inventories, indicating that

net growth exceeds removals throughout the forecast period.

■ Hardwood harvests are forecast to increase the most in

regions with large hardwood inventories. Expanding hardwood

harvests would be concentrated in a large contiguous area

stretching from northern Alabama and Georgia to the northern

boundary of the Assessment area. This area includes all of

Figure 25—Pine plantation area by State on

private land in the South for 1995, 2020, and

2040. Source: Chapter 13, Figure 18.

managed with a range of intensities, practices, and rotation

lengths in response to differing owner objectives.

■ Four States—Georgia, Alabama, Florida, and Mississippi—

currently contain and are forecast to contain more than 50

percent of the area of pine plantations (fig. 25).

■ Forecast changes in softwood inventories vary by State.

Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, and North Carolina are forecast

Figure 26—Softwood inventory by State, 1995 to 2040.
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are the

likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes

and values of southern residents toward

forests and their management, and how

have they changed over time, and do they

differ by demographic groups? ■ How do

current policies, regulations, and laws affect

forest resources and their management?

■ What motivates private forest landowners

to manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

■34 Social and Economic Systems

Change in percent

-27 – 0

1 – 95

95 – 198

198 – 299

299 – 2,123

Inventory

Growth

Removals

Inventory (billion cubic feet) 200

160

120

80

40

0

Year

1995200020052010201520202025203020352040 5

4

3

2

1

0

Growth and removals (billion cubic feet)

Figure 28—Subregional Timber Supply Model projections

of hardwood timber growth and removals volumes on

private timberland in the South, 1995 to 2040. Source:

Chapter 13, Figure 22A.

With 40 percent of all hardwood lumber going

into the manufacture of pallets, recycling has

become a priority for many companies.

Kentucky, the central and western portions of Tennessee,

western North Carolina, and northern and western Virginia.

Harvests are also forecast to expand in northern Arkansas

(fig. 27).

■ With hardwoods, the rate of removals is forecast to gradually

approach the rate of growth between 2020 and 2025. As a

result, hardwood inventory is forecast to peak in 2025 and

then to decline between 2025 and 2040. Inventory in 2040 is

still forecast to be somewhat higher than current inventory

(fig. 28). Forecasts of hardwood inventories vary by State.

Kentucky, Oklahoma, and Tennessee show increases

throughout the forecast period, indicating that net growth

exceeds removals throughout the period. Mississippi and South

Carolina show inventories declining for nearly the entire

forecast period, indicating that removals exceed net growth

Figure 27—Forecast percent change in annual hardwood harvest

levels, 1995 to 2040. Source: Chapter 13, Figure 24A..

USDA Forest Service
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are

the likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes and

values of southern residents toward forests

and their management, and how have they

changed over time, and do they differ by

demographic groups? ■ How do current

policies, regulations, and laws affect forest

resources and their management? ■ What

motivates private forest landowners to

manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

Southern Forest Resource Assessment Social and Economic Systems ■35 Cubic feet (billion)

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

1995 2005 2015 2025 2035 2040

Year

AL

AR

FL

GA

KY

LA

MS

NC

OK

SC

TN

TX

VA

from the late 1990s forward. Georgia, Texas, and North

Carolina have hardwood inventories peaking between 2007

and 2018, and then begin to decline. The remaining States are

forecast to accumulate volume until sometime between 2021

and 2031, at which point removals begin to exceed net growth

and hardwood inventories begin to decline (fig. 29).

■ Real prices for hardwood and softwood products (i.e., after

accounting for inflation) are forecast to increase between 2000

and 2040. While investment in softwood forests has been a

demonstrated response to increasing softwood prices, major

investments in hardwood production have not yet occurred in

the South. However, the feasibility of short-rotation hardwood

management has been demonstrated and could conceivably

reduce these price increases and reverse inventory declines.

Figure 29—Hardwood inventory by State,

1995 to 2040.

Recreation

Primary Question (chapter 11):

What are the supplies of and demands for

forest-based recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South?

Related Question (chapter 10):

What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South?

Southern forests are the settings for a wide variety of

recreation activities. We examined recreation use, the

influence of population growth and change on recreation

demand, and changes in recreation supply (chapter 11).

B. Lea Photographing nature has grown more

rapidly than other recreational activities.
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are the

likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes

and values of southern residents toward

forests and their management, and how

have they changed over time, and do they

differ by demographic groups? ■ How do

current policies, regulations, and laws affect

forest resources and their management?

■ What motivates private forest landowners

to manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South? ■36 Social and Economic Systems

Driven by a growing population and changes in demographic

characteristics such as income and median age, participation

in outdoor recreation of all types has increased in the South.

Some activities, including viewing and photographing nature,

gathering various forest products, and certain forms of boating

have grown more rapidly than others. The most popular

outdoor recreation activities among southerners tend to be the

least expensive and include walking for pleasure, attending

family gatherings, picnicking, and visiting historic sites. Next

in popularity are activities such as viewing and photographing

wildlife, fishing, gathering forest products, hiking, hunting,

and biking, which require somewhat more financial outlay. In

general, the popularity of the activity is inversely related to the

cost of participation. Among the various classes of recreational

activities, those focused on viewing, learning, and

photographing in natural areas have been expanding the most

rapidly (chapter 11).

The patterns of recreation participation among southerners

are very similar to averages for the United States as a whole.

However, with the exception of water-based activities, the

level of participation in the South is lower.

In addition to the growth in largely nonconsumptive

recreation activities, recreation focused on the harvest of

various nontimber products has also grown. A recent survey

showed that 31 percent of respondents in the South

Fishing in the Southern Appalachians.

B. Lea

B. Lea

Bird watching in Coastal Carolina.
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are

the likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes and

values of southern residents toward forests

and their management, and how have they

changed over time, and do they differ by

demographic groups? ■ How do current

policies, regulations, and laws affect forest

resources and their management? ■ What

motivates private forest landowners to

manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

Southern Forest Resource Assessment Social and Economic Systems ■37

participated in some form of this activity. Products included

firewood, rocks and minerals, berries, mushrooms, herbs,

flowers and other decorative plant materials, and several

other minor products (chapter 11). A small percentage

of people (2 percent) indicated that they collected forest

products for income; 96 percent collected for personal uses.

Fifty-four percent collected in a forest setting. Based on

the income distribution of respondents who participated,

it appears that only a small portion engaged in gathering

as a subsistence activity (chapter 11).

Recreation and tourism, including that derived from forested

settings, is a source of employment and income in the South,

although data are not available for isolating the effects of

forest-based recreation.

■ In 1997 outdoor recreation-based tourism contributed

between 0.64 and 2.88 percent of southern jobs and between

0.51 and 2.51 percent of the South’s gross regional product.

Public lands represented 56 percent of this contribution

(chapter 10).

■ Tourism-related industries are increasing in the South

but are not becoming more concentrated. The percentage

of State-level jobs and income in the tourism-related sectors

has increased in all 13 States, as have the actual numbers of

jobs and amount of income (chapter 10).

Ramp harvesting is part of the culture

in rural mountain communities.

Boating in the Ozarks. B. Lea

D. White
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are the

likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes

and values of southern residents toward

forests and their management, and how

have they changed over time, and do they

differ by demographic groups? ■ How do

current policies, regulations, and laws affect

forest resources and their management?

■ What motivates private forest landowners

to manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

■38 Social and Economic Systems

Forest-based recreation is largely concentrated on relatively

scarce public land. Because only 4.6 percent of Federal land

and 12 percent of State park and forest lands are in the South,

which has about 33 percent of the Nation’s population,

recreation pressures on public land are substantial. For

example, U.S. national forests in the Southern Region are the

second most heavily used of the nine USDA Forest Service

regions, with visits of 1.9 per acre (chapter 10). Only 7 percent

of private land held by individuals is open to free access by any

member of the public, and the trend is toward decreasing

access to private land (chapter 11).

Increased demand for outdoor recreation will therefore likely

be placed on public lands. The ability to provide these kinds

of uses will be constrained by Federal budgets and by the

mandates of the various Federal agencies. For example,

national parks are managed with a mandate to protect

natural, historic, and cultural areas, and management of

wildlife refuges must focus first on wildlife conservation.

■ Private land ownerships, combined with divergent owner

objectives, appear to constrain the growth potential of forestbased recreation opportunities in the South. There is a trend

toward increasing scarcity of recreational opportunities

(chapter 11).

Recreation user groups, such as bird

watchers and bicyclists, are beginning to

compete for access to limited public land.

Recreation areas on public land will likely be increasingly

congested, and competition between various recreation user

groups for limited area is forecast to increase based on forecast

population growth. Competition may be greatest between

nature-viewing activities, such as birdwatching and nature

photography, and technology-based activities, such as

mountain biking and other forms of mechanical trail use.

■ As recreation congestion increases, the costs imposed on

owners of private tracts may increase. This could lead to more

B. Lea
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are

the likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes and

values of southern residents toward forests

and their management, and how have they

changed over time, and do they differ by

demographic groups? ■ How do current

policies, regulations, and laws affect forest

resources and their management? ■ What

motivates private forest landowners to

manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

Southern Forest Resource Assessment Social and Economic Systems ■39

Negligible

Light

Moderate

Moderately heavy

Heavy

restricted uses of private land, thereby shrinking supply

and increasing congestion even further.

■ Furthermore, competition between recreation types

indicates that investment to support one type of recreation

activity may diminish opportunities for other types. Because

public land is so scarce, tradeoffs between recreation

opportunities are critical issues for forest managers.

Another important outcome of recreation congestion is the

potential for damage to the productive and protective capacity

of forest ecosystems. Recreation can damage soils through

compaction, pollute water, damage and alter vegetative cover,

and influence native wildlife populations. While a complete

assessment of existing or potential damage has not been

conducted, increased damages are expected in the recreation

“hot spots” identified in fig. 30. In these areas, heavy recreation

pressures on forest resources are anticipated (chapter 11).

Increasing recreation participation rates combined with

population growth and decreased forest area adjacent to urban

areas portend substantial challenges for public forest managers.

These include addressing user competition and mitigating

recreation-related environmental damages.

Figure 30—Hotspots of recreation demand

pressure on forests, Southern States, 2000.

Source: Chapter 11, Figure 1.

Throughout the South are recreation

”hot spots” where heavy pressures on

forest resources are anticipated. B. Lea
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are the

likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes

and values of southern residents toward

forests and their management, and how

have they changed over time, and do they

differ by demographic groups? ■ How do

current policies, regulations, and laws affect

forest resources and their management?

■ What motivates private forest landowners

to manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

■40 Social and Economic Systems

Quality of Life

Primary Question (chapter 12):

How do forests and their uses influence

the quality of life in the South?

Related Question (chapter 10):

What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South?

Quality of life depends on a multitude of factors. These

factors can be placed in three categories: (1) economic wellbeing, (2) social well-being, and (3) environmental quality.

Land use and forest conditions can have a bearing on the

quality of life in local areas (chapter 12).

Economic well-being is generally defined as the production

of wealth, which allows for the purchase of goods and services.

Forests produce wealth in several ways. Timber harvests

generate income and a return to investments in land and forest

management. Employment and returns to capital accrue as

primary wood manufacturers convert raw timber products into

intermediate products such as pulp, paper, and lumber.

Secondary wood products industries such as furniture

manufacturing, which utilize these intermediate products, also

generate employment, income, and returns to capital

investments. Additionally, forests provide settings for outdoor

recreation that can produce wealth for local areas.

The production of wealth is important, but it provides an

incomplete assessment of the contribution of forests to the

quality of life in a region. Another element is social well-being,

which is generally measured in terms of the social conditions

and services found in a region. Examples include crime

prevention, education, and access to health services. Forest

cover and even uses do not cause these conditions. However,

correlations between these conditions and social indicators can

provide insights into the social context of places influenced by

forest uses. A comparison of social and economic conditions

with the share of wood products and recreation and tourism

employment found:

Nantahala National Forest

in North Carolina.

B. Lea
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are

the likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes and

values of southern residents toward forests

and their management, and how have they

changed over time, and do they differ by

demographic groups? ■ How do current

policies, regulations, and laws affect forest

resources and their management? ■ What

motivates private forest landowners to

manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

Southern Forest Resource Assessment Social and Economic Systems ■41

■ The forest products industry was located in areas where

economic opportunities and diversity were limited.

■ The forest products industry provided good paying jobs

in areas where other economic opportunities were limited.

On average, wages in this industry ranged from marginally

higher (in the primary and secondary wood products sectors)

to much higher than typical wages (that is, average wages in

nonforest product industrial sectors).

■ Through export of wood products to other regions, the

forest products industry contributed to local economies by

bringing in income which then circulated through economies

via the purchase of locally provided goods and services. In

areas where employment in the wood products industry

comprised at least 10 percent of local employment, the

industry contributed more than half of the jobs in the

economic base.

In many areas, wood processing

jobs are among the best paying.

■ Concentrations of employment in the forest-related

recreation and tourism sector were associated with better

economic conditions in rural areas of the South—that is,

were correlated with an increase in median household income

and with a decline in unemployment and poverty rates.

Another element of quality of life is environmental quality,

or the set of services derived from local settings. Several

nonmarket benefits are associated with forests and forest uses,

such as high-quality water and natural settings. Precise

measurement of the value of nonmarket benefits is very

Forest-related recreation is associated

with higher median household income

and lower unemployment rates.

B. Lea

B. Lea
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are the

likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes

and values of southern residents toward

forests and their management, and how

have they changed over time, and do they

differ by demographic groups? ■ How do

current policies, regulations, and laws affect

forest resources and their management?

■ What motivates private forest landowners

to manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

■42 Social and Economic Systems

difficult, but a valuation of these benefits is reflected in

the willingness of some rural residents to live in a particular

locale irrespective of wages. Environmental quality appears

to play an especially important role in selection of a residence

by retirees. We examined the conditions of forests in counties

that depend on primary wood products and found

(chapter 12):

■ Forests in areas with high concentrations of wood products

manufacturing show greater influence of management. They

have higher concentrations of plantation acreage, younger

pine forests (high pine growth relative to standing inventory),

and greater timber harvest intensity in hardwood forest

(greater removals relative to standing inventory).

■ Nonmarket benefits associated with “naturalness of forests”

may, therefore, be lower in areas dominated by the wood

products industries, while marketed benefits and employment

and income associated with wood products are higher as

described above.

People choose where to live based on a bundle of attributes

related to each location. These include elements of economic

and social well-being and environmental amenities, as well

as other variables not described here. Living in a forested

rural county with little timber management activity may

indeed reflect a preference for natural forest conditions.

Living in urban areas or heavily managed rural areas reflects

yet other preferences.

Harvesting in a new area can therefore have multiple effects

on local populations. Some benefit from direct and indirect

employment and income. Others may lose certain non-income

benefits they derive from an unmanaged forest landscape.

Thus, we would expect that the emergence of timber

production in new areas would lead to debate over appropriate

forest uses (see chapter 13 for detailed timber harvest

forecasts). This factor, combined with timber harvest forecasts

indicate that such debates may occur in parts of the Piedmont

areas of North Carolina and in central Tennessee, Kentucky,

and parts of Virginia. We see evidence of this in recent debates

over chip mills in these States.

These same types of impacts on quality of life also arise

because of urban development. Therefore, where development

and increased timber production converge, their impacts and

ensuing conflicts may be compounding. For example, places

like the Piedmont would appear to be experiencing substantial

change in quality of life through rapid urbanization and

population growth.
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are

the likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes and

values of southern residents toward forests

and their management, and how have they

changed over time, and do they differ by

demographic groups? ■ How do current

policies, regulations, and laws affect forest

resources and their management? ■ What

motivates private forest landowners to

manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

Southern Forest Resource Assessment Forest Area and Conditions ■43

Forest Area

and Conditions

In this section we examine trends in forest area and

conditions as measured by surveys conducted by the Forest

Inventory and Analysis (FIA) Program of the USDA Forest

Service. In the past these have been periodic surveys,

conducted every 5 to 10 years. Accordingly, totals for the

South are based on data from State surveys taken in different

years, and current conditions are estimated from the most

recent surveys. While some of the data are somewhat dated,

these are the best and only comparable data available for

measuring forest conditions at this level of detail and scale.

New survey procedures are being implemented to provide

annual updates of forest conditions, but such data were not

available for this report. We also examine forecasts for some

measures of forest condition.

Forest Area and Ownership

Primary Question (chapter 16):

What are the history, status, and projected

future of southern forests?

Related Question (chapter 9):

What motivates private forest landowners

to manage their forest land, and how are their

management objectives formed?

Based on the most recent FIA estimates, the South has more

than 214 million acres of forest land. This area of forest is 60

percent of the area of what was likely present in 1630, and 91

percent of what was likely present in 1907 (fig. 31). Since the

1970s, the total area of forest land has remained relatively

stable; 218 million acres were present in 1982, and 212 million

acres in 1992 (chapter 16).

Since the 1930s, the USDA Forest

Service, Southern Research Station’s

Forest Inventory and Analysis Unit

has provided the best data of forest

conditions through periodic inventories

of the 13 Southern States.

USDA Forest Service
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are the

likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes

and values of southern residents toward

forests and their management, and how

have they changed over time, and do they

differ by demographic groups? ■ How do

current policies, regulations, and laws affect

forest resources and their management?

■ What motivates private forest landowners

to manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

■44 Forest Area and Conditions

400

350

300

250

200

150

100

50

0

1630 1907 1938 1953 1963 1982 1989 1999

Year

Acres (million)

Forest industry

20% Nonindustrial private

69%

Other public

5%

National forest

6%

200 million acres

Ninety-three percent of the South’s forest land is classified as

timberland by FIA. While not necessarily managed for timber

products, this land has enough physical productivity to make

timber production plausible. Also, timberland does not include

public lands withdrawn from potential timber harvesting, such

as designated wilderness areas. At 201 million acres, the area

of timberland has been essentially stable since 1982 when it

was 198 million acres. Many of the variables used by FIA to

describe the characteristics of forests are recorded only for

timberland, and detailed data on forests prior to the 1950s are

generally unavailable. Accordingly, much of our description

of forests is limited to the timberland portion of the South’s

forest area since the early 1950s.

The stability in total area of timberland is the result of

considerable area changing both into and out of forest cover.

FIA records indicate that, over the past 20 years, as much as

2 to 3 million acres per year have experienced a change either

from forest to nonforest or vice versa. These changes have been

Figure 31—Forest area by year, Southern

United States. Source: Chapter 16, Figure 1.

focused in different parts of the region, with recent losses

prevailing in Florida and Louisiana and gains prevailing in

Alabama, Arkansas, Mississippi, and Kentucky. Between the

1950s and 1990s, Florida had by far the greatest loss of

timberland (3.5 million acres or about 19 percent) while

Mississippi had the greatest gain (1.7 million acres or about

10 percent). Both Florida and Louisiana have experienced

continuous forest loss over the past 50 years.

Timberland is held by a diverse group of owners in the South

(fig. 32). Currently, about 11 percent (21.4 million acres) is

controlled by various government agencies. The USDA Forest

Service manages more than half of this public timberland. The

remaining 89 percent of timberland is privately owned. Based

on data for all Southern States except Kentucky (Kentucky’s

data were not classified in this way), about 22 percent of

private timberland is owned by the forest industry, 21 percent

by farmers, 12 percent by other corporations, and 45 percent

by other individuals.

Figure 32—Distribution of timberland by owner class,

Southern United States, 1999.
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are

the likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes and

values of southern residents toward forests

and their management, and how have they

changed over time, and do they differ by

demographic groups? ■ How do current

policies, regulations, and laws affect forest

resources and their management? ■ What

motivates private forest landowners to

manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

Southern Forest Resource Assessment Forest Area and Conditions ■45

180

160

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0

National forest Other public Forest industry Nonindustrial

private

Ownership class

Acres (million)

1953 1963 1982 1989 1999

Ownership distribution is dynamic (fig. 33). For example,

the area of timberland owned by forest industry declined by

about 1 million acres between the 1980s and 1990s. However,

this decline was more than offset by about a 4-million-acre

increase in ownership by other corporations. Many of these

corporate owners—including Timber Investment Management

Organizations or TIMOs—practice a forest management style

similar to forest industry so that the net environmental and

timber supply implications of a shift from forest industry

to TIMO ownership may be minimal (chapter 14). Forest

industry’s holdings also shifted westward during this period,

with substantial reductions in Florida (681,000 acres)

and Georgia (583,000 acres) accompanied by increases in

Alabama (591,000 acres), Arkansas (239,000 acres), and

Mississippi (209,000 acres). In the 1990s, some of the

highest concentrations of industrial ownership were still

in the Coastal Plain of Georgia and northern Florida.

The most substantial reduction in forest ownership since the

1950s has been in the farmer-owner category. The amount of

timberland held by farmers has declined from 88 million to

35 million acres. Private individuals who do not farm hold

an increasing share.

Between 1978 and 1993 the number of forest landowners

increased by 12 percent in the South and stood at 4.9 million

in 1993. Of these, 84 percent owned tracts smaller than 50

acres. Indications are that this trend continued through the

1990s. The implication is that an increasing share of southern

forests is held in smaller parcels (chapter 9).

Figure 33—Timberland area by ownership class and year,

Southern United States. Source: Chapter 16, Figure 6.

USDA Forest Service

Private forest ownership has declined the most among farmers,

who hold 21 percent, compared to 45 percent for individuals, 22

percent for forest industry, and 12 percent for other corporations.
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are the

likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes

and values of southern residents toward

forests and their management, and how

have they changed over time, and do they

differ by demographic groups? ■ How do

current policies, regulations, and laws affect

forest resources and their management?

■ What motivates private forest landowners

to manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

■46 Forest Area and Conditions

Broad Forest Types

Primary Question (chapter 16):

What are the history, status, and projected

future of southern forests?

Related Question (chapter 13):

What are the history, status, and projected

future demands for and supplies of wood

products in the South?

While the total area of timberland in the South has remained

relatively stable, forest types have changed (fig. 34). Five broad

categories of forest types are recognized by FIA: upland

hardwoods (including oak-hickory and beech-birch-maple),

lowland hardwoods (including oak-gum-cypress), natural

pines (including longleaf, slash, shortleaf, and loblolly not

established by planting), planted pines (all species), and mixed

oak-pine. Pine forest types have experienced the most change.

The area of natural pine has declined from about 72 million

acres in 1953 to about 33 million acres in 1999. Planted pine

has increased from about 2 million acres in 1953 to more than

30 million acres in 1999. Upland hardwoods have increased

somewhat between 1953 and 1999. Lowland-hardwood areas

declined somewhat between 1962 and 1970 but have been

essentially stable since the 1970s.

Changes in broad forest types are brought about by forest

succession and by forest management. Data for the 1980s and

1990s show that 28 percent (3.3 million acres) of new pine

plantations came from forest that was previously natural pine.

Forty-seven percent (5.7 million acres) was derived from

hardwood and oak-pine forest types, and another 25 percent

(3 million acres) was derived from agricultural land. Over this

same period, 9.2 million acres of natural pine were reclassified

as hardwood and natural oak-pine types, reflecting a natural

USDA Forest Service

In contrast to naturally regenerated pines, which have

declined by more than half since 1953, planted pines

have increased from 2 million to 30 million acres.
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are

the likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes and

values of southern residents toward forests

and their management, and how have they

changed over time, and do they differ by

demographic groups? ■ How do current

policies, regulations, and laws affect forest

resources and their management? ■ What

motivates private forest landowners to

manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

Southern Forest Resource Assessment Forest Area and Conditions ■47

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

Year

Acres (million)

Planted pine Oak–pine Lowland hardwood

Natural pine Upland hardwood

Management type (million acres)

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Year

1995200020052010201520202025203020352040

Total timberland (million acres)

200

150

100

50

0

Upland hardwood

Planted pine

Natural pine

Lowland hardwood

Mixed pine

Total timberland

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Acres (million)

Planted

pine

Natural

pine

Mixed

oak-pine

Upland

hardwood

Lowland

hardwood

Agriculture

1995 2020 2040

succession from pine species to more shade-tolerant species

such as oaks and hickories, or harvesting of the pine

component from these forests.

Upland hardwood acreage has been gradually increasing

since the 1950s. Between the 1980s and the 1990s, 3.4 million

acres of natural pine types shifted to upland hardwood. At the

same time, 5.9 million acres of upland hardwood types were

reclassified as natural pine and oak-pine types. Hardwood

forest types experienced the greatest amount of conversion

(2.2 million acres) to nonforest uses over this period.

Lowland hardwood forest types declined in area between the

1950s and the 1990s, with most losses occurring between 1960

and 1970. Since then, losses have been more gradual. Much of

the loss in the 1980s and 1990s resulted from reclassification

to other natural forest types, but 634,000 acres were planted to

pine and 864,000 acres were converted to nonforest uses

during these years.

The area in pine plantations is forecast to rise by 67 percent

from a little more than 30 million acres in 1999 to 54 million

acres in 2040 (fig. 35). Twenty-three million acres of

agricultural land are forecast to be planted over this period.

These forecasts indicate that forests of all types will be lost

to urban uses, that most gains in planted pine will come from

converting agricultural fields (fig. 36), and that the remainder

of gains will come from converting other forest types. This

forecast departs from historical trends of about 25 percent of

plantations from agricultural fields in the 1990s, but reflects

a strong demand for plantations in areas that are already

managed intensively. In these areas, where conditions are

good for growing pine, the availability of other forest types

Figure 35—Subregional Timber Supply Model projections of

private timberland area by management type, 1995 to 2040.

Source: Chapter 13, Figure 15A.

Figure 36—Forecast of the area timberland by forest

types (million acres), 1995 to 2040.

Figure 34—Trends in area of timberland by forest

management type, Southern United States, 1952

to 1999. Source: Chapter 16, Figure 12.
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are the

likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes

and values of southern residents toward

forests and their management, and how

have they changed over time, and do they

differ by demographic groups? ■ How do

current policies, regulations, and laws affect

forest resources and their management?

■ What motivates private forest landowners

to manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

■48 Forest Area and Conditions

will become limited, and agricultural land will supply an

increasing share of area for plantations.

The areas of all other forest types are forecast to decline at

gradual rates (chapter 13), with a net reduction of 25 million

acres (17 percent) between 1995 and 2040. These trends vary

by State. Substantial declines in nonplanted forest area are

forecast for Florida (58 percent), South Carolina (35 percent),

and North Carolina (30 percent). Alabama, Georgia, Texas,

and Virginia are forecast to lose between 18 and 23 percent

of nonplanted forest types by 2040 (chapter 13).

Landscape Structure

Primary Questions (chapters 6, 1, and 3):

How have land uses changed in the South, and how

might changes in the future affect the area of forests?

What are the history, status, and projected future

of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and species in

the South? What are the likely effects of expanding

human populations, urbanization, and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

Landscape structure refers to the spatial arrangement of

forests and the habitats that they provide. The arrangement

of forest cover has an influence over many functions of forest

ecosystems, especially as wildlife habitat. For example, a large

contiguous forest area has a large share of interior forest and

relatively little edge-forest, while a patchy forest with the same

total area has proportionately more edge habitat. In addition,

configuration of forest cover influences the options available

for active stand management. For example, small patches

of forests may be less economical to manage for timber

production due to economies of scale in timber harvesting,

prescribed burning, and other treatments.

Interspersion of land uses, road construction, and the

splitting of land parcels can cause fragmentation of forests.

The effects are a decrease in the average size of contiguous

Large contiguous forest areas are mostly

interior forest with relatively little edge.

B. Lea
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are

the likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes and

values of southern residents toward forests

and their management, and how have they

changed over time, and do they differ by

demographic groups? ■ How do current

policies, regulations, and laws affect forest

resources and their management? ■ What

motivates private forest landowners to

manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

Southern Forest Resource Assessment Forest Area and Conditions ■49

forest patches, a decrease in the amount of forest, and losses

in connectivity and interior habitat. Forest microclimate,

species dispersion, and interspecies population dynamics

are also influenced by fragmentation (chapter 1). However,

the effects of fragmentation on wildlife may be slight in areas

with forest cover that exceeds 60 to 70 percent (chapter 4).

This is the situation across a large portion of the South.

On the other hand, afforestation of nonforest land can

reverse fragmentation. That is, forest patches can become

better connected if intervening nonforest areas are converted

to forest cover.

Data are not available at the regional level for measuring

changes in forest fragmentation over time. However, recently

compiled data provide a “snapshot” of forest cover and

fragmentation, thereby allowing comparisons of these

measures among subregions of the South. Using maps derived

from satellite images taken in the early 1990s, the extent

of fragmentation in the South is shown by mapping two

measures. One is the share of forest that is interior forest,

defined as a forest “cell” surrounded on all sides by other

forest cells so that it is not strongly influenced by

environmental gradients emanating from edges. The

other measure is “edge-influenced forest,” defined as

areas adjacent to nonforest uses (chapter 6).

The highest concentrations of interior forest in the South are

in the Blue Ridge Mountains, the Cumberland Plateau, and the

Allegheny Mountains (fig. 20). The Great Smoky Mountains

National Park and a part of the Daniel Boone National Forest

in Kentucky—just west of where the boundaries of Virginia,

West Virginia, and Tennessee meet—form the cores of these

two areas. Other large areas where the share of interior forest is

high include the Ouachita Highlands and Ozark Mountains of

Arkansas, a region just north of the Mobile Bay, and the

Apalachicola area in the Florida Panhandle.

H. Riekerk One measure of forest fragmentation is edgeinfluenced forest, defined as forest areas that

are adjacent to nonforest uses.
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are the

likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes

and values of southern residents toward

forests and their management, and how

have they changed over time, and do they

differ by demographic groups? ■ How do

current policies, regulations, and laws affect

forest resources and their management?

■ What motivates private forest landowners

to manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

■50 Forest Area and Conditions

< 0

0– 15

15– 30

> 30

Data unavailable

Maps of edge-influenced forests (fig. 37) indicate several

areas where forest is fragmented. The Southern Appalachian

Piedmont (commonly referred to as the Piedmont) has a

relatively high share of land in the edge-influenced category,

especially in North Carolina. Two other contiguous blocks

are in an area spanning northern Mississippi and western

Tennessee, and an area west of the Cumberland Plateau

between Alabama and the Ohio River. In both of these areas,

agricultural cover types are interspersed with forest cover,

fragmenting it into smaller patches and reducing the amount

of interior forest.

Three parts of the South may be especially susceptible

to fragmentation in the future due to current conditions

coupled with forecast population growth (chapters 1 and 6):

■ The Piedmont is a heavily fragmented patchwork of

agriculture, urban, and forest land uses. Forecasts of

urbanization in this ecoregion would mean reduced

forest cover, increased fragmentation, and cause other

modifications to forests (chapter 6).

■ In North Carolina, Tennessee, and Kentucky, the Blue

Ridge, Ridge and Valley, Cumberland Plateau, and Allegheny

Plateau ecoregions are susceptible to increased fragmentation.

While much of this area is heavily forested, localized areas

of urbanization and increasing road density could alter the

structure of affected forested communities. A similar situation

may arise in the Ozark and Ouachita Mountains.

■ In the Mississippi River Valley, West Coastal Plain, and

Interior Low Plateau, forest habitat is scarce due to conversion

of large portions of these forests to agricultural uses.

Additional relatively small changes in forest structure

in these ecoregions could reduce their overall habitat

suitability for many species.

Figure 37—Shares of areas in southern counties classified

as edge-dominated forest at a fine scale (7-ha

neighborhood). Source: chapter 6, Figure 19A.
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are

the likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes and

values of southern residents toward forests

and their management, and how have they

changed over time, and do they differ by

demographic groups? ■ How do current

policies, regulations, and laws affect forest

resources and their management? ■ What

motivates private forest landowners to

manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

Southern Forest Resource Assessment Forest Area and Conditions ■51

300

250

200

150

100

50

0

Nonindustrial

private

Ownership class

Volume (billion cubic feet)

Total National

forest

Other

public

Forest

industry

1953 1963 1982 1989 1999

Forest Inventory

Primary Question (chapter 16):

What are the history, status, and

projected future of southern forests?

Related Question (chapter 13):

What are the history, status, and

projected future demands for and supplies

of wood products in the South?

Another way to track changes in forests is to monitor

changes in tree biomass. This approach has long been used

to examine timber supply issues because it provides a direct

measure of the forest’s capacity to produce timber products.

It also provides insights into a forest’s capture and

sequestration of atmospheric carbon.

Evaluating changes in forests has long been a principal

objective of FIA. The FIA measure of inventory most indicative

of total biomass is growing stock volume, measured as the

volume of trees that either are or will likely be of merchantable

quality. While the measure actually undercounts total biomass

because it excludes certain tree species, all trees that are not

yet 5 inches in diameter, and all other plants, it nevertheless

serves as a useful biomass index. In the discussions that

follow,’“volume” refers to growing stock volume as

measured by FIA.

Southern forests have accumulated substantial volume over

the past 50 years (fig. 38). Between 1953 and 1999 the total

volume increased 73 percent from about 148 billion cubic feet

to about 256 billion cubic feet.

This increase reflects the rapid

growth of relatively young stands

established after the 1930s. As

the average age of these forests

has increased, growth rates have

declined somewhat. Most recent

surveys show a slowing rate of

accumulation for hardwoods

and essentially a leveling off

of softwood inventory.

B. Lea Young pine plantations can capture and sequester

large amounts of atmospheric carbon.

Figure 38—Volume of growing stock on timberland by

ownership class and year, Southern United States.

Source: Chapter 16, Figure 19.
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are the

likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes

and values of southern residents toward

forests and their management, and how

have they changed over time, and do they

differ by demographic groups? ■ How do

current policies, regulations, and laws affect

forest resources and their management?

■ What motivates private forest landowners

to manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

■52 Forest Area and Conditions

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

.5

0

Year

Ratio (growth to removals)

1982 1989 1999 2020 2040

Softwoods Hardwoods Total

.00

.20

.40

.60

.80

1.00

1.20

Mortality rate (percent)

1953 1963 1982 1989 1999

Softwood Hardwood

The timber volume inventories of all 13 Southern States

grew more than 50 percent between 1953 and 1999. Tennessee

and Kentucky had the most prodigious increases, and six

States—Arkansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi,

Oklahoma, and Tennessee—more than doubled their

inventories over this period.

Changes in inventories reflect the combined effects of

growth, mortality, and removals. Removals measure losses of

inventory due to harvest and conversions of forests to other

uses. Trends in timber inventories have traditionally been

evaluated based on the difference between annual net growth

(biological growth minus mortality) and removal rates, often

expressed as the growth-removal ratio (GRR). A GRR greater

than 1.0 indicates a net accumulation of volume. A GRR of

less than 1.0 means that volume is decreasing.

For hardwoods, the GRR has exceeded 1.0 since the 1950s.

In 1999 it stood at about 1.3, indicating that growth exceeded

removals by about 30 percent (fig. 39). For softwoods, growth

exceeded removals until about 1990. Since then, the GRR has

been about 0.9, indicating that removals surpassed growth by

about 10 percent. Models of growth and removals forecast that

this situation is transitory and that softwood growth will soon

exceed removals again. This is because the region is in a period

of transition where pine plantations are expanding rapidly.

As these young pines grow large enough to enter into the FIA

inventory—forest analysts call this phenomenon ingrowth—

measures of total softwood growth are expected to shift upward.

Anticipated changes in GRR are demonstrated by the 1989

and 1997 inventories of the Southeastern Coastal Plain of

Georgia. In 1989, the forest survey indicated that the GRR

was 0.98 but also noted that the rate of tree planting had

more than doubled since the previous survey. The 1997 forest

survey reflected this ingrowth, and the GRR increased to 1.07.

Meanwhile, the rate of planting continued to climb. Similar

patterns of change are evident in Alabama and Mississippi,

where recent planting activity has been high.

We forecast that softwood growth will overtake and exceed

removals by a slight margin in the next few years. As a result,

Figure 40—Mortality rates for hardwoods and

softwoods, 1953 to 1999.

Figure 39—Average annual growth to

average annual removals ratios of growing

stock on timberland by species group and

year, Southern United States.
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are

the likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes and

values of southern residents toward forests

and their management, and how have they

changed over time, and do they differ by

demographic groups? ■ How do current

policies, regulations, and laws affect forest

resources and their management? ■ What

motivates private forest landowners to

manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

Southern Forest Resource Assessment Forest Area and Conditions ■53

softwood inventories

are forecast to increase

steadily between 1995

and 2040. For

hardwoods, on the

other hand, removals

are forecast to exceed

growth by 2025. Thus,

total hardwood

inventories are forecast

to peak in about 2025

and then decline to

levels just exceeding

current levels by 2040.

Inventories for

individual States are

forecast to peak and

then decline at different times (see discussion in the

“Wood Products” section preceding and in chapter 13).

Changes in mortality over time also are important. Since the

1950s, the rate of mortality for hardwoods (mortality divided

by total volume) has fluctuated around 0.7 percent per year

(fig. 40). Over the same period, softwood mortality has been

increasing. The softwood mortality rate stood at about 0.55

percent per year in the 1950s and 1960s, nearly doubled by the

1990s, and now stands at about 1.0 percent of inventory per

year. Reasons for this increase are unclear but likely reflect

several factors, including an aging softwood inventory on

public and nonindustrial private land, increased susceptibility

of offsite species to insects and disease, and a lack of thinning

and other stand treatments in overstocked stands.

Timberland Productivity

Primary Question (chapter 14):

What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South?

Related Question (chapter 18):

How have abiotic factors, including

environmental stressors such as air pollution,

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests, and what are future effects likely to be?

In general, productivity is defined as the quantity of outputs

produced from a given level of inputs. In forestry, there are

several ways to measure productivity, including biomass

production, the flow of values, and financial returns. The

potential productivity of southern forests is examined here

first in terms of biomass at both forest stand and regional

scales. The feasibility of productivity gains is then evaluated

by examining the financial returns to forest investments.

Our analysis of timber markets (chapter 13) indicates that

forest productivity is a key variable in forecasting not only

Texas Forest Service

Longleaf seedling. If allowed to

grow without thinning, plantations

can be susceptible to pest damage.
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are the

likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes

and values of southern residents toward

forests and their management, and how

have they changed over time, and do they

differ by demographic groups? ■ How do

current policies, regulations, and laws affect

forest resources and their management?

■ What motivates private forest landowners

to manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

■54 Forest Area and Conditions

harvest quantities and areas, but also the future condition

of the region’s forests.

A simple measure of productivity is the rate at which timber

volume accumulates in a forest stand. This rate varies with

stand age. Young stands accumulate volume rapidly and later

approach a stasis where growth may barely offset mortality.

Productivity also varies by forest type. Physical productivity

can be assessed at a broad regional scale as a ratio of net

growth to total inventory volume.

Forecasts of timber production and prices are critically

dependent on estimates of future tree growth, especially in

pine plantations. The productivity of pine plantations varies

considerably with the type of management applied. The

most intensive management approaches include planting

of genetically improved seedlings, applying fertilizer, and

controlling competing vegetation. These practices can yield

about 65 percent more timber volume when compared to

plantations that are not treated after planting, and more

USDA Forest Service

Intensive management usually includes planting

genetically improved seedlings, treating with

fertilizer, and controlling competition.
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are

the likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes and

values of southern residents toward forests

and their management, and how have they

changed over time, and do they differ by

demographic groups? ■ How do current

policies, regulations, and laws affect forest

resources and their management? ■ What

motivates private forest landowners to

manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

Southern Forest Resource Assessment Forest Area and Conditions ■55

than double physical productivity when compared to

natural pine stands (chapter 14).

Timber market models have generally assumed management

intensity will be increased to capture this productive potential.

Indeed, increased management intensity in pine plantations

is a key component of the timber market forecasts discussed

in “Wood Products.” Softwood outputs are expected to

increase by more than a third, and softwood inventory

is expected to increase slightly between 1995 and 2040.

Forest investments are forecast to increase the area of pine

plantations from 32 million to 54 million acres by 2040. The

area of the other broad forest types (natural pine, hardwood,

and mixed stands) is forecast to decline from 149 million

acres presently to 122 million acres by 2040 (chapter 13).

To test the sensitivity of timber market forecasts to

assumptions regarding productivity, we examined an

alternative scenario which assumed that 30 percent of

expected productivity would not be attained—that is,

productivity increases were set at 70 percent of current

assumptions. As a result, softwood prices were forecast

to increase, and the increased prices led to additional

investments in pine plantations when compared with

the base case. The alternative scenario produced a

forecast of pine plantation area that was 12 percent

higher than for the base case (for a total of 58 million

acres) in 2040 (chapter 13).

This suggests that reductions in the productivity of

managed stands would have the somewhat counterintuitive

effect of increasing the total area of intensively managed

forests. Expected productivity gains could be offset by

changes in institutional factors that restrict forest management

options, changes in the physical environment that would

result from air pollution or climate change, or increased

insect- or disease-related mortality.
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are the

likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes

and values of southern residents toward

forests and their management, and how

have they changed over time, and do they

differ by demographic groups? ■ How do

current policies, regulations, and laws affect

forest resources and their management?

■ What motivates private forest landowners

to manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

■56 Forest Area and Conditions

Research on the effects of air pollutants indicates that

acid deposition probably will not have a measurable impact

on forest productivity over the next 40 years. There is a

trend away from sulfur and toward nitrogen as sources

of acid deposition, and effects of oxides of nitrogen are mixed.

Ozone pollution, on the other hand, is expected to increase

and has the potential to reduce forest productivity by up to

10 percent per year (chapter 18). Warmer conditions would

worsen the damage caused by ozone, but this increased

damage could be offset by increased productivity resulting

from warming and elevated carbon dioxide concentrations.

If, on the other hand, temperatures rise more than currently

expected, forest area and structure would change, and the

net effect on productivity would be negative. These results

indicate the sensitivity of forecasts to assumptions about

atmospheric conditions and illustrate the value of

reducing uncertainty regarding these future conditions.

Forest pest-related mortality, potentially high in pine

forests, is minimized by active management. Given the

short rotation length (20 to 30 years typically) and active

management practiced by the forest industry in the South,

mortality rates would be lower on these lands; this is indeed

the case (chapter 16). If a similar management style were

employed on the forecast additional plantations, mortality

would appear to be manageable. On the other hand, with

specific exceptions such as annosus root disease, plantations

allowed to grow and age without cultural treatments or

thinning will be susceptible to increased pest damage

and consequent reductions in productivity.
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are

the likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes and

values of southern residents toward forests

and their management, and how have they

changed over time, and do they differ by

demographic groups? ■ How do current

policies, regulations, and laws affect forest

resources and their management? ■ What

motivates private forest landowners to

manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

Southern Forest Resource Assessment Terrestrial Ecosystems ■57

Terrestrial Ecosystems

Intensive land uses over the past three centuries have altered

the structure of the South’s terrestrial ecosystems. Forces of

change continue to alter the region’s biota, and pressures are

focused especially on several rare forest communities. These

rare communities continue to be pressured by loss of area,

fire exclusion, and disruption of hydrologic functions. Change

has favored certain types of forests, such as loblolly pine and

mixed upland hardwoods. Ongoing changes in these forest

types also have implications for the structure and function

of terrestrial ecosystems. We examine abundant and rare

communities in the sections that follow. We then examine

the effects of land use changes and forest management on

terrestrial ecosystems. We conclude the section with a

discussion of wildlife species of concern and conservation

issues in the South.

Red spruce, a high-elevation species

of the Southern Appalachians.

B. Lea
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are the

likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes

and values of southern residents toward

forests and their management, and how

have they changed over time, and do they

differ by demographic groups? ■ How do

current policies, regulations, and laws affect

forest resources and their management?

■ What motivates private forest landowners

to manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

■58 Terrestrial Ecosystems

Abundant Forest Communities

Primary Question (chapter 17):

How have biological agents, including insects and

disease, influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests, and how will they likely affect it in the future?

Related Questions (chapters 1, 2, and 4):

What are the history, status, and projected future of

terrestrial wildlife habitat types and species in the

South? What are the history, status, and projected

future of native plant communities in the South?

What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South?

Analysis of changes in forest types indicates ongoing

transformation of forest conditions. The area of upland

hardwoods is forecast to decline somewhat between 1995 and

2040, but will remain the forest type with the greatest area.

Pine plantation acreage is forecast to increase through planting

of agricultural land and harvested natural pine and hardwood

forests. Though these communities are considered abundant,

they face continuing health challenges. Also, because of their

extent, their structure and condition are especially important

to the region’s wildlife. The value of these forest types as

habitat for wildlife depends largely on how they are managed.

Pine types—Pine

planting will continue

to be focused in the

Coastal Plain and parts

of the Piedmont, but

we expect planting

rates to increase the

most in the western

half of the region.

Forest structure in

plantations differs from

that found in naturally

regenerated stands.

Their management is

designed to focus site

potential to maximize

the growth of trees of a

single species, and trees

are spaced to maximize fiber production over a 20- to 30-year

period. Retaining a narrowly focused stand structure requires

considerable management effort. This is evidenced by about

2.5 million acres of plantations transitioned to other forest

types since the 1980s. Thus, over time and without

intervention, plantations often become more diverse in terms

of tree species composition. Their value as wildlife habitat will

vary depending on the type and variety of vegetative species

that diversify the stand. This increased diversity is greater in

B. Lea

Plantations maximize growth of a

single species, with individual

trees spaced for producing the

most fiber in 20 to 30 years.
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are

the likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes and

values of southern residents toward forests

and their management, and how have they

changed over time, and do they differ by

demographic groups? ■ How do current

policies, regulations, and laws affect forest

resources and their management? ■ What

motivates private forest landowners to

manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

Southern Forest Resource Assessment Terrestrial Ecosystems ■59

plantations established following harvest of natural pine or

oak-pine forests, because they retain biological legacies from

the preceding forest type, especially when plantations are

mixed in with naturally regenerated forests and wetlands

as in the Carolina Coastal Plain. Plantations established on

converted agricultural sites can develop considerable grass

and forb diversity in early stages, but because they lack the

biological legacies of earlier forests, their vegetative diversity

is limited for a longer period of time (chapter 4). Very dense

stocking and use of herbicides can limit vegetative diversity

throughout the entire rotation. The intensity of forest

management has various effects on wildlife suitability. In

addition to differences in forest structure, intensive pine

management generally involves more frequent management

activities. Depending on the circumstances (such as type

of legacy, management strategy, density of stocking, use of

herbicides, prescribed burning), these actions can disrupt,

benefit, or have little effect on wildlife. Effects of management

activities on wildlife are discussed in “Recreation.”

Another less commonly recognized phenomenon associated

with intensively managed forests is their invasion by nonnative

plants; additionally, other land uses have contributed to the

spread of nonnatives in the South. Privet, kudzu, and other

nonnative shrubs and vines displace native plant species

and vary in their benefit to wildlife. Kudzu and Japanese

honeysuckle alone now occupy more than 7 million acres of

land each (chapter 3). In some areas, nonnative vines

can completely dominate the shrub and herb layer.

Expanded areas of pine forests in parts of the South

have increased the availability and contiguity of host

material for certain native pest insects and pathogens,

especially southern pine beetle. However, shortrotation lengths and active management minimize

what would otherwise be increased infestation risk.

Damage from these pests is likely to be greatest in

plantations that are not actively managed following

establishment. These most commonly occur on

nonindustrial private ownerships. Pest-appropriate

management activities—which may include lower

stocking rates, use of prescribed burning, active pest

suppression, and sometimes reducing the frequency of standdisturbing activities—may lower the risk of spreading

infestations in these types of forests.

Overall mortality rates for softwoods have increased from

about 0.6 percent of inventory per year in the 1960s to 1.0

percent per year in the 1990s. We expect pine mortality to

remain high, especially at the periphery of the natural range

of many pine species—for example, in Tennessee, Kentucky,

and Virginia. In these areas especially, southern pine beetle

will remain problematic for forest managers.

Nonnative plants, such as Japanese honeysuckle,

which occupies 7 million acres of southern forest

land, can dominate the shrub and herb layers—

often with little benefit to wildlife.

J. Miller
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are the

likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes

and values of southern residents toward

forests and their management, and how

have they changed over time, and do they

differ by demographic groups? ■ How do

current policies, regulations, and laws affect

forest resources and their management?

■ What motivates private forest landowners

to manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

■60 Terrestrial Ecosystems

Slash pine

Loblolly pine

if not treated. Littleleaf disease targets shortleaf pine and has

encouraged the conversion of shortleaf sites to loblolly pine.

■ Several native insects have substantial influence on forests.

The insect with the most substantial economic impact and

habitat impacts for the endangered red-cockaded woodpecker

is the southern pine beetle, which reaches epidemic levels

at irregular intervals and causes high rates of mortality

over broad areas (fig. 11). It prefers shortleaf and loblolly

pine forests but also attacks other pine species. Longleaf

pine, while susceptible, does not appear to be a preferred

host species.

Figure 41—Incidence of fusiform rust on more than 10 percent

of slash and loblolly pine on Forest Inventory and Analysis plots.

Source: Chapter 17, Figure 2.

With respect to forest pests associated with

pine types, we found that (chapter 17):

■ Five native diseases in the South have

substantial impact on forests and two—annosus

root disease and fusiform rust—have substantial

commercial impacts on pine species. Fusiform

rust is in epidemic status along the Coastal Plain

from Louisiana to South Carolina (fig. 41). It

causes heavy mortality of slash and loblolly pines.

Annosus is more localized and limited by site

factors, but it can cause severe root disease in

thinned stands

Fusiform rust causes heavy mortality to slash

and loblolly pines along the Coastal Plain from

Louisiana to South Carolina.

H. Powers

USDA Forest Service

Southern pine beetles cause high rates

of mortality in mature trees, especially

in forests that are overstocked.
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are

the likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes and

values of southern residents toward forests

and their management, and how have they

changed over time, and do they differ by

demographic groups? ■ How do current

policies, regulations, and laws affect forest

resources and their management? ■ What

motivates private forest landowners to

manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

Southern Forest Resource Assessment Terrestrial Ecosystems ■61

■ Mature pine trees are more susceptible to damage from

southern pine beetle than younger trees, so that public forests,

with higher concentrations of older, more mature pine forests,

are most likely to be attacked. Spillover of epidemics onto

adjacent private land will continue to be a significant resource

management issue for public forests in the South. Likewise,

planted pine on nonindustrial private forest land with little

management experiences higher mortality from southern pine

beetle. The risk of damage can be reduced by utilizing

management practices that reduce stocking.

Upland hardwoods—The upland hardwood type gradually

expanded in the South between the 1950s and the 1990s

but has been in a state of flux for more than a century. Many

areas were permanently transformed by chestnut blight, which

eliminated American chestnut from its dominant role in

mountain forests in the eastern portion of the South beginning

in the 1930s. Recent expansion of upland hardwood acreage

has resulted from a combination of natural succession of pine

forests and removal of the pine component from mixed pinehardwood forests. Currently, the greatest expanses of the

upland hardwood types (generally oak-hickory) are

concentrated in the Piedmont, the Appalachian Mountains,

the Ozarks, and the Cumberland Plateau. Urbanization, along

with increased harvesting of hardwood timber, will continue

to modify these forests in important ways, especially in the

Piedmont. While the area of upland hardwoods is forecast

to decline only slightly over the next few decades, it is likely

that these forests will become more fragmented in some areas,

and in these places, will provide less interior forest habitat.

In addition, indirect human influences related to increased

population density will also be felt in these areas.

As with softwood forests, pathogens and insects have had

important effects in hardwood forests, and they continue

to spread within the South. As was the case with chestnut

Dogwood anthracnose and gypsy moths are

two of the many nonnatives that are changing

the composition of hardwood forests.

B. Lea Insets-USDA Forest Service
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are the

likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes

and values of southern residents toward

forests and their management, and how

have they changed over time, and do they

differ by demographic groups? ■ How do

current policies, regulations, and laws affect

forest resources and their management?

■ What motivates private forest landowners

to manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

■62 Terrestrial Ecosystems

County with confirmed infection

Dogwood range

(A)

Infested counties

American beech range

(B)

Disease confirmed in county

Butternut range

(C)

(D)

blight, most of these organisms are nonnative, or nonnative,

and control options are either ineffective or limited in their

potential application.

■ Oak decline, a disease complex affecting oak species,

could have long-term consequences for the species

composition of hardwood forests in the South. It is prevalent

in areas where oak species occupied the niche of American

chestnut eliminated by the chestnut blight beginning in

the 1930s. It is becoming especially widespread in the

mountainous areas of the Southern Appalachians and the

Ozark and Ouachita Highlands, on dry and infertile sites.

Drought appears to worsen its effects.

Figure 42—Various nonnative diseases, (A) Dogwood Anthracnose, (B) Beech

Bark Disease, (C) Butternut Disease, and (D) Oak Decline, affecting hardwood

species in the South. Source: Chapter 17, Figures 11, 12, 13, and 6.
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are

the likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes and

values of southern residents toward forests

and their management, and how have they

changed over time, and do they differ by

demographic groups? ■ How do current

policies, regulations, and laws affect forest

resources and their management? ■ What

motivates private forest landowners to

manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

Southern Forest Resource Assessment Terrestrial Ecosystems ■63

■ Four nonnative diseases have had or will have substantial

impact on southern forests (chapter 17). Each targets a single

genus or species. Chestnut blight restructured Southern

Appalachian forests, and the resulting trajectory of change

has not completely played out. Based on current spread rates,

beech bark disease is expected to cause substantial mortality

to American beech and change its location in southern

forests over the next 20 to 30 years. Butternut canker may

completely eliminate butternut from southern forests.

Dogwood anthracnose has already led to widespread decline

of dogwoods with resulting aesthetic, economic, and wildlife

implications (see fig. 42).

■ The hemlock woolly adelgid kills both the eastern and the

Carolina hemlock and is currently moving down the Blue

Ridge from the Shenandoah Valley. It threatens both species’

occurrence in the wild. (chapter 3, chapter 17).

■ The gypsy moth continues its steady march from the North

and is currently moving from Virginia into North Carolina.

Based on current spread rates, this insect is expected to

progress across the South over the next 20 to 30 years.

Epidemics can last several years in a particular location and

lead to the defoliation of most species, but oaks are most

susceptible. Considerable alteration to forested ecosystems,

including loss of hard mast, is expected where gypsy moth

damage coincides with oak decline (chapter 17).

Many of these forest health concerns can be complicated

by the exclusion of fire. Absence of fire can alter species

composition, but its reintroduction is difficult because much

of the upland hardwood forest type occurs in or near heavily

populated areas. Compounding the challenges of maintaining

healthy hardwood forests is expected increased tree mortality

that would increase fuel loadings and the risk of severe fires.

 Virginia Department of Forestry

Hard mast, a staple for deer and other

wildlife, is lost in forests where gypsy

moth damage coincides with oak decline.
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are the

likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes

and values of southern residents toward

forests and their management, and how

have they changed over time, and do they

differ by demographic groups? ■ How do

current policies, regulations, and laws affect

forest resources and their management?

■ What motivates private forest landowners

to manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

■64 Terrestrial Ecosystems

Rare Forest Communities

Primary Question (chapter 1):

What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types

and species in the South?

Related Question (chapter 17):

How have biological agents, including insects and

disease, influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests, and how will they likely affect it in the future?

Several forest communities have become limited to only

a tiny portion of their original range and thus may be

disproportionately impacted by future changes. There are

14 critically endangered communities (where losses of more

than 98 percent of their area have occurred since European

settlement) and 25 endangered communities in the South

(losses between 85 and 98 percent of area). Most of these

communities are in the following seven classes (see chapter 1):

■ Old-growth—Less than 586,000 acres of forest area (0.3

percent) in the South is in an old-growth condition. Oldgrowth assemblages are diverse, and they exhibit unique

structural characteristics such as multilayered canopies and

large accumulations of woody debris. The largest tracts of these

remnant forests are limited to a few ecological provinces. Most

are on public land such as the Great Smoky Mountains

National Park and the region’s national forests. Some very

small tracts occur on private land. While most publicly owned

old-growth forest is administratively protected, factors such

as air pollution and forest pests will continue to alter them.

■ Spruce-fir forests—They are limited to high elevations in

the Blue Ridge Mountains. These are very scarce ecosystems

containing unique assemblages of species with a high degree of

endemism. They are threatened by a combination of nonnative

pests and environmental factors. The nonnative insect having

substantial impacts on these forests is the balsam woolly

adelgid, which has already eliminated 95 percent of the mature

Fraser fir from high elevation forests of the Southern

Appalachians. A significant restructuring of this type of forest

is anticipated. Additionally, soils in this community predispose

At high elevations in the Blue Ridge Mountains, spruce-fir

forests are threatened by a combination of air pollution

and attack by the nonnative balsam woolly adelgid.

USDA Forest Service
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are

the likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes and

values of southern residents toward forests

and their management, and how have they

changed over time, and do they differ by

demographic groups? ■ How do current

policies, regulations, and laws affect forest

resources and their management? ■ What

motivates private forest landowners to

manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

Southern Forest Resource Assessment Terrestrial Ecosystems ■65

the area to changes in stream chemistry and other ecosystem

damage from increased acid deposition derived from nitrous

oxides (chapter 18).

■ Wetlands, bog complexes, and pocosins—They have been

reduced in total area by land use conversions and changes

in hydrologic regimes. Bogs and pocosins provide habitat

for many rare herpetofauna and birds. They also provide

important refuges for species in landscapes that are dominated

by agriculture and intensive silviculture. Fire regimes are

crucial to the sustainability of many of these forests, and

the exclusion of fire has substantially altered them.

■ Bottomland and floodplain forests—Because they often

occur on rich alluvial soils, a large share of these forests has

been converted to agricultural uses, especially in the Lower

Mississippi Alluvial Valley. Such forests, therefore, occupy only

20 percent of their original area. Certain forest pests can affect

these forests. For example, the baldcypress leafroller, which

defoliates and kills baldcypress, is prevalent in Louisiana

swamps (chapter 17). Hydrologic alterations also alter the

condition and structure of these forests.

■ Glades, barrens, and prairies—They are naturally treeless

areas in Piedmont, Interior Plateau, Ridge and Valley, and

Coastal Plain ecoregions of the South. These areas evolved

under extensive fire regimes, and fire exclusion has caused

substantial ecological modification and continues to impact

remnants of these systems.

Drought-stricken baldcypress

swamp in Mississippi.

B. Lea
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are the

likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes

and values of southern residents toward

forests and their management, and how

have they changed over time, and do they

differ by demographic groups? ■ How do

current policies, regulations, and laws affect

forest resources and their management?

■ What motivates private forest landowners

to manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

■66 Terrestrial Ecosystems

■ Longleaf pine ecosystems—They once covered much of the

South’s Coastal Plain. They now occupy only 2 percent of their

original range. The herb layer of these forests is one of the

most diverse in the world. They are home to several threatened

or endangered species, such as the red-cockaded woodpecker,

and several species with high rates of endemism. Decline in

these systems is attributable to several factors, including

removal of original stands followed by fire exclusion,

conversion to other pine species, conversion to other land

uses, and the introduction of livestock. Brown-spot needle

disease infects longleaf pine seedlings and therefore hampers

efforts to restore the longleaf ecosystems across the South.

Current concerns include continued urban development

and difficulty in reestablishing fire regimes.

■ Atlantic white cedar swamps—They have been reduced

to 10 percent of their original range. They persist only in

isolated small stands. As with pocosins, they provide for

diverse wildlife refuges in intensively managed forest and

agricultural landscapes.

Several increasingly rare types of wetlands—Atlantic white

cedar swamps, bottomland forests, wetlands, bog complexes,

and pocosins—are concentrated on private land, so their future

condition is dependent on the decisions of their numerous

owners. The spruce-fir and old-growth ecosystems are found

mainly on public land. Old-growth is protected but is

susceptible to invasion by nonnative species, damage from air

pollution, and restructuring due to fire suppression. Among

rare forest communities, the spruce-fir ecosystem is currently

under the most stress due to a combination of nonnative

insects and environmental stressors. Most remnant longleaf

pine forests occur on private land and may be impacted by

development, both directly through their conversion and

indirectly due to the difficulty of providing the necessary fire

regimes in areas of mixed ownership and high population

density. Restoration efforts are underway, but challenges

to restoring the longleaf pine ecosystem are great.

K. Franzreb

J. Caldwell Home to the red-cockaded woodpecker and other rare and

endangered species, longleaf pine ecosystems depend on

fire for regeneration, but their recovery is being slowed by

urbanization and public concerns about prescribed burning.
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are

the likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes and

values of southern residents toward forests

and their management, and how have they

changed over time, and do they differ by

demographic groups? ■ How do current

policies, regulations, and laws affect forest

resources and their management? ■ What

motivates private forest landowners to

manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

Southern Forest Resource Assessment Terrestrial Ecosystems ■67

Effects of Land Use Changes

Primary Question (chapter 3):

What are the likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization, and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

Related Question (chapter 6):

How have land uses changed in the South, and how

might changes in the future affect the area of forests?

The use and configuration of forest land can influence the

suitability of forests as habitats for wildlife species. However,

at this time, there are no regional-level models for explicitly

forecasting the effects of land use changes on wildlife. To

address how land use could affect terrestrial ecosystems, we

surveyed the body of research on the effects of various land

uses and management on terrestrial animal species and found:

■ Urban land uses have important impacts on bird

populations. Urbanization restructures forest habitat by

decreasing forest area and patch size while increasing edge

relative to interior forest habitats (see chapter 1). As a result,

avian species composition is altered, nest predation increases,

and habitats become isolated. Often bird diversity remains

high, but there is a shift in species represented. For example,

urbanization generally leads to declining populations of

forest insectivores, Neotropical migrants, and forest

interior specialists (chapter 3).

■ While the greatest impacts of urbanization seem to be

related to habitat fragmentation and loss, increased human

presence also has indirect effects. Evidence suggests that

the presence of houses adjoining forest tracts can reduce

the habitat value of those tracts for sensitive Neotropical

migrant birds.

■ Urban environments support fewer species of mammals than

rural areas and tend to support habitat generalists rather than

specialists. Highly urbanized settings support large populations

of nonnative species such as the house mouse and Norway rat.

With green spaces in the urban area, many more species,

especially small species, may persist. Mammalian predators

such as bobcats and gray fox are generally excluded from

habitat in highly developed areas. Urbanization also tends to

R. Phillips This yellow-breasted chat in Texas is among the Neotropical

migrants likely to decline with forest fragmentation.
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are the

likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes

and values of southern residents toward

forests and their management, and how

have they changed over time, and do they

differ by demographic groups? ■ How do

current policies, regulations, and laws affect

forest resources and their management?

■ What motivates private forest landowners

to manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South? ■68

Terrestrial Ecosystems

exclude specialized species of reptiles,

amphibians, and invertebrates while generalists

can persist in even highly urbanized areas.

Fragmentation can isolate otherwise suitable

habitats. Examples of urban-sensitive species

include the gopher tortoise and the timber

rattlesnake in east Texas.

■ As urbanization reduces and fragments some

forest areas, the remaining large forest tracts

on public and private lands may increasingly

contribute to the conservation of many sensitive

wildlife species. Given the importance of

landscape structure in determining the suitability of habitats in

urban and agricultural areas (chapter 3), maintaining habitat

connectivity can enhance ecosystem function in these areas.

■ Red imported fire ants have a substantial impact across an

increasing range in the South. While most abundant in open

habitats, they invade forests from along the margins created

by roads and power lines. These ants displace and/or prey

on native arthropods, reptiles, amphibians, and rodents,

disrupting food webs and restructuring forested ecosystems

(chapter 3).

■ Several other nonnative animals, such as feral pigs, cats,

dogs, and birds influence wildlife through predation,

displacement of native species (especially birds), and habitat

destruction (especially pigs). Localized impacts may be severe.

For example, impacts of feral pigs have become very serious in

USDA Forest Service

The timber rattlesnake in east Texas

is an urban-sensitive species.

B. Lea

Birds and other species benefit

from the habitat connectivity

provided by vegetated fencerows

in agricultural areas.

The switch to “clean pastures”

dominated by tall fescue and other

nonnative cool season grasses has

caused declines in bird species.

T. Bodner
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are

the likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes and

values of southern residents toward forests

and their management, and how have they

changed over time, and do they differ by

demographic groups? ■ How do current

policies, regulations, and laws affect forest

resources and their management? ■ What

motivates private forest landowners to

manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

Southern Forest Resource Assessment Terrestrial Ecosystems ■69

rare wetlands in the Ozark-Ouachita Highlands. Population

growth and expanding wildland-urban interfaces will result

in growing problems with feral domestic animals (chapter 3).

■ Agricultural land is often interspersed with woodlots and

other forest habitat. Habitat connectivity, which is often

provided by vegetated fencerows, greatly influences the

presence of birds and other species in agricultural areas.

Isolated forest habitats can serve as ecological traps for some

species by focusing populations in small areas along with a

high concentration of nest predators (chapter 3).

■ Many bird species that depend on open habitats such as

grasslands, prairies, savannas, glades, and barrens are now

in serious decline in the Eastern United States. Declines

are partially explained by the conversion of pastureland to

cultivated row crops, the switch to “clean pastures” dominated

by nonnative cool-season grasses, and by the loss of fencerows

as new agricultural technologies favor bigger fields.

■ Forecasts of land use change and measures of forest

fragmentation suggest that bird species may be subjected to

the most change in the Piedmont subregion (chapters 1 and 6).

Accordingly, we anticipate declines of Neotropical migrants

and forest interior specialists in these areas. Implications for

Neotropical migrants may be especially important, since this

group of birds is experiencing global decline.

Effects of Forest Management

Primary Question (chapter 4):

What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access

on terrestrial ecosystems in the South?

Related Question (chapter 16):

What are the history, status, and

projected future of southern forests?

Forest management, by definition, affects the structure

and distribution of forest conditions. Forest types have been

dynamic in the South, with upland hardwood types increasing

R. Kindlund

Agricultural fields are being converted to planted

pines, which, when young, support increases in

the richness and diversity of wildlife species.
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are the

likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes

and values of southern residents toward

forests and their management, and how

have they changed over time, and do they

differ by demographic groups? ■ How do

current policies, regulations, and laws affect

forest resources and their management?

■ What motivates private forest landowners

to manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

■70 Terrestrial Ecosystems

between the 1950s and the 1990s, lowland

hardwood types essentially stable since the 1970s,

and pine types in considerable flux. Net changes

in forest are the result of several offsetting

changes. For example, natural pine types are

reclassified to upland hardwoods as a result of

succession, while some upland hardwoods are

converted to planted pine. All forest types are

converted to urban uses, and agricultural fields

are converted to planted pine (“Broad Forest

Types” and chapter 16).

Silvicultural treatments can have important implications for

wildlife. Timber harvesting, especially clearcutting, as well as

afforestion of agricultural fields restarts successional processes.

Young stands, especially those that follow timber harvesting,

exhibit an increase in species richness and species diversity.

Many wildlife species thrive in these early successional

communities. After canopy closure, plant diversity generally

decreases and wildlife use declines. Uneven-aged management

that encourages several age classes of trees can sustain benefits

for many but not all wildlife species due to the resulting

stratified forest canopy. However, these benefits may lessen

somewhat if stand entries are more frequent (chapter 4).

Planted pines, while sometimes characterized as

monocultures, vary considerably in their composition.

Wildlife species that thrive in early successional habitats use

plantations heavily during the first few years after planting,

although habitat values decline with heavy stocking,

application of herbicides, and other intensive management

practices. Browse is abundant, and several mammals graze

these stands. Small mammals are abundant, thus raptor use is

high. Many priority Neotropical migrants use pine plantations

after the first thinning or use lower stocked areas where

hardwoods are allowed to thrive in the understory (usually

stands managed for sawtimber). Several Neotropical migratory

birds use plantations early on, when insects and seeds are

abundant. After canopy closure, plant diversity decreases

B. Lea

and wildlife use declines.

Mature trees and snags in and near plantations

help to maintain wildlife species ranging from small

mammals to the birds that prey on them.

Shelterwood cutting is a harvesting alternative that takes

place in two or more phases, thus, leaving mature trees

to reseed the stand and provide habitat for wildlife.

B. Lea
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are

the likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes and

values of southern residents toward forests

and their management, and how have they

changed over time, and do they differ by

demographic groups? ■ How do current

policies, regulations, and laws affect forest

resources and their management? ■ What

motivates private forest landowners to

manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

Southern Forest Resource Assessment Terrestrial Ecosystems ■71

Forest management can be augmented with techniques

to directly enhance wildlife habitat. These include leaving

mature trees in a stand to enhance structural diversity,

application of streamside management zones to retain

landscape diversity, and retention of snags to provide nesting

habitat (chapter 4). Additional wildlife benefits may be

obtained with natural regeneration techniques such as seedtree cuts and shelterwoods, and with management practices

such as midrotation thinning and prescribed burning.

Gauging the effects of forest management on mobile wildlife

populations requires more than an understanding of standlevel dynamics. It requires insights into the overall landscape

structure of forests within the region. Although this type of

analysis is relatively new, several studies have examined the

effects of forest fragmentation on wildlife species, especially

birds. We found that (chapter 4):

■ Studies have documented declines in migratory bird species

from isolated forest patches, especially where agricultural and

urban uses represent substantial components of the landscape.

However, in heavily forested areas—70 percent or more

forest—these negative effects do not occur. Accordingly, in

large portions of the southern landscape, these fragmentation

effects are not a substantial concern. They include the

Southern Blue Ridge, Cumberland Plateau and Mountains,

and Ozark and Ouachita Mountains.

■ Forest fragmentation and negative edge effects are most

prevalent in Ridge and Valley, Piedmont, Interior Low Plateau,

and the Mississippi Alluvial Plain where agriculture and

development dominate the landscape. In these areas, forest

operations may impact fragmentation effects on wildlife.

■ In heavily forested areas, forestry practices may provide

important benefits for forest-breeding bird species through

provision of early successional habitats. This is especially

true for areas where existing hardwood forest structure is

dominated by closed canopy stands and sparse understories

or where dense pine stands and fire suppression exclude

pine specialists.

Landscape configuration and fragmentation at fine scales

may be critical for some species, especially amphibians, even

in heavily forested areas. For example, persistence of pondbreeding salamanders requires access between terrestrial

habitat and vernal ponds or Carolina bays. Roads and certain

kinds of management practices can isolate these two habitat

Road building can isolate Carolina bays from the

terrestrial component of salamander habitat.

B. Lea
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are the

likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes

and values of southern residents toward

forests and their management, and how

have they changed over time, and do they

differ by demographic groups? ■ How do

current policies, regulations, and laws affect

forest resources and their management?

■ What motivates private forest landowners

to manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

■72 Terrestrial Ecosystems

Table 2—Terrestrial species, species of concern, and critically imperiled

species in the South by taxaa

Total Critically imperiled

Taxa species Species of concern species

No. No. Share of total No. Share of total

Amphibians 170 54 0.32 19 0.11

Reptiles 197 40 .20 3 .02

Mammals 246 18 .07 2 .01

Birds 595 20 .03 4 .01

 Total 1,208 132 .11 28 .02

a These numbers include Texas and Oklahoma in their entirety.

 Source: Chapter 1.

components. Spatial configuration of forest

habitat is also an important factor in the

recovery of federally listed subspecies of

black bears in Louisiana and the black bear

subspecies of conservation concern in

Florida (chapter 4).

Across the South, more threatened and

endangered species are affected by increased

isolation of shrub-scrub and grassland habitats

than are affected by scarcity or fragmentation of mature

forests. The ultimate challenge for forest management

then is to provide habitat conditions that support the

array of grassland, shrub-scrub, and mature forest

species occurring within the same landscape.

Wildlife Species of Concern

Primary Question (chapter 5):

What conditions will be needed to maintain

animal species associations in the South?

Related Question (chapter 2):

What are the history, status, and projected

future of native plant communities in the South?

Substantial alterations to forested communities have

impacted several terrestrial species in the South. To enumerate

and examine species of concern, the databases of the State

Natural Heritage agencies were used to list species by their

global conservation rank. The global ranks reflect scarcity for

the entire range of the species. These ranks include presumed

extinct, possibly extinct, critically imperiled, imperiled,

The gopher frog is listed as a “species

of concern” by the Florida Fish and

Wildlife Conservation Commission.

F. Sunquist
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are

the likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes and

values of southern residents toward forests

and their management, and how have they

changed over time, and do they differ by

demographic groups? ■ How do current

policies, regulations, and laws affect forest

resources and their management? ■ What

motivates private forest landowners to

manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

Southern Forest Resource Assessment Terrestrial Ecosystems ■73

8

23

5

10

11

7

6

13 11

11

26

15

15

vulnerable, apparently secure, and secure. Species of

conservation concern include those that are critically imperiled

(extremely rare—observed at 5 or fewer locations or fewer

than 1,000 animals—or otherwise vulnerable to extinction),

imperiled (rare—observations in 6 to 20 locations or fewer

than 2,000 animals—or otherwise vulnerable to extinction),

or vulnerable (21 to 100 locations or 3,000 to 10,000 animals

or found locally in a restricted area). Table 2 shows species

of concern and critically imperiled species. In addition, data

on the status of threatened and endangered vertebrate species

were compiled from the Department of Interior. We examined

the status of terrestrial wildlife species and found:

■ Of the 1,208 vertebrate species known to exist in the

South, 132 are considered to be of conservation concern.

Twenty-eight species are classified as critically imperiled.

■ Seven southern terrestrial vertebrate species

are now presumed extinct.

■ The South is a center of amphibian biodiversity

in the United States. Fifty-four amphibian species

are classified as species of concern, and 19 are

critically imperiled. Many amphibians require

both wet and upland habitats, emphasizing the

critical biological importance of wetlands and

of ecotones (the gradients between wet and dry

habitats). Wetlands are discussed in more detail

in “Forested Wetlands.”

The South contains several areas where the

number of endangered species is high, including

the Southern Appalachians, Atlantic and eastern

gulf coast flatwoods, gulf coast marsh and prairie,

and peninsular Florida. Loss of habitat is the primary cause

of endangerment of terrestrial vertebrates. Forests, grasslands,

shrublands, and wetlands have been converted to urban,

industrial, and agricultural uses. Other factors include

environmental contamination

and commercial exploitation.

Florida and Texas are the States

with the greatest numbers of

endangered vertebrate

species (fig. 43).

The gopher tortoise is considered to be a

“keystone species” because its burrows are used

by the Florida gopher frog and other species.

F. Sunquist

Florida scrub-jay is an endangered

species of the ancient Florida scrub.

Figure 43—The distribution

of terrestrial vertebrates listed as

endangered throughout the South.

Source: Chapter 5, Figure 7.

B. Lea
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are the

likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes

and values of southern residents toward

forests and their management, and how

have they changed over time, and do they

differ by demographic groups? ■ How do

current policies, regulations, and laws affect

forest resources and their management?

■ What motivates private forest landowners

to manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

■74 Terrestrial Ecosystems

1

2–3

4–7

>7

Number of G1–G2 plants

The South also has a large complement of rare plants. Rare

vascular plant species are not evenly distributed throughout

the South. Concentrations of rare species diversity occur in the

Southern Appalachians, the Florida Panhandle, and the Lake

Wales Ridge region of Florida. Rare species are also

concentrated in the Ouachita Mountains and on the

Cumberland Plateau (chapter 2) (fig. 44).

Concentrations of rare vascular plant species

are found in the Southern Appalachians.

Figure 44—Distribution of imperiled vascular plant species in

the South based on the number of occurrences in counties.

Source: Chapter 2, Figure 2.

B. Lea
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are

the likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes and

values of southern residents toward forests

and their management, and how have they

changed over time, and do they differ by

demographic groups? ■ How do current

policies, regulations, and laws affect forest

resources and their management? ■ What

motivates private forest landowners to

manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

Southern Forest Resource Assessment Terrestrial Ecosystems ■75

Conservation Issues

Management of public land includes protecting biodiversity

through ecosystem or landscape-level management. About 11

percent of the South’s forests are in a public ownership, and

these areas tend to be concentrated in mountainous areas (fig.

45). For some rare communities, public lands are critical to

conservation—for example, for protecting old-growth areas

and high-elevation spruce-fir ecosystems in the Southern

Appalachians. Often, however, rare plant communities and

critically imperiled species do not occur on public land.

The management of private forests, therefore, will have

a substantial impact on the persistence of many species

of concern in the South.

In the Coastal Plain and Piedmont, large blocks of public

land are scarce, so ecosystem management strategies can

only succeed through the cooperation of multiple landowners.

Such collaborations are beginning to emerge. Land trusts

have acquired land with high ecological value. Landscapelevel consortiums are emerging to address ecosystem

maintenance and restoration. Coordinated research and

conservation have focused on understanding and restoring

longleaf pine ecosystems.

The conservation value of public land may be high in some

areas because public land can provide scarce interior forest

habitat and older forests.

In urbanizing landscapes, public tracts can be factored

into conservation strategies pursued by local planners.

The principal vector of ecological change in these areas is

Figure 45—The distribution of public land in

the South. Source: Chapter 1, Figure 24.
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are the

likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes

and values of southern residents toward

forests and their management, and how

have they changed over time, and do they

differ by demographic groups? ■ How do

current policies, regulations, and laws affect

forest resources and their management?

■ What motivates private forest landowners

to manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

■76 Terrestrial Ecosystems

fragmentation, and efforts to design development

so some forest connectivity is retained could

provide important habitat and other benefits,

especially for Neotropical migratory birds.

The effects of human activities on forests are

pervasive, even where there is no direct

management activity. Hence, conservation

requires careful monitoring of forest conditions

and active management responses, even in

remote areas.

The exclusion of fire remains a critical and widespread issue

affecting the health of terrestrial ecosystems. The impacts of

fire exclusion from longleaf pine communities are now well

understood, not only for pine management, but also for other

associated plant and wildlife species. The impacts on other

systems, such as upland hardwoods, are less well known but

likely linked to ongoing forest health problems. While some

progress has been made, the effective reintroduction of fire

into forest ecosystems remains a critical forest conservation

challenge in the South.

Local planners can retain forest connectivity

in urbanizing landscapes to provide habitat

for Neotropical migratory birds.

K. Franzreb

Effective reintroduction of fire into forest

ecosystems remains a critical conservation

challenge for forest managers.

USDA Forest Service
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are

the likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes and

values of southern residents toward forests

and their management, and how have they

changed over time, and do they differ by

demographic groups? ■ How do current

policies, regulations, and laws affect forest

resources and their management? ■ What

motivates private forest landowners to

manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

Southern Forest Resource Assessment Water Quality, Wetlands and Aquatic Ecosystems ■77

Water Quality,

Wetlands, and

Aquatic Ecosystems

Uses of land in the South over the past three centuries have

dramatically altered watercourses and wetlands. Ongoing

forces of change will continue to directly and indirectly impact

water quality, wetland functions, and aquatic species. Still, the

South’s forests produce water of high quality, and the biological

diversity of the South’s aquatic ecosystems is substantial. In

this section, we examine water quality and the effects of forest

uses on water quality, forested wetlands, aquatic species of

concern, and conservation issues regarding water and aquatic

ecosystems in the South.

B. Lea

Ozark National Forest in Arkansas.
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are the

likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes

and values of southern residents toward

forests and their management, and how

have they changed over time, and do they

differ by demographic groups? ■ How do

current policies, regulations, and laws affect

forest resources and their management?

■ What motivates private forest landowners

to manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

■78 Water Quality, Wetlands and Aquatic Ecosystems

Water Quality

Primary Question (chapter 19):

What are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern watersheds?

Related Questions (chapters 21 and 22):

How have forest management activities and

other forest uses influenced water quality,

aquatic habitat, and designated uses in forested

watersheds? What are the implementation

rates and effectiveness of BMPs in the South?

Land uses and management strongly influence the quality

of the water flowing from forests. We examined the overall

condition of southern water quality and primary sources of

water-quality impairment (chapter 19), forest management’s

effects on water quality (chapter 21), and the effectiveness

of water-quality protection efforts through BMPs employed

during forest treatments (chapter 22).

Water quality in the South has been heavily influenced by a

long history of intensive land uses. Conversion of forests and

forested wetlands to primarily agricultural uses started in the

late 1700s, and extensive logging began after the Civil War.

These activities resulted in severe soil erosion and heavy

sedimentation of nearly all southern waterways. Urban

expansion permanently altered hydrology and created chronic

point and nonpoint pollution. The legacies of these actions are

still evident and complicate our ability to discern the effects of

current management and to measure trends in water quality.

These historical legacies and the effect of ongoing urbanization

continue to influence water quality, stream channel stability,

and aquatic life in the South.

Beginning with the passage of the Clean Water Act in

1972, public agencies have focused increasing attention on

minimizing pollution—including nonpoint-source pollution—

from land-disturbing activities. However, water quality in

southern streams and rivers remains variable.

B. Lea

Agriculture and urbanization are the primary causes

of water-quality impairment and wetland loss.
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are

the likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes and

values of southern residents toward forests

and their management, and how have they

changed over time, and do they differ by

demographic groups? ■ How do current

policies, regulations, and laws affect forest

resources and their management? ■ What

motivates private forest landowners to

manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

Southern Forest Resource Assessment Water Quality, Wetlands and Aquatic Ecosystems ■79

Better water quality (30%)

Less serious water quality problems (36%)

More serious water quality problems (15%)

Insufficient data (19%)

We evaluated key aspects of water quality of southern

waters and found:

■ Based on a national watershed characterization program,

approximately 30 percent of the South has relatively good

water quality, 36 percent has moderate water-quality problems,

and 15 percent has more serious water-quality problems;

approximately 19 percent of the South, primarily in western

Texas, does not have sufficient information to provide a

characterization of the status of water quality (chapter 19)

(fig. 46).

■ As reported by southern States, the leading causes

(pollutants) of water-quality impairment from 1988 to

1998 were siltation and sedimentation, bacteria and other

pathogens, and nitrogen, phosphorous, and other nutrients

(chapter 19).

■ The leading sources of water-quality impairment in the

South from 1988 to 1998 were agriculture and urbanization.

Approximately 70 percent of all pollution came from nonpoint

sources (chapter 19).

As for forest management effects:

■ States reported an annual average of approximately 3,600

miles of rivers and streams as impaired by silvicultural

activities from 1988 to 1998. Silviculture ranked 9th out

of the 10 major sources of water-quality impairment during

this time (chapters 19 and 21).

Figure 46—Overall characterization of water quality in

southern watersheds. Source: Chapter 19, Figure 4.

Silviculture ranked 9th of the 10 major water impairment sources. Best

management practices are effective when implemented and maintained. USDA Forest Service
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are the

likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes

and values of southern residents toward

forests and their management, and how

have they changed over time, and do they

differ by demographic groups? ■ How do

current policies, regulations, and laws affect

forest resources and their management?

■ What motivates private forest landowners

to manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

■80 Water Quality, Wetlands and Aquatic Ecosystems

■ Southern forests play an important role in maintaining and

improving water quality in the South. Forested watersheds

have consistently been shown to have lower sediment and

nutrient yields and better aquatic biological conditions than

nonforested watersheds (chapter 19).

■ When properly implemented and maintained, silviculture

BMPs are effective in controlling nonpoint-source pollution.

In their absence, however, water quality can be significantly

impacted by forest management activities (chapter 21).

■ All southern States have adopted voluntary BMPs to protect

water quality during silviculture operations. Twelve of the

13 Southern States have conducted surveys to measure BMP

implementation; Oklahoma is in the process of conducting

its first survey (chapter 22).

■ States report generally high rates of implementation.

However, compliance rates vary from 35 percent to 100 percent

depending on the State, ownership, or BMP category. Overall

BMP compliance tends to be highest on public and industrial

private land and lower on nonindustrial private land. Direct

landowner assistance appears to be positively correlated with

proper BMP implementation (chapter 22).

■ Differences in monitoring methods among States and within

States over time preclude reporting of regional BMP trends

(chapter 22).

■ There is very little information available on the cumulative

effects of past and ongoing timber harvesting and management

on overall watershed health (chapters 19 and 21).

Forested Wetlands

Primary Question (chapter 20):

What are the history, status, and likely

future of forested wetlands in the South?

The South has numerous types of forested wetlands, which

provide a diverse array of water-quality, flood attenuation,

and wildlife habitat benefits. Wetlands of various types have

experienced significant structural changes and permanent

losses. While the rate of wetland loss is declining, the South

has lost more than half of its wetlands between colonial times

(1780) and the 1990s.

In the late 1990s, the 10 Southeastern States (the Assessment

region minus Virginia, Texas, and Oklahoma) contained

The South has lost more than one-half

of its forested wetlands.

USDA Forest Service
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are

the likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes and

values of southern residents toward forests

and their management, and how have they

changed over time, and do they differ by

demographic groups? ■ How do current

policies, regulations, and laws affect forest

resources and their management? ■ What

motivates private forest landowners to

manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

Southern Forest Resource Assessment Water Quality, Wetlands and Aquatic Ecosystems ■81

approximately 32.6 million acres of forested wetlands (chapter

20). More than half of the region’s wetlands are contained in

the Coastal Plain provinces.

Forested wetlands are highly diverse but can be placed into

three major categories: riverine, depression, and flatwoods.

Riverine wetlands—They represent the vast majority of

forested wetlands in the South. They are located on floodplains

and riparian corridors associated with streams and include

deepwater swamps and

alluvial floodplains that

range in size from narrow

riparian strips to broad

alluvial valleys. The major

water sources are overbank

flooding and subsurface

connections with stream

channels. Riverine forested

wetlands store water,

intercept and cycle

nutrients and toxicants,

and provide environments

for wetland flora and

fauna. They may mitigate

flood damage, enhance

water quality, and support characteristic

ecosystems. Because they provide linear

connections across landscapes often

dominated by other land uses, these

types of wetlands also serve as

important corridors for the dispersal

of wildlife species.

Depression wetlands—They include

pocosins, Carolina bays, pond cypress

swamps, and mountain fens. These

wetlands derive from topographic

depressions and receive water from a

variety of sources including precipitation,

overland flow, and ground water. As with

riverine types, benefits are associated with

water retention and filtration and provision

of wildlife habitat. Most depression wetlands are located low

in a watershed, allowing them to play an especially important

role in removing sediments, nutrients, and pollutants. Because

their vegetative structure is typically very heterogeneous, these

areas support highly diverse plant and animal communities.

Carolina bays are located throughout the Atlantic Coastal

Plain, and cypress domes are located primarily in Florida.

Both provide especially important breeding grounds for

imperiled amphibians.

Riverine

wetland.

B. Lea

Depression

wetland.

B. Lea
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are the

likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes

and values of southern residents toward

forests and their management, and how

have they changed over time, and do they

differ by demographic groups? ■ How do

current policies, regulations, and laws affect

forest resources and their management?

■ What motivates private forest landowners

to manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

■82 Water Quality, Wetlands and Aquatic Ecosystems

Mineral soil flats—They are predominately wet pine

flats, shaped by a combination of fire and water

regimes. They are commonly found on areas between

rivers—called interfluves—on extensive lake bottoms

or on large floodplain terraces. The main sources of

water are precipitation and slow drainage associated

with a landscape of low relief. If subjected to periodic

fire, these flats have very few trees. Frequent fire and an

uninterrupted hydrologic regime yield a highly diverse

and unusual floral assemblage. Their herbaceous

species richness is considered to be among the highest

in the Western Hemisphere.

Riverine wetland types dominate in the South,

representing 91 percent of forested wetland area,

compared to approximately 2.5 million acres of

mineral soil flats and less than 1 million acres of depression

wetlands. We found that (chapter 20):

■ All three types of forested wetlands have been and continue

to be influenced directly and indirectly by development.

According to the National Wetland Inventory, 3.5 million acres

of southern forested wetland underwent changes between 1986

and 1997. Ninety percent of the changes were conversions to

another wetland or aquatic habitat type. Of these conversions

95 percent were to scrub-shrub or emergent wetlands. During

the same time period, approximately 119,000 acres of forested

wetland went into urban and rural development, 112,000 acres

to agriculture, and 102,00 acres to intensive silviculture.

Draining and filling of wetlands impairs water storage

capacity and therefore flood protection capacity and water

filtration functions.

■ Upstream urban development and certain agricultural

and silvicultural practices can alter wetland functions.

Mineral soil flat.

Trumpet pitcher plants.

Alligator on the Big Cypress Preserve in Florida.

B. Lea

B. Lea

B. Simon
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are

the likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes and

values of southern residents toward forests

and their management, and how have they

changed over time, and do they differ by

demographic groups? ■ How do current

policies, regulations, and laws affect forest

resources and their management? ■ What

motivates private forest landowners to

manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

Southern Forest Resource Assessment Water Quality, Wetlands and Aquatic Ecosystems ■83

30304

34892

67664

132319

92107

45225

7613 1063

1410 7374

13507

13976 18216

1,001 – 10,000

10,001 – 20,000

20,001 – 40,000

> 40,000

WRP acres

■ Changes in vegetation, species composition, soils, and

wildlife use resulting from forest management activities are

often transitory, especially when stands are naturally

regenerated following harvest.

■ The effects of silvicultural treatments on nutrient cycling

and pollutant sequestration within wetlands are uncertain.

Drainage and bedding of wetlands can impact soils,

hydrologic function, and some species of wildlife. This is an

especially important concern for some amphibian species.

An examination of wetland history and status revealed:

■ The 10 Southeastern States (the Assessment region minus

Virginia, Texas, and Oklahoma) contain approximately 32.6

million acres of forested wetlands (chapter 20). They represent

64 percent of the total in the coterminous United States.

■ Forested wetland losses have been widespread but have

been concentrated in the Lower Mississippi Alluvial Valley,

where losses were primarily to agriculture, and Coastal Flats

of North and South Carolina, where losses have been to

urbanization, agriculture, and silviculture.

■ Rates of wetland losses have declined since the 1970s,

largely as a result of Section 404 of the Clean Water Act,

which regulates dredging and filling of wetlands. However,

functional changes continue to occur in some forested

wetlands as a result of continued urbanization, intensification

of forest management, fire exclusion, and alteration of

hydrologic regimes.

■ Wetland restoration efforts pursuant to the Wetlands

Reserve Program are concentrated in the Lower Mississippi

Alluvial Valley (fig. 47). Tree planting success has often been

acceptable, but restoration of the ecological functions of these

wetlands is difficult to determine and presently unknown.

■ Information on mitigation and

restoration pursuant to Section

404 of the Clean Water

Act is not systematically

compiled and reported.

Thus, successful

implementation of required

mitigation is not reportable.

Figure 47—Number of acres enrolled in WRP

Program based on 1992 to 1997 Natural Resources

Inventory data. Source: Chapter 20, Figure 4.

Anhinga with fish

in Florida.

B. Lea
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are the

likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes

and values of southern residents toward

forests and their management, and how

have they changed over time, and do they

differ by demographic groups? ■ How do

current policies, regulations, and laws affect

forest resources and their management?

■ What motivates private forest landowners

to manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

■84 Water Quality, Wetlands and Aquatic Ecosystems

3.4.3(1a)

Aquatic Species of Concern

Primary Question (chapter 23):

What are the history, status, and likely future

of aquatic habitats and species in the South?

The South’s streams, riparian areas, and wetlands contain a

great diversity of aquatic life (chapter 23). For example, 91

percent of the freshwater mussels described in the world are

present in the South. Modification of aquatic and wetland

habitats has greatly influenced this biota, and effects of past

actions are in some cases particularly severe. For example,

dam construction has irreversibly changed habitats

for certain snails and freshwater mussels that depend

on free-flowing water.

To enumerate and examine species of conservation concern,

the databases of the State Natural Heritage agencies were used

to list species by their global conservation rank. The global

ranks reflect scarcity for the entire range of the species. These

ranks include presumed extinct, possibly extinct, critically

imperiled, imperiled, vulnerable, apparently secure, and

secure. Species of conservation concern include those that

are critically imperiled (extremely rare—observations include

5 or fewer locations or fewer than 1,000 animals—or otherwise

vulnerable to extinction), imperiled (rare—observations

Dam construction has

irreversibly changed

habitats for certain snails

and freshwater mussels.

B. Lea
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are

the likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes and

values of southern residents toward forests

and their management, and how have they

changed over time, and do they differ by

demographic groups? ■ How do current

policies, regulations, and laws affect forest

resources and their management? ■ What

motivates private forest landowners to

manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

Southern Forest Resource Assessment Water Quality, Wetlands and Aquatic Ecosystems ■85

1–2

3–4

5

3.4.3(2)

Rare amphibian species are concentrated

in the Southern Appalachians, the Florida

Panhandle, and central Texas.

Figure 48—The rare aquatic amphibians have three

areas of concentration in the South: central Texas, the

Southern Appalachian Mountains, and the Panhandle

of Florida. Source: Chapter 23, Figure 18.

in 6 to 20 locations or fewer than 2,000 animals—or otherwise

vulnerable to extinction), or vulnerable (21 to 100 locations or

3,000 to 10,000 animals or found only locally in a restricted

area). We evaluated the status of the region’s aquatic species of

concern (chapter 23) and found:

■ Amphibians—Thirty-one amphibian species of concern,

including 28 salamanders, 2 frogs, and 1 toad are located in the

South. These rare amphibians are concentrated in three areas:

the Southern Appalachians, the Florida Panhandle, and central

Texas. Many species in the Appalachians are concentrated in

national forests and national parks. In the Florida Panhandle,

habitat is largely in private ownership (fig. 48).

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are the

likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes

and values of southern residents toward

forests and their management, and how

have they changed over time, and do they

differ by demographic groups? ■ How do

current policies, regulations, and laws affect

forest resources and their management?

■ What motivates private forest landowners

to manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

■86 Water Quality, Wetlands and Aquatic Ecosystems

Mississippi

Ozark

Sabine

Central Texas

Rio Grande

North Atlantic

South Atlantic

Florida

Cumberland

Apalachicola

Mobile

5 5 3

7

49

43

60

30

9

22

4

■ Mussels—The South contains the highest diversity of

mussel species in the world; 91 percent of the world’s known

species occur here, and almost 80 percent of them are endemic

to single watersheds. The region has 191 mussel species of

concern; 67 are critically imperiled. Among several key river

basins, the Tennessee, Cumberland, and Mobile basins host

particularly diverse populations of rare mussels (fig. 49).

Because mussels are long-lived species (up to 100 years),

population trends reflect habitat modifications that occurred

decades earlier. Declines in mussels are most critically linked

to channelization and damming of rivers and the associated

modifications to streambeds, water flow, and sedimentation.

Extirpation of fish species that serve as hosts to mussel

glochidia (juvenile mussels) also contribute to mussel decline.

The “lure” of the pocketbook mussel attracts

a redeye bass, one of the fish species that

serve as hosts to juvenile mussels.

Figure 49—Rare mussels occur in all 11 of the aquatic fauna

provinces described by Parmalee and Bogan (1998). The

Cumberland Province, including the Tennessee and Cumberland

River systems, supports the greatest number of rare mussels.

Source: Chapter 23, Figure 12.

The pocketbook mussel is a species

of concern on the Cherokee National

Forest in Tennessee.

W. Haag

W. Roston
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are

the likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes and

values of southern residents toward forests

and their management, and how have they

changed over time, and do they differ by

demographic groups? ■ How do current

policies, regulations, and laws affect forest

resources and their management? ■ What

motivates private forest landowners to

manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

Southern Forest Resource Assessment Water Quality, Wetlands and Aquatic Ecosystems ■87

Mississippi

Ozark

Sabine

Central Texas

Rio Grande

North Atlantic

South Atlantic

Florida

Cumberland

Apalachicola

Mobile

18 9 1

2

40

28

46

13

6

21

2

The introductions of nonnative species (Asian clams and zebra

mussels) have also accelerated the decline of native mussels.

■ Crayfish and other crustaceans—The South contains a

broad diversity of crustacean species, including 159 species of

concern and 60 that are critically imperiled. While they occur

throughout the South, the area with largest concentration of

crustacean species is the Florida Panhandle. Because the

species are generally endemic to very small areas, modification

of these habitats can have substantial impact on their viability.

While crayfish are generally very resilient—able to withstand

transitory habitat modifications—habitat destruction in small

areas can eliminate entire populations.

■ Fish—The South contains 165 fish species of concern in 14

different families, and their occurrence is widespread. With the

exception of central Mississippi and southern Florida, rare fish

are present throughout the South (fig. 50). Many of these

species are narrowly endemic, especially the darters, minnows,

topminnows, catfish, gambusia, and sculpins. Because of this

high degree of endemism, a few events or even a single event

can have substantial impact on species viability. Declines have

been associated with a wide variety of factors, including habitat

modification, pollution, sedimentation, damming, introduced

species, and interruption of water flow.

■ Snails—The South has 127 snail species of concern: 104

utilize stream habitat, 22 are found in springs and caves, and

1 is a lake snail. The snails found in springs and caves are

narrow endemics concentrated most in Florida. They are

Many fish species, like this Niangua darter, are

narrowly endemic and, therefore, are vulnerable to

the effects of one or two isolated events.

Figure 50—Rare fish occur in all 11 of the aquatic fauna provinces

described by Parmalee and Bogan (1998). The Cumberland

Province, including the Tennessee and Cumberland River

systems, supports the greatest number of rare fish. Source:

Chapter 23, Figure 15.

W. Roston.
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are the

likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes

and values of southern residents toward

forests and their management, and how

have they changed over time, and do they

differ by demographic groups? ■ How do

current policies, regulations, and laws affect

forest resources and their management?

■ What motivates private forest landowners

to manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

■88 Water Quality, Wetlands and Aquatic Ecosystems

especially susceptible to ground-water contamination and

sedimentation. Eighty-nine of the 100 stream species are in the

Tennessee and Mobile River Systems. Because they require freeflowing water, damming has had the greatest impact on these

species. Remnant subpopulations are isolated, thereby limiting

within-population genetic variability. Snails are also susceptible

to pollution and to predation and competition from nonnative

species (e.g., zebra mussels).

■ Insects—One hundred seventy-six insect species of

concern—including 64 stoneflies, 60 caddisflies, 31

dragonflies, and 4 damselflies—are found in the South. Their

nymphal stages require clean flowing water for effective

The sand skink is a reptile that is

federally listed as “threatened.”

feeding. Adults forage in adjacent terrestrial habitats. Declines

have been strongly associated with dams, which reduce flow

and allow for sedimentation of habitat. All of these species are

vulnerable to further sedimentation and pesticide pollution.

■ Reptiles—Nineteen species of concern, including one

critically imperiled species, are found in the South. Many of

these species are located in a large contiguous area stretching

from central and southern Mississippi and Alabama to the

Florida Panhandle. While these species are generally resilient,

they are narrow endemics and so especially susceptible to local

events. Specific threats include harvest for pets, indiscriminant

killing, and damage to nests.

B. Simons
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are

the likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes and

values of southern residents toward forests

and their management, and how have they

changed over time, and do they differ by

demographic groups? ■ How do current

policies, regulations, and laws affect forest

resources and their management? ■ What

motivates private forest landowners to

manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

Southern Forest Resource Assessment Water Quality, Wetlands and Aquatic Ecosystems ■89

Conservation Issues

Primary Question (chapter 20):

What are the history, status, and likely

future of forested wetlands in the South?

Related Question (chapter 23):

What are the history, status, and likely future

of aquatic habitats and species in the South?

Roughly half of the South’s forested wetlands were lost

between colonial times (1780) and the 1990s, primarily

through clearing for agriculture. In the last decade, attention

has begun to focus on restoring these areas, primarily in the

Lower Mississippi Alluvial Valley where the most extensive

loss of forested wetlands has occurred. Much of the restoration

activity has been funded through the Wetland Reserve

Program, which encourages afforestation of agricultural

areas and supports conservation easements of up to 30

years or into perpetuity.

Through the Wetland Reserve Program and several other

restoration programs, about 195,000 acres in the Lower

Mississippi Alluvial Valley have been replanted. However, the

full restoration of wetland functions requires much more than

tree cover. The effects of massive deforestation, extensive

USDA Forest Service

drainage systems, and channelization of streams and rivers

make restoration of geomorphic, hydrologic, and ecological

processes extremely difficult. Wetland restoration activities

will require long-term efforts extending far beyond initial

tree planting.

Wetland losses have slowed after the Clean

Water Act and the Wetlands Reserve Program.
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are the

likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes

and values of southern residents toward

forests and their management, and how

have they changed over time, and do they

differ by demographic groups? ■ How do

current policies, regulations, and laws affect

forest resources and their management?

■ What motivates private forest landowners

to manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

■90 Water Quality, Wetlands and Aquatic Ecosystems

A regulatory effort is the mitigation of wetland losses. These

projects, carried out under Section 404 of the Clean Water Act,

have been applied in several locations. However, a lack of

systematic record keeping and monitoring prevents a regional

assessment of their effectiveness. Some local assessments of

these programs indicate that they may have only limited

success in replacing the wetland functions lost through

permitted conversions.

This Assessment of aquatic species highlights the prevalence

and importance of endemism, in which a species’ range is

limited to a narrow geographic area. Crayfish, reptiles, fish,

and snail species of concern are predominantly endemic. As

a result, local actions can have substantial impacts on local

species persistence, so that in some cases altering even small

amounts of habitat can have significant implications. This

potentially disproportionate impact of small actions places a

high value on disseminating information on the locations

and natural histories of endemic species.

Several focal areas for aquatic species are defined by this

analysis. One is northern Florida, including the Panhandle,

which has a concentration of rare reptiles, amphibians,

snails, and crayfish. Rare mussels and snails are

concentrated in the Mobile and Tennessee River Systems.

The Southern Appalachians also have a very high

concentration of the rare amphibians. These are areas where

aquatic ecosystems are especially susceptible to structural

changes in aquatic and adjacent terrestrial ecosystems.

Forest management usually has a relatively small role to

play in the persistence of aquatic species. Habitats of

mussels and snails have been completely restructured by

damming and sedimentation from large-scale land use

conversions. These impacts are essentially irreversible. For

some species, forest management approaches play important

roles in species persistence. BMPs that reduce sedimentation

and maintain streamside vegetation are especially important

in protecting species that depend on streamside habitats.

These include crayfish, amphibians, snails, and insects,

especially in areas of concentration defined above.

Conversely, forest practices or other activities that disturb

habitats along streams can have a disproportionately

significant impact on certain aquatic species.

The fine-lined pocketbook, which is federally

listed as “threatened,” is found on the

Talledega National Forest in Alabama.

W. Haag
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are

the likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes and

values of southern residents toward forests

and their management, and how have they

changed over time, and do they differ by

demographic groups? ■ How do current

policies, regulations, and laws affect forest

resources and their management? ■ What

motivates private forest landowners to

manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

Southern Forest Resource Assessment Discussion ■91

Discussion

Broad Findings

Currently several forces of change are altering southern

forests, raising questions about the sustainability of their

functions and values. The first steps toward achieving their

sustainability are to understand and anticipate the forces of

change that shape forested ecosystems. Ultimately,

sustainability requires that society manage change. Today’s

actions will influence whether and to what degree future

generations will continue to benefit from the unique, inherent

values of southern forests.

This Assessment has taken steps toward a fuller

understanding of forest conditions and potential for their

change by (1) identifying the forces of change that continue to

reshape forests, (2) describing current resource conditions and

their possible futures, and (3) highlighting where additional

information is needed to fully identify and deal with concerns

and opportunities. The findings of this Assessment have led

us to some broad observations about the status and possible

future of southern forests.

Several forces are affecting the condition of southern

forests—The South is an economically, culturally, and

ecologically complex region, and multiple forces of change are

simultaneously affecting forest conditions. Timber harvesting

and management and land use changes into and out of forest

cover influence forest area, structure, biodiversity, and water

quality. Other human influences, such as atmospheric

pollution, exclusion of fire from fire-dependent communities,

and the introduction of nonnative plants, diseases, and insects

continue to reshape the composition, productivity, and

ecological function of forests. Such influences are pervasive

and difficult to predict and manage. All of these forces interact

in their effects and will play out differently in different parts of

Wildfire kills trees and

threatens nearby homes on

the “wildland-urban interface.”

B. Lea.
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are the

likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes

and values of southern residents toward

forests and their management, and how

have they changed over time, and do they

differ by demographic groups? ■ How do

current policies, regulations, and laws affect

forest resources and their management?

■ What motivates private forest landowners

to manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

■92 Discussion

the region. As a result, the extent, structure, and health of

forests of the South are changing and will continue to change

in the future.

Urbanization has a substantial impact on the extent,

condition, and health of forests—Among forces of change,

urbanization will have the most direct, immediate, and

permanent effects on the extent, condition, and health of

forests. While urban uses currently represent a small share of

land in the South, they are expanding rapidly. Forecast models

predict that about 12 million acres of southern forests will be

urbanized between 1992 and 2020. Nineteen million acres of

forest are forecast to be developed between 2020 and 2040.

In addition, population growth in rural areas means that more

forests are increasingly influenced by human presence. In

these areas remnant forests are becoming more fragmented.

An important and pervasive direct result of urbanization

of southern forests will be increasing limitations on forest

management options, such as prescribed burning, that are

necessary to maintain productive and healthy forests.

Population is growing, and the social context is changing—

From 1980 to 2000, total population increased at a higher

rate in the South than in the Nation. Through the 1980s,

population growth in the South was focused primarily in

urban areas. Many rural areas experienced population losses.

Since then, populations increased in nearly all of the South’s

counties, expanding the interface between people and forests.

The demographic profile of the region has changed toward

a more urban population. These demographic changes are

reflected in attitudes and values held about the region’s

forests. Public values about forests vary among sectors of the

population and include both commodity and biocentric views.

In urban areas and at their periphery, certain forest benefits

are becoming increasingly scarce. Among these are

opportunities for forest recreation. While the demand for

recreation will increase as the population grows, recreational

access to private land is expected to continue to decrease.

As a result, congestion and competition between recreation

user groups for access to and use of the region’s public forests

will increase.

Access to recreation

opportunities is becoming

scarce on private land.

USDA Forest Service
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are

the likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes and

values of southern residents toward forests

and their management, and how have they

changed over time, and do they differ by

demographic groups? ■ How do current

policies, regulations, and laws affect forest

resources and their management? ■ What

motivates private forest landowners to

manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

Southern Forest Resource Assessment Discussion ■93

Total forest area within the South is forecast to remain

stable, but subregional and compositional changes will

continue—The South has rebounded from widespread

deforestation of the early 1900s to become a heavily forested

region. While the total area of forest has remained relatively

constant over the past 30 years, 1 to 2 percent of forest land

moved into or out of forest cover each year. We forecast little

change in the total area of forests between 1995 and 2040,

as losses of forests to urban uses are expected to be offset by

conversions of agricultural land to forest. Urban development

is forecast to be concentrated in the eastern part of the region

and conversion of agricultural land to forest cover in the west,

resulting in an overall westward shift in forest area as well

changes in shares of forest types. These shifts in forest area and

composition will alter the region’s forests in ways that could

be significant in affected areas. For example, loss and

fragmentation of forests in some areas and an increasing share

of pine plantations in others could have important localized

economic and ecological implications.

Timber production is forecast to expand but not deplete

forest inventories below present levels—While the total area

of forest land has remained relatively stable and harvests have

expanded since the 1970s, the timber inventory on these

forests has increased by more than 70 percent. Softwood

inventories leveled off in the 1990s, but recent inventories and

model forecasts indicate that they will expand as new and

anticipated pine plantations grow to maturity. Hardwood

inventories continued to increase

through the 1990s, but at a

decreasing rate. A region-wide trend

of increasing removals relative to net

hardwood growth is forecast to

continue, resulting in the total

inventory of hardwood forests

peaking in 2025, then declining to

about current inventory levels in

2040. While region-wide removals

are forecast to exceed growth in

2025, this occurs at least 10 years

earlier in four States. As with

softwoods, additional investment in

hardwood management could

increase future growth and

inventories of these forests, but this

response has not yet been observed.

Investment in pine plantations is forecast to continue to

expand to meet increased softwood demand, resulting in

some changes to the ecological characteristics of southern

forests—Historically, private landowners in the South have

responded to rising softwood timber prices by investing in tree

planting and more intensive management. The result has been

an increase in the area of pine plantations in the South, from

about 2 million acres in 1952 to 32 million acres in 1999.

Forecasting models predict that pine plantation acreage will

USDA Forest Service

High-intensity management can increase

yields by 65 to 100 percent, but can result in

varying ecological changes.
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are the

likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes

and values of southern residents toward

forests and their management, and how

have they changed over time, and do they

differ by demographic groups? ■ How do

current policies, regulations, and laws affect

forest resources and their management?

■ What motivates private forest landowners

to manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

■94 Discussion

increase to 54 million acres in 2040. These new pine

plantations, which will be derived from the afforestation of

agricultural lands and conversion of hardwood, natural pine,

and mixed pine/hardwood forests, enhance softwood timber

productivity and concentrate timber harvesting on fewer acres

than would otherwise be necessary to meet demand. For

example, plantation forests accounted for 15 percent of

timberland and 12 percent of total growing stock volume

in the 1990s, but 43 percent of softwood net annual growth

and 35 percent of annual softwood removals (chapter 16).

Increased pine plantation acreage could also result in

varying ecological changes, depending on stand origin and

management. For example, young planted pine stands provide

early successional habitats within which many species thrive.

Subsequent management activities, however, largely determine

plant diversity and habitat structure. While these dynamics

have been studied at the forest stand level, they are not well

understood at a broader landscape scale.

Changing land use and harvest patterns will have important

impacts on people—Land use and forest management changes

can influence people in a variety of ways. Historically, the

southern economy has been inextricably tied to various uses

of its land base. The wood products industry, for example,

currently accounts for about 6 percent of regional employment

and 8 percent of income. Forecasts of increasing timber

harvests imply more jobs in the wood products sector,

especially outside the traditional core timber production

areas. Forests also contribute to the quality of life by providing

recreation opportunities, visual backdrops, and a variety of

environmental amenities. Because people derive value from

the landscape condition in which they live, abrupt changes in

its condition, such as when timber harvesting is increased in

areas where it had not been common in recent years, or when

urban expansion occurs, can lead to costs for some people as

others benefit.

In such areas, the values of green space and large remnant

forests will likely increase. Whatever the cause, the variety

of effects of forest changes on local communities is likely to

continue to result in controversy and an increase in local

regulation of land uses and forest treatments.

B. Lea

Tom Brown City Park in Tallahassee, FL.
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are

the likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes and

values of southern residents toward forests

and their management, and how have they

changed over time, and do they differ by

demographic groups? ■ How do current

policies, regulations, and laws affect forest

resources and their management? ■ What

motivates private forest landowners to

manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

Southern Forest Resource Assessment Discussion ■95

Southern forests have proven resilient, but some

components are scarce and therefore vulnerable to change—

Through the 20th century, the South has recovered from a

largely cutover, exhausted, eroded condition to become one

of the most productive and biologically diverse forest regions

in the world. However, the presence of numerous increasingly

rare forest communities and imperiled aquatic and terrestrial

animal species are reasons for concern. Such forest

communities include certain wetlands types, longleaf pine

ecosystems, old-growth forests, and spruce-fir forests. Added

to the 132 terrestrial species of conservation concern are

numerous species of amphibians, fish, and other aquatic

species that are either critically imperiled or vulnerable

to extinction.

All of these communities and species are likely to continue

being adversely affected by multiple forces of change.

Protection and restoration efforts, already underway in some

areas, provide some means of addressing these changes.

Ultimately, with a few exceptions, their future lies largely in

the hands of private forest owners who own the vast majority

of forest communities and habitat.

Scarce forest types have high ecological value—To borrow

the adage from economics, scarcity defines value. The rare

forest communities in the South (above) have especially high

ecological value. Thus, much consideration of biodiversity

is focused on a relatively small share of the forest landscape.

With the exception of old-growth and spruce-fir communities,

these rare communities are largely on private land.

Checkered madtom, an uncommon fish species found

on the upper White River drainage in Arkansas.

The spruce-fir community has high

ecological value and high vulnerability

to human-caused disturbances.

B. Lea

W. Haag
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are the

likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes

and values of southern residents toward

forests and their management, and how

have they changed over time, and do they

differ by demographic groups? ■ How do

current policies, regulations, and laws affect

forest resources and their management?

■ What motivates private forest landowners

to manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

■96 Discussion

In the urbanizing areas of the South, unfragmented forest

cover is becoming increasingly scarce, especially in the

Piedmont. In these areas, the value of residual forest cover is

increasing, especially as sources of outdoor recreation and as

habitat for certain wildlife species. For area-sensitive wildlife

species, large contiguous blocks of forest become especially

valuable as refuges in areas fragmented by urbanization or

other forest disturbances. In these areas, public forests provide

stable blocks of contiguous forest cover, thus the conservation

value of this public land, which is especially scarce in the

rapidly urbanizing Piedmont and Coastal Plain ecological

regions, is very high and will increase in the future.

Subregions of Concern

We examined the spatial distribution of the various forces of

change described in “Forces of Change” and the implications

of change described in“Conditions of Southern Forests”

to identify broad areas where changes may have substantial

impacts. This was intended to identify broad subregions

of concern, not to be an exhaustive review of impacts.

We recognize that there are likely several smaller areas that

are seriously impacted by anticipated changes.

Land markets—Forest losses are forecast to be 5 percent

or more of land area in six ecological sections (chapter 6):

8 percent in the Southern Appalachian Piedmont; 7 percent

in Southern Ridge and Valley; and 5 percent in the Blue Ridge

Mountains, Florida Coastal Lowlands, Central Ridge and

Valley, and Atlantic Coastal Flatlands.

Timber markets—Forecasts of timber management indicate

that plantation growth as well as area of plantations will

be most heavily concentrated in the Outer Coastal Plain,

including Atlantic Coastal Flatlands, Lower Coastal Plains

and Flatwoods, and Florida Coastal Lowlands (chapter 13).

Loss of other (nonplanted) forest types will be highest in

Florida (58 percent).
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are

the likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes and

values of southern residents toward forests

and their management, and how have they

changed over time, and do they differ by

demographic groups? ■ How do current

policies, regulations, and laws affect forest

resources and their management? ■ What

motivates private forest landowners to

manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

Southern Forest Resource Assessment Discussion ■97

Biotic factors—Many native and nonnative organisms have

wide distribution in the South. Several nonnative organisms,

especially newly introduced ones, are spatially focused with

many moving from the North. Gypsy Moth, oak decline,

dogwood anthracnose, beech bark disease, and butternut

disease are generally focused in the Blue Ridge Mountains,

Cumberland Mountains, Cumberland Plateau, and Ridge

and Valley ecological sections. Hemlock and balsam

woolly adelgids are causing substantial mortality in

the Blue Ridge Mountains.

Physical factors—The effects of most physical factors

described in this report—such as ozone pollution, climate

change, and fire—are widely spread across the South.

The major exception is acid deposition, which has negative

impacts concentrated in the Blue Ridge Mountains.

These forces of change and their potential implications

for forest systems are especially focused in four areas

of the South.

Southern Appalachians—This region will be influenced by

a combination of human, biological, and physical factors over

the next two decades. Population growth and land use changes

will increase the human presence in many forests. Forest-based

recreation demands are focused on the Southern Appalachians,

and increased competition between recreation user groups is

anticipated. A complex of forest health issues is also affecting

all forest types in this region and has the potential to

restructure forest ecosystems.

■ The spruce-fir forest community is in decline because of

the balsam woolly adelgid, a nonnative insect that kills highelevation firs, combined with acid deposition and ozone

pollution. Here is the most extreme case of ecological decline

in the South.

■ Upland hardwood types are also subject to changes from

several sources. Oak decline combined with gypsy moth

infestations could soon reshape forest structure by reducing

The Southern Appalachians are experiencing

increases in recreation demands, such as this spot

on the Pisgah National Forest in North Carolina.

USDA Forest Service
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are the

likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes

and values of southern residents toward

forests and their management, and how

have they changed over time, and do they

differ by demographic groups? ■ How do

current policies, regulations, and laws affect

forest resources and their management?

■ What motivates private forest landowners

to manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

■98 Discussion

oaks in the overstory. In addition, dogwood anthracnose,

butternut canker, and beech bark disease will greatly reduce

the distribution of their respective host trees in much of the

area. Loss of these tree species along with oaks will reduce the

production of both hard and soft mast and therefore impact

mast-dependent wildlife species.

■ The hemlock woolly adelgid kills both the eastern and the

Carolina hemlock and is currently moving down the Blue

Ridge from the Shenandoah Valley. While they occupy a

narrow range of sites, hemlocks influence stream microclimate

in headwater reaches, so loss of this species can have

disproportionate influence on the quality of water in the

region. Because the Southern Appalachians are headwater

areas for several developing metropolitan areas in the

Piedmont, changes in water quality and water production

could have important economic implications.

Piedmont—Forecasts of land use change suggest that the

Piedmont, from Virginia to Georgia, will experience the

greatest loss of forest area among the ecological sections in the

South. Already this heavily forested region has a very low ratio

of interior forest to total forest, indicating a high degree of

forest fragmentation. This fragmentation is likely to continue

as the populations of urban counties and interspersed rural

counties continue to grow. As a result, wildlife habitats will

be altered for certain key bird species including Neotropical

migrants. Fragmentation, combined with invasive nonnative

plants and an increased human presence, will tend to alter the

Kudzu is one of the nonnative plants that are

combining with fragmentation and increased

human presence to alter the ecology of forests.

R. Kindlund

USDA Forest Service

Growing populations and declining forest area

will mean recreation scarcity for city dwellers.
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are

the likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes and

values of southern residents toward forests

and their management, and how have they

changed over time, and do they differ by

demographic groups? ■ How do current

policies, regulations, and laws affect forest

resources and their management? ■ What

motivates private forest landowners to

manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

Southern Forest Resource Assessment Discussion ■99

ecological values of forests in this region. Because populations

will grow and forest area will decline, we also expect an

increasing scarcity of forest-based recreational opportunities

for city dwellers.

Lower Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plains—Coastal flatwoods

areas are also forecast to lose large shares of forest to urban

development. Forest loss combined with intensified forest

management could have cumulative negative effects on coastal

wetlands through direct wetland loss and modification of

hydrological regimes. The flatwoods are one of two areas with

the highest concentration of endangered animal and plant

species in the South. They contain many imperiled

amphibians, crustaceans, and reptiles.

Florida Panhandle—This area of coastal flatwoods has

especially high concentrations of critically imperiled species

and forces of change. In the Panhandle, we anticipate a rapid

increase in population and development spreading from central

Florida. Intensive forest management and agricultural uses

already dominate the rural landscape. This area is a hot spot

for imperiled species, especially aquatic species. High rates of

species endemism, especially among amphibians, suggest that

wetlands and other wet habitats in this area have very high

ecological value and that local actions could have far-reaching

implications for species persistence.

Development is expected to spread from central

Florida into the Florida Panhandle.

H. Riekerk
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are the

likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes

and values of southern residents toward

forests and their management, and how

have they changed over time, and do they

differ by demographic groups? ■ How do

current policies, regulations, and laws affect

forest resources and their management?

■ What motivates private forest landowners

to manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

■100 Discussion

Implications for Ongoing Programs

Monitoring—The crux of sustainability is to understand

change and respond to it. It is, therefore, imperative to have

timely data with which to gauge changes in forest conditions.

As the pace of change has quickened in the South, so has the

standard for timeliness. Forest surveys were originally

designed to track variables that changed relatively slowly.

Development has quickened, harvests have doubled over the

past 30 years, and planted forests have grown rapidly. More

timely data, therefore, are needed. When fully implemented,

ongoing changes from periodic to continuous forest

inventories conducted by the Forest Service in partnership

with Southern States will address this issue.

More timely, consistent, and comprehensive data at

appropriate scales also are needed for monitoring water quality,

wetland modification and loss, and wetland restoration.

Delivery of forestry assistance—The changing demographics

of forest landowners suggest changing preferences and

management objectives for private forests. Many private

tracts are in the wildland-urban interface. It seems clear that

nonindustrial private forest landowners, especially in the

urbanizing eastern portion of the region, will need a broad

range of silvicultural options and assistance now and

in the future.

It is also likely that with increasingly intensive management

necessary to meet expected timber demands in an increasingly

regulatory climate, landowner assistance will need to

increase the focus on protecting and enhancing nontimber

forest resources such as water quality and terrestrial and

aquatic habitats.

Delivery of forestry assistance will

become more important than in the past.

Georgia Forestry Commission
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are

the likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes and

values of southern residents toward forests

and their management, and how have they

changed over time, and do they differ by

demographic groups? ■ How do current

policies, regulations, and laws affect forest

resources and their management? ■ What

motivates private forest landowners to

manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

Southern Forest Resource Assessment Discussion ■101

B. Lea

Public land is under increasing

pressure to provide more

recreation opportunities . . .

. . . requiring innovative management

to reduce competition and mitigate

damage to resources.

USDA Forest Service

Public land—Demands for forest-based recreation

opportunities are expanding rapidly. Private land is becoming

less accessible for these kinds of activities, so public land is

coming under increasing pressure to supply a broad variety

of recreation opportunities. Innovative management is needed

to deal with increased recreation, to reduce competition

between recreation groups, and to mitigate resource damages.

In some parts of the South, public land provides islands of

interior forest habitat. These habitats have very high and

increasing ecological value as refuges for rare species.
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are the

likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes

and values of southern residents toward

forests and their management, and how

have they changed over time, and do they

differ by demographic groups? ■ How do

current policies, regulations, and laws affect

forest resources and their management?

■ What motivates private forest landowners

to manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

■102 Discussion

Knowledge Gaps and

Scientific Uncertainties

As with any endeavor of this scope, an assessment of

knowledge identifies the extent of our ignorance. Available

information has allowed us to identify several emerging issues

about the sustainability of southern forests, but additional

information is needed to refine understanding and more clearly

identify problems and solutions. Each chapter in the Technical

Report identifies key uncertainties in specific topic areas.

The following are some key issues that cut across the various

topic areas.

Expanding populations and impacts on ecosystems—

More heavily populated rural and urban landscapes will

impact wildlife, water, and other benefits derived from forested

ecosystems in the South. Additional information is needed

to reduce uncertainties regarding: (1) forecasts of how and

where these changes might occur, (2) how human population

density influences forest ecosystems and options for their

management, and (3) how development can be designed

to promote forest sustainability.

Markets, management, and values—Because private

landowners control most southern forests, forest conditions

are determined by private management choices. These choices

are heavily influenced by markets for forest goods and services

and by other values derived from forests. A full accounting and

understanding of how values are formed and how decisions are

made is crucial for clarifying how forest uses and the flow of

benefits will change in the future. Additional work in this area

is needed to refine methods for forecasting change in forest

area and broad forest types.

Forest productivity—The productivity of forest ecosystems

is a key factor in determining land allocation, forest use, and

ultimately forest conditions across the South. Productivity

extends beyond timber production to include the provision

of wildlife, clean water, and other benefits of forests, and is

influenced to uncertain degrees by several forces of change.

Forecasting ecological changes—This Assessment has

highlighted the multiple forces of change at work in the South’s

forests. Yet tools are not available for: (1) forecasting the

implications of these multiple, interacting changes on the area,

structure, and function of southern forest ecosystems, and

(2) fully understanding the impacts on values that are derived

from these systems. Such tools would help identify emerging

scarcities within the region.
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are

the likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes and

values of southern residents toward forests

and their management, and how have they

changed over time, and do they differ by

demographic groups? ■ How do current

policies, regulations, and laws affect forest

resources and their management? ■ What

motivates private forest landowners to

manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

Southern Forest Resource Assessment Discussion ■103

Analysis at landscape and regional scales—Science and

management conducted at these broad scales are relatively new

endeavors. Most forest research has been conducted at very

fine scales, often without the information needed to develop

implications at broader scales. When the scale at which the

science is conducted does not match the questions that are

being asked, answers are often incomplete.

Fire ecology and management—Elimination of natural fire

cycles is one of the most substantial alterations imposed by

humans on the forested ecosystems of the South. Uncertainties

exist regarding: (1) the role of fire in specific ecotypes, and

(2) strategies for effectively and safely reintroducing fire into

forest ecosystems.

Pine plantations and ecosystem functions—Some

portions of the South will see increased concentrations

of pine plantations. Landscape-level ecological implications

of increased pine plantations are uncertain. Additional

information on the wildlife implications of expanding pine

plantations is needed, especially in the Coastal Plain of

Georgia, Alabama, Florida, and Mississippi.

Forest management approaches—This Assessment has

described an increasingly complex environment for conducting

forest management and suggests a need for a broader array of

management strategies. New management approaches are

especially needed for managing forests in wildland-urban

interface areas.

R. Kindlund Global change research in North Carolina.
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are the

likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes

and values of southern residents toward

forests and their management, and how

have they changed over time, and do they

differ by demographic groups? ■ How do

current policies, regulations, and laws affect

forest resources and their management?

■ What motivates private forest landowners

to manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

■104 Discussion
The USDA prohibits discrimination in all its programs

and activities on the basis of race, color, national origin,

sex, religion, political beliefs, sexual orientation, or

marital or familial status (Not all prohibited bases apply

to all programs). Persons with disabilities who require

alternative means for communication of program

information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should

contact the USDA's TARGET Center at 202-720-2600

(voice and TDD).

 To file a complaint of discrimination, write USDA,

Director, Office of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten

Building, 1400 Independence Avenue, SW, Washington,

DC 20250-9410 or call 202-720-5964 (voice and TDD).

USDA is an equal opportunity employer.

Wear, David N.; Greis, John G. Southern forest resource assessment:

summary report. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS-54. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department

of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station. 103 p.

The Southern Forest Resource Assessment (SFRA) provides a

comprehensive analysis of the history, status, and likely future of forests

in the U.S. South. This report draws together and synthesizes the detailed

findings contained in the SFRA Technical Report (General Technical

Report SRS-53). The mechanisms of several forces of change influencing

southern forests and their effects on social systems, terrestrial and aquatic

ecosystems, and forest health are described. Several broad findings

regarding the future of southern forests and subregions of conservation

concern are identified.

Keywords: Integrated assessment, forest sustainability, conservation.

Printed on recycled paper
■ What are the history, status, and projected

future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and

species in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future of native plant

communities in the South? ■ What are the

likely effects of expanding human

populations, urbanization and infrastructure

development on wildlife and their habitats?

■ What are the historical and projected future

impacts of forest management and access on

terrestrial ecosystems in the South? ■ What

conditions will be needed to maintain animal

species associations in the South? ■ How

have land uses changed in the South and

how might changes in the future affect the

area of forests? ■ What are the attitudes

and values of southern residents toward

forests and their management, and how

have they changed over time, and do they

differ by demographic groups? ■ How do

current policies, regulations, and laws affect

forest resources and their management?

■ What motivates private forest landowners

to manage their forest land and how are

their management objectives formed?

■ What role do forests play in employment

and local economies in the South? ■ What

are the supplies of and demands for forestbased recreation and other noncommodity

uses of forests in the South? ■ How do

forests and their uses influence the quality

of life in the South? ■ What are the history,

status and projected future demands for and

supplies of wood products in the South?

■ What are the status and trends of forest

management practices in the South? ■ How

might existing and new technologies

influence forest operations and the resultant

conditions of forests? ■ What are the

history, status and projected future of

southern forests? ■ How have biological

agents including insects and disease

influenced the overall health of the South’s

forests and how will they likely affect it in

the future? ■ How have abiotic factors,

including environmental stressors such

as air pollution, influenced the overall

health of the South’s forests, and what

are future effects likely to be? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future

of water quality in southern forested

watersheds? ■ What are the history, status,

and likely future of forested wetlands in the

South? ■ How have forest management

activities and other forest uses influenced

water quality, aquatic habitat, and

designated uses in forested watersheds?

■ What are the implementation rates and

effectiveness of BMPs in the South? ■ What

are the history, status, and likely future of

aquatic habitats and species in the South?

USDA Forest Service

Environmental Protection Agency

U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

Tennessee Valley Authority

In collaboration with the Southern

Group of State Foresters and the

Southeastern Association of Fish

and Wildlife Agencies

General Technical Report SRS-54