Service Assessment

HURRICANE 

FRAN

August 28 - September 8, 1996

U.S. Department of Commerce

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

National Weather Service

Silver Spring, MD

July 1997
ii

Preface

The primary purpose of this Service Assessment is to document the National Weather Service’s

(NWS) performance in fulfilling its mission of providing timely warnings and accurate forecasts

prior to and during Hurricane Fran. The NWS’s products and services used by emergency

managers and others are key to preparedness for and the mitigation of a tropical cyclone’s

impact. This warning process is a partnership between the NWS and all organizations charged

with responding to natural hazards. We in the NWS will continue to forge and nurture

relationships to ensure the best possible warning service for our citizens.

Susan Zevin

Deputy Assistant Administrator

 for Operations

July 1997
iii

Table of Contents

Page

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii

Acronyms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv

Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi

Executive Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix

Summary of Findings and Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi

Chapter 1 National Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

National Hurricane Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Hydrometeorological Prediction Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Chapter 2 Eastern Region Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

APPENDICES

Appendix A Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-1

Appendix B Meteorological Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-1

Appendix C Summary of Fatalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-1

Appendix D Initial Public Issuance by Hydrologic Product Category . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-1
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Acronyms

AFOS Automation of Field Operations and Services

ALERT Automated Local Evaluation in Real-Time

ASOS Automated Surface Observing System

AVN Aviation Model

BAMD deep-layer Beta and Advection Model

COE U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

DARDC Device for Automatic Remote Data Collection

ECMWF European Center for Medium Range Weather Forecasting

EDT Eastern Daylight Time

EMWIN Emergency Managers Weather Information Network

EOC Emergency Operations Center

ERH Eastern Region Headquarters

ESF Flood Potential Statement

Eta Eta Model

FAA Federal Aviation Administration

FEMA Federal Emergency Management Agency

FFA Flood/Flash Flood Watch

FFW Flood/Flash Flood Warning

FLS Flood Statement

FLW River Flood Warning

ft feet 

GFDI Interpolated version of the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory model

GOES Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite

HAS Hydrometeorological Analysis and Support

HCM Hydrometeorological Coordination Message

HLS Hurricane Local Statement

HLT Hurricane Liaison Team

HPC Hydrometeorological Prediction Center

HSA Hydrologic Service Area

IFLOWS Integrated Flood Observing and Warning System

kts knots

km kilometer

m meter

MAR Modernization and Restructuring

MARFC Middle Atlantic River Forecast Center

mb millibar

MIC Meteorologist in Charge

MPC Marine Prediction Center

mph miles per hour

MRF Medium-Range Forecast Model

msl mean sea level

NAWAS National Warning System
v

NCEP National Centers for Environmental Prediction

NERFC Northeast River Forecast Center

NEXRAD Next Generation Weather Radar

NGM Nested Grid Model

N.G.V.D. National Geodetic Vertical Datum

NHC National Hurricane Center

nm nautical miles

NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

NOS National Ocean Service

NWS National Weather Service

NWSFO NEXRAD Weather Service Forecast Office

NWSO NEXRAD Weather Service Office

OH Office of Hydrology

OHRFC Ohio River Forecast Center

OM Office of Meteorology

QPF Quantitative Precipitation Forecast

RFC River Forecast Center

SERFC Southeast River Forecast Center

SLOSH Sea, Lake, and Overland Surge from Hurricanes

SOO Science and Operations Officer

SPC Storm Prediction Center

TPC Tropical Prediction Center

UKMET United Kingdom Meteorological Office

USGS U.S. Geological Survey

UTC Coordinated Universal Time

WCM Warning Coordination Meteorologist

WSH Weather Service Headquarters

WSR-88D Weather Surveillance Radar-1988 Doppler
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Acknowledgments

Each NWS field office and NWS Regional Office affected by Fran conducted a survey of the

services they provided. Additionally, assessments were prepared by the National Centers that

provided products and services related to Fran. The Office of Meteorology (OM) and Office of

Hydrology (OH) then collated these reports into the final Service Assessment report. The

individuals primarily responsible for the assessment are as follows. 

NWS Headquarters

Scott Kiser, Customer Service Core, OM, Weather Service Headquarters (WSH), Silver Spring,

Maryland

Frank Richards, Hydrologic Information Center, OH, WSH, Silver Spring, Maryland

Linda Kremkau, Technical Editor, Customer Service Core, OM, WSH, Silver Spring, Maryland

NWS National Centers

Max Mayfield, Hurricane Specialist, National Hurricane Center (NHC), Miami, Florida

Stephen Baig, Oceanographer, Tropical Prediction Center (TPC), Miami, Florida

Mike Hopkins, Oceanographer , TPC, Miami, Florida

Frank Lapore, Public Affairs Officer, TPC, Miami, Florida

Mark Klein, Meteorologist, Hydrometeorological Prediction Center (HPC), Camp Springs,

Maryland

Bob Johns, Operational Guidance Branch, Storm Prediction Center (SPC), Kansas City,

Missouri

NWS Eastern Region and Field Offices

Peter Gabrielsen, Deputy Chief, Hydrologic Services Division, Eastern Region Headquarters

(ERH), Bohemia, New York

Harvey Thurm, Synoptic Scale Meteorologist, ERH, Bohemia, New York
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Steve Rich, Meteorologist in Charge (MIC), Next Generation Weather Radar (NEXRAD)

Weather Service Office (NWSO), Charleston, South Carolina

Jerry Harrison, Warning Coordination Meteorologist (WCM), NWSO, Charleston, South

Carolina

Bernie Palmer, MIC, NEXRAD Weather Service Forecast Office (NWSFO), Columbia, South

Carolina

Steve Naglic, WCM, NWSFO, Columbia, South Carolina

Richard Anthony, MIC, NWSO, Wilmington, North Carolina

Tom Matheson, WCM, NWSO, Wilmington, North Carolina

Tom Kriehn, MIC, NWSO, Morehead City, North Carolina

Dan Bartholf, WCM, NWSO, Morehead City, North Carolina

Steve Harned, MIC, NWSFO, Raleigh, North Carolina

George Lemons, WCM, NWSFO, Raleigh, North Carolina

Michael T. Emlaw, WCM, NWSO, Blacksburg, Virginia

Michael E. Gillen, Senior Service Hydrologist, NWSO, Blacksburg, Virginia

Tony Siebers, MIC, NWSO, Wakefield, Virginia

Hugh Cobb, Science and Operations Officer (SOO), NWSO, Wakefield, Virginia

Bill Sammler, WCM, NWSO, Wakefield, Virginia

Jim Travers, MIC, NWSFO, Sterling, Virginia

Gary Szatkowski, Deputy MIC, NWSFO, Sterling, Virginia

Melody Hall, Service Hydrologist, NWSFO, Sterling, Virginia

Barbara Watson, WCM, NWSFO, Sterling, Virginia

Alan Rezek, MIC, NWSFO, Charleston, West Virginia

Gregg Rishel, Service Hydrologist, NWSO Central Pennsylvania, State College, Pennsylvania
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Thomas Dunham, WCM, NWSO Central Pennsylvania, State College, Pennsylvania

Bruce Budd, MIC, NWSO Central Pennsylvania, State College, Pennsylvania

Tom Baumgardner, Hydrologist in Charge, Middle Atlantic River Forecast Center (MARFC),

State College, Pennsylvania

NWS Southern Region Field Office

Judi Bradberry, Senior Hydrometeorological Analysis and Support (HAS) Forecaster, Southeast

River Forecast Center, Atlanta, Georgia

Brad Gimmestad, Senior Hydrologist, Southeast River Forecast Center, Atlanta, Georgia
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Executive Summary

Background

Fran was a category 3 hurricane on the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale (see Appendix A) when

it made landfall on the North Carolina coast near Cape Fear on September 5, 1996. Besides

sustained winds of 115 miles per hour (mph), the storm surge and high water marks to nearly

13 feet in some coastal areas of North Carolina and Virginia exceeded those of Hurricane

Hazel in 1954, although Hazel was a category 4 storm. Heavy rains created extensive inland

flooding from the Carolinas into Virginia, West Virginia, and Pennsylvania. Additionally,

strong inland winds created severe damage and power outages with hurricane-force wind gusts

extending to near Raleigh, North Carolina. Hurricane Fran was directly responsible for 

26 deaths.

Widespread 5- to 10-inch amounts of rain were recorded over the Middle Atlantic region with

14 to nearly 16 inches in parts of Virginia and West Virginia. The rains brought many rivers in

North Carolina, Virginia, and central Pennsylvania to, or above, flood stage. Particularly hard

hit were Virginia and North Carolina, where record or near-record river levels occurred at many

gage sites.

Fran was the worst recorded natural economic disaster ever to occur in North Carolina. 

Nearly a half-million tourists and residents were evacuated from the coasts of North and South

Carolina. Press reports from Reuters News Service stated that 4.5 million people in the

Carolinas and Virginia were left without power.

Issues

Products and Services

The NWS field offices, TPC, and ERH performed extremely well and effectively. Hurricane

warnings were posted for the hardest hit portions of the North Carolina coast 27 hours before

landfall. Flash flood watches were issued with lead times from 24 to 36 hours. Lead times for

river flood warnings ranged from 6 to 24 hours. There were a few flood warnings with negative

lead times (i.e., issued after flooding began), mainly in headwater areas due to gage outages.

Communication/Coordination

Internal and external coordination worked well. Based on briefings from NWS offices in

Wakefield, Blacksburg, and Sterling, Virginia, the Governor of Virginia declared a state of

emergency by noon, September 5, before Fran even made landfall. Twice daily briefings were

provided to the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) by the Hurricane Liaison
x

Team (HLT) up to and including landfall. Once Fran was over land, ERH provided daily

briefings to FEMA concerning the impacts of the storm. The conference calls between ERH and

FEMA did not include the HPC. The HPC felt that they had useful information regarding heavy

rainfall potential which would have added value to these briefings.

Equipment

There remains a lack of sufficient land and marine real-time observations sites to adequately

monitor and forecast storms, such as Fran. Also, the distribution of surface observing equipment

varies widely among county warning areas. For example, NWSO Wilmington, North Carolina,

has access to only four automated coastal observing sites along its 125-mile coastal area of

responsibility. NWSO Morehead’s area of responsibility is generally well covered by the

Automated Surface Observing System (ASOS) sites, Data loggers, and the Device for Automatic

Remote Data Collection (DARDC) wind equipment. Equipment outages were noted because of

loss of power. For NWSO Wilmington, only one gage remained in operation. Amateur radio

operators were used to gather information throughout the storm and proved to be a most reliable

data-gathering source.

Within some river basins, budget cutbacks have forced the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) and

the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (COE) to eliminate gaging stations thus adding to the

difficulty of providing real-time data. This slow but steady erosion of stations has been

particularly noticed in Pennsylvania where 10 sites have been eliminated since 1981 and West

Virginia where 16 gages have been removed since 1981. An excellent working relationship

though remains between these agencies and the NWS. Where in place, the Integrated Flood

Observing and Warning System (IFLOWS) worked well with a few exceptions. In Pennsylvania,

some IFLOWS data were lost due to communication problems, and the Automation of Field

Operations and Services (AFOS) provided some but not complete backup capabilities. A COE

centralized data collection office in North Carolina was affected by flooding, and data flow was

sporadic for about a week. This emphasizes the need for robust backup procedures.

Although the Weather Surveillance Radar-1988 Doppler (WSR-88D) network performed well, 

precipitation estimates in mountainous terrain were off at times by a factor of three. Orographic

effects can cause large variability in rainfall amounts, especially during tropical events. Not all

offices switched their radars to the tropical Z/R relationship (“Z” represents radar reflectivity and

“R” rainfall rate). While this caused some initial confusion between offices in their reporting of

precipitation amounts, the hydrologic forecasting activities were not impacted because the River

Forecast Center’s (RFC) Stage III precipitation processing algorithms were able to account for

the differences in Z/Rs used by each radar.
xi

Summary of

Findings and Recommendations

Finding 1: The media is a necessary component of the NWS watch/warning

process but does not respond to NWS hydrologic forecasts unless a

watch or warning is issued. This limited widespread dissemination of

valuable river stage information to the public.

Recommendation 1: River flood watches should be issued when the forecast crest based on

the Quantitative Precipitation Forecast (QPF) is expected to reach flood

stage or above.

Finding 2: In order for Hydrologic Service Area (HSA) offices to have a better

understanding of the forecast and observed precipitation data, RFCs

need to provide composite data (QPF/Mean Areal Precipitation) to HSA

offices.

Recommendation 2: Each RFC, through its HAS function, should provide Stage III

radar/precipitation information and mean areal precipitation estimates

on a routine basis (either hourly or three hourly). RFCs should also

provide final QPF composites to HSAs.

Finding 3a: Due to evacuation of their building, the COE data from the Wilmington,

North Carolina, District (dam water elevation and discharges) were not

received during Fran and were sporadic for about a week after Fran.

Finding 3b: Some river and rainfall gages, primarily in Virginia, were unable to

report due to power outages and communication systems failures. 

Finding 3c: The failure of the IFLOWS microwave radio link interrupted

transmission of the Pennsylvania data at the most crucial time. Hourly

IFLOWS data were transmitted via AFOS. However, the entire data set

was not received at all offices due to incompatibility of the AFOS

network/IFLOWS backbone structure.

Recommendation 3: NWS offices should have complete backup procedures and systems in

place to receive data when centralized reporting networks fail, such as

what was experienced with the COE, or when IFLOWS or other

automated river and rain gage networks falter.
xii

Finding 4: Currently in the Eastern Region, NWSFOs are responsible for the QPF

along with their long-fused watches, while HSA support is provided by

both the NWSFO and NWSO. This split responsibility is awkward and

makes coordination cumbersome for NWSOs that have HSA

responsibility serviced by more than one NWSFO. 

Recommendation 4: Transfer QPF and HSA responsibility to NWSOs concurrently.

Finding 5: The numerous video conferencing and teleconferencing calls involving

the HLT, ERH, and FEMA generally went well. Once Fran made

landfall though, the HPC was not involved nor informed of the timing

of the briefings and therefore could not provide valuable QPF input to

the coordination and planning process.

Recommendation 5: The National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) should be

included in all conference calls, teleconferences, briefings, etc., when

their particular specialization is warranted. WSH should work with

NWS Regions and NCEP to ensure future briefings will involve all

relevant NWS line offices.

Finding 6: Coastal flood warnings and forecasts could be improved with access to

better ocean level data. There is a lack of real-time observations along

the most critical east-facing beaches. For example, NWSO

Wilmington, North Carolina, has access to only four automated coastal

observing sites along its 125-mile coastal area of responsibility. 

Recommendation 6: Efforts to properly equip coastal areas with real-time ocean level

observations, for both land and marine areas, should be intensified. The

NWS and the National Ocean Service (NOS) should collaborate to

provide NWS operational access to NOS data and real-time graphing of

data. The Chesapeake Bay and other Sea, Lake, and Overland Surge

from Hurricanes (SLOSH) basins should be updated on a scheduled

basis to maximize the model’s output and subsequent NWS surge

forecasts.

Finding 7: Many rivers in the affected areas had no gage points precluding the

possibility of quantitative river forecasts. Additionally, Federal

cutbacks have affected the USGS and COE, the primary supporters of

river gages. Many river gaging stations have been eliminated over the

past few years. If there is no gage, a specific river stage forecast cannot

be issued. The use of categorical or a non-numeric forecast though

would allow the forecast offices the ability to define the general
xiii

magnitude of the flooding on ungaged rivers with wording, such as

minor, moderate, or major.

Recommendation 7: Regional Headquarters should work with the appropriate RFCs to

analyze the impact of the reduced gaging networks on hydrologic

warning and forecast services and determine stream gage requirements

to support adequate river forecasts. Once the requirements are defined,

it should be determined what type of forecast service can be provided. 

If establishing a new forecast point is not possible, categorical forecasts

should be investigated. Although no quantitative stage forecast can be

made, some sense of the extent of flooding could be noted by use of the

terms of minor, moderate, or major.

Finding 8: WSR-88D algorithms (Z/R relation) that converts radar reflectivity (Z)

to precipitation estimates (R) in the eastern U.S. mountainous terrain

during tropical events needs to be improved. During Fran, accuracy of

precipitation estimates from mountainous areas ranged from near

observed values to being in error by a factor of three. Gaged data was

used qualitatively to calibrate WSR-88D data with some success. 

Recommendation 8a: The Operational Support Facility and Eastern Region’s Systems

Operations Division should define optimum radar operations during

these events.

Recommendation 8b: There is an urgent need to develop the operational gage data support

system (Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite [GOES]

Data Distribution System).

Finding 9: In South Carolina, some user complaints were received regarding the

application of the inland wind display model. These complaints largely

resulted from the forecast of strong inland winds in the NHC forecast/

advisory product which did not reflect later observed surface conditions. 

The forecast track brought Fran further inland over South Carolina than

what was observed. Since the inland wind display model is based upon

the forecast track, it showed winds that were too strong given the actual

track of Fran was farther east. Users need to be aware that the model

wind forecast may differ from those observed winds if the forecast track

is in error.

Recommendation 9: The NWS and FEMA should jointly fund and develop a distance

learning module for emergency managers and NWS offices that

explains the inland winds display model and how it should be used. In

spite of the current limitations, the Office of Meteorology should
xiv

encourage FEMA to distribute the latest hurricane inland wind display

model to all emergency management jurisdictions under the threat of the

impacts of hurricanes.

Finding 10: Hurricane Fran was a good reminder that extensive damage can be

caused as a hurricane moves inland. Typically, participation in

hurricane exercises has focused on coastal areas.

Recommendation 10: Regional Headquarters should expand these exercises to include inland

areas.
1

Chapter 1

National Perspective

National Hurricane Center

Synoptic History

Hurricane Fran formed from a tropical wave that emerged from the west coast of Africa on

August 22, 1996. Deep convection associated with the wave was organized in a banding-type

pattern, and animation of satellite images suggested a cyclonic circulation. Ship reports soon

confirmed a surface circulation. The post-analysis “best track” in Figure 1 shows that the system

became a tropical depression just southeast of the Cape Verde Islands at 8 a.m. Eastern Daylight

Time (EDT), August 23. Best track position, central pressure, and maximum 1-minute sustained

wind speed are listed for every 6 hours in Appendix B, Table 1.

The tropical depression moved westward near 17 mph for the next few days without significant

development. This lack of development may be attributed, in part, to disrupted low-level inflow

due to the large and powerful Hurricane Edouard which was centered about 850 miles to the

west-northwest. Satellite intensity estimates suggested that the depression became Tropical

Storm Fran at 8 a.m. EDT, August 27, while located about 1,000 miles east of the Lesser

Antilles.

Fran then began to track toward the west-northwest in the wake of Hurricane Edouard. Deep

convection became more concentrated, and Fran was estimated to have reached hurricane status

at 8 p.m. EDT, August 28, while centered about 450 miles east of the Leeward Islands. The

center of Fran was about 175 miles to the northeast of the Leeward Islands near 8 a.m. EDT,

August 30.

The tropical cyclone weakened to just below hurricane strength later on August 30, possibly due

to the low-level inflow being disrupted again by Edouard. About this time, changing steering

wind currents caused Fran to turn toward the northwest and slow to about 6 mph.

By 8 a.m. EDT, August 31, as Edouard moved farther away, Fran regained hurricane strength. 

As Hurricane Edouard moved northward off the U.S. Middle Atlantic coast, the subtropical ridge

became better established to the north of Fran, causing Fran to resume a west-northwestward

motion with an increased forward speed of about 11 mph. Fran moved on a track roughly

parallel to the Bahama Islands with the eye remaining a little more than 115 miles to the

northeast of the islands.

Fran strengthened to a category 3 hurricane by the time it was northeast of the central Bahamas

on September 4. The powerful tropical cyclone began to be influenced by a cyclonic circulation 
2

Figure 1: Best track positions for Hurricane Fran, August 23–September 8, 1996.
3

centered over Tennessee that was most pronounced in the middle to upper levels of the

atmosphere. Fran was steered by the resulting flow around the low over Tennessee and the

western extension of the subtropical ridge over the northwest Atlantic. The hurricane gradually

turned toward the northwest to north-northwest and increased in forward speed.

The central pressure dropped to its lowest point of 946 millibars (mb) and maximum sustained

surface winds reached 120 mph, Fran’s peak intensity, near 8 p.m. EDT, September 4, when the

hurricane was centered about 300 miles east of the Florida coast.

Fran was moving northward near 16 mph when it made landfall on the North Carolina coast. 

The center moved over the Cape Fear area around 8:30 p.m. EDT, September 5, but the

circulation and radius of maximum winds were large and hurricane-force winds likely extended

over much of the North Carolina coastal areas of Brunswick, New Hanover, Pender, Onslow, and

Carteret Counties. At landfall, the minimum central pressure was estimated at 954 mb and the

maximum sustained surface winds were estimated at 115 mph. The strongest winds likely

occurred in streaks within the deep convective areas north and northeast of the center.

Fran weakened to a tropical storm while centered over central North Carolina and subsequently

to a tropical depression while moving through Virginia. The tropical cyclone gradually lost its

warm core as it moved over the eastern Great Lakes and became extratropical the evening of

September 8, while centered over southern Ontario, Canada. The remnants of Fran were

absorbed into a frontal system near 2 a.m. EDT, September 10.

Meteorological Statistics

Figures 2 and 3 show the evolution of Fran’s central sea-level pressure and maximum 1-minute

“surface” (33 feet above ground) wind speed, respectively, as a function of time. The

observations on which the curves are based consist of aircraft reconnaissance data and Dvoraktechnique estimates using satellite imagery as well as synoptic fixes after landfall. 

All operational aircraft reconnaissance flights into Fran were provided by the U.S. Air Force

Reserves. These “Hurricane Hunters” made 71 center fixes during 17 flights. The minimum

central pressure reported by the aircraft was 946 mb at 7:06 p.m. EDT, September 4. A circular

eye with a diameter of 29 miles was observed on the aircraft radar at this time. The 946 mb

minimum pressure was measured by dropsonde. The maximum winds of 131 mph from a flight

level of 700 mb (near 10,000 feet) were measured about 6 hours prior to the 946 mb pressure

report. Flight-level winds in excess of 115 mph were reported several times during the two days

prior to landfall. At 7:14 p.m. EDT, September 5, 130 mph winds were reported from aircraft 

60 miles east of the hurricane center, and 123 mph winds were reported 47 miles northeast of the

center at the time of landfall. However, the core of the hurricane weakened somewhat on radar

presentations, and a closed eyewall was not reported by aircraft during the two hours prior to the

center moving onshore.
4

Figure 2: Best track minimum central pressure curve for Hurricane Fran. Vertical line denotes

landfall. X’s indicate estimates from surface analyses.
5

Figure 3: Best track maximum sustained wind speed curve for Hurricane Fran. Vertical line

indicate estimates from surface analyses.

denotes landfall. Not all aircraft observations are a sampling of the maximum wind. X’s
6

The WSR-88D at Wilmington, North Carolina, measured winds in excess of 138 mph aloft as the

inner convective bands approached the Cape Fear area at 5:30 p.m. EDT, September 5.

A ship with call sign LAVX4 reported 98 mph winds and a pressure of 984 mb at 2 p.m. EDT,

September 5, while located about 69 miles northeast of the hurricane center. Several other ship

reports were helpful in defining the extent of tropical storm-force winds, as were reports from a

network of drifting buoys deployed offshore of the Carolinas in advance of Fran. Appendix B,

Table 2, lists ship reports of at least tropical storm-force winds in the vicinity of Fran.

Several wind gusts to hurricane force were measured from coastal areas in North Carolina. As

usual for landfalling hurricanes, however, reports of sustained hurricane-force winds are difficult

to find. Appendix B, Table 3, lists selected U.S. surface observations. The National Oceanic and

Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) C-MAN station at Frying Pan Shoals (about 58 miles

south-southeast of Wilmington, North Carolina) reported sustained winds of 91 mph and gusts to

124 mph from a tower about 145 feet above sea level.

Numerous pressure and wind reports from North Carolina were relayed to the NHC through

amateur radio volunteers. The lowest measured pressure was 954 mb from Southport. The

highest measured wind gust was 137 mph at an elevation of 30 feet (mounted on a house

approximately 3 feet above the chimney) from a wind instrument located on Hewletts Creek in

Wilmington, North Carolina. Gusts to 128 mph were measured in Long Beach, 125 mph in

Wrightsville Beach, and 122 mph on Figure Eight Island. Although these measurements are very

much desired to supplement the more official observations, they will not be listed in Table 3

unless their accuracy can be verified.

Survey results (Figure 4) show an extensive storm tide along the North Carolina coast primarily

southwest of Cape Lookout. Storm tide is the actual sea level resulting from the astronomical

tide combined with the storm surge. Still water mark elevations on the inside of buildings,

indicative of the storm tide, range from 9 to 12 feet National Geodetic Vertical Datum

(N.G.V.D.). Outside water marks on buildings or debris lines are higher due to the effect of

breaking waves.

Warning and Forecast Critique

During Fran’s life as a tropical storm or hurricane, the average official track forecast errors

ranged from 76 miles at 24 hours (37 cases) to 158 miles at 48 hours (33 cases) to 213 miles at

72 hours (29 cases). These errors are at least 25 percent less than the previous 10-year averages

of the official track errors.

The BAMD (deep-layer Beta and Advection Model) and the GFDI (interpolated version of the

Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory model) provided the best guidance in terms of the

lowest track forecast errors. The guidance from the GFDI model, which is generally

acknowledged to be the most accurate one operationally available to the NHC, resulted in some

left bias in the official forecasts near landfall (Figure 5). This tendency though was well within 
7

Figure 4: High Water Marks.
8

Figure 5: GFDI guidance on Hurricane Fran from 8 p.m. September 2 (0000 Coordinated

left bias.

Universal Time [UTC] September 3) to 8 p.m. September 4 (0000 UTC September 5), showing a
9

the model’s normal performance range. The Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory, in a

follow-up study, failed to find any systematic cause for the bias.

Most NHC intensity forecast errors were 20 mph or less. All but one intensity forecast made

after 5 p.m. EDT, September 2, correctly indicated a landfalling category 3 hurricane.

Appendix B, Table 4, lists the various watches and warnings that were issued. Hurricane

warnings were posted for the hardest hit portions of the North Carolina coast about 27 hours

prior to landfall.

Internet hits on the TPC server were remarkably high. Peak demand was 737,880 hits during a

24-hour period on August 30. A total of 3,488,695 hits were tallied for the period August 27-

September 3.

Hydrometeorological Prediction Center

Storm Track After Landfall

After making landfall along the southeastern North Carolina coast Thursday evening, September

5, Fran tracked north-northwest for approximately the next 24 to 30 hours and steadily weakened. 

The system began to slow and turn north along the Ohio-Pennsylvania border, and by early

Sunday, the remnants of Fran were in southern Ontario, Canada.

A persistent middle- to upper-level low over the Tennessee and lower Mississippi Valleys and a

strong subtropical high centered over the western Atlantic Ocean influenced Fran’s motion prior

to and during the first 24 hours after landfall. These features combined to produce a south to

southeasterly flow at the middle and upper levels, drawing Fran inland. The subsequent slower

movement Saturday and Sunday resulted from a ridge building directly north of the storm in

response to an upper-level trough amplifying in the western Atlantic Ocean and a strong upperlevel trough progressing through central Canada.

Meteorology of Heavy Rainfall

As Fran approached the North Carolina coast, deep easterly flow associated with the strong

circulation around the storm brought copious tropical moisture and heavy rainfall to much of

the North and South Carolina coasts by early Thursday afternoon, September 5. Heavy rains

spread quickly north-northwestward across central North Carolina through the afternoon and

evening hours of September 5. After making landfall, drier air suppressed organized

convection south of the storm center. Widespread heavy rainfall continued north of the center

and spread across much of central and south-central Virginia by early Friday morning,

September 6. By 8 a.m. EDT, Friday, an area extending from northeastern South Carolina

north to the central Virginia/North Carolina border had received 5 to near 9 inches of rain. In
10

this area, the greatest amounts were found along and just inland from the North Carolina coast

and farther north over Raleigh, where a 24-hour rainfall total of 8.8 inches was recorded. A

strong upslope flow component into the Appalachian chain resulted in some isolated 5- to 

7-inch rains over southern and central Virginia by Friday morning.

While Fran continued to weaken during Friday, tropical moisture still accompanying the system

in concert with upslope flow north of the storm center led to excessive rains through the morning

and early afternoon hours Friday across western Virginia. Widespread 6- to 10-inch amounts

were recorded, with over 14 inches in Augusta and Page Counties in Virginia, while nearly 1 foot

fell in nearby Nelson County. In 24 hours, Big Meadows in Page County, Virginia, received

15.61 inches of rain. Heavy rainfall also spread northward through eastern West Virginia,

northern Virginia, western Maryland, and south-central Pennsylvania on Friday. Amounts in

these regions generally ranged from 4 to 6 inches; however, isolated totals near 14 inches were

found in favored upslope regions of eastern West Virginia, and 7-8 inch totals occurred over

south-central Pennsylvania. A secondary rainfall maximum developed later Friday and

continued into early Saturday morning, September 7, northwest of the storm track over eastern

Ohio, with Cleveland reporting 4.3 inches of rain by 8 a.m. EDT, Saturday.

On Saturday, September 7, much of the organized rainfall associated with the remnants of Fran

lifted northward into southern Ontario and diminished in intensity. Isolated heavy amounts from

2 to 3 inches were found across sections of eastern Michigan and along the Erie lakeshore of

eastern Ohio, where up to 6 inches fell near Cleveland. Precipitation in both regions may have

been enhanced by added moisture from Lakes Huron and Erie. Another maximum of rainfall

was found over Rhode Island and eastern Massachusetts where the interaction between a

southerly flow of Atlantic moisture and a stationary front just to the south of the region produced

an extended period of steady rains Saturday afternoon into Sunday morning, September 8, with

up to 3.5 inches falling over southeastern Massachusetts. Figure 6 shows the total rainfall

amounts from September 5-8 associated with Fran.

The heavy precipitation amounts associated with Fran led to numerous flood and flash flood

warnings from South Carolina northward through the eastern Great Lakes from September 5-8. 

Additionally, the rains brought many rivers in North Carolina, Virginia, and central Pennsylvania

to or above flood stage. Particularly hard hit were Virginia and North Carolina, where record or

near record river levels occurred at many gage sites. However, these record river rises were not

attributable to Fran alone. In western and central Virginia, significant rains had fallen for two

days prior to Fran's landfall. The aforementioned middle- to upper-level low over the Tennessee

Valley combined with a high pressure ridge that had developed in the wake of Hurricane Edouard

to produce a deep-layered southeasterly flow of Atlantic moisture directly into the central

Appalachians. Rainfall amounts of 3 to 6 inches were common across much of central and

western Virginia and north-central North Carolina Tuesday and Wednesday, September 3 and 4,

with upwards of 10 inches of rain falling across favored upslope regions in south-central

Virginia. The additional 6- to 10-inch rains from Fran on Thursday and Friday (which brought

totals to more than 20 inches across some sections of central and western Virginia) over already

saturated soil led to the major surface runoff problems and subsequent record river and stream

flooding in Virginia and North Carolina.
11

Figure 6: Storm Total Precipitation in Inches. Hurricane Fran, September 5–8, 1996.
12

Guidance Products

As early as three days before landfall, the HPC’s medium-range forecasters recognized Fran’s

potential to bring flooding rains to the Middle Atlantic region. From the extended forecast

discussion dated Tuesday, September 3:

“Heavy rains are expected in North Carolina and the southern Middle Atlantic

region. There may be flooding along the east slopes of the southern and central

Appalachians.”

Output from the NCEP Medium-Range Forecast Model (MRF), the European Center for

Medium-Range Weather Forecasting (ECMWF), and the United Kingdom Meteorological Office

(UKMET) provided the primary medium-range guidance to HPC forecasters. Overall, the

ECMWF was superior to both the MRF and UKMET for all 3-5 day forecasts verifying

September 5-8. It was the only model that lifted Fran northward through the Middle Atlantic

states, albeit too slowly. None of the UKMET model forecasts succeeded in bringing Fran

onshore, while the MRF consistently advanced the system too slowly and forecasted landfall

along the Georgia and South Carolina coasts, which was considerably south of the observed

landfall.

After September 3, forecast responsibility shifted from the medium-range to the short-range

(12- to 48-hour) forecasters in HPC. From September 4-8, the QPFs and excessive rainfall

outlooks were prepared utilizing Eta Model, Nested Grid Model (NGM), and Aviation (AVN)

Model guidance. These models significantly underforecast rainfall amounts along the track of

the system, a typical bias for tropical systems, and failed to draw the deep tropical moisture far

enough northward. Also underforecast was the very heavy rain that fell along the eastern

slopes of the Appalachians on September 6-7, as the models had difficulty simulating the

intensity of the vertical motions induced by the higher terrain. Manual QPFs consistently

improved upon model forecast guidance, pinpointing more accurately both rainfall coverage

and amounts.

For the 24-hour period ending 8 a.m. EDT, September 6, the Eta's guidance was superior to that

from the NGM and AVN (Figure 7). It correctly forecast the location of the axis of heaviest

precipitation and accurately predicted the maximum rainfall along the North Carolina coast. The

NGM showed little consistency from model run to model run with its track guidance and

subsequent QPFs. The NGM, initialized at 8 a.m. EDT, September 4, moved the system too

quickly inland and tracked it too far westward, resulting in a poorly forecast precipitation axis

and significantly underpredicted rainfall amounts (not shown). The later model run, initialized at

8 p.m. EDT, September 4, moved the storm and its associated QPFs (shown in Figure 7) too far

to the east. The AVN guidance was the worst of the three models. It tracked Fran too slowly and

too far to the south, severely degrading its precipitation forecasts. QPFs prepared by the HPC

represented a significant improvement over the model forecasts as shown in Figure 7. Like the

Eta, manual forecast products successfully predicted both the location of the heavy precipitation
13

Figure 7: 24-hour QPFs and verifying analysis for the period 8 a.m. (1200 UTC) September 5 to

8 a.m. (1200 UTC) September 6, 1996.
14

axis and the coastal North Carolina rainfall maximum, and they correctly increased modelforecast rainfall totals along the coast. Additionally, the secondary precipitation maximum along

the east slopes of the central Appalachians, absent in the models, was well depicted in the manual

QPFs. Narrative discussions accompanying the graphical QPFs described the excessive rain

expected along the coast and the flooding potential over the Appalachians. From a discussion

dated September 4:

"Some 8-9 inch amounts possible vicinity of the North Carolina/South Carolina

coasts" and "With recent heavy rains (in the central Appalachians)...situation will

become serious in terms of flooding/flash flooding in upslope regions."

Both model and manual forecasts, however, underpredicted the northward extent of the heavy

rains.

During the following 24 hours, ending at 8 a.m. EDT, September 7, agreement between the

model forecast tracks and the QPFs increased. Except for the 8 a.m. EDT AVN run from 

September 5, all models predicted the location of the heaviest rain in northwestern Virginia

within 100-150 kilometers (km). They, however, underpredicted the amounts. HPC forecasters

correctly recognized the heavy rain potential due to the strong upslope flow in western Virginia,

Maryland, and eastern West Virginia and substantially increased model QPFs. Model and

manual forecasts are shown in Figure 8. The flooding potential and rainfall totals in this region

were consistently highlighted in HPC's excessive rainfall outlooks and QPF discussions. From a

discussion issued on September 5:

"Rainfall amounts over portions of western Virginia could exceed 10 inches."

"This is a dangerous situation with widespread flooding expected over the MidAtlantic states."

Similar to the previous day, both model and manual forecasts failed to lift heavy rains far enough

northward, missing the precipitation maxima in Pennsylvania and northeastern Ohio.

For the 24 hours ending at 8 a.m. EDT, September 8, the NGM and AVN guidance correctly

lifted the bulk of Fran's precipitation northward into Canada. These models failed, however, to

wrap moisture far enough west of the storm center, significantly underpredicting the heavy

precipitation totals in northeastern Ohio and eastern Michigan. The Eta, on the other hand, while

too slow in moving Fran and its associated rains into Canada, was successful in drawing the

tropical moisture farther west. Manual prognoses made some improvement to model guidance. 

Like the NGM and AVN, HPC forecasts brought the heaviest rain into Canada but recognized

these models were deficient with the westward extent of precipitation. All models and manual

forecasts underpredicted the rainfall amounts in Rhode Island and eastern Massachusetts.
15

Figure 8: 24-hour QPFs and verifying analysis for the period 8 a.m. (1200 UTC) September 6 to

8 a.m. (1200 UTC) September 7, 1996.
16

Coordination

Coordination between HPC and NHC was excellent. The HPC participated in four conference

calls per day with NHC, forecast offices along the East Coast, Eastern Region Headquarters, and

Navy facilities in Norfolk and Jacksonville, where model differences and the forecast track were

discussed. Also, one call per day took place between HPC's medium-range forecaster, NHC, and

Navy personnel, discussing the storm's track beyond 72 hours. As Fran approached the coast,

several discussions occurred between NHC, HPC, and the SPC, involving QPFs and severe storm

potential.

Additionally, HPC participated in a conference call with FEMA and various other agencies on

September 5, the day Fran made landfall. HPC forecasters discussed QPFs and pinpointed areas

likely to receive significant flooding as the storm moved over land. After this call, FEMA said

that HPC's input was greatly appreciated and requested HPC participation in the next call,

scheduled for the morning of September 6. Problems existed with this call, however. FEMA

and ERH coordinated about QPFs and flooding potential without asking for HPC's input. 

Additional conference calls were scheduled during September 6 and 7; however, again HPC's

input was not requested.

The transition of responsibility from NHC to HPC went quite smoothly as Fran was downgraded

to a tropical depression at 5 p.m. EDT, September 6. The first storm summary was issued at

7:30 p.m. EDT, September 6, and two more storm summaries followed during the succeeding

12 hours. These summaries described Fran's position, strength, movement, and forecast

positions and included current watches and warnings relating to the heavy rains and high winds,

up-to-date rainfall totals, and a complete list of rivers experiencing or expecting major flooding. 

Storm summaries were discontinued as the remnants of Fran moved into Canada.
17

Chapter 2

Eastern Region Perspective

Overview

Fran made landfall as a category 3 hurricane, resulting in significant storm surge flooding on the

North Carolina coast, widespread wind damage over North Carolina and Virginia, and extensive

river and flash flooding and, in a few cases, record river flooding from the Carolinas to

Pennsylvania.

Hurricane Fran was the second hurricane to make landfall on the North Carolina coast during the

1996 hurricane season; category 2 Hurricane Bertha was the first. The last time two or more

hurricanes made landfall in North Carolina during the same hurricane season was in 1955 when

Hurricanes Connie, Diane, and Ione severely affected the state. Fran was the worst recorded

natural economic disaster ever to occur in North Carolina. 

In some coastal areas of North Carolina and Virginia, the storm surge and high water marks

exceeded those of Hurricane Hazel in 1954, which until Fran, had been considered the

benchmark hurricane for these localities. The hardest hit areas in Fran's path were coastal South

Carolina, the eastern third of North Carolina, Virginia, and the eastern panhandle of West

Virginia. 

The American Insurance Association estimates that $1.6 billion of insured property losses

occurred during Fran with $20 million in South Carolina, $1.275 billion in North Carolina, 

$175 million in Virginia, $50 million in Maryland, $20 million in West Virginia, $40 million in

Pennsylvania, and $20 million in Ohio. Claims represent insured losses resulting from factors

other than tidal inundation. A conservative ratio between total damage and insured property

damage, compared to past landfalling hurricanes, is two to one. Therefore, the total U.S.

damages estimate is $3.2 billion.

Considering the magnitude of the event, it was fortunate that only 26 deaths occurred. This

number could have been higher was it not for the significant lead time and accuracy of NWS

products. Appendix C summarizes reported fatalities.
18

State by State Summary

s South Carolina

In South Carolina, the impact from Fran was greatest near the North Carolina border in the

eastern part of the state. Uninsured revenue losses due to evacuations of tourists and residents

was estimated at $15 million. There was also a significant amount of crop loss.

s North Carolina

The effects of Fran on North Carolina were extensive and noticed well inland. The highest wind

gust was 137 mph, as noted earlier, in Wilmington. Some 125 miles north in Raleigh, winds

gusted to hurricane force. The strong inland winds coupled with saturated ground resulted in

several hundred thousand trees being uprooted or broken. This resulted in thousands of homes

being damaged by the falling trees.

It took more than 10 days for power to be restored in many areas. Schools were closed for a

week in the hardest hit counties. Automobile travel was almost impossible the day after the

storm due to downed trees and flooding. A full 12 days after the event, 150 secondary roads

were still closed.

The storm surge on North Topsail beach cut a 100-foot wide inlet through the middle of the

barrier island. On Topsail Island, up to 40 feet of beach was eroded and this lead to most of the

first row of houses closest to the shore being destroyed. North Carolina State Route 1568 was

washed out and highway NC210 was covered with sand. The storm surge in Swansboro was

measured at 10 feet. Several businesses along the waterfront were demolished and water covered

Main Street where a storm surge approaching 9 feet flooded portions of the towns of Washington

and Belhaven. The storm surge in Washington was the highest since the September 3, 1913,

unnamed hurricane. New Bern had a storm surge of 10 feet along the Neuse River. In northeast

North Carolina, storm surge flooding posed considerable problems in Elizabeth City and Edenton

along the northern Albemarle Sound, where a storm surge of 4 to 6 feet occurred. 

Damage in North Topsail Beach and Carteret County alone exceeded $500 million as 6,688

structures were destroyed or damaged with approximately 90 percent of the homes in North

Topsail Beach sustaining some damage from the combined impact of storm surge and wind. In

Carteret County, Emerald Isle reported 67 homes destroyed and 409 with major damage. Thirtythree mobile homes were destroyed. The Emerald Isle fishing pier was destroyed, and the Bogue

Sound Pier lost 150 feet. Erosion along the dunes ranged from 5 to 20 feet.

Twelve river forecast points exceeded flood stages, with four points cresting at record flood

stages and three others close to record flood. Rainfall amounts totaled from 5 to 10 inches. 
19

s Virginia

Virginia was outside the area of Fran's greatest coastal impact, however, wind-related tree and

power line damage and flooding was significant. On September 6, the Virginia Power and

Electric Company reported 415,000 customers were without power. This represents the largest

power outage in the company's history.

In Tappahannock, which is on the Rappahannock River, a storm surge of more than 5 feet caused

considerable damage to boats, wharfs, docks, and bulkheads. Longtime residents reported that

the water had not been this high since Hurricane Hazel in 1954. Further north in the Delmarva

region, storm surge flooding was minor to moderate.

Tidal flooding was also a problem in the Chesapeake Bay area. Further upstream on the Potomac

River, the Old Town section of the City of Alexandria saw extensive tidal flooding as the water

continued to rise into Friday afternoon, September 6. Water was 5 feet deep in the lower portion

of the city and many shops were flooded. National Airport in southern Arlington County also

had damage due to the cresting of the Potomac River late on September 7 into the morning of

September 8. 

In northern and western Virginia, rainfall of 8 to almost 16 inches fell over much of the

mountains and the Shenandoah Valley. All rivers in central Virginia experienced major flooding. 

Record-level flooding occurred on the Dan River at South Boston and on the North and South

Forks of the Shenandoah River at Lynnwood, Strasburg, and Cootes Store. During the height of

the storm, 78 primary roads and 853 secondary roads were closed due to flooding and downed

trees. Shenandoah National Park closed and was not opened to vehicle traffic until near the end

of September.

Evacuations began on Friday afternoon, September 6. In portions of north-central Virginia,

hundreds of people were reported stranded with nearly 300 homes destroyed by flooding and

more than 225 sustaining major damage. In Virginia alone, some 100 people were rescued from

Fran's flood waters. Access to isolated communities continued to be a problem for several weeks

due to washed out bridges and roads. Thirteen counties in western and northern Virginia

reported damages greater than $1 million. Estimated damages to state roads were $37 million.

s Maryland

Fran’s impact on Maryland was through flash flooding, high winds, and tidal flooding. Central

and western Maryland were the hardest hit by significant flash flooding. Allegheny County

reported 500 homes suffered damage, about a dozen homes were destroyed, and another dozen

sustained major damage. 

River and tidal flooding also caused extensive damage in Maryland. About 150 homes were

damaged on the Chesapeake Bay from Baltimore south to Point Lookout, with roads and piers

washed away in Charles County and severe flooding in downtown Annapolis. Along portions of
20

the Chesapeake Bay, some counties indicated this was the worst tidal flood since Hurricane

Hazel in 1954. 

River flooding along the Potomac Basin in Maryland also caused damage from Hancock to Point

of Rocks. Flood damage was similar to the January 1996 flood and estimated at $1.4 million to

public property (does not include insured or private losses).

s Washington, D.C.

In the Nation’s Capital, tidal flooding closed roads around the Tidal Basin. Businesses in the

Georgetown section of the city witnessed flooding similar to that of January 1996. Due to early

NWS warnings and forecasts, the residents and businesses had a few days to prepare and this

reduced property damage. Flash flooding also resulted in road closures. The Anacostia River

(which is ungaged) caused flooding problems for the Navy Yard area. With the river not cresting

until very early Monday morning, September 9, many main roads into the District of Columbia

remained closed through rush hour, causing a commuter nightmare through much of the day. 

Constitution and Independence Avenues were closed through the heart of the city.

Local officials and the public were prepared for this flood, especially having experienced the

January 1996 flood. Volunteers sandbagged around historic buildings in the National Capitol

Park area and dismantled wooden bridges that were rebuilt after the January flood. In spite of

these efforts, $20 million in damage occurred to the park alone.

s West Virginia

Heavy rains and flooding caused most of the damage in West Virginia. Hardest hit were

Pendleton and Hardy Counties where up to 14 inches of rain was reported. Substantial flooding

occurred along the South Branch of the Potomac River with lesser flooding along the North

Branch.

The agricultural community endured the worst damage. Additionally, hundreds of low bridges

and culverts were swept away, and many state roads and bridges were damaged. There were

evacuations throughout the eastern Panhandle. Several loose propane tanks posed another

serious hazard, in addition to a gas leak in Hardy County. Many water plants were left

inoperable through the end of September.

s Pennsylvania

Flash flooding was the main impact of Fran in Pennsylvania with significant flash flooding

confirmed across 15 counties. Rainfall from Fran ranged from around 1 inch in north-central

Pennsylvania to more than 6 inches in the south-central areas. One report of 9.8 inches was

received from a cooperative observer near Newville in Cumberland County. There was also river

flooding on the Juniata River in the Susquehanna River Basin.
21

s Ohio

By Friday night, September 6, and into Saturday morning, September 7, Fran moved northnorthwest into western Pennsylvania and extreme eastern Ohio. There was neither flash flooding

nor river flooding in Ohio mainly due to the dry antecedent conditions in the area. Although the

remnants of Fran dumped up to 6 inches of rain over northeast Ohio, the damage was confined

mainly to localized street and small stream flooding.

As Fran weakened and moved north, river flooding along Fran's track lessened as the storm

pushed into western Pennsylvania and eastern Ohio. By the afternoon of September 7, Fran was

centered just southeast of Erie, Pennsylvania, and was increasing its forward speed as the floodproducing rainfall continued to lessen.

Warning and Forecast Services

Timely hurricane watches and warnings were posted by the NHC. One of the "benefits" of

having gone through the North Carolina "Bertha experience" during the previous month was an

overall smoother operation in the areas of Fran's greatest impact.

Early forecasts targeted the Charleston, South Carolina, area. Subsequent NHC forecasts edged

the point of landfall up the coast. Needless to say, the NHC track forecasts had a great impact on

evacuation decisions made by local emergency managers. The track forecast errors, while well

within the standard average for tropical cyclones, nevertheless, did pose some difficulties. 

The updated SLOSH model did quite well for the western Pamlico Sound, North Carolina,

predicting a maximum storm surge of 9 to 12 feet at New Bern and Washington, North Carolina. 

This information was incorporated in the Hurricane Local Statements (HLSs) issued by NWSO

Morehead City, North Carolina.

Considering the magnitude of the event, deaths which were directly attributed to the hurricane

would have likely been much higher were it not for the significant lead time and accuracy of

products from NWS local field offices. For example, NWSFO Raleigh's timely "call to action"

issuances (short-term forecasts, local statements, and forecasts) included the strongest wording

possible regarding the danger of inland hurricane-force winds and flood-producing rains. 

Similarly, the local products prepared by NWSOs Morehead City and Wilmington, North

Carolina, included strongly worded statements which emphasized the impending danger of

coastal flooding and hurricane-force winds.

NWS offices in areas affected by flash flooding and river flooding did an excellent job

forecasting and preparing the public and emergency management community on what to expect

from the storm well before the event. This “call to action” was consistent in its message and

helped to reduce the loss of life and property damage.
22

Throughout the affected HSAs, NWSFOs issued flash flood watches with lead times from 24 to

36 hours before flooding began. A full 24 hours before flooding began in Virginia, NWSFO

Sterling issued an updated flood watch with strongly worded information, specifically stating:

“Even heavier rains are likely later tonight and Friday as the remnants of 

Hurricane Fran approach the region. This may result in catastrophic flooding 

in some locations . . . particularly over the Piedmont and mountains of West Virginia.”

The QPF played a critical role in helping to provide long lead times for forecasts of flash

flooding and river flooding by focusing attention on the potential for large amounts of rain and

by forecasting record/near record river levels. 

Initial QPF identified the potential for river flooding especially targeting the Shenandoah and the

Potomac basins. The QPF was updated as the event approached and provided increased lead

times for the flood stage forecasts. Lead time for most river flood warnings issued by HSAs

ranged from 6 to 24 hours. There were a few warnings with negative lead times (i.e., warnings

issued after the flooding began), mainly in headwater areas due to gage outages. This issue could

be resolved by issuing flood/flash flood warnings based on QPF and WSR-88D precipitation

estimates. However, observed rainfall data is necessary to make the warning process more

accurate. Noteworthy was the forecast for the flood crests on the main stem of the Potomac

River. The forecast provided more than 12 hours lead time before flood stage was first observed

and 38 to 50 hours lead time prior to flood crest. These lead times were so effective that people

in Point of Rocks, Maryland, had time to rent trucks and trailers to remove all of their belongings

from the flood plain. 

In the NWSFO Sterling, Virginia; NWSO Wakefield, Virginia; and NWSFO Raleigh, North

Carolina, HSAs, there was flooding in all major river basins. Record flood crests were set at four

locations in the Raleigh HSA and at three points in the Sterling HSA. Appendix D lists the

initial public issuances of NWS products by hydrologic product category.

Internal and External Coordination

Internal (NWS) and external coordination was excellent with only a few exceptions. For the

second time during the 1996 hurricane season, timely notification to Federal, state, county, and

local agencies was initiated by local NWS offices well before a hurricane's landfall. Effective

response was partially due to the heightened awareness since Hurricane Bertha’s passage but

mostly due to the long lead time of NWS products. Since 1996 was extremely wet in much of

the area affected by Fran, there was also a heightened awareness of the dangerous impact of

flooding.

Extensive coordination took place between NWSFOs, NWSOs, RFCs, NCEP, and state

emergency management. For example, based on briefings from NWS offices in Wakefield,

Roanoke, and Sterling, Virginia, the Governor of Virginia declared a state of emergency by noon,

September 5, before Fran even made landfall. The Governor of Virginia brought the State
23

Emergency Operations Plan into effect, bringing state agency representatives to the state

Emergency Operations Center (EOC) and notifying the National Guard. The NWS conference

calls with the state highlighted that 5 to 8 inches of rainfall was expected in western Virginia

with local amounts in the mountains over 12 inches. Major flash flooding and river flooding

would result. These briefings helped in the decision for significant evacuations.

Other states also took an active role in coordinating with NWS offices. For example, in North

Carolina, regional emergency managers made sure that NWSO Wakefield, Virginia, was

included in all hurricane conference calls. This was a problem during Hurricane Bertha and has

since been corrected. As a result, coordination between NWSO Wakefield and local emergency

managers went very smoothly and was highly productive.

NWS modernized hydrologic operations in Eastern Region were well coordinated and efficient. 

Coordination from the field offices and national centers allowed the RFCs involved in the event

to be ready to handle the flood threat with extensive lead time. Due to advanced coordination,

24-hour staffing was arranged at Southeast RFC (SERFC), Middle Atlantic RFC (MARFC),

Ohio River RFC (OHRFC) and the Northeast RFC (NERFC) before the event took place.

The RFCs involved in the event all participated in extensive coordination. The HAS function at

the RFCs coordinated the use of the WSR-88D tropical Z/R relationship with the HSAs involved

in the forecast effort. Many Hydrometeorological Coordination Messages (HCMs) from the

RFCs were used to effectively discuss QPF estimates, Stage III precipitation analyses, and

contingency river forecasts.

The RFCs also had conference and coordination calls between both NWS offices and external

Federal agencies, including the COE. Over 60 coordination calls were made between the

SERFC/MARFC and NWSFO Sterling. Coordination also occurred between HSAs/RFCs and

NHC. SERFC/MARFC coordinated 6 hourly QPF updates throughout the event. MARFC also

provided QPF contingency forecasts. Frequent coordination between the Virginia and North

Carolina HSAs resulted in consistent forecasts. This coordination ensured that all HSAs agreed

on storm movement and expected rainfall and river response.

Coordination between all HSAs and emergency management agencies began early and continued

throughout the event. The media provided good coverage of what was expected, warnings and

watches in effect, and what was happening during the storm. Telephone interviews with the

media occurred throughout the event, and many briefings were made to state EOCs.

ERH also provided daily briefings twice a day to FEMA Region II concerning the impacts of

Fran. These briefings were done from September 6-9 in the morning and in the late afternoon. 

The information from these briefings was used by FEMA to plan hazard mitigation efforts in

affected areas. ERH briefed FEMA on current damages and forecasted impacts. The Hydrologic

Services Division was the primary Eastern Region participant for these briefings. 

A by-product of a major landfalling hurricane is the possibility that NWS offices will require

service backup resulting from equipment and/or communications outage. During Fran, service
24

backup was required at various times for NWSFOs Raleigh, North Carolina; Charleston, West

Virginia; NWSOs Wilmington, North Carolina; and Morehead City, North Carolina. Although

service backup can pose difficulties for users since a single NWS office's products are then

provided by multiple offices, this did not occur during the event. Although the workload became

significant at NWSFO Raleigh, they were able to back up NWSO Wilmington and Morehead

City at times during the height of the storm in spite of the fact that they experienced some power

and telephone line difficulties.

The Sterling, Virginia, office experienced water problems in the building jeopardizing their

ability to provide backup for NWSFO Charleston, West Virginia. As a result, NWSFO

Cleveland, Ohio, took over forecast responsibility as a secondary backup office for Charleston.

Data Collection and Communication

Generally, there is a sparsity of land and over-water, real-time observations sites, and as occurred

during Bertha, most units failed once power was lost. For example, NWSO Wilmington, North

Carolina, has access to only four automated coastal observing sites along its 125-mile coastal

area of responsibility. The coastal portion of NWSO Morehead City, North Carolina, is

sufficiently covered by collection devices, such as ASOS stations, DARDC, and Data Logger

units, but the primary data collection problem was the lack of backup power. Amateur radio

operators were again used to gather information throughout the storm and proved to be Morehead

City’s most reliable data-gathering source. There were problems with power outages, telephone

outages, or drained batteries making rain and river gages unusable. The most extensive outages

occurred in northern and western Virginia.

NWSO’s Morehead City and Wilmington, North Carolina, experienced power loss during the

storm due to power outages and generator problems. At Morehead City, the backup power

generator was recently serviced by a contractor because it had failed a few days earlier. During

the contractor’s repair, a relay was not reconnected correctly, unbeknownst to the staff. When

the generator came online during the hurricane, it was unable to remain functioning under load

and shutdown. The office went into service backup. The NWS Eastern Region facility engineer

worked through the problem over the telephone with the local electronics technician, and

together they were able to bypass the problem.

A tropical Z/R relationship was used by most NWS offices operating WSR-88Ds during the

event. While the tropical relationship improved the rainfall estimates, research clearly still needs

to be done to improve the rainfall estimates. One item of note is that real-time rain gage

observations greatly enhanced the radar estimates during the event.

Rainfall data from automated systems were used heavily and worked well, with one Virginia

office exclaiming that "IFLOWS rain gage reports were invaluable during the event . . . ." The

IFLOWS and the Automated Local Evaluation in Real-Time (ALERT) systems supported

operations in West Virginia, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and North Carolina. The automated
25

flood warning systems helped forecast offices adjust WSR-88D quantitative rainfall estimates

and helped NWS offices issue timely flood watches and warnings.

Local officials in Henderson County, North Carolina, cite the IFLOWS system with directly

preventing many fatalities by warning of the need for evacuations with an hour lead time. In the

Hickory Nut Gorge area, a group of residents evacuated before the flood waters rose and heavily

damaged their homes and the bridge leading from the flooded area.

Preparedness

In North Carolina, Hurricane Fran was a significant shock for many people living inland. This

was particularly true for the residents in and around the state capital in Raleigh where a disaster

of this magnitude had never been experienced in their lifetimes.

For coastal residents of North Carolina, Hurricane Edouard passed off the coast a few days

earlier, and Bertha's passage through the area the previous month led to heightened public

awareness. Additionally, the long lead times provided by NWS forecasts allowed the emergency

management community and the general population to effectively prepare for Hurricane Fran. 

The NWSO Wilmington, North Carolina, WCM noted that everyone in the area knew what to do

for Fran, with Bertha serving as an excellent teacher of respect for tropical cyclones.

Eastern Region NWSFOs, NWSOs, and RFCs were prepared internally for Fran with appropriate

staffing changes initiated well ahead of the storm. Externally, shelters were opened where

needed, and no preparedness problems were noted.

Coastal offices had sufficient time to review hurricane preparedness policy and allowed the

electronics technicians and staffs to double-check equipment. SKYWARN amateur radio

volunteers at NWSFO Sterling, Virginia, raised a temporary HF antenna to use as backup

communications to the Richmond EOC and other sites, if needed. SKYWARN at NWSFO

Sterling was placed on standby Thursday, September 5, with a plan to fully activate Friday

morning. The SKYWARN operators in Pennsylvania solicited rainfall reports from amateur

radio operators, filling some holes left by loss of some instantaneous IFLOWS data.

In North Carolina, the NWS and state emergency management conducted an exercise of the state

emergency response capability after Bertha. This was time well spent. There was also an official

hurricane awareness week and a workshop on hurricanes for the media in June. The Raleigh and

Morehead City HSAs had provided extensive recent outreach programs to the public and

emergency officials.

Northern Virginia counties struck hard by flooding in June 1995 and January 1996 had just

revised their local emergency plans after these disasters. In northern Virginia, schools and many

businesses closed Friday, September 6, before the worst of the storm was forecast, substantially

reducing the risk by decreasing traffic on the roads.
26

User Response

Response by the media and public to Hurricane Fran was quite good. Fortunately, visitor

occupancy along the coast was light since the Labor Day weekend had already passed. Most

tourists evacuated when ordered. In North Carolina, local officials issued evacuation orders on

Ocracoke Island and North Topsail Beach (Onslow County). In addition, Surf City, which is in

Pender and Onslow County, issued an evacuation and Carteret County had a strongly worded

evacuation order for the Bogue Banks and low-lying areas in eastern Carteret County. However,

many year-round residents remained on the barrier islands. This unfortunate decision was likely

the result of not perceiving the full extent of the threat since the initial landfall was forecast in

South Carolina and was only slowly edged up the coast. Additionally, after Bertha, many

residents were not allowed back on the barrier islands for several days, especially on Topsail

Beach. Since there were no mandatory evacuations in North Carolina, residents felt that they

were free to stay during Fran and, thereby, be assured of access to their property after the storm. 

Fortunately, there were few deaths among those who chose to stay. The post-storm testimony of

those who survived in the evacuation zone impressed upon all casual observers, and hopefully

also to these barrier island residents, that evacuation is the wise course of action for future

threatening hurricanes.

Forecast offices in Virginia provided briefings to the state EOC two or more times a day. In

North Carolina, the response by the TV media was overwhelming. Local stations stayed on the

air all night. Storm damage and flood coverage consumed almost the entire news program every

day. Reports indicated that the public and emergency officials took proper steps to reduce risk to

life and property due to the advanced warning.

Coordination conference calls with state, regional, and local EOCs began Tuesday afternoon,

September 3, and concluded Saturday morning, September 7. As a result, emergency managers

were generally well prepared for this situation although information disseminated to Essex

County, Virginia, and Dorchester County, Maryland, regarding potential storm surge, was

inaccurate (underestimated by a factor of 2). One reason for these higher storm surges was the

underforecast wind fields on the east side of Fran after landfall as gale-force winds extended into

Virginia and Maryland. NHC corrected this problem with time. A second reason was the track

of the storm and the geographical configuration of the land/water boundaries in those locations. 

In Essex County, Virginia, and Dorchester County, Maryland, the water bodies involved

(Rappahannock River and Chesapeake Bay) constrict just upstream from the damage areas. This

led to a build-up of water and the resultant flooding. This flooding was quite localized and

anomalous from the overall impact. For example, the observed surge at Crisfield, Maryland

(downstream from Dorchester County), was right on the forecast value of 1.5 to 2 feet.

The media provided good coverage. Reporters were deployed to various hot spots for coastal

impacts, flood footage, heavy rains, and wind damage. NWS offices provided telephone

interviews with newspaper, radio, and television stations throughout the event. Coverage of

NWS services was very positive after the storm. Media reports included the steps people took to

reduce property damage given the advanced warning—how lives were saved by people not
27

venturing out into the storm and the protective actions taken by the state and local jurisdictions

throughout the impacted areas.

An example of how well the NWS services were received during the event came from an

editorial in the Daily News Record from Harrisonburg, Virginia:

“Meteorology and weather forecasting involve a critical blend of science and luck,

and through divine graces, the region received the benefits of some pretty good

science. Schools closed Friday before the worst of the storm was forecast so buses

did not have to hazard across washed out roads. Many offices were never opened or

closed early on Friday, providing employees the chance to stay home or make their

way home before roads began closing.” 

From the Potomac News, Woodbridge, Virginia, an editorial stated: 

“We may not be able to change the course of a hurricane, but weather-tracking has

evolved into an amazing science.... Their know-how—human know-how—

undoubtedly saved hundreds of lives, a job worth doing.”
A-1

Appendix A

Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale*

Category Definition&Likely Effects

ONE Winds 74-95 mph (65-82 kts.): No real damage to building structures. 

Damage primarily to unanchored mobile homes, shrubbery, and trees. 

Also, some coastal flooding and minor pier damage.

TWO Winds 96-110 mph (83-95 kts.): Some roofing material, door, and

window damage of buildings. Considerable damage to vegetation, mobile

homes, etc. Flooding damages piers, and small craft in unprotected

anchorages break moorings.

THREE Winds 111-130 mph (96-113 kts.): Some structural damage to small

residences and utility buildings with a minor amount of curtainwall

failures. Mobile homes are destroyed. Flooding near the coast destroys

smaller structures with larger structures damaged by floating debris. 

Terrain may be flooded well inland.

FOUR Winds 131-155 mph (114-135 kts.): More extensive curtainwall failures

with some complete roof structure failure on small residences. Major

erosion of beach areas. Terrain may be flooded well inland.

FIVE Winds greater than 155 mph (greater than 135 kts.): Complete roof

failure on many residences and industrial buildings. Some complete

building failures with small utility buildings blown over or away. 

Flooding causes major damage to lower floors of all structures near the

shoreline. Massive evacuation of residential areas may be required.

Note: A "major" hurricane is one that is classified as a Category 3 or higher.

 

 In operational use, the scale corresponds to the 1-minute average sustained wind speed as *

opposed to gusts which could be 20 percent higher or more.
B-1

Appendix B

Meteorological Tables
B-2

Table 1. Best track, Hurricane Fran, August 23 - September 8, 1996.

Date/Time Position Pressure Wind Stage

 (mb) Speed

(UTC) (kt) Lat. ((N) Lon. ((W)

23/1200 14.0 21.0 1012 25 tropical depression

 1800 14.1 22.8 1011 25 “

24/0000 14.2 24.8 1010 25 “

 0600 14.2 26.6 1009 30 “

 1200 14.1 28.2 1009 30 “

 1800 14.1 29.6 1009 30 “

25/0000 14.1 30.8 1009 25 “

 0600 14.3 32.0 1009 25 “

 1200 14.6 33.4 1009 25 “

 1800 14.7 35.1 1009 25 “

26/0000 14.9 37.0 1009 25 “

 0600 15.1 38.6 1009 25 “

 1200 15.3 40.0 1009 30 “

 1800 15.2 41.4 1008 30 “

27/0000 14.9 42.7 1007 30 “

 0600 14.7 43.8 1006 30 “

 1200 14.6 44.9 1005 35 tropical storm

 1800 14.6 46.1 1004 40 “

28/0000 14.6 47.5 1002 45 “

 0600 15.0 49.1 1000 50 “

 1200 15.5 50.7 995 55 “

 1800 15.9 52.3 990 60 “

29/0000 16.4 53.7 987 65 hurricane

 0600 17.0 55.0 987 65 “

 1200 17.8 56.3 988 65 “

 1800 18.6 57.5 988 65 “

30/0000 19.1 58.5 991 65 “

 0600 19.4 59.4 991 65 “

 1200 19.8 60.1 989 65 “

 1800 20.2 60.6 990 60 tropical storm

31/0000 20.5 60.9 988 60 “

 0600 20.8 61.2 987 60 “

 1200 21.1 61.4 984 65 hurricane

 1800 21.5 61.7 983 65 “

01/0000 21.7 62.1 978 65 “

 0600 21.9 62.6 982 65 “
B-3

Table 1 (continued). Best track, Hurricane Fran, August 23 - September 8, 1996.

Date/Time Position Pressure Wind Stage

 (mb) Speed

(UTC) (kt) Lat. ((N) Lon. ((W)

01/1200 22.2 63.2 982 70 hurricane

 1800 22.5 63.9 981 75 “

02/0000 22.9 64.7 978 75 “

 0600 23.3 65.7 976 75 “

 1200 23.6 66.7 976 75 “

 1800 23.9 67.9 976 75 “

03/0000 24.2 69.0 977 75 “

 0600 24.4 70.1 975 80 “

 1200 24.7 71.2 973 80 “

 1800 25.2 72.2 968 85 “

04/0000 25.7 73.1 961 95 “

 0600 26.4 73.9 953 100 “

 1200 27.0 74.7 956 105 “

 1800 27.7 75.5 952 105 “

05/0000 28.6 76.1 946 105 “

 0600 29.8 76.7 952 105 “

 1200 31.0 77.2 954 100 “

 1800 32.3 77.8 952 100 “

06/0000 33.7 78.0 954 100 “

 0600 35.2 78.7 970 65 “

 1200 36.7 79.0 985 40 tropical storm

 1800 38.0 79.4 995 30 tropical depression

07/0000 39.2 79.9 1000 30 “

 0600 40.4 80.4 1001 30 “

 1200 41.2 80.5 1001 30 “

 1800 42.0 80.4 1000 30 “

08/0000 42.8 80.1 999 30 “

 0600 43.4 79.9 999 30 “

 1200 44.0 79.0 1000 25 “

 1800 44.5 77.6 1001 25 “

09/0000 44.9 75.9 1002 25 extratropical

 0600 45.4 74.0 1004 20 “

 1200 45.7 72.3 1006 15 “

 1800 46.0 71.1 1008 15 “

10/0000 46.7 70.0 1010 15 “

 0600 absorbed by a front

05/0000 28.6 76.1 946 105 minimum pressure

06/0030 33.9 78.7 954 100 landfall near Cape Fear,

NC
B-4

Table 2. Ship reports of 34 knots or higher wind speed, associated with Hurricane Fran, August-September 1996.

date/time ship name latitude longitude wind dir/ pressure

(UTC) ((N) ((W) speed (knots) (mb)

30/0000 24.7 58.1 090/47 1017.0 AMAGISAN

30/0600 23.9 57.1 090/49 1015.0 AMAGISAN

30/1200 23.1 55.9 110/35 1015.0 AMAGISAN

30/1800 22.1 54.7 090/49 1014.0 AMAGISAN

31/0000 21.2 53.5 110/35 1014.5 AMAGISAN

31/0600 20.3 52.3 100/39 1014.0 AMAGISAN

31/1200 26.7 60.8 110/45 1014.3 SHIP

03/0600 26.8 67.3 150/35 1011.0 SEALAND CRUSADER

04/0000 28.4 74.6 060/37 1008.5 ELSX2

05/1200 32.2 79.6 010/66 1006.5 KAAPGRACHT

05/1200 32.9 76.7 090/45 1001.0 LAVX4

05/1200 32.9 77.4 070/40 1004.0 ELRV2

05/1200 33.2 77.3 040/58 1004.5 SUNBELT DIXIE

05/1200 33.6 77.1 XXX/60 1006.5 CR MARSEILLE

05/1200 34.7 74.2 140/40 1013.0 CRISTOFORO

COLOMBO

05/1500 32.8 76.8 090/53 994.5 LAVX4

05/1500 33.2 76.7 060/42 1000.5 ELRV2

05/1800 33.0 76.9 100/85 984.0 LAVX4

05/1800 34.5 75.6 090/50 1007.0 CR MARSEILLE

05/2100 33.0 73.6 130/40 1010.0 CRISTOFORO

COLOMBO

05/2100 34.7 74.0 120/45 1010.0 ZIM AMERICA

05/2100 35.8 74.0 110/34 1012.0 OOCL FIDELITY

06/0000 31.5 72.9 160/36 1013.0 COPACABANA

06/0000 32.5 74.2 140/38 1010.0 CRISTOFORO

COLOMBO

06/0000 34.3 74.1 140/45 1009.0 ZIM AMERICA

06/0000 35.4 74.2 120/38 1010.0 OOCL FIDELITY

06/0300 35.0 74.7 110/40 1007.0 OOCL FIDELITY

06/0600 33.3 76.2 200/43 1006.0 LAVX4

06/0600 33.9 73.5 180/40 1013.2 CR MARSEILLE

06/0900 33.6 75.4 200/45 1009.0 ZIM AMERICA
B-5

Table 3. Hurricane Fran selected surface observations, September 1996.

Location Press. time wind gust /time surge tide rain

(mb) (UTC) (kts) (kts) (UTC) (ft) (ft) (in)

Date/ Sustained Peak Date Storm Storm total

a bc d

South Carolina

 Charleston (CHS) 998.0 05/2234 27 36 05/2330 1.10

 Charleston City Office 29 41 05/1850 1.1 0.87

 Cheraw 992.2 56 06/0315 1.32

 Cherry Grove Pier 67 05/2215 8.36

 Conway 48 5.02

 Dillon 4.62

 Florence 30 56 06/0250 2.21 M M

 Garden City Pier 64 05/2215 6.91

 Loris 47 5.14

 Marion 3.01

 Mullins 3.98

 Myrtle Beach Pavilion 66 05/2215 7.01

 MB Springmaid Pier 65 05/2215 3.6

North Carolina

 Apex (South RDU) 6.06

 Atlantic Beach 87

 Butner 6.21

 Cherry Point MCA (NKT) 993.9 06/0255 51 66 06/0244 M

 Duck Pier 1006.9 06/0800 41 51 06/0900 1.5

 Duke Marine Lab (Beaufort) 80 5.4

 Elizabeth City CG (ECG) 1005.1 06/1147 37 48 06/1255

 Fayetteville (FAY) 971.6 06/0430 55 69 06/0430

 Figure Eight Island 10-12 e

 Fort Bragg (FBG) 972.3 06/0246 38 64 06/0431 4.70

 Graham 6.65

 Greensboro (GSO) 984.4 06/0900 30 42 06/0537 3.91

Greenville 87

Hatteras Pier (NOS) 1004.4 06/0600 36 51 06/0600

Hatteras ASOS (HSE) 38 49 06/0300

Holden Beach 60 05/2300

New River 982.0 05/0230 58 82 06/0156 7.05

Newport 3.24

 North Topsail Beach 65 05/0045 8-9 e

Oregon Inlet 2.3

Pope AFB (POB) 977.6 06/0455 43 58 06/0418 6.72

Raleigh-Durham (RDU) 977.6 06/0653 39 69 06/0453 8.80

Rocky Mount (RWI ) * 980.7 06/0200 17 39 06/0445 3.68

Rougemount (Durham Co) 6.02

Seymour Johnson (GSB) 981.0 06/0555 55 70 06/0555 6.38

Southport State Pilot Office 91

Wilmington (ILM) 961.4 06/0036 58 75 05/2349

 Wilmington Tide Gauge 5.5

 Wrightsville Beach 10-11 e

NOAA Ship Whiting f 959.9 05/2135
B-6

Table 3 (continued). Hurricane Fran selected surface observations, September 1996.

Location (mb) time wind gust tide rain

Press. Date/ Sustained Peak Date/ Storm total

(UTC) (kts) (kts) (ft) (in) a

time surge

(UTC) (ft) b

Storm

c d

Virginia

 Charlottesville (CHO) M 998.6 06/1645 22 38 06/1045

 Danville (DAN) M 987.5 06/1151 34 46 06/0449

 Hot Springs (HSP) M 1002.4 06/1400 29 48 06/1540

 Lynchburg (LYH) M 990.6 06/1454 18 38 06/1243

 Norfolk NAS (NGU) 1004.6 06/0855 36 55 06/0805 2.6

 Richmond (RIC) 1000.8 06/1141 32 46 06/1141

 Roanoke (ROA) M 994.7 06/1254 33 44 06/0954

 Staunton (SHD) 997.6 06/1840 25 43 06/1120 M

 Washington D.C. g 5.6/7.3

CMAN Stations

Frying Pan Shoals (FPSN7) 960.6 05/2300 79 108 05/2100

Diamond Shoals (DSLN7) 1006.6 06/0500 58 65 06/0400

Cape Lookout (CLKN7) 996.9 06/0100 56 71 06/0300

 Folly Island (FBIS1) 997.6 05/2200 24 41 05/1900

Chesapeake Light (CHLV2) 1007.1 06/0900 40 47 06/1000

Savannah Light (SVLS1) 1002.8 05/2000 30 36 05/1900

Buoys

 41004 988.7 05/1900 48 64 05/1900

NWS standard averaging period is 1 min; ASOS and C-MAN are 2 min; buoys are 8 min. a

Date/time is for sustained wind when both sustained and gust are listed. b

Storm surge is water height above normal astronomical tide level. c

Storm tide is water height above NGVD. d

Estimated. e

Docked at Wilmington State Pier. f

Station not reporting from 0200-1000 UTC 06 Sept. *

Taken directly from METAR reports. M

The 5.6 ft value occurred on 06 Sept at 1700 UTC and was the actual storm surge, the 7.3 ft value occurred g

as a much broader peak on 09 Sept at 0418 UTC from freshwater runoff.
B-7

Table 4. Watch and warning summary, Hurricane Fran, 

 August - September 1996.

Date/time Action Location

(UTC)

29/0300 hurricane watch Northeastern Leeward Islands from Antigua

through St. Maartin

29/2100 hurricane watch Northeastern Leeward Islands from Antigua

discontinued through St. Maartin

02/2100 hurricane watch Central Bahamas 

02/2100 tropical storm warning Central Bahamas

03/0900 hurricane watch Northwestern Bahamas

03/1800 hurricane warning Northwestern Bahamas

04/0300 hurricane watch north of Sebastien Inlet, FL to Little River Inlet,

SC

04/0900 watches and warnings Central Bahamas

discontinued

04/1500 hurricane watch extended Little River Inlet, SC to Oregon Inlet, NC

northward including Pamlico Sound

04/1800 hurricane warning Northwestern Bahama Islands of Andros and

downgraded to tropical New Providence

storm warning

04/2100 hurricane warning north of Brunswick, GA to Cape Lookout, NC

04/2100 hurricane watch north of Cape Lookout, NC to Currituck Beach

Light, NC including Pamlico and Albemarle

Sounds

04/2100 tropical storm warning Flagler Beach, FL to Brunswick, GA

04/2100 hurricane watch south of Cape Lookout, NC

discontinued

05/0300 hurricane warning extended north of Cape Lookout, NC to NC/VA border

northward including the Pamlico and Albemarle Sounds

05/0300 hurricane watch north of NC/VA border to Chincoteague, VA

including the Greater Hampton Roads area
B-8

Table 4 (continued). Watch and warning summary, Hurricane Fran, 

 August-September 1996.

Date/time Action Location

(UTC)

05/0300 hurricane warning northwestern Bahama Islands of Abaco and

downgraded to tropical Grand Bahama

storm warning

05/0300 hurricane warning northwestern Bahama Islands

discontinued

05/0300 tropical storm warning Andros and New Providence Islands

discontinued

05/0900 tropical storm warning Flagler Beach, FL to Brunswick, GA

discontinued

05/0900 tropical storm warning northwestern Bahama Islands of Abaco and

discontinued Grand Bahama

05/1500 tropical storm warning north of the NC/VA border to Chincoteague,

VA including the Greater Hampton Roads area

05/1500 tropical storm warning lower Chesapeake Bay

05/1500 hurricane warning north of Brunswick, GA to just south of Edisto

downgraded to tropical Beach, SC

storm warning

06/0100 hurricane and tropical storm Cape Romain, SC southward

warnings discontinued

06/0300 hurricane warnings south of Cape Fear, NC

discontinued

06/0300 hurricane watch north of the NC/SC border to Chincoteague,

discontinued VA including the Greater Hampton Roads area

06/0900 hurricane warning remainder of NC coast

discontinued

06/1800 tropical storm warning remainder of U.S. east coast

discontinued
C-1

Appendix C

Summary of Fatalities 

Date State County Details

9/5 NC Onslow Male drove off bridge at North Topsail beach

9/5 NC Bladen Man had heart attack, rescue workers could not reach him

9/5 SC Horry Woman swerved to avoid tree and drove into ditch

9/5 SC Williamsburg Male driving car hit tree that fell on road

9/5 NC Wake Male drowned in Crabtree Creek

9/5 NC Durham Male fire fighter was killed when tree fell on his truck

9/5 NC Alamance Male died when tree fell on home

9/5 NC Johnston Male died when tree fell on home

9/5 NC Wake 1 Male/1 Female died when car ran into fallen tree 

9/5 NC Wayne Male killed when car ran into fallen tree

9/5 NC Pender Female died from exposure and hyperthermia

9/5 NC Pender Male cause unknown

9/5 NC Pitt Male killed when car ran into fallen tree

9/5 NC Duplin Female killed when a chimney collapsed on her house

9/5 NC Onslow Female killed when tree fell on her

9/5 MD Montgomery 1 Male/1 Female swept away in car by flooded waters

9/5 VA Pittsylvania 1 Male drowned when he attempted to drive across a flooded

roadway

9/6 VA Augusta 2 Males drowned when swept away while trying to cross a

bridge 

9/6 VA Highland Female drowned when crossing flooded area

9/6 WV Pendleton Male drowned when he drove car into flooded waters

9/6 WV Grant Male drowned when he drove tractor into flooded waters

9/6 PA Cumberland Female drowned when car swept away by flood waters

9/6 PA Perry Female drowned near home due to flash flood
D-1

Appendix D

Initial Public Issuances by

Hydrologic Product Category

Office ESF FFA FFW FLW

NWSO see Raleigh, NC see Raleigh, NC & 9/5 4:50pm 9/6 12:30pm 

Wilmington, NC+ Columbia, SC

NWSO Morehead see Raleigh, NC see Raleigh, NC 9/5 5:03pm 9/6 3:22pm

City, NC+

NWSFO 9/3 12:30pm 9/4 4:40pm 9/5 7:39pm 9/6 12:40am (FLS)

Raleigh, NC 6:45am (FLW)

NWSO 9/4 2:22pm see Sterling, VA 9/6 3:00am

Wakefield, VA+ & Raleigh, NC

NWSO 9/4 4:50pm see Charleston, WV 9/6 12:02am 9/6 6:45am

Roanoke, VA+ & Sterling, VA

NWSFO 9/4 4:04pm 9/6 5:36am 9/6 7:53am

Sterling, VA (life-threatening)

NWSFO 9/4 3:15pm 9/5 5:31am 9/6 1:30pm

Charleston,WV

NWSFO 9/5 9:00am 9/5 10:15pm 9/6 11:52am 9/6 5:00pm

Pittsburgh, PA 9/6 11:05am (river)

NWSO Central 9/5 10:35am see Philadelphia & 9/6 4:08pm 9/6 10:09pm

Pennsylvania+ Pittsburgh, PA

NWSFO 9/6 3:22pm 9/7 5:30am 9/7 9:00am

Cleveland, OH

NWSFO 9/6 4:20am

Philadelphia, PA+

NWSFO 9/5 5:15am

Charleston, WV+

ESF - Flood Potential Statement

FFA - Flood/Flash Flood Watch

FFW - Flood/Flash Flood Warning

FLW - River Flood Warning

FLS - Flood Statement

+ During the current stage of the modernization and restructuring (MAR) of the NWS, some offices have not

yet assumed full responsibility for issuing all products for the areas they serve. Once the MAR is

completed, these offices will assume full responsibility for issuing all hydrologic products.