1

This annotated bibliography is intended for researchers, managers, policymakers,

and industry participants concerned with development and conservation of nontimber forest products in the Pacific Northwest. Citations are followed by brief

abstracts that highlight key themes as well as research methods, the location of

the research or analysis, and the implications for management of nontimber forest

products in the Pacific Northwest. Keywords at the end of each annotation are

organized in an index that references species (both common and scientific name),

geographic location, and key themes, topics, and organizations. The Pacific

Northwest Research Station is also making this annotated bibliography available

on diskette.

The regional literature on nontimber forest products is fairly limited, although it has

expanded considerably in the last 5 years. Much of the regional literature, especially that addressing management and policy options, remains, however, in the

realm of “gray” literature: unpublished manuscripts, discussion papers, proceedings

of meetings, and agency memos. Given the wealth of information and perspectives,

we have chosen to include regional gray literature in this bibliography.

We also have drawn heavily on global lessons of nontimber forest product management, particularly from the Amazon basin, where nontimber forest product development has been attempted as a conservation mechanism, and from Scandinavia,

where substantial government efforts have been directed towards catalyzing berry

and mushroom collecting and bough production for rural development purposes.

We have been hampered in our search of global examples by language barriers,

access to publications, and time. In particular, a further exploration of the literature

in Japanese, Russian, and Polish is warranted. An annotated bibliography of the

literature in Russian is currently in preparation (by Weigand and others).

In this introduction, we attempt to guide the reader through the bibliography by

introducing the key themes and researchers within various topics. We first describe

literature addressing the historic and current size and scope of the nontimber forest

product industry in the Pacific Northwest, and then we place the region in a global

context through a discussion of international markets and trade. This is followed by

a discussion of sociocultural issues, including labor arrangements, patterns of

access, and resource conflicts. The management section summarizes key management themes, including the biological, ecological, and socioeconomic aspects

of management, inventorying and monitoring, technical innovation and domestication, and education. The section on policy issues explores the use of nontimber

forest products to spur rural economic development and as a mechanism for promoting resource stewardship. Economic research, addressed next, centers on four

themes: the economic contribution of nontimber forest products in various settings,

their value relative to other forest uses, the analysis of joint production and agroforestry systems, and improving the financial performance of nontimber forest

product sectors. Finally, there is a discussion of ethical issues raised in the

literature.

Although the scope, structure, and economic contribution of the nontimber forest

products industry in the Pacific Northwest continues to be poorly documented, the

understanding has grown tremendously in recent years. Before 1990, regional

literature describing the nontimber forest products industry came primarily from the

late 1940s and early 1950s. This post-World War II period saw a number of

descriptions of the social organization of “brush pickers” (decorative greens harvesters) and the market structure, trade characteristics, and economic value of

Introduction

Size, Structure, and

Scope
2

nontimber forest products (Allen 1950, Cronemiller and others 1950, Heckman

1951, Newton 1957, Shaw 1949, Weber 1949). The focus of these studies is

primarily decorative greens, but harvest of some medicinal and edible plants also

is described. Cronemiller and others estimated the commercial value of nontimber

forest products in 1950 in Oregon at US$5 million, and Heckman estimated floral

greens employment in the Pacific Northwest at 2,000 people. Following this period,

the only regional authors describing nontimber forest products were Bender (1963),

who provided a historical description of the cedar leaf oil industry, and Douglass

(1970, 1975), who provided excellent status reports on the nontimber forest product industry in the Pacific Northwest. These Forest Service reports were presumably generated every 5 years, starting in 1965, although this first report was not

located. The reports describe harvest activity by county and species, regional production and prices, and provide advice to harvesters and landowners. Douglass

estimated that nontimber forest products provided US$15 million in income to

harvesters in Oregon and Washington in 1969.

In the early 1980s, the commercial wild edible mushroom industry began to

develop in the Pacific Northwest. User conflicts and concerns about resource sustainability rekindled interest in nontimber forest products. In 1986, Acker provided

a review of the emerging wild edible mushroom industry in Washington, including

information on wages, export markets, regulatory issues, user conflicts, and policy

options in preparation for potential regulation. Acker’s paper, in conjunction with

that of Russell (1987), summarized the context for the Wild Mushroom Harvesting

Act in Washington, passed in 1989, and described by Russell (1990). In the early

1990s, with timber harvests declining, the interest in nontimber forest products as a

potential source of income and employment for forest-dependent communities led

to increased interest in these “minor” forest products. Schlosser and others (1991)

surveyed the Christmas and floral greens industry, and Schlosser and Blatner

(1995) surveyed the wild edible mushroom industry and provided the first methodical surveys and documentation of harvest volumes, prices, employment, production and marketing characteristics, and economic contribution of these industries.

These studies have been key in documenting the nontimber forest product industry

and providing a framework for management and policy formulation in the region.

Additional studies address the production potential of Northwest forest lands

(Schlosser and others 1992); critical management and policy issues (Schlosser

and Blatner 1993); and potential products from east-side forests (Schlosser and

Blatner 1994).

Molina and his colleagues have contributed significantly to the regional understanding of wild edible mushrooms (Molina and others 1993), particularly on issues

of monitoring and resource sustainability (Molina and others, in press; Hosford and

others 1995), as have Denison and Donaghue (1988, 1992). A number of subregional studies also have emerged, documenting aspects of the nontimber forest

product industries in southwest Oregon (Fitzgerald 1986, Van Gaasbeck 1992);

central western Oregon (Howell 1991), the Winema and Deschutes National Forests (Lipske 1994), southwest Washington (Seely 1993), and the Klamath region

(Richards and Creasy, in press). De Geus (1995) provides an excellent overview of

nontimber forest products harvested in British Columbia, including a description of

the uses, markets, distribution, ecology, and harvest of 211 products, as well as a

discussion of management and policy issues.

Interest in nontimber forest products also was spurred by the recent emergence of

taxol, initially extracted from the bark of the Pacific yew ( Taxus brevifolia), as a
3

powerful anticancer agent (Wolf and Wortmann 1992). Although taxol has since

been synthesized by Bristol-Myers Squibb, the sudden dramatic demand for yew

bark gave rise to interesting research and policy discussions about the conservation, management, and use of medicinal plants (Busing and others 1995; U.S.

Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management 1992; Vance 1995; Wolf

and Wortmann 1992) .

Use of nontimber forest products in the region could grow and diversify with the

rediscovery of uses by indigenous cultures. In particular, Turner and her colleagues have contributed to our knowledge of uses, harvesting practices, and

processing of useful plants among Native Americans, including the Coast Salish

(1971a, 1971b), the Bella Coola (1972), the Kwaikutl (1973), the Okanagan-Colville

(with Bouchard and Kennedy in 1980), the Hesquiat (1982), the Nitinaht (1983),

the Salishan (with Nebda 1990), and the Thompson Indians (with Thompson and

others, 1990). In addition, Turner has contributed studies of the traditional use of

significant species, such as soapberry (1981), springbank clover and Pacific

silverweed (1982), and devilsclub (1982) as well as general studies on food plants

of British Columbia Indians (1975, 1978) and plants in British Columbia Indian

technology (1979). Gottesfeld also has contributed to knowledge of ethnobotany in

British Columbia by describing the role of bark products in aboriginal cultures

(1992) and aboriginal burning practices (1994).

Further south, Colville (1897) provided the first published ethnobotanical work in

the Pacific Northwest with a study of plant and lichen use by the Klamath of southern Oregon. He was followed in 1940 by Gunther who described the use of plants

among Native Americans inhabiting the west coast of Washington. More recent

studies include a study of the ethnobotany of the Clallam Indians (Fleischer 1980),

Native Americans of the Columbia Plateau (Knudson 1980), traditional foods

among the Nuxalk (Kuhnlein 1980, Lepofsky and others 1985), and traditional use

of western brackenfern (Norton 1979a), camas bulbs (Smith 1978) and devilsclub

(Smith 1983). Norton and others (1984) provide a nutritional analysis of native

plants common in the diets of Native Americans. Pojar and MacKinnon (1994)

provide an excellent recent compilation of ethnobotanical research, documenting

traditional and modern uses of plants found in the coastal zone from southeast

Alaska to central Oregon.

Most countries do not maintain uniform or comparable data about nontimber forest

products. Some countries, however, such as Sweden, Finland, Lithuania, Latvia,

Estonia, Russia, and Poland, do have protocols in place to inventory and value

stocks of nontimber forest products. Regional reports from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and the European Union provide

comparative information for some individual countries (Baldini 1993, Cesaro and

others 1993, Economic Commission for Europe 1993). Iqbal (1993) provides a

global overview of key nontimber forest products. Not surprisingly, the bulk of

products comes from tropical forests where plant species diversity is highest and

traditional uses of plants often remain vital in many households. A comprehensive

compilation of global production and directions of trade has yet to take place.

Internationalization of markets for nontimber forest products from the Pacific

Northwest—Most products from the Pacific Northwest and elsewhere in the United

States are being exported to countries with higher standards of living and labor

costs, such as Germany, France, and Japan. The recent rise in European and

Japanese imports of edible wild mushrooms appears to be coinciding with declines

Trade, Market Dynamics,

and Competition
4

in domestic yields of mushrooms in the importing countries (Hosford and others

1995, Jansen and de Vries 1988). Germany and France purchase 25 percent of

the wild mushroom harvest in the Pacific Northwest. The American matsutake

furnishes a recent example of increased collection and trade for Japanese

markets. The United States, Canada, and to a lesser extent Mexico, now

increasingly supply Japanese markets (Aguilar 1995, Villareal and others 1989).

Reliable information on the trade and market share of American nontimber forest

products remains scarce. Fischer (1992), however, provides good details for the

sources of imported floral greens to the German market for 1991. Market shares

of Pacific Northwest products in the German market is high: 19 percent of the

German market for floral greens comes from wild stocks of Pacific Northwest

plants, which are shipped mainly from Seattle. Data on the value of these products

is not yet available but probably approaches US$15 million for 1991. The importance of monitoring economic and biological events in major importing countries

is crucial to maintaining and expanding foreign markets for Pacific Northwest nontimber forest products.

This section summarizes three sociocultural issues that appear in much of the nontimber forest products management and policy literature: labor arrangements, patterns of access, and conflicts over nontimber forest products use in postindustrial

societies.

Labor arrangements of commercial and subsistence harvesting— A fairly consistent pattern of labor arrangements for nontimber forest products exists across

the globe: nontimber forest product harvesters and processors are drawn disproportionately from the ranks of the rural and urban poor (Falconer 1990, Farolfi

1990, Larèrre and de la Soudière 1985, Love 1992, Nash 1994, Schlosser and

Blatner 1995, Schlosser and others 1991). Women, children, and elderly people

frequently make up a large percentage of the harvesting population, particularly

when the nontimber forest products gathered are destined for domestic consumption (Carlson 1986, Falconer 1990, Farolfi 1990, Saastamoinen 1989, Shubat

1983). Women and elderly people also depend on nontimber forest products as

sources of income in developing and postindustrial societies (Falconer 1990,

Kantor 1994, Robinson 1994, Saastamoinen 1989). The stereotypic image of

commercial and subsistence nontimber forest product harvesters as rural, forest

dwellers is changing: Falconer (1990) and Paillasse (1992) illustrate the role that

nontimber forest products play in urban economies in Africa and Indonesia, and a

recent study by Richards and Creasy (in press) of matsutake gatherers in the

Pacific Northwest indicates that urban immigrant populations also rely on income

from nontimber forest products.

Paillasse (1992) and Anderson and Ioris (1990) provide detailed pictures of the

complexities of nontimber forest products trade networks in Indonesia and the

Amazon. Their accounts indicate that market relations are based on long-standing,

tightly knit “patron-client” relations among harvesters, intermediaries, and transnational corporations (Anderson and Ioris 1990, Paillasse 1992). Their analyses

also suggest that these relations will need to change if the objective of sustainability for extractive reserves is to be realized. Larèrre and de la Soudière’s (1985)

ethnography of nontimber forest product harvesters in central France suggests that

similar kinds of relations also may exist in European nontimber forest product

markets. They draw similar conclusions as to the negative impact of these power

imbalances on resource sustainability. No studies of market relations among

Sociocultural Issues
5

harvesters, buyers, and dealers have yet been published for the Pacific Northwest,

although the general outlines of the market structure have been identified

(Schlosser and Blatner 1995, Schlosser and others 1991).

Patterns of access—In contexts where nontimber forest products have considerable market, subsistence, or cultural value, societies develop tenure regimes to

regulate their use (Carlson 1986, Kauppi 1979, Knudsen 1980, Larèrre and de la

Soudière 1985, Paillasse 1992). In developing countries, locally developed rules

may be undermined by an overlay of contradictory state rules or by the imposition

of state rules not backed up by appropriate enforcement capacity (Paillasse 1992).

Alternatively, the ability for local tenure systems to adjust to the introduction of new

resources may be inhibited by the overlay of state authority (Paillasse 1992).

In postindustrial societies, such as France, many of the customary rules fell into

disuse as nontimber forest products lost their value (Larèrre and de la Soudière

1985). In Canada and the United States, traditional uses by indigenous peoples

and their rights to exclude other users were restricted by rules promulgated by

national land management agencies (Cizek 1993; Gottesfeld 1992; Richards and

Creasy, in print). The development of new markets for nontimber forest products

coupled with the incapacity of public land management agencies to enforce

regulations restricting access to these resources, has created a climate of tenure

insecurity that bodes ill for sustainable management (Coujard and Commeaux

1981; Denison and Donoghue 1988; Larèrre and de la Soudière 1985; Love 1992;

Richards and Creasy, in press; Rizza 1990; Russell 1990).

Conflicts among harvesters in postindustrial settings— Sociological analyses

within the tropical nontimber forest products literature focus on power relations

among the state, corporations, and user groups. The North American and European literature focuses on conflicts among user groups. These latter conflicts often

revolve around tensions between local and nonlocal users (Acker 1986; de Geus

1992; Larèrre and de la Soudière 1985; Richards and Creasy, in press) and

between what Coujard and Commeaux (1981) refer to as “symbolic” and “material”

users. In central France these categories overlap: nonlocal users frequently have a

symbolic orientation (that is, recreation and tourism) and local users have a more

material orientation (Coujard and Commeaux 1981). In the Pacific Northwest,

these categories also overlap, but sometimes in the opposite direction: resident

Native Americans have a largely symbolic orientation toward the matsutake harvest, and nonlocal migrant harvesters have a predominately material orientation to

the matsutake harvest (Richards and Creasey, in press). Love (1992) suggests

that the conflicts among user groups in the Pacific Northwest have a strong class

conflict element; Larèrre and de la Soudière (1985) draw a similar conclusion for

harvesters in central France. Sociological analyses of harvester conflicts, indeed of

all aspects of nontimber forest product harvesting in postindustrial societies, are

virtually nonexistent. Studies by Coujard and Commeaux (1981), Larèrre and de la

Soudière (1985), and Richards and Creasy (in press) provide excellent models for

investigating sociological relations in this domain.

Management of nontimber forest products has only recently been the object of

systematic scientific study in most parts of the world. Huge gaps in scientific understanding of the biological, ecological, and socioeconomic aspects of nontimber

forest products exist as the limited studies available focus on only a very limited

number of species and types of products. The following section summarizes the

extent to which scientific studies are available about nontimber forest products in

Management Issues
6

various parts of the world and the key management themes emerging from those

studies.

During most of the 20th century, scientific study of the management of tropical

forest nontimber forest products focused primarily on describing the kinds of plants

used by indigenous populations in tropical forests, and only to a lesser degree on

the ways in which indigenous people manipulated plants and environmental factors

to increase yields or produce certain physical and genetic traits. During the 1980s

and 1990s, ecological and anthropological studies in the Amazon basin began to

suggest a link between tropical biodiversity and deliberate, long-term human

manipulation of the forest environment (Anderson 1990, Panayotou and Ashton

1992, Redford and Padoch 1992). Three issues stand out as particularly important

in understanding nontimber forest products and tropical forest management.

First, although many economic development planners and environmentalists currently advocate expanding nontimber forest product markets as a mechanism for

encouraging forest conservation, recent studies have pointed out that uncontrolled

market expansion has historically led to overharvesting and periodic boom and

bust cycles with disastrous social and ecological consequences (Anderson and

Ioris 1992, Vasquez and Gentry 1989, Villareal and Perez-Moreno 1989). Consequently, new management regimes must incorporate policies that permit societies

to regulate the use of nontimber forest products at sustainable levels.

Second, studies of indigenous and peasant land management practices in Central

and South America indicate that many traditional societies rely on the use of

multiple product or portfolio approaches to land management (Alcorn 1984,

Anderson and Ioris 1992, Balick and Mendelsohn 1992, Browder 1992, Paillasse

1992, Redford and Padoch 1992). These strategies allow rural inhabitants to

spread economic risk while biological diversity and soil fertility are maintained at

much higher levels than would be possible under other kinds of management

regimes (Alcorn 1984, Anderson 1990). Research should thus focus on working

with rural inhabitants to develop and implement a continuum of management

strategies, rather than focusing on a one-size-fits-all approach (Anderson 1990,

Browder 1992).

Third, in the past five years, studies comparing the economic value of managing

tropical forests for nontimber forest products, for timber production, for agriculture

or pasture, or for some combination of these uses have begun to appear in the

literature (Balick and Mendelsohn 1992, Peters and others 1989). These studies

suggest that under certain circumstances nontimber forest product production is

economically the most viable strategy for rural dwellers, and that under most circumstances, some type of joint production is economically advantageous to rural

producers (Anderson 1990, Anderson and Ioris 1992, Balick and Mendelsohn

1992).

Studies of nontimber forest product management in temperate and boreal forests

are most abundant for the Scandinavian countries (mushrooms, lichens, berries,

and decorative greens), Germany and Denmark (decorative greens), France and

Italy (mushrooms), Poland and Russia (mushrooms and berries), Japan (mushrooms), and North America (mushrooms and berries). Articles on Australia

(Boutland and others 1991) and South Africa (Davis 1992, Geldenhuys and van

der Merwe 1988) indicate that wildflower and decorative greens management is

important in temperate forests of the Southern Hemisphere, but published
7

information about these areas was extremely difficult to locate. The following discussion summarizes three general areas of nontimber forest product management

emphasized in the temperate and boreal forest literature: biological and ecological

aspects of management, socioeconomic aspects of management, and inventory

and monitoring of nontimber forest products resources.

Biological and ecological aspects of management— A small but growing

literature describes scientific experiments that assess the effects of various

environmental factors, including light intensity, soil moisture, fertilization, and soil

compaction, on the yield and commercial quality of nontimber forest products.

Fungi and berry studies in northern Europe (Aakre 1986; Jäppinen and others

1986; Kauppi 1979; Ohenoja 1978, 1988; Raatikainen and others 1984) and North

America (Minore 1984, Minore and Dubrasich 1978, Minore and others 1979,

Norvell and others 1995, Shubat 1983) emphasize management practices for wild

species, whereas studies of shiitake in Japan (Iwamura and others 1966; Nishida

and Ishikawa 1967a, 1967b; Piot 1983) and truffle production in France and Italy

(Garbaye and others 1979, Urbani 1985) focus on management practices under

conditions of semidomestication. The German and Danish literatures focus heavily

on identifying suitable environmental conditions for the production of florist quality

boughs in public and private plantations (Bang 1979; Boge 1983; Christensen

1982; Ehlers 1968, 1970; Grabenstedt 1969; Holstener-Jørgensen and Stope

1985; Schroeder 1977). Recent work in the United States has focused on

Christmas and floral greens production (Hinseley and Snelling 1992, Murray and

Crawford 1982, Tappeiner and Zasada 1993).

Ethnographic studies of the uses and management of nontimber forest products by

Native Americans in the Pacific Northwest also provide useful clues as to the kinds

of factors that may influence levels of production under relatively intensive harvesting regimes (Boyd 1986, Gottesfeld 1994, Lepofsky 1985, Norton 1979b). Although

most scientists are aware of the role fire plays as a management tool in berry production, ethnographic evidence may be able to help scientists make clearer links

between fire intensity and timing, and production.

The literature also addresses questions of interaction between nontimber forest

products and other production objectives. Austad (1988), for example, argues for

the reintroduction of pollarding as a management practice in Norway to maintain

biodiversity and economic and aesthetic values. Studies from Poland (Glowacki

1988), Scandinavia (Aakre 1986, Jäppinen and others 1986, Ohenoja 1988), Italy

(Giordano 1983, Urbani 1985), and Germany (Ehlers 1970, Hartwig 1977, Rau

1969, Schroeder 1977) indicate that joint production of nontimber forest products

and timber is an economically viable management strategy under wild, semiwild,

and domesticated conditions. Hinesley’s (1992) work on bough production in North

Carolina fir plantations, studies by Kurtz and others (1984) of black walnut agroforestry systems in Missouri, and Murray and Crawford’s (1982) study of bough

production on a noble fir plantation in the Pacific Northwest support the notion of

joint production as a viable management strategy in North American forests.

Basic work on biological production and production relations in systems of joint

resource management is greatly needed in the Pacific Northwest. For example,

the studies and trials instituted by Minore and others (1978, 1979, 1984) on

Vaccinium species in the Cascade Range should be continued. Linking biological

process of mid- to high-elevation lands to agroforestry and recreation management

for multiple outputs is an exciting challenge. A regional consortium of interested
8

community members and employees of the Gifford Pinchot and Mount Hood

National Forests and the Warm Springs and Yakama Nations has assembled to

pool resources for management and research to improve scientific understanding

and augment the economic and cultural benefits of native huckleberries.

1

Socioeconomic aspects of nontimber forest products management— Much of

the literature emphasizes the somewhat poorly developed nature of nontimber

forest product marketing infrastructures, which serves to dampen the ability of producers to produce and market products at an industrial scale (Baldini 1993, Cesaro

and others 1993, Hartwig 1977, Schlosser and others 1991). In some countries,

trade networks simply did not exist until quite recently (Denison and Donoghue

1992, Hartwig 1977, Mater Engineering 1992, Möhrer 1977, Rau 1977). In other

countries, monopoly conditions prevail, stifling competition at the local, national,

and regional levels; for example, the truffle trade in France and Italy (Ciani 1990,

Larerre and de la Soudière 1985, Signorini and Valli 1984) and the shiitake trade in

Japan (Noda 1988) historically have been monopolized by a few companies.

Producer cooperatives and grower and trade associations have been influential in

promoting infrastructural development in Germany (Hartwig 1977, Rau 1977) and

in breaking the power of the shiitake trade monopoly in Japan (Noda 1988).

Inventorying and monitoring—A major concern in the nontimber forest products

sector is whether commercial levels of harvesting will negatively affect the regenerative capacity of the resources. To address this concern, several countries have

instituted national-level programs to inventory and monitor nontimber forest products on public forest land. Poland, Lithuania, and Bulgaria, for example, included

nontimber forest product inventorying and monitoring as a priority of state forest

management while under Soviet control (Budriuniene 1988, Glowacki 1988,

Grochowski 1966, Grochowski and Ostalski 1981, Kostov and Stojanov 1985).

In the 1970s, Sweden also conducted large-scale, time-series inventories of mushrooms and blueberries (Kardell 1980). Researchers in the Pacific Northwest have

recently emphasized the need to develop comparable inventory procedures for

Federal and state forests (Molina and others 1993, Russell 1990). The European

inventory and monitoring programs may provide some insights on how to structure

such programs.

Tracking an individual’s foraging activities (Godoy and Lubowski 1992) and mapping harvest areas (Ellanna and Sherrod 1985) are two means for generating a

database for socioeconomic impacts on ecosystems from gathering of nontimber

forest products. Such data can be adapted for use in GIS (geographic information

systems). Descriptive demographic and economic information about the populations of pickers is frequently included in these studies (Stratton 1990, 1992).

Technical innovation and domestication for product substitutes— Some nontimber forest products, such as eucalyptus foliage, are grown under conditions of

intensive horticultural management in places far from their original ecosystems

(Bazzocchi and others 1987). Access to desired nontimber forest products often is

facilitated by introduction of exotic “domesticated” species into plantations that are

closer to the market source (reducing transportation costs) or more efficient in

production amount (lower per-unit cost of production). In Australia, a pronounced

shift is occurring from reliance on wild stocks for the floral trade to commercial 1 Personal communication. 1996. Judith Vergun, Research Associate, College of Oceanic and

Atmospheric Sciences, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331.
9

culture of native plants. This trend is occurring because the export trade in

Australian foliage plants to Japan and the United States is very lucrative (Boutland

and others 1992).

Other regions, such as the Pacific Northwest and the cape region of South Africa

(Davis 1992), have been slow to domesticate native wild species important to the

floral trade. Because little management of wild stocks of decorative foliage plant

species is occurring in the Pacific Northwest, much less any domestication of these

species, incentives exist for entrepreneurs elsewhere to begin horticultural

domestication of Pacific Northwest native plants. Lack of investment initiative may

undermine the initial advantages of the presence of native biological diversity.

The decorative conifer bough industry in Denmark has flourished through timely

investment in research and marketing. Danish boughs now dominate European

markets. Interestingly, the Danish success with boughs has been based almost

entirely on exotic species, many of which originated in the Pacific Northwest

(Christensen 1982), while little research or market development has been undertaken in the Pacific Northwest.

The existence of domesticated forest plants from Europe and east Asia has

encouraged the adoption of exotic plants into North American horticulture (Bluhm

1988). Neglect of native species even in such botanically rich regions as South

Africa (Wehmeyer 1986) is the result of a lack of familiarity on the part of the public

and on the high cost of integrated research and marketing required to introduce

innovation into horticultural markets. The lack of investment in domestication can

have devastating ecological results on native plant populations and nearby human

communities (Zimmer and Girmen 1987). To date, consideration of domesticating

native plants of the Pacific Northwest for economic uses has stemmed from university programs in the Canadian west (MacDonald 1989, St. Pierre 1992).

In some cases, products originating from wild sources have different market niches

than cultivated products. The distinct flavor of chanterelles and boletes collected

from the wild creates a market different from that for agriculturally grown mushrooms, particularly in countries such as Germany, which has the highest per capita

consumption of mushrooms worldwide (Pernau 1990).

Education—Educating people about nontimber forest products may promote

better harvesting practices and improve the likelihood of sustainable use and

resource conservation. Formal training and research into harvesting practices and

tools are largely absent, as are formal mechanisms to share information and “best

practices” among harvesters. Little has been written about teaching techniques

and curriculum content for programs to inform and educate people involved in the

nontimber product industries. Steps are being made, however, toward organized

training as a tool for economic diversification. Vance and others (1993) have begun

publishing curricula for USDA Forest Service employees in the Pacific Northwest.

Contact with extension efforts in other countries such as those in Finland

(Härkonen 1988, Härkonen and Järvinen 1993), where an established extension

network exists for public instruction about nontimber forest products, may provide

additional impetus for educational programs in the Pacific Northwest. Some efforts

have been made in Washington to reach Hispanic migrants and in Oregon to reach

Southeast Asian and Hispanic mushroom harvesters.
10

One of the crucial limitations for development of nontimber forest products is convenient access to available information about nontimber forest products. Those

who might benefit the most from economic gains in concerted development of nontimber forest products in the Pacific Northwest may have the poorest access to

useful information. Public land management agencies at Federal and state levels

produce numerous resources to organize information, but public access to and

awareness of existing resources, particularly by people in remote communities

often is limited. Expansion of current extension efforts to include better outreach

and multiple media tools for education and information to people will be useful.

Two major themes of the literature are the idea that nontimber forest products can

serve as a focal point for rural economic development and concerns about the

effects of market expansion on resource sustainability. The following section provides an overview of the range of policy instruments advocated for promoting

economic development and stewardship of nontimber forest products in a variety

of socioecological contexts.

Policy instruments for economic development—Various groups have suggested that rural communities around the world can expand economic opportunities by increasing nontimber forest product harvesting and processing

opportunities (Mater Engineering 1992; Molina and others 1993; U.S. Department

of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management 1992; Wolf and Wortmann 1992).

In the tropical developing countries, expansion of the nontimber forest product

sector is often advocated as a way to decrease rural poverty while meeting

conservation objectives (Anderson 1990, Nepstad and Schwartzmann 1992,

Peluso 1992, Plotkin and Famolare 1992). In postindustrial countries, nontimber

forest product harvesting and processing is suggested as a means to replace jobs

lost to mechanization of the timber and agricultural sectors (Baldini 1993; Cesaro

and others, n.d.; Mater Engineering 1992; Noda 1988; Thomas 1993). However, as

Schlosser and Blatner (1995) note for the Pacific Northwest, Hartwig (1977) for

Germany, and Larèrre and de la Soudière (1985) for France, pay scales in the

nontimber forest product sector are generally low, labor needs are seasonal and

often dependent on volatile markets, and the number of potential jobs under current nontimber forest product market conditions is relatively low compared to total

rural employment needs. Browder (1992) and others find that harvesters of nontimber forest products generally profit poorly from their labors and the greatest gain

goes to intermediaries in the marketing process. In addition, the degree of substitutability of products is high, so that producers are highly vulnerable to import

competition (Larèrre and de la Soudière 1985, Rau 1977, Schlosser and others

1991).

The obstacles to market expansion are substantial so long as production remains

based on the gathering of wild products and quality, and yields differ with seasonal

and annual climate changes (Carlson 1986, Larèrre and de la Soudière 1985,

Molina and others 1993). In addition, when the gathering range and marketing

outlets for a product fall across many administrative and political jurisdictions, each

with its own regulations, transaction costs can be prohibitively high (Cagniart 1968;

de Geus 1992; Denison and Donoghue 1992; Hartwig 1977; U.S. Department of

the Interior, Bureau of Land Management 1992). Expanded economic usage of

nontimber forest products increases the necessity for intensified management

and puts added pressure on already fiscally strained land management agencies

in their efforts to assure ecosystem sustainability. Currently, harvesters gather

many products for fees that are below cost or at no cost, without entailing an

Policy Issues
11

appropriate obligation to mitigate possible negative effects of extraction and support sustainable management of the valuable nontimber forest product and its

ecosystem.

Intensive commercial management, which could help overcome the issues of

product stability and predictability of supply, is hampered by poorly developed

market infrastructures (Baldini 1993; Cesaro and others, 1993; Hartwig 1977), by

lack of secure resource tenure forms (Coujard and Commeaux 1981, Denison and

Donoghue 1992, Giunta Regionale dell’Umbria 1987, Rizza 1990), and by lack of

knowledge of the biological, ecological, and economic characteristics of the resources (Browder 1992; Cesaro et al., 1993; Noda 1988; Schlosser and Blatner

1995; Schlosser and others 1991).

In the nonindustrial countries, efforts to promote nontimber forest product-based

economic development focus on enhancing local user group access to resources

through the creation of extractive reserves, in which state-owned land becomes

the object of a comanagement agreement between the state and user groups

(Anderson and Ioris 1992, Browder 1992, Panayotou and Ashton 1992, Plotkin and

Famolare 1992). Extractive reserves have been established in Brazil (Fearnside

1989), Belize (Balick and others 1994), and New York (Geisler and Silberling 1992)

as one means to simultaneously conserve and use forests for economic production

of socially useful products. The extractive reserve concept has become popular

among international conservation and economic development organizations, and

several articles on the potential for extending the concept in the United States have

appeared (Geisler and Silberling 1992, Love 1992). Opportunities for learning are

available from the recently inaugurated programs for adaptive management areas

in Oregon and Washington and in the Fraser Basin Management Program of

British Columbia where citizen-based community stewardship agreements are

increasingly a part of land management. Recent work by Browder (1992) and

Anderson and Ioris (1992), however, cautions a less enthusiastic approach to extractive reserves, noting that they work best in forest contexts where the resources

to be harvested are abundant and spatially concentrated, and marketing infrastructures are in place. Joint ventures between drug companies and indigenous

populations are suggested as one mechanism for ensuring that a larger portion of

the benefits of reserve management remains in the hands of local people (King

1991).

In the industrial economies of Europe, North America, and Japan, economic

development efforts for nontimber forest products have focused on encouraging

government subsidized private producer and marketing associations (de Geus

1992, Hartwig 1977, Noda 1988, Rau 1977), developing national and regional

product quality standards (Denison and Donoghue 1992, Cagniart 1968, Rau

1977), creating standard measurements and terminology (Cesaro and others,

1993; U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management 1992), and

standardizing permits and regulations (Cagniart 1968; Denison and Donoghue

1992; Rau 1977; U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management

1992). Producer and marketing cooperatives are advocated to ensure sufficient

and stable supplies and as a mechanism for reducing the vulnerability of local

harvesters and traders to larger economic forces (Burgess 1994; Carlson 1986;

Columbia Pacific Resource Conservation and Development Council, n.d.; Mater

Engineering 1992). For highly perishable products, such as truffles and shiitake,

government subsidization of product conservation technology has played an

important role (Ciani 1990, Noda 1988). Finally, Finland and Italy have relied on
12

mushroom harvester certification as a mechanism to maintain consumer

confidence in product safety (Giunta Regionale dell’Umbria 1987, Härkonen 1988).

Policy instruments for promoting resource stewardship—Collection of

nontimber forest products may lead to increasing scarcity of the product species.

Two processes can result: product substitution or depletion. If no product substitute

or no substitute method for continued production of the nontimber forest product is

developed, the increasing scarcity of a species will increase the value of the

product. It is likely that without interference or intervention of conservation measures, the population of the species will be exploited until it is depleted. Extinction,

at least for commercial purposes, may result. In many areas of the Eastern United

States, populations of Cypripedium orchids and American ginseng (Panax

quinquefolius) have been extirpated (Carlson 1986). Depletion of the resource will

cause its eventual disappearance as a marketable commodity. When the market

price drops, overharvest is likely to occur as people in desperation seek to maintain income levels by harvesting more rather than switching to an alternative

nontimber product.

In the tropical nontimber forest product literature, efforts to promote stewardship

often are linked to tenure reform and to programs for alleviating rural poverty, on

the theory that forest degradation is due largely to the lack of alternative economic

opportunities for rural farmers. As noted above, the centerpiece of stewardship

promotion efforts is the extractive reserve, a form of resource tenure based on the

premise that people will conserve resources only if they believe they will be able to

capture a portion of the benefits of conservation. Providing user groups with longterm access rights, or allowing them to comanage state-managed resources,

theoretically, encourages more sustainable resource management (Anderson and

Ioris 1992, Plotkin and Famolare 1992). The theoretical linking of property rights

with stewardship behavior is also evident in the calls to patent indigenous knowledge about genetic resources (Cunningham 1991, Simpson and Sedge 1992);

again, on the theory that knowledge producers will be less likely to let those

resources degrade if they can realize economic gain from their production and

preservation. Other mechanisms for promoting resource stewardship in tropical

countries include efforts to develop more effective knowledge production and

exchange networks between scientists and traditional healers and producers

(Balick and Mendelssohn 1992, Cunningham 1991, Elizabetsky 1991); the creation

of green certification programs to enhance consumer demand for sustainable

forest products (Cunningham 1991); replacement of classic forest product accounting systems with systems that incorporate subsistence and ecological costs and

benefits (Balick and Mendelssohn 1992, Peters and others 1989); and the development of biodiversity prospecting contracts (Reid and others 1993, Simpson and

Sedge 1992, Sittenfeld and Villers 1994), that shift a greater share of the value of

genetic resources to the countries of origin, and thus create incentives for national

governments to implement conservation policies.

In Europe and North America, efforts to promote stewardship have centered

around developing secure forms of tenure for nontimber forest products (Cizek

1993, Coujard and Commeaux 1981, Denison and Donoghue 1988, Giunta

Regionale dell’Umbria 1987), governmental regulation of harvesting activities

(Coujard and Commeaux 1981, Giunta Regionale dell’Umbria 1987, Kauppi 1991,

Russell 1990), self-regulation by nontimber forest products industries (Denison and

Donoghue 1988, Foster 1991), promotion of green consumerism (Foster 1991),

and public education and research (Columbia Pacific Resource Conservation and
13

Development Council, n.d.; Härkonen 1988; Mater Engineering 1992; Nicolas

1973; U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management 1992).

Tropical countries have focused on creating tenure security through extractive

reserves; in Italy, where many nontimber forest products have historically been

considered “open access” resources even on privately held land, the emphasis has

been placed on dividing truffle gathering grounds on private land into “wild” and

“cultivated” zones (Giunta Regionale dell’Umbria 1987, Rizza 1990). Areas in

which landowners cultivate truffles are thus closed to public access, and noncultivated truffles continue to be open access resources. To decrease harvesting

intensity, Italy instituted government-issued gathering permit systems for mushrooms in the 1980s (Giunta Regionale dell’Umbria 1987, Rizza 1990). As Rizza

(1990) notes, however, the regulatory system is hampered by lack of coordination

among provinces, each of which has its own set of rules. The trend toward more

exclusive forms of access to nontimber forest products also is evident in the United

States, where both public and private landowners have begun to replace permit

systems with short- and long-term leases (Robinson 1994; Russell 1990; U.S.

Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management 1992).

Harvester training and certification are used as mechanisms to improve harvesting

techniques in Switzerland (Denison and Donoghue 1988), Italy (Giunta Regionale

dell’Umbria 1987), and Finland (Härkonen 1988). Similar “wildcrafter” certification

programs have been suggested for the Pacific Northwest.

A call for industry self-regulation, including the development of “sustainability”

standards, has also been voiced in the Pacific Northwest (Mater Engineering

1992). The industry movement toward such standards is likely a response to the

growing strength of the “green consumerism” movement, which has made sustainability of production one of the selection criteria in consumer decisions.

In cases where nonforest products have acquired considerable economic value,

the rules regarding access to products and their commercialization have become

well defined and often elaborate. The literature describing the trade and regulation

of truffles in France (Cagniart 1968) and Italy (Giunta Regionale dell’Umbria 1987,

Mannozzi-Torini 1968, Rizza 1990) is extensive. Similar dynamics are apparent in

the Pacific Northwest as the systematic harvest of valuable matsutake stocks

expands (Richards and Creasy, in press).

Economic research on nontimber forest products has centered on four key themes:

economic contribution of nontimber forest products at various scales of social

organization, the value of nontimber forest product harvesting relative to other

forest uses, the analysis of multiple use and joint production systems, and improving the profitability of various nontimber forest product sectors.

Economic contribution—The precise economic value of nontimber forest products has been difficult to assess, primarily because much of their value is not

market based. In many cases, the primary value of nontimber forest products lies

in their personal consumption value as food, medicine, building materials, or other

uses. Nontimber forest products also play a large role in local markets, but they

usually are not counted in “official” national tallies, which favor exports as sources

of needed foreign currency. Even when well-developed export markets exist,

exploitation of timber is often officially favored as it requires less local knowledge

and attracts more foreign capital and technology. In postindustrial societies, the

value of nontimber forest products can be largely recreational, or can lie in their

Economic Issues and

Analysis
14

“existence value” or “option value.” Recreational collection of nontimber forest

products may be valued in some cases as much for the cultural and recreational

experience of collecting as for the product collected. Accounting for the recreational values of berrypicking in France, for example, has explained sources of

resource conflict between professional berrypickers and weekend pickers (Coujard

and Commeaux 1981). Bateman (1991) provides a good review of the type and

nature of nonprice benefits of nontimber forest products, and Abd Rauf (1982)

presents net present value, benefit-cost ratios, and internal rate of return as

methods to assess these benefits for individual development projects. Researchers

have attempted a variety of techniques to assess nonmarket value, including the

travel-cost method (Markstrom and others 1988), contingent valuation (Campbell

1994, Mattsson and Li 1994), and replacement production methods (Campbell

1994, Chopra 1993).

Analyses of nontimber forest products economic contributions have been conducted for households (Campbell 1994) and communities (Alcorn 1989, 1984) in

the tropics. Saastamoinen (1977, 1984, 1989) and Salo (1984, 1985, 1995) have

analyzed the economic contribution of nontimber forest products to Finland through

surveys, participant observation, market data, and other methods. Saastamoinen

(1992) estimates that nontimber forest products contribute 6 to 10 percent of total

forest economic production in Finland, with the contribution in some regions reaching 25 percent. Eriksson and others (1979) surveyed berry consumption, production, and trade in Sweden, and Hultkrantz (1991) estimated that mushroom and

berries equaled 6 percent of the net Swedish timber product in 1987. In India,

Chopra (1993) used a variety of methods to estimate the contribution of nontimber

forest products and environmental services. In Zimbabwe, 30 to 40 percent of the

value from forests is estimated to derive from nontimber forest products as a

source of indigenous foods (Campbell 1994). Cesaro and others (1993) describe

the economic role that nontimber forest products play in Europe and the types of

forests in which nontimber forest product harvesting should play a larger role.

Farolfi (1990) addresses the commercial and recreational role of nontimber forest

products in Italy.

To date, the most comprehensive published data on any sector of nontimber forest

products have been for wild medicinal plants. World sales of herbal medicines

exceed US$6.9 billion, and annual growth of sales ranges from 8 to 15 percent

among producer countries (Grünwald 1994). The major supplier country is India,

but other significant exporting countries are Argentina, Brazil, China, Pakistan,

Poland, and Bulgaria. Growth of medicinal plant imports into Western Europe more

than doubled in the 1980s (Lewington 1993). Novel interpretations of species and

species diversity have been devised to estimate the “option value” of medicinal

resources not yet discovered. Costs of extinction of as yet unused species as a

source of pharmaceuticals were estimated to be US$203 million in 1980 dollars

(Farnsworth and Soejarto 1985). Principe (1991) has proposed two methods to

calculate net economic benefits of biological diversity in forests as a source for

current and future pharmaceuticals. Variables for consideration are consumer

surplus, option value, existence value, expected value of product revenues,

product development costs, and costs of management for resource conservation.

In India, value of nonwood timber products comprises 30 to 40 percent of the value

from forested ecosystems, and exports of nontimber forest products, much of it

medicinal plants, have historically contributed a disproportionate value (over 70

percent) to exports from Indian forests (Gupta and Guleria 1982a).
15

Nontimber forest products as a land use strategy—The more industrialized a

nation, the more likely that timber resources dominate as the primary forest product; however, significant shifts in consumption patterns in postindustrialized nations

are occurring. Where valuable nontimber forest products grow in older forests and

where the need for watershed protection is great, postindustrialized societies may

be best served by maintaining the forest ecosystem structure. In Europe, the shift

away from single-use timber production has been especially strong in historically

industrialized, urban nations on the north shore of the Mediterranean Sea where

climate and topography make intensive forestry unprofitable. The situation is

similar in the arid American Southwest and California (Huber 1992). A number of

studies have analyzed alternative resource strategies of forest land. Peters and

others (1989) calculated the net present value analysis of three harvest strategies

(nontimber harvest, clearcut, and selective timber harvesting) for a forest plot in

Peru. This study launched a number of net present value analyses of alternative

management strategies, including one focused on medicinal plants (Balick 1992)

and one on alternative land uses in the Phillippines (Stewart 1994). Love and

others (1993) describe a study from the Olympic Peninsula that proposes net

present value calculations to assess the relative merit of golden chanterelle

(Cantharellus cibarius) and Douglas-fir harvest strategies. Mann (1990) compares

a management strategy of hunting and Christmas tree and floral green harvests to

an exclusive timber focus. Godoy and his colleagues (Godoy and Bawa 1993,

Godoy and Lubowski 1992, Godoy and others1993) provide a summary of economic valuation studies of nontimber forest products, analyzing assumptions and

presenting methods for improved analysis.

Economic analysis of multiple use and joint production systems—Most

nontimber forest product studies conclude that while nontimber forest products are

much more economically and socially significant than existing forest management

practices would suggest, they are not a perfect substitute for declining timber

harvests and declining rural employment. Rather, nontimber forest products should

be viewed as a complement to other forest activities, including timber harvesting,

hunting, recreation, and the provision of environmental services. Calculation of the

costs and benefits of complex ecosystem management for joint production of

multiple goods (and services and ecosystem conditions) is problematic. Knowledge

of the biophysical production functions, relations between ecological and managerial inputs, and best forecasts of outputs in the form of ecosystem products, byproducts, waste products, services, and ecosystem states (Saastamoinen 1982) are

essential to rational decisionmaking in forest management based on societal

values. Without basic research to forge knowledge about production functions and

economic relations first, management for sustainable production of economically

valuable nontimber resources is questionable.

Many of the existing or historic management systems for nontimber forest products

and joint production developed without the benefit of economic analyses in

advance. Instead, these systems appear to be the product of accumulated indigenous knowledge. Alcorn (1989) studied the market prices and use values of

households in Mexico to explain how efficient management developed. Financial

and economic analyses of complex land management programs as exemplified in

locally developed agroforestry systems is largely lacking in North America. Kurtz

and others (1984) provide a stand-level analysis using black walnut, wheat, soybeans, hay, and grazing. This particular regime is inappropriate to conditions in

National Forests of the Pacific Northwest, but similarly complex systems could be

developed by using native species to produce a range of combinations of timber
16

and nontimber products. A survey of agroforestry practices in Washington State

(Lawrence and others 1992) found that only 12 percent of agroforestry systems

included any production of nontimber forest products. Vance (1993) also addresses the extent to which agroforestry is practiced by resource managers in a

survey of silviculturists on nontimber forest products, joint production systems, and

economic analysis.

Improving financial performance of nontimber forest products sectors—As

particular sectors mature, research focuses increasingly on improving economic

efficiency. For example, Ehlers (1968, 1970) described methods for deriving the

maximum value from Christmas green production and marketing. Paré (1984)

estimated the profitability threshold for maple syrup production, and Park (1984)

determined the investment effectiveness of shiitake mushroom cultivation. Urbani

(1985) provides a pro forma analysis of a hazelnut and truffle orchard.

Questions of fairness and justice, as well as professional ethics, play a prominent

role in recent nontimber forest product policy debates. These questions are most

prominent in the tropical forest arena, where the new ethnoscientists explicitly seek

to empower indigenous peoples instead of just describing how they use nontimber

forest products. The ethnoscientists propose mechanisms for addressing economic

power imbalances within societies and between countries, including the use of

subsidies from bilateral and multilateral agencies to support the development of

markets for nontimber forest products (Principe 1991, Reid and others 1993),

subsidies for rural health care in areas left in forest cover (Elizabetsky 1991,

Kloppenburg 1991, Reid and others 1993), and the development of international

agreements that provide for and protect the patenting of indigenous knowledge and

indigenously created genetic materials (Elisabetsky 1991, Kloppenberg 1991,

Principe 1991, Reid and others 1993). Such mechanisms are needed to ensure

that a greater percentage of the potential benefits obtained from harvesting

nontimber forest products remains in rural areas and in the hands of those who

produce the resources (Elizabetsky 1991, Kloppenburg 1991, May 1991, Plotkin

and Famolare 1992).

Nongovernmental organizations and scientific research institutes, such as the Ford

Foundation, the New York Botanical Garden’s Institute of Economic Botany, and

the National Cancer Institute, have taken the lead as knowledge and power

brokers between relatively powerless indigenous groups and more powerful state

and industrial policy actors (May 1991, Principe 1991, Reid and others 1993).

Ethnopharmacologists have played a critical role in pressuring policy makers to

recognize the value of indigenous knowledge about the medicinal values of nontimber forest products (Elizabetsky 1991, King 1991, Reid and others 1993). The

professions of ethnopharmacology and ethnobotany are developing professional

codes of conduct that would require members to explicitly acknowledge the source

of their information about valuable nontimber forest products, and to adhere to the

principle of treating their traditional healer-agronomist counterparts as professional

colleagues (Elizabetsky 1991, Kloppenburg 1991, Reid and others 1993).

Although social equity issues are raised in industrial and postindustrial society contexts (Larrère and de la Soudière 1985, Love 1992), the need to establish intellectual property rights for indigenous and local knowledge in these societies is

rarely addressed. Burgess’ (1994) discussion of the need for tribes of the Southwestern United States to patent seed types developed locally is an indication that

intellectual property rights may begin to emerge as an important policy issue in

temperate and boreal zones.

Ethics
17

Names of vascular plant species follow the nomenclature used by the USDA

Natural Resource Conservation Service. Other species are named according to

best available information. Specific names in bold show species native to the

Pacific Northwest and British Columbia.

Scientific name Common name

Abies spp. P. Mill. firs

Abies amabilis (Dougl. ex Loud.)

Dougl. ex Forbes Pacific silver fir

Abies fraseri (Pursh) Poir. Fraser’s fir

Abies grandis (Dougl. ex D. Don) Lindl. grand fir

Abies lasiocarpa (Hook.) Nutt. subalpine fir

Abies nordmanniana (Stev.) Spach. Caucasian silver fir

Abies procera Redh. noble fir

Acacia nilotica (L.) Willd. ex Delile gum-arabic tree

Acer spp. L. maples

Acer circinatum Pursh vine maple

Acer macrophyllum Pursh bigleaf maple

Acer saccharum Marsh. sugar maple

Achillea millefolium L. common yarrow

Adiantum spp. L. maidenhair ferns

Agaricus spp. L. ex Fr.

Agastache spp. Clayton ex Gronov. giant hyssops

Albatrellus ovinus (Fr.) Kotl. & Pouz. sheep polypore

Alectoria spp. Ach.

Alectoria jubata (L.) Ach.

Allium spp. L. wild onions

Alnus spp. P. Mill. alders

Alnus rubra Bong. red alder

Amanita spp. Pers. ex Hooker

Amaranthus retroflexus L. redroot amaranth

Amelanchier spp. Medik. serviceberries

Amelanchier alnifolia (Nutt.) Nutt. ex M. Roemer Saskatoon serviceberry

Anaphalis margaritacea (L.) Benth. & Hook. f. western pearly everlasting

Andromeda polifolia L. bog rosemary

Anenome multifida Poir. Pacific anenome

Angelica spp. L. angelicas

Aniba spp. Aubl. rosewoods

Arbutus menziesii Pursh Pacific madrone

Arbutus unedo L. strawberry tree

Arctium lappa L. greater burdock

Arctostaphylos spp. Adans. manzanitas

Arctostaphylos columbiana Piper hairy manzanita

Arctostaphylos uva-ursi (L.) Spreng. kinnikinnick

Argentina egedii (Wormsk.) Rydb.

[syn. Potentilla anserina, P. pacifica] Pacific silverweed

Armillariella mellea (Vahl ex Fr.) Kar. honey mushroom

Arnica spp. L. arnicas

Aronia melanocarpa (Michx.) Ell. black chokeberry

Artemisia spp. L. sagebrushes

Artemisia ludoviciana Nutt. Louisiana sagewort

Asarum spp. L. wildgingers

Index of Species
18

Scientific name Common name

Asarum caudatum Lindl. British Columbia wildginger

Asclepias spp. L. milkweeds

Asparagus acutifolius L.

Aster spp. L. asters

Attalea spp. Kuth in Humb. babaçu palms

Auricularia spp. Bull. ex Mérat wood ears

Balsamorhiza sagittata (Pursh) Nutt. arrowleaf balsamroot

Bertholletia excelsa Humb. & Bonpl. brazilnut

Betula spp. L. birches

Blechnum spicant (L.) Roth deer fern

Boletus spp. Dill. ex Fr. boletes

Boletus edulis Bull ex. Fr. king bolete

Brodiaea spp. Sm. clusterlilies

Calamus spp. L. calamuses, rattans

Calamus manan

Calocedrus decurrens (Torr.) Florin incense-cedar

Calochortus spp. Pursh Mariposa lilies

Camassia spp. Lindl. camas

Camassia quamash (Pursh) Greene camas

Cantharellus spp. Adans. ex Fr. chanterelles

Cantharellus cibarius Fr. golden chanterelle

Cantharellus lutescens (Pers.) Fr.

Cantharellus subalbidus Smith & Morse white chanterelle

Capsicum annuum var. glabriusculum

(Dunal) Heiser & Pickersgill cayenne or chiltepin pepper

Carex obnupta Baily slough sedge

Carya illinoisensis (Wangenh.) K. Koch pecan

Caryota urens L. fishtail palm

Cassiope mertensiana (Bong.) D. Don. western moss heather

Castanea dentata (Marsh.) Borkh. American chestnut

Castanea sativa P. Mill. European chestnut

Castanopsis chrysophylla

(Dougl. ex Hook.) A. DC. golden chinkapin

Ceanothus spp. L. ceanothus

Chamaecyparis spp. Spach. cedars

Chamaecyparis lawsoniana (A. Murr.) Parl. Port-Orford-cedar

Chamaecyparis nootkatensis (D.Don) Spach Alaska-cedar

Chamaedaphne calyculata (L.) Moench leatherleaf

Chimaphila umbellata (L.) W. Bart. pipsissewa, prince’s-pine

Cimifuga spp. Wernischeck bugbanes

Cinnamonum camphora (L.) J. Pres. camphortree

Cladonia spp. (Hill) Hill

Cladonia alpestris (L.) Rabh.

Cladonia stellaris (Opiz) Pouz & Vezda

Claytonia perfoliata Donn. ex Willd. miner’s lettuce

Clitocybe spp.

Clitocybe nuda (Bull. Ex Fr.) Big. & A.H.S. blewit

Clitocybe rhacodes (Vitt.) Quél.

Conyza spp. Less. horseweeds

Conyza canadensis (L.) Cronq.

[syn. Erigeron canadensis] Canadian horseweed
19

Scientific name Common name

Coprinus spp. (Pers. ex Fr.) S.F. Gray inky caps

Cornus spp. L. dogwoods

Cornus mas L.

Cornus nuttallii Audubon ex. Torr. & Gray Pacific dogwood

Cornus unalaschkensis Ledeb.

[syn. C. canadensis in part] western cordilleran bunchberry

Corylus spp. L. hazelnuts

Corylus avellana L. common filbert

Corylus cornuta Marsh. beaked hazelnut

Crataegus spp. L. hawthorns

Crataegus monogyna Jacq. oneseed hawthorn

Craterellus cornucopiodes Pers. horn of plenty

Cypripedium spp. L. cypripediums

Cypripedium acaule Ait. pink lady’s slipper

Cypripedium parviflorum Salis. lesser yellow lady’s slipper

Cypripedium reginae Walt. showy lady’s slipper

Cytisus scoparius (L.) Link scotchbroom

Delphinium spp. L. larkspurs

Dentinum spp.

Dentinum repandum (L. ex Fr.) S.F. Gray hedgehog mushroom

Digitalis purpurea L. purple foxglove

Diospyros melanoxylon tendu

Douglasia spp. Lindl. dwarfprimroses

Douglasia laevigata Gray cliff dwarfprimrose

Drosera rotundifolia L. roundleaf sundew

Dryas spp. L. mountainavens

Echinacea spp. purple coneflowers

Echinacea purpurea (L.) Moench eastern purple coneflower

Elettaria cardamomum Maton cardamon

Elliottia pyroliflorus (Bong.) S.W. Brim &

P.F. Stevens [syn. Cladothamnus pyroliflorus] copperbush

Empetrum spp. L. crowberries

Empetrum nigrum L. black crowberry

Epilobium spp. L. willowweeds

Epilobium angustifolium L. fireweed

Equisetum spp. L. horsetails

Equisetum arvense L. field horsetail

Equisetum hyemale L. scouringrush horsetail

Eriogonum spp. Michx. eriogonums

Erythronium spp. L. fawnlilies

Eucalyptus spp. L’Her. eucalyptus

Eucalyptus citriodora Hook. lemonscented gum

Eupatorium spp. L. thoroughwort

Euterpe oleracea C. Mart. açaipalm

Evernia prunastri (L.) Ach.

Flammulina spp. Karst. velvet foot

Fragaria spp. L. strawberries

Fragaria chiloensis (L.) P. Mill. beach strawberry

Fragaria vesca L. woodland strawberry

Fragaria viridis Duchesne

Frangula purshiana (DC.) Cooper Pursh’s buckthorn, cascara
20

Scientific name Common name

Fraxinus spp. L. ashes

Fritillaria spp. L. missionbells

Galax spp. Sims galax

Gaultheria spp. L. snowberries

Gaultheria ovatifolia Gray western teaberry

Gaultheria shallon Pursh salal

Gentiana spp. L. gentians

Geum macrophyllum Willd. largeleaf avens

Gingko biloba L. maidenhair tree

Glycyrrhiza glabra L. cultivated licorice

Gypsophila paniculata L. babysbreath gypsophila

Gyromitra esculenta Fr. false morel

Hedera helix L. English ivy

Heracleum maximum Batr. common cowparsnip

Hericium abietis (Weir ex Hubert) K. Harrison conifer coral hericium

Heuchera cylindrica Dougl. ex Hook. roundleaf alumroot

Hevea brasiliensis (Willd. ex Adr. Just.)

Mull. Arg. rubber

Hydrastis canadensis L. goldenseal

Hylocomium splendens (Hedw.) B.S.G.

Hyoscyamus niger L. black henbane

Hypericum perforatum L. common St. Johnswort

Ilex aquifolium L. English holly

Iris spp. L. irises

Jessenia spp. H. Karst jessenias

Juglans nigra L. black walnut

Juniperus spp. L. junipers

Juniperus communis L. common juniper

Juniperus occidentalis Hook. western juniper

Juniperus scopulorum Sarg. Rocky Mountain juniper

Juniperus virginiana L. eastern redcedar

Kalmia spp. L. kalmias

Kalmia polifolia Wagenh. bog laurel

Lactarius spp. DC. ex S.F. Gray milk caps

Lactarius rufus (Scop. ex Fr) Fries red hot milk cap

Lamium amplexicaule L. henbit deadnettle

Larix spp. P. Mill. larches

Larix occidentalis Nutt. western larch

Leccinum spp. S.F. Gray rough-stemmed boletes

Ledum spp. L. Labradorteas

Ledum palustre L. marsh Labradortea

Lentinus edodes (Berk.) Sing. shiitake

Lepidium spp. L. pepperweeds

Lewisia rediviva Pursh Oregon bitterroot

Ligusticum spp. L. ligusticums

Lilium spp. L. lilies

Limonium spp. P. Mill sealavenders

Linum spp. L. flaxes

Lithocarpus densiflorus (Hook. & Arn.) Rehd. tanoak

Lomatium spp. Raf. lomatiums

Lomatium cous (S. Wats.) Coult. & Rose cous biscuitroot
21

Scientific name Common name

Lomatium dissectum (Nutt.) Mathias &

Constance fernleaf biscuitroot

Lomatium utriculatum (Nutt. ex Torr. & Gray)

Coult. & Rose common lomatium

Lonicera spp. L. honeysuckles

Lonicera hispidula (Lindl.) Dougl. ex Torrey &

Gray pink honeysuckle

Lupinus spp. L. lupines

Lycopodium spp. L. clubmosses

Madia spp. Molina tarweeds

Mahonia spp. Nutt. Oregongrapes

Mahonia aquifolium (Pursh) Nutt. hollyleaved barberry

Mahonia nervosa (Pursh) Nutt. Cascade Oregongrape

Mahonia repens (Lindl.) G.Don Oregongrape

Malus fusca (Raf.) Schneid. Oregon crabapple

Matteuccia struthiopteris (L.) Todaro ostrich fern

Mauritia spp. L. f. aquaje palms

Melanogaster umbrinigleba

Mentha spp. L. mints

Menyanthes trifoliata L. common buckbean

Menziesia ferruginea Sm. rusty menziesia

Moneses uniflora (L.) Gray single delight

Morchella spp. Dill. ex Fr. true morels

Morchella conica Pers. black morel

Morchella esculenta (L.) Pers. yellow morel

Muhlenbergia spp. Schreb. muhlies

Myrica gale L. sweetgale

Narcissus spp. L. narcissi

Nyssa sylvatica Marsh. blackgum

Oemleria cerasiformis (Torr. & Gray ex Hook.

& Arn.) Landon Indian plum

Oplopanax horridus (Smith) Miq. devilsclub

Opuntia spp. P. Mill. pricklypears

Oryzopsis hymenoides (Roemer & J.A.Schultes)

Ricker ex Piper Indian ricegrass

Oxalis spp. L. woodsorrels

Panax quinquefolius L. American ginseng

Paxistima mysinites (Pursh) Raf. boxleaf myrtle

Penstamon spp. Schmidel penstamons

Pentaphylloides floribunda (Pursh) A. Love

[syn. Potentilla fruticosa] shrubby cinquefoil

Petasites frigidus (L.) Fries Arctic sweet coltsfoot

Philadelphus lewisii Pursh Lewis’ mockorange

Phlox spp. L. phloxes

Pholiota spp. (Fr.) Kummer pholiotas

Phoradendron spp. Nutt. mistletoes

Phoradendron villosum (Nutt.) Nutt. Pacific mistletoe

Phyllodoce empetriformis (Sm.) D. Don. pink mountainheath

Picea spp. A. Dietr. spruces

Picea abies (L.) Karst. Norway spruce

Picea engelmannii Parry ex Engelm. Engelmann’s spruce
22

Scientific name Common name

Picea glauca (Moench) Voss white spruce

Picea pungens Engelm. blue spruce

Picea sitchensis (Bong.) Carr. Sitka spruce

Picoa carthusiana Oregon black truffle

Pinus spp. L. pines

Pinus albicaulis Engelm. whitebark pine

Pinus contorta Dougl. ex Loud. lodgepole pine

Pinus densiflora Japanese red pine

Pinus lambertiana Dougl. sugar pine

Pinus monticola Dougl. ex D. Donn. western white pine

Pinus nigra Arnold Austrian pine

Pinus ponderosa P. & C. Lawson ponderosa pine

Pinus radiata D.Don Monterey pine

Pinus sabiniana Dougl. ex Dougl. California foothill pine

Pinus strobus L. eastern white pine

Pinus sylvestris L. Scotch pine

Pinus teocote Schl. & Cham. teocote pine

Pleurotus spp. (Fr.) Kummer oyster mushrooms

Polemonium spp. L. polemoniums

Polypodium glycyrrhiza D.C. Eat. licorice fern

Polystichum munitum (Kaulfuss) K. Presl. western swordfern

Populus spp. L. cottonwoods

Populus tremuloides Michx. quaking aspen

Potentilla spp. L. cinquefoil

Prunella vulgaris L. common selfheal

Prunus spp. L. prunus

Prunus emarginata (Dougl. ex Hook.) Walp. bitter cherry

Prunus spinosa L. blackthorn

Prunus subcordata Benth. Klamath plum

Prunus virginiana L. common chokecherry

Pseudevernia furfuracea (L.) Zopf.

Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirbel) Franco Douglas-fir

Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn western brackenfern

Quercus spp. L. oaks

Quercus acutissima Carruthers sawtooth oak

Quercus chrysolepis Lieb. canyon live oak

Quercus garryana Dougl. ex Hook. Oregon white oak

Quercus kelloggii Newberry California black oak

Quercus rubra L. northern red oak

Quercus suber L. cork oak

Rhizopogon spp. Fr.

Rhododendron spp. L. rhododendrons

Rhododendron macrophyllum D. Don ex

G. Don Pacific rhododendron

Rhododendron occidentale (Torr. & Gray ex

Torr.) Gray western azalea

Rhus spp. L. sumacs

Rhus glabra L. smooth sumac

Rhus hirta (L.) Sudworth staghorn sumac

Ribes spp. L. currants

Ribes sanguineum Pursh redflower currant
23

Scientific name Common name

Rosa spp. L. roses

Rosa nutkana K. Presl. Nootka rose

Rosa woodsii Lindl. Woods’ rose

Rubus spp. L. blackberries

Rubus chamaemorus L. cloudberry

Rubus discolor Weihe & Nees Himalayan blackberry

Rubus fruticosus L. shrubby blackberry

Rubus idaeus L. red raspberry

Rubus leucodermis Dougl. ex Torr. & Gray whitebark raspberry

Rubus parviflorus Nutt. thimbleberry

Rubus saxatilis L. thornless blackberry

Rubus spectabilis Pursh salmonberry

Rubus ursinus Cham. & Schlect. California blackberry

Rumohra adiantiformis (G. Forst.) Ching iron fern

Russula spp. (Pers. ex Fr.) S.F. Gray russulas

Russula aeruginea Lindbl. green russula

Russula xerampelina Fr. shrimp russula

Sagittaria latifolia Willd. broadleaf arrowhead

Salix spp. L. willows

Sambucus spp. L. elderberries

Sambucus racemosa L. red or scarlet elderberry

Santalum spp. L. sandalwoods

Santalum specalum

Satureja spp. L. saturejas

Sclerocarya birrea

Scutellaria spp. L. skullcaps

Scutellaria lateriflora L. blue skullcap

Sequoia sempervirens (Lamb ex D. Don) Endl. redwood

Shepherdia argentea (Pursh) Nutt. silver buffaloberry

Shepherdia canadensis (L.) Nutt. russet buffaloberry

Shorea spp.

Shorea robusta

Solidago spp. L. goldenrods

Solidago virgaurea L. European goldenrod

Sorbus spp. L. mountainashes

Sorbus acuparia L. European mountainash

Sorbus sitchensis M. Roemer western mountainash

Sparassis crispa Wulf: Fr. cauliflower mushroom

Sphagnum spp. sphagnum moss

Stellaria spp. L. starworts

Stokesiella oregana

Stropharia spp. (Fr.) Quél

Suillus spp. (Fr.) Kuntze slippery jacks

Suillus granulatus (Fr.) Kuntze granulated slippery jack

Suillus luteus (L. ex Fr.) S.F. Gray yellow slippery jack

Tanacetum spp. L. tansies

Taxus brevifolia Nutt. Pacific yew

Thuja spp. L. arborvitae

Thuja occidentalis L. eastern arborvitae

Thuja plicata Donn ex D. Don western redcedar

Tilia spp. L. basswoods
24

Scientific name Common name

Tremella Dill. ex Fr. witch’s butter

Tricholoma spp. (Fr.) Kummer tricholomas

Tricholoma magnivelare (Peck) Redhead American matsutake

Tricholoma matsutake (Ito & Imai) Singer Japanese matsutake

Trifolium wormskioldii Lehm cows clover

Trillium spp. L. trilliums

Triteleia spp. Dougl. ex Lindl. triplet lilies

Tsuga spp. Carr. hemlocks

Tsuga canadensis (L.) Carr. eastern hemlock

Tsuga heterophylla (Raf.) Sarg. western hemlock

Tsuga mertensiana (Bong.) Carr mountain hemlock

Tuber spp. Mich. ex Fr. truffles

Tuber aestivum Vitt.

Tuber brumales Vitt.

Tuber gibbosum Hk. Oregon white truffle

Tuber indicum

Tuber levissimum Gilkey

Tuber magnatum Vitt.

Tuber melanosporum

Tuber uncinatum

Typha latifolia L. broadleaf cattail

Umbellularia californica (Hook. & Arn.) Nutt. California laurel

Urtica spp. L. nettles

Urtica dioica L. stinging nettle

Usnea spp. (Dill.) Adans. usneas

Vaccinium spp. L. vacciniums

Vaccinium angustifolium Ait. lowbush blueberry

Vaccinium cespitosum Michx. dwarf blueberry

Vaccinium corymbosum L. highbush blueberry

Vaccinium deliciosum Piper blueleaved huckleberry

Vaccinium macrocarpon Ait. cranberry

Vaccinium membranaceum Dougl. ex Torr. blue huckleberry

Vaccinium myrtilloides Michx. velvetleaf huckleberry

Vaccinium myrtillus L. whortleberry

Vaccinium ovalifolium Sm. ovalleaf huckleberry

Vaccinium ovatum Pursh. evergreen huckleberry

Vaccinium oxycoccos L. small cranberry

Vaccinium parvifolium Sm. red huckleberry

Vaccinium scoparium Leib. ex Cov. grouse whortleberry

Vaccinium uliginosum L. bog blueberry

Vaccinium virgatum Ait. smallflower blueberry

Vaccinium vitis-idaea L. lingonberry

Valeriana spp. L. valerians

Veratrum viride Ait. American false hellebore

Verbascum spp. L. mulleins

Viburnum spp. L. viburnums

Viburnum edule (Michx.) Raf. mooseberry viburnum

Viburnum opulus L. cranberry viburnum

Viola spp. L. violets

Volvariella spp. Speg. volvariellas

Xerophyllum tenax (Pursh) Nutt. common beargrass

Zizania spp. L. wild rice
25

We wish to thank the many people who contributed their knowledge and expertise

as we assembled this bibliography. The list includes Michael Amaranthus, Keith

Blatner, David Brooks, Luca Cesaro, David Pilz, Nelly de Geus, James Freed,

Samuel Hammer, Jes Munk Hansen, Lynn Heasley, David Hosford, Joseph

Karchesy, Sylvia Kantor, Leon Liegel, Thomas Love, Cheryl Mack, Joel Meyer,

Judith Mikowski, Don Minore, Randy Molina, Geraldine Moreno-Black, Ulrik

Nielsen, Lorelei Norvell, Kaj Østergård, Tami Paal, Mike Rassbach, Rebecca

Richards, Catharine Richardson, Kenelm Russell, Richard St. Pierre, Kauko Salo,

Mark Savage, James Trappe, Nancy Turner, Nan Vance, Dale Weirman, and

Richard Zabel.

Cooperative Programs, State and Private Forestry, Pacific Northwest Region of

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, provided funding for a special

distribution of this publication.

Aakre, Anders. 1966. Lavsanking i Nord-Østerdal spesielt dens betydning for

naturlig foryngelse av furu=Harvesting of lichen in Nord-Østerdal, especially the

effects on natural pine reproduction. Meldinger fra Norges Landbrukshøgskole.

45(20): 1-34. In Norwegian with English summary.

Describes the effects on growth of Scotch pine (Pinus sylvestris) from commercial

harvests of lichens (Cladonia spp.) for stock feed and decoration. Analysis of the

mineral content of lichens shows low accumulations of critical plant nutrients, and

humus layers have no significant differences in nitrogen content or pH with or

without lichen cover. Pine regeneration is more prolific on sites where lichens had

been removed or thinned out. Dry, exposed sites have coarse soils with more rapid

water loss; added evaporation when there is no lichen ground cover stunts tree

growth. Where soils are fine-textured with better capillary transport, lichen cover

has a neutral effect on tree growth. The high export value of lichen makes joint

production with wood fiber the most economically efficient management option.

This article demonstrates the site-specific effects that harvesting a special forest

product can have on other resources at the site. These effects may not be easily

discernible or predictable without careful research.

Keywords: Joint production, lichens, soil moisture.

Abd. Rauf, Salim. 1982. A financial appraisal of rotan manau (Calamus manan)

cultivation at the Bukit Belata Forest Reserve. The Malaysian Forester. 45(4):

576-582.

Conducts a financial analysis of a mixed cropping system with a species of rattan

palm (Calamus manan) and Shorea spp. as part of national project to select

appropriate species for silvicultural trials. Empirical inputs of labor and material for

nursery and planting operations were calculated in staff days, and actual costs

were measured; harvesting inputs were estimated. Three measures of economic

performance were applied: net present value, benefit cost ratio, and internal rate

of return. A sensitivity analysis examines effects of two rotation ages (15 and

20 years), two harvest intensities (50 and 75 percent of stems), one model of

survivorship with variable rates over time, and three estimated growth rates

Annotated

Bibliography

Acknowledgments
26

(0.50, 0.75, and 1.00 m/yr). The discount rate used is not given. This article provides a template for economic sensitivity analyses for a special forest product.

Keywords: Cost-benefit analysis, financial analysis, internal rate of return, net

present value, sensitivity analysis, economic analysis, joint production.

Abriel, Ray; Okholm, Debra. 1994. Pacific Northwest nursery directory and

report: for people interested in planting and growing forest trees. R6-CP-TP0194. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific

Northwest Region, State and Private Forestry, Cooperative Programs. 54 p.

Contains directories of nurseries with their addresses, contact persons, and

telephone and FAX numbers as a reference for foresters, nursery professionals,

natural resource managers, and other interested people. Directories also include

participating nurseries in California, Idaho, Montana, and Nevada. Production data

are given for bareroot and container stock for all Western States. This publication

lists nurseries specializing in diverse planting projects involving species producing

special forest products: blister rust-resistant western white pine (Pinus monticola),

Pacific yew (Taxus brevifolia), riparian species, and native shrubs. The authors

give guidelines for success in planting projects. The book also shows where gaps

exist in local or regional production and capacity for supplying special forest

product plants.

Keywords: Horticultural plants, nurseries, directory, Pacific Northwest.

Acker, Randy. 1986. Harvesting wild edible mushrooms in Washington: an issue

paper. Olympia, WA: Department of Natural Resources; Prepared for the Wild

Edible Mushroom Task Group, November 3, 1986. 44 p.

Provides necessary background material to the Wild Edible Mushroom Task

Group, which was convened by the Washington Department of Natural Resources

in October 1985. The task group’s mission was to identify wild edible mushroom

harvesting issues and make recommendations for the possible regulation of the

resource.

Growth of the industry without regulation has prompted societal concerns about

the sustainability, both economic and biological, of the mushroom resource.

Chanterelles (Cantharellus spp.) and American matsutake (Tricholoma

magnivelare) are the principal species of importance economically. Germany,

France, and Japan are the major export markets. Data are given for exports from

Washington ports. The direct American share of the German import market for

wild mushrooms is relatively small (0.2 percent in 1985). Much of the American

chanterelle crop consumed in Germany is first exported to Canada. Together, the

United States and Canada comprise 25 percent of the German market. Poland,

the largest European exporter, supplies 70 percent of the German market imports.

Acker also gives wage data for 1986 and estimates of the labor force of pickers in

Washington. Mushroom picking offers seasonal income and supplements income

in coastal counties of Washington where unemployment is high as the result of a

depressed timber industry. Conflict among user groups is occurring and is likely to

increase in the future if harvest intensity increases. On state lands, pickers have
27

not been required to pay for harvests. This is private gain from public resources

without any compensation to the Washington Department of Natural Resources.

The author outlines the positions and concerns of interest groups in Washington.

These interest groups include recreational users, scientists, processors and

exporters, intermediary buyers, pickers, forest land owners, and state and Federal

land management agencies. Strengths and weaknesses of options from which

government policies could develop are discussed in detail. Options include

(1) expanding research on wild mushroom species and their domestication,

(2) expanding commercial harvest levels of wild mushrooms, (3) developing commercial cultivation of nonnative edible mushrooms, (4) imposing a temporary

moratorium on harvest and sale of wild edible mushrooms, (5) more stringently

regulating harvesting seasons, (6) limiting total harvest take during collection

seasons, (7) imposing regional closures on commercial picking, (8) establishing

a permit system, (9) requiring licensing or a possession limit or both, and

(10) leasing lands for exclusive rights to mushroom harvest. Evaluation of options

must deal with uncertainties about achieving desired ecological and economic

results, the timing of desired results, their actual cost, funding allocations, and

possible redistribution of socially negative impacts.

Keywords: Employment, interest groups, policy analysis, policy options, wild edible

mushrooms, trade, Washington.

Aguilar Hernández, Mario. 1995. Informe de Paises—Mexico=Country reports—

Mexico. In: Frisk, Torsten, comp. Memoria: Consulta de expertos sobre

productos forestales no madereros para America Latina y el Caribe; 4-8 July

1994; [location of meeting unknown]. Serie Forestal 1. Santiago, Chile: United

Nations, Food and Agricultural Organization, Regional Office for Latin America

and the Caribbean: 229-237.

Summarizes the industry involving the American matsutake (Tricholoma

magnivelare) from Pinus teocote forests. Harvesting currently occurs in Mexico

State, Hidalgo, Michoacan, Oaxaca, and Veracruz. Price for this mushroom in

Japan may reach as high as US$100/kg. Between 1989 and 1992, Japan imported

7740 tonnes of American matsutake, but of this amount, only 35.8 tonnes came

from Mexico. The 1993 harvest amounted to 12 tonnes, yielding US$375,000 to

the 3,000 households involved in harvesting. Japan imported 8.4 tonnes of that

harvest for a value of US$465,000. Mexico’s participation in the Japanese market

currently stands at 0.25 percent. Some 35 000 hectares have been designated as

potential mushroom habitat, but harvesting occurs on only 48 percent of the

habitat. A potential annual harvest of 30 tonnes is projected from the States of

Hidalgo and Veracruz alone.

Keywords: Wild edible mushrooms, Mexico, yields, prices, trade.

Alcorn, Janis B. 1984. Development policy, forests, and peasant farms: reflections on Huastec-managed forests’ contributions to commercial production and

resource conservation. Economic Botany. 38 (4): 389-406.

Proposes that intensified traditional forest management offers an alternative to

intensified agricultural production as the basis for sustainable economic development in tropical semisubsistence economies. Huastec forest management in
28

northeastern Mexico is an example of a management system that can be

intensified. The area consists of moist tropical forest and is inhabited primarily by

peasant farmers who rely heavily on forest-farm mixtures known as “télom” to

make a living. Télom contain both intensely cultivated and wild species, and different households manage different resources at various intensities. Plant diversity

is extremely high, with the average télom having more than 300 species. Products

are used for a large variety of purposes: food, medicine, construction, and forage.

Some products are consumed at home, others, notably coffee, are sold for cash.

The télom system differs from agroforestry in that it is a much more permanent

forest structure. Unlike Western notions of managed forests, the télom contains

a high diversity of species and is managed to minimize disturbance of natural

communities. Télom require relatively little labor and they spread risk. Alcorn

stresses that policymakers need to see télom as one piece of a larger set of production strategies, rather than as the sole economic strategy for peasant

households.

Keywords: Agroforestry, risk diversification, forest management, Mexico.

Alcorn, Janis B. 1989. An economic analysis of Huastec Mayan forest management. In: Browder, J.O., ed. Fragile lands of Latin America: strategies for

sustainable development. Boulder, CO: Westview Press: 182-206.

Describes forest management practices by Huastec Mayan Indians in San Luis

Potosi, Mexico, to maintain forest patches called télom. These forests provide

subsistence and market goods (utensils, tools, food, and medicines) and conserve

wild genetic resources and environmental amenities (for example, soil conservation) with relatively low labor inputs. The author outlines a financial analysis of a

single Huastec farm-forest community. Cash value and shadow prices are used to

estimate production inputs. Personal consumption and sales combine for total

estimated value. Production of semidomesticated coffee plants is high value and

risky but makes the forest component of the rural economy the most profitable in

good years. In providing a complete system for rural development, native or semiwild forest stands should be incorporated as sources for cash and subsistence

crops. This article is of significance for showing possibilities for agroforestry

systems using combinations of wild and domesticated plant species to provide

economic well being.

Keywords: Subsistence, economic analysis, risk, rural development, Mexico,

Mayas.

Allen, John W. 1950. Marketing woodlot products in the State of Washington.

Bull. 1. Olympia, WA: Washington Department of Conservation and Development, Institute of Forest Products. 61 p.

Outlines the species, product quality requirements, packing and processing

features, seasonal availability, prices, markets, and major firms in the trade of

miscellaneous products. Miscellaneous products include berries, cascara

(Frangula purshiana) bark, evergreen huckleberry (Vaccinium ovatum), salal

(Gaultheria shallon), western swordfern (Polystichum munitum), and Douglas-fir

(Pseudotsuga menziesii) resin. At the time of publication, Kitsap and Mason
29

Counties were the center of the forest greens industry. Wholesale product prices

and, for cascara bark, workers’ wages are given. The author summarizes a study

by the Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station about best management practices for western swordfern in a variety of forest types. Other products

briefly mentioned include dried cottonwood (Populus spp.) stem buds for use in

patent medicines, willows (Salix spp.) for floral markets, basketry, and plant stock

for erosion control, wild bulbs of horticultural value, cedar boughs, ornamental

cones, purple foxglove (Digitalis purpurea), moss and lichens, Oregongrape

(Mahonia spp.) for floral markets and roots for patent medicines, devilsclub

(Oplopanax horridus), prince’s-pine (Chimaphila umbellata), and American false

hellebore (Veratrum viride) for medicinal use. The author offers an example of a

forest appraisal that includes harvests of salal and evergreen huckleberry before

harvesting overstory trees. A list of regulations about trade in nontimber forest

products is included at the end of the document. A license is required for all people

to transport or sell any huckleberry branches outside the State of Washington.

Written permission from a landowner must be obtained before another person may

cut, peel, or ship cascara bark. This article gives a valuable early description of

the nontimber forest product industry and its regulations.

Keywords: Regulations, economic analysis, processing, prices.

Ammer, N. [and others]. 1982. Sammeln und Langlaufen im Nationalpark

Bayerischer Wald=Collecting and cross-country skiing in the Bavarian Forest

National Park. Munich: Bayerisches Staatsministerium für Ernährung,

Landwirtschaft und Forsten. 65 p.

Anderson, Anthony B. 1990. Alternatives to deforestation: steps toward

sustainable use of the Amazon rain forest. New York: Columbia University

Press.

Provides different perspectives on how sustainable use of the Amazon rain forest

can be attained. In keeping with their belief that there is no “one-size-fits-all”

solution to sustainable forest management, the editors have included articles

addressing a continuum of forest management possibilities, ranging from traditional

natural forest management, to extractive reserves, to extensive and intensive agroforestry systems in environments subject to a high degree of human manipulation.

Articles range from fairly technical studies of ecosystem interactions to various

kinds of disturbance to analyses of the social and political factors that affect the

viability of different management strategies, such as extractive reserves, traditional

agroforestry, and new forms of agroforestry. This book describes a range of

options that might be applicable to the temperate forests of the Pacific Northwest.

Keywords: Sustainability, Amazon, forest management, extractive reserves,

agroforestry.

Anderson, Anthony B.; Ioris., Edviges M. 1992. Valuing the rain forest: economic strategies by small-scale forest extractivists in the Amazon estuary.

Human Ecology. 20(3): 337-369.

Outlines the development of the extractive reserve concept as a policy mechanism

for balancing economic development and natural resource conservation in Brazil’s
30

Amazon basin. Two factors limit the economic returns of extractive reserves as a

mode of production: the dispersed nature of the resources creates high harvesting

costs, and the dispersed human population increases transport costs. The authors

collected data on forest use strategies from 10 households on the island of Combu

in the Amazon delta.

Combu is unique in several important respects: mechanized agriculture is not possible owing to the waterlogged soils, resulting in retained forest cover; economic

species are highly concentrated and thus can be readily harvested; and proximity

to the metropolitan center of Belem allows Combu harvesters to avoid middlemen

and gain a greater share of the profits from the sale of their products. Together

these factors encourage conservation-oriented behavior because most Combu

residents profit more from the forest than from alternative land uses. Conservation

practices are in fact relatively new; only when the economic returns from the sale

of açai palm (Euterpe oleracea) fruits surpassed that of both farming and logging

did forest conservation become common.

Keywords: Forest extraction, economic strategies, land use, survey, household,

management, Brazil.

Anderson, James R. 1925. Trees and shrubs, food, medicinal and poisonous

plants of British Columbia. Victoria, BC: British Columbia Department of

Education. 165 p.

Serves as an encyclopedic reference work for schools in British Columbia to inform

residents about indigenous and popular uses of the native flora for food and

medicine. The first section on tree and shrub species emphasizes identification and

makes cursory mention of traditional and contemporary uses. The second section

treats food plants and describes native methods of preparation with details for

major species. Wild fungi are not included among edible plants although black

lichen (Alectoria jubata) is mentioned. Medicinal and poisonous plants are treated

together. Many plants served both food and medicinal purposes, including

Oregongrape (Mahonia spp.), common cowparsnip (Heracleum lanatum), common

lomatium (Lomatium utriculatum), and fireweed (Epilobium angustifolium).

This work represents an early invaluable compilation of uses and attitudes toward

native vegetation in coastal regions of British Columbia. Although the uses of

nontimber forest products receives considerable attention in this volume, the

economic emphasis on timber is central to the philosophy of forest management

set forth in the final section of the book. Economic development of traditional food

and medicinal resources is generally not viewed as a goal in forest management.

Keywords: Traditional uses, wild edible food, medicinal plants, poisonous plants,

British Columbia.

Anon. 1985. Report from an ad hoc committee of the Oregon Mycological Society:

harvest and commercialization of wild edible fungi. Mycena News. 35(2): [page

nos. unknown].

Arnolds, E. 1991. Decline of ectomycorrhizal fungi in Europe. Agriculture, Ecosystems, and Environment. 35: 205-244.
31

Arnst, Albert. 1945. Cascara—a crop from West Coast tree farms. Journal of

Forestry. 43(11): 805-811.

Discusses the potential for increasing the production and harvest of cascara bark

for medicinal use in the mid-1940s. Although interest in cascara bark increased

during World War II, it had been an important cathartic for centuries. At the time of

the article’s publication, the major species used in the United States was Frangula

purshiana, which is found in Washington, Oregon, north-central California, and in

the mountains of Idaho and Montana. The commercially important areas are mainly

along the coast. Labor shortages associated with World War II decreased the

supply of cascara bark, which was then an important crop for local economies in

rural Washington, Oregon, and California.

The author notes that much of the supply during that period came from new trees

on cutover lands. The inability to access remote locations during the war years

resulted in overharvesting of trees close to major roads. The author cites lack of

knowledge and failure to use proper harvesting practices as a major threat to this

million-dollar industry. The high incidence of poaching constituted another threat.

The author attributes the prevalence of poaching to the unwillingness of landowners to enforce their claims to cascara trees. The author argues for the need to

disseminate information about the value of cascara bark to increase enforcement

of existing laws against poaching.

Keywords: Medicinal plants, harvesting practices, domestication, poaching,

sustainability.

Austad, Ingvild. 1988. Tree pollarding in western Norway. In: Birks, Hilary H.;

Birks, H.J.B; Kalnad, Peter Emil; Moe, Dagfinn, eds. The cultural landscape—

past, present and future. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 10-29.

Discusses the modern Norwegian landscape, which is a product of agricultural

practices that relied heavily on pollarding. The recent cessation of this practice is

likely to significantly alter the aesthetic, recreational, and ecological values of

western Norwegian landscapes; for example, many formerly pollarded trees provide habitat for insects and birds. Farmers also benefit as the nutritional value of

the leaves of many pollarded species surpasses that of hay. In conclusion, Austad

advocates the creation of special pollarding areas and the reintroduction of traditional cutting techniques as a means for restoring the landscape. Given the labor

costs required, she recommends the use of government farm subsidies to

encourage the maintenance of these traditional forms of management. She notes

that additional research needs to focus on determining the value of tree fodder for

animal health and on identifying the restoration methods most appropriate to

creating specific landscape features.

Keywords: Pollarding, agroforestry, farm forestry, landscape management, Norway.

Bainbridge, DA. 1986. Quercus, a multipurpose tree for temperate climates.

The International Tree Crops Journal. 3: 291-298.

Focuses on the economic role of oaks (Quercus spp.) as important sources for

fodder, food, sugar, tanning agents, dyes, and inks. Acorns remain a widespread

food in Korea. Production of acorns differs widely from year to year but may
32

amount to as much as 3000-6000 kg•ha–1•yr–1. Individual trees of Oregon white

oak (Q. garryana) produce several hundred kilograms per year. Intercropping with

other crops is frequent. Acorns are sources of vitamin C and starch. Leaching the

tannins improves flavor. Coffeelike beverages from acorns are known from the

American midwest and central Europe, and oil from acorns is used for cooking in

north Africa and traditionally for cooking and salves by Native Americans in the

East. Indians in the Columbia River region used urine to cure acorns that were

known as “Chinook olives” by early Euro-American settlers. The author advocates

efforts to select productive oak trees for breeding projects that develop the oak

resource more efficiently.

Keywords: Acorns, nuts, tannins, dye plants, breeding programs, nutrition.

Baldini, Sanzio. 1993. Produits forestiers non ligneux dans la région

méditerranéenne=Nontimber forest products in the Mediterranean region.

Rome: United Nations, Food and Agricultural Organization. 34 p. In French.

Presents issues basic to formulating a comprehensive policy in the Mediterranean

basin for nontimber forest products. Many resources are spread widely over the

landscape but have only modest yields per unit of surface area. Formal economic

sectors encompass only some of the resources, and market mechanisms are not in

place to ensure resource conservation. Major resources include resins from Pinus

spp.; medicinal extracts from Digitalis purpurea, Allium spp., and Crataegus spp.;

honey from numerous forest plants; and edible fungi, particularly Boletus spp.

Amanita spp., Pleurotus spp., and Tuber spp. Actual production levels of products

and their values are given along with estimates of potential production and value

for each Mediterranean nation.

Soil conservation measures for ecosystem restoration projects in deforested and

arid regions are essential to achieving greater levels of production. Improvements

to the structure of economic systems will increase the flow of revenues and raise

employment levels. Product quality improvement, value-added production, and

effective marketing are necessary to get products widely represented in domestic

and foreign markets. A strategic policy for expanding the nontimber forest products

sector requires (1) multidisciplinary coordination (including botany, statistics,

sociology, ecology, biochemistry, industrial chemistry, economics and marketing,

agronomy and silviculture, and zootechnology); (2) programs to stimulate growth

in rural income and employment; (3) education to improve local knowledge and

technical expertise; (4) a databank for nontimber forest products in the region; and

(5) prioritizing for management intervention and product development. This article

outlines a potentially useful policy framework for decisionmakers in the Pacific

Northwest.

Keywords: Economic policy, ecosystem restoration, medicinal plants, mushrooms,

yields, resins, honey, wild edible mushrooms.

Balick, Michael; Arvigo, Rosita; Romero, Leopoldo. 1994. The development

of an ethnobiomedical forest reserve in Belize: its role in the preservation of

biological and cultural diversity. Conservation Biology. 8(1): 316-317.

Describes how a focus on the development of nontimber forest products can contribute to sustainable management of a tropical forest ecosystem. The management
33

of extractive reserves for nontimber forest products can provide incentives for local

people to maintain ecosystem integrity, as evidenced by a recent effort in Belize to

establish an ethnobiomedical forest reserve structured to benefit local people.

Medicinal plants are key nontimber forest products in Belize, and herb gatherers

and traditional healers are important elements in Central American health care

networks. The Belize Association of Traditional Healers was established in 1992 to

stop the loss of knowledge about traditional medicinal plants and their uses. Their

efforts have focused on recruiting new members to the traditional healing

profession and developing an intellectual property rights system for traditional

knowledge.

Keywords: Extractive reserve, networks, traditional healers, ethnobotany, intellectual property rights, Belize.

Balick, Michael; Mendelsohn, Robert. 1992. Assessing the economic value of

traditional medicines from tropical rain forests. Conservation Biology. 6(1):

128-130.

Assesses the net present value of medicinal plant harvests for two plots of tropical

forest in Belize. The first plot, a 30-year-old, 0.28-ha parcel yielded a net present

value of US$726/ha assuming a 30-year harvest cycle and a 5-percent discount

rate. The second plot, 50 years old and measuring 0.25 ha, yielded a net present

value of US$3,327/ha, assuming a 50-year rotation and the same discount rate.

These values compare favorably with alternative land uses in the region, such as

intensive agriculture and pine plantations. The authors argue that a medicinal

harvest strategy is viable and can be combined with other sustainable nontimber

forest products to provide conservation incentives.

Keywords: Medicinal plants, economic value, inventory, net present value, land

use, Belize.

Bang, Carl. 1979. Grøntudbyttet ved forskellige klippemetoder og -intensiteter i

nobilis=Various lopping methods and intensities for the production of decoration

greenery of Abies procera. Forstlige Forsøgsvaesen i Danmark. 37(1): 1-22.

In Danish with English summary.

Reports preliminary results of seven different lopping methods replicated three

times in three experimental blocks to test optimal long-term production of decorative greenery from noble fir (Abies procera). Thinnings are combined with lopping

in some treatments but did not occur in the same year. Only salable greenery was

harvested. After 24 years, the most lucrative practice was found to be a whorllopping at age 13 followed by annual removal of a single whorl. Screw-lopping and

leaving only two top whorls initially was not economically feasible. The article

suggests ways to manage noble fir for bough production in plantations in the

Pacific Northwest.

Keywords: Greenery, screw-lopping, thinning, whorl-lopping, experimental

design.
34

Bang, Carl. 1986. En grenanalyse af nobilis=Branching habits of Abies procera.

Forstlige Forsøgsvaesen i Danmark. 41(1): 1-34. In Danish with English

summary.

Bang, Carl. 1988. Grøntudbyttet ved forskellige klippemetoder og -intensiteter i

nobilis, II=Various lopping methods and intensities for the production of decoration greenery of Abies procera, part two. Forstlige Forsøgsvaesen i Danmark.

42(1): 27-50. In Danish with English summary.

Barfod, A.S.; Bergmann, B.; Pedersen, H.B. 1990. The vegetable ivory industry:

surviving and doing well in Ecuador. Economic Botany. 44(3): 293-300.

Bateman, Ian. 1991. Recent developments in the evaluation of nontimber forest

products: the extended CBA method. Quarterly Journal of Forestry. 85(2): 90-

102

Examines the type and nature of nonpriced benefits and costs of forestry. Examination of only the market price of forest outputs will not accurately reflect the true

social value of forests. Five sources of forest value need to be considered: primary

user value, secondary user value, option use value, bequest value, and existence

value. The difference between the value and price of an item is often a function of

the associated property rights. The difference is underscored between financial

appraisals of forests, which look at internal (or priced) costs and benefits, and

social appraisals, which consider both internal and external (nonpriced) costs and

benefits and the use of cost-benefit analysis (CBA) for social appraisals. The single

major CBA forestry assessment conducted in Great Britain by the Treasury

Department considered a wide, but not exhaustive, range of external criteria and

employed different units of measurement for internal and external costs and

benefits. There are two other approaches to this conventional CBA approach:

improving CBA by better monetary evaluation of environmental externalities, and

changing the nature of forestry investing so that external criteria become an

investment priority for private forestry companies. Other alternatives include a pure

market solution, extension of private property rights and regulation, and nonmonetary evaluation. Nontimber forest products such as berries and game are

referenced as an external benefit but are not addressed directly.

Keywords: Primary user value, secondary user value, option user value, bequest

value, existence value, economic value, cost-benefit analysis, policy, United

Kingdom.

Bazzocchi, Raffaele; Giorgioni, Maria Eva; Calzolari, Stefania. 1987.

Eucalyptus per la produzione di fronde recise=Eucalyptus for cut foliage production. Colture Protette. 16(6): 27-32. In Italian.

Calls attention to less well-known eucalyptus species suitable for floral markets,

which are traditionally sensitive to high quality standards and constant innovation.

Eucalyptus foliage stays fresh for a long time and is popular in floral arrangements.

Of the land in Italy devoted to growing cut foliage, more than 35 percent of it is in

eucalyptus production. A description of species suitable for industrial production

of floral greenery comprises most of the text.
35

This article points out the possibility of stiff market competition for exports of Pacific

Northwest floral greens in the event of an increase in industrial supplies worldwide

of eucalyptus species grown for the florist trade. Also, local production of coldhardy eucalyptus species for floral greens could contribute to local economic

development in the Pacific Northwest.

Keywords: Competition, eucalyptus, floral greens, Italy.

Becker, M. 1993. Economic value of non-wood products from tropical forests.

In: IUFRO centennial meeting; 31 Aug.-4 Sept. 1992; Berlin, Germany. [Place

of publication unknown]: [Publisher unknown].

Behaly, Joseph G. 1981. Harvesting evergreen brush and fern. Ext. Bull. 0721.

Pullman, WA: Washington State University, Cooperative Extension. [not paged].

Provides a brief overview of forest management and harvesting techniques for

salal (Gaultheria shallon), evergreen huckleberry (Vaccinium ovatum), and western

swordfern (Polystichum munitum) as floral greens crops. Adjusting the forest

overstory and pruning lower trees branches maintain the correct balance of light

and moisture for these species. Moderation in harvest intensity is recommended.

Spring harvests should be avoided because foliage is tender and easily injured.

Trade requirements for frond or branch lengths and quality and suggestions for

packing and handling are given. Scheduling of frond harvests proceeds sequentially by forest type from open areas, to alder (Alnus rubra) forests, to Douglas-fir

(Pseudotsuga menziesii), and then to cedar (Thuja plicata) and Sitka spruce (Picea

sitchensis) stands. Pruning guidelines for huckleberry also are given. This brochure

provides a succinct introduction to the major floral greens species in the Pacific

Northwest.

Keywords: Floral greens, harvesting guidelines, Pacific Northwest.

Belonogova, Tatyana. 1993. Changes in blueberry and cowberry yields under the

influence of forestry measures. Aquilo Ser. Bot. 31: 17-20.

Cites the effects of human-caused factors in the decrease of berry production

areas in Karelia, Russia, and reports on experiments to increase productivity in

naturally occurring berry stands. Berry yields in the Karelian region depend on

weather conditions and differ greatly from year to year. An annual average over

5 years has been 5000 tonnes. This amounts to 11 kg of berries per inhabitant of

Karelia as compared to 0.6 kg per capita in the rest of Russia.

Silvicultural measures can increase production of whortleberry (Vaccinium

myrtillus) and lingonberry (V. vitis-idaea). Experiments in partial overstory removal

increased sunlight reaching the understory and generated more flowering and

fruiting. Whortleberry yields in treatment plots doubled by the end of the 6-year

study period as compared to control plots. The effect of canopy thinning is stronger

when fertilizer is applied, but in 50-year-old pine (Pinus sylvestris) stands, increasing competition for space by other vegetation neutralizes the beneficial effect of

fertilizers for berry production.
36

Lingonberries are most numerous on cutover lands where their yields are highest

despite susceptibility to night frosts. High productivity is limited to young stands.

Overstory thinning provides 2 years of increased lingonberry productivity and a

return to low productivity thereafter. The quantities are not sufficient for commercial

collecting.

This article provides useful details about possibilities for overstory stand manipulation to enhance berry crop production for different species.

Keywords: Berries, improvement thinnings, mineral fertilizer, productivity, yields,

management, Russia.

Bender, F. 1963. Cedar leaf oils. Ottawa: Canadian Department of Forestry. 16 p.

This dated paper surveys potential areas for growth in commercial use of cedar

oils from species found in the Pacific Northwest. Until the 1920s, the cedar leaf oil

industry was significant in Canada. Uses included perfumes, medicinal preparations, insecticides, furniture polishes, soaps, and microscope slides. The major

species used were eastern arborvitae (Thuja occidentalis) and eastern redcedar

(Juniperus virginiana). Western redcedar (T. plicata) yields higher amounts of oil

per weight (1 percent), and western juniper (J. scopulorum) produces the highest

yield of leaf oil, 1.8 percent from berry crops.

In recent years production has dropped because of the high cost of collection. Only

one small plant operated in British Columbia in 1963 that used western redcedar.

Most American production of cedar oil occurred in New England in 1963. Portable

equipment and methods for oil preparation are described. Data on prices in

Canada in the early 1960s are given. Data on production and consumption of

cedar oil are not available for Canada or the United States.

Keywords: Cedar oil, essential oils, distillation, Canada.

Benjamin, Pamela K.; Anderson, Roger C. 1985. Influence of collecting on the

reproductive capacity of wild ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) in Illinois. Bulletin

of the Ecological Society of America. 66(2): 140-141.

Examines the influence of harvesting by comparing age structure and reproductive

success of wild ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) populations in different age classes

in protected and unprotected sites. Sample populations on unprotected sites were

one-third as numerous where more productive plants of commercial value (> 7

years old) were selectively removed. This brief article underscores the importance

of demographic studies to monitor the reproductive capacity of special forest

products.

Keywords: Demography, harvesting, reproduction, medicinal plants.

Benk, Erich. 1987. Zur Kenntnis einiger wenig bekannter Wildfrüchte=Information

on some lesser known wild fruits. Gordian. 87(11): 226-227. In German.

Introduces less well-known fruiting trees and shrubs in the Berberidaceae,

Ericaceae, and Rosaceae of potential use as fruit crops and ornamental foliage.
37

Of particular relevance to the Pacific Northwest is the description of hollyleaved

barberry (Mahonia aquifolium). The multiple uses of the plant give it wide application as a protective hedge and decorative garden plant. The dark red color and

acidic flavor of the berry juice improve the color and flavor of other fruit preparations; for example, combinations of Oregongrape with apples, crabapples, and

pears in jellies. Other genera mentioned with species native to the Pacific Northwest are Prunus, Rubus, and Sorbus.

This article describes unconventional uses for native Mahonia and hints at its

possible domestication as a food crop in Europe.

Keywords: Edible wild plants, horticultural plants, domestication, flavoring, food

coloring.

Binkley, D.; Graham, R.L. 1981. Biomass, production and nutrient cycling of

mosses in an old growth Douglas-fir forest. Ecology. 62(5): 1387-1389.

Estimates the biomass, productivity, and nutrient cycling of ground-level mosses in

an old-growth Douglas-fir/western hemlock forest, and examines the importance of

mosses to system dynamics. Research was conducted in the H.J. Andrews

Experimental Forest (western Oregon), where moss cover was about 40 percent.

Two species, Stokesiella oregana and Hylocomium splendens made up 99 percent

of the total ground-level moss biomass. The authors estimated that annual net

production was composed of 39 percent of the standing crop of Stokesiella and 18

percent of the standing crop of Hylocomium. Total moss biomass was estimated at

1075 ±100 kg/ha, which was consistent with earlier studies. Mosses contributed 20

percent to the total biomass and 95 percent to the photosynthetic tissue biomass in

the understory. Although ground-level mosses made up only 0.13 percent of the

aboveground biomass, they contributed significantly to system dynamics.

Keywords: Moss, system dynamics, H.J. Andrews Experimental Forest.

Black, B.E. 1948. Oregon’s farm forest products. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State

University, Extension Service.

Bluhm, Wilburd L. 1988. Native herbaceous perennials of the Pacific Northwest

worthy of commercial production. Combined Proceedings of the International

Plant Propagators’ Society. 38: 135-137.

Lists low- and mid-elevation Pacific Northwest native herbaceous perennials that

deserve consideration for commercial production. At present, these species are

little used because of the preference of horticultural species from eastern North

America, Europe, China, and Japan. This brief article is a starting point for targeting likely species from which cuttings or seed collections could be taken to begin

domestication and wider introduction in the horticultural trade.

Keywords: Domestication, horticultural plants, perennial plants.
38

Blumenthal, Mark. 1992. Focus on rain forest remedies. HerbalGram. 27: 8-10.

Reviews selected articles published in 1991 and 1992 on use of nontimber forest

products among indigenous rain forest communities and the potential for new

drugs and cures.

Keywords: Medicinal plants, rain forest.

Boge, L. 1983. Hinweise zur Weidennrutenproduktion=Guidelines for osier

production. Sozialistische Forstwirtschaft. 33(2): 45-46. In German.

Describes important considerations for economically viable intensive management

of willow (Salix spp.) stands for osier production in Germany. Details of correct site

selection, soil treatments, control of competing vegetation, stand size, harvest

scheduling, and the practice of alternating land uses are given. The importance of

personnel experienced with willow silviculture also is emphasized.

Keywords: Basketry, weaving, stand management.

Bolsinger, Charles L.; Jaramillo, Annabelle E. 1990. Taxus brevifolia Nutt.

Pacific yew. In: Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H., tech. coords. Silvics of

North America: Volume I, Conifers. Agric. Handb. 654. Washington DC: U.S.

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service: 573-579.

Provides an overview of the range and habitat where Pacific yew is found, and the

associated climate, soils, and vegetation. Yew reproduces both vegetatively and

by seed. Seeds germinate slowly, with germination favored by the presence of a

deep organic layer. Yew also sprouts from stumps and rootstocks. Logging

appears to have a negative impact on the vigor of yew. Yew grows slowly and is

rarely found at high densities. It is highly shade tolerant but is able to adapt to

overstory removal. Yew wood is used for many products, including bows, canoe

paddles, furniture, and tool handles. It also is valued by Japanese and Taiwanese

woodcarvers. In the late 1960s, yew bark was identified as a source of taxol, a

potential anticancer compound. The National Cancer Institute began acquiring

yew bark on a commercial scale in 1988. Their orders for 27 700 kg of yew bark

represented about 6,000 to 7,000 trees, most of which were on Federal lands

where yew has not been inventoried. At the time the article was written, a synthetic

substitute for taxol had yet to be discovered, and Pacific yew was the only species

known to have commercial quantities of taxol. Alternative sources from tissue

culture and seedlings were being investigated.

Keywords: Pacific yew, medicinal plants, Pacific Northwest.

Bounous, Giancarlo; Peano, Cristina. 1990. Frutti dimenticati=Neglected fruits.

Monti e Boschi. 41(4): 23-32. In Italian with English summary.

Calls attention to the economic potential of European or Near Eastern fruit tree

species, many of which have members of the same genus in the Pacific Northwest.
39

Details are provided about respective horticultural requirements for commercial

stands of these shrubs and trees. Mountain ash or rowan (Sorbus spp.) has a high

tannin content and needs to ripen after picking to develop a very pleasing soursweet taste like grapes. The fruit also may be eaten after being sun dried for 15 to

20 days. The berries are used as a source for malic acid, which is used as a

flavoring and in aging wine. Hawthorn (Crataegus spp.) fruit spoils quickly and is

best eaten sweetened after harvest. Fruits of dogwood species (Cornus spp.) are

extremely rich sources of vitamin C, and the berries are added for flavoring in

wines and liqueurs in northern Italy. Various industrial and cosmetic dyes are

obtained from mountain ashes and dogwoods. The strawberry tree (Arbutus

unedo—related to the madrone [A. menziesii] of the Pacific Northwest) is used

frequently as a decorative tree; its fruit is moderately sweet, high in vitamin C, and

may be eaten ripe or as jelly. It is also used in production of liqueurs on Sardinia

and Corsica. Leaves contain a glucoside (abutine), which is used as a urogenital

disinfectant, and the dried leaves have been used as an antiseptic, astringent, and

diuretic. Elderberries (Sambucus spp.) are widely collected from plantations and

wild stocks in Canada and central and eastern Europe for their juice and use in

jams. Flowers and bark have medicinal use as diuretics and purgatives. Rose

(Rosa spp.) fruits are not eaten fresh but are manufactured into jams, syrups, and

jellies, often in combination with other fruits not containing high vitamin C levels.

Figures in the article give mean values of nutritional and mineral content of C. mas

and Sorbus acuparia.

Keywords: Edible fruits, medicinal plants, Europe, Near East, dye plants, horticultural plants.

Boutland, A., Robinson M., Field, J. [and others]. 1992. Alternative products

from trees and shrubs to “The role of trees in sustainable agriculture” conference, Albury, 30 September–3 October 1991. Agroforestry Systems. 20: 25-58.

Examines potential sources of revenue from nontimber and nonfodder uses of

trees and shrubs in Australia and provides an overview of the most important

alternative tree and shrub product industries. Products include essential oils,

honey, wildflowers, tree foliage, and nuts. Most of these industries rely on wild

resources but are shifting toward plantations. Production trends, values, and

markets for each industry, as well the major problems and research needs, are

discussed.

Product substitutions from competitor countries and lack of basic productivity and

propagation research are problems for many of these industries. Although there is

considerable diversity in potential products, many are not yet viable commercially.

The limited research that has been done emphasizes chemical properties, propagation, and growth properties and virtually ignores economic or marketing considerations. Given the high-risk nature of these industries, the authors advocate

integrating these products with other economic activities, such as forestry and

agriculture. This article articulates parallel issues facing economic development of

nontimber forest products in the Pacific Northwest.

Keywords: Agroforestry, Australia, floral greens, honey, medicinal plants, nuts,

essential oils, tannins.
40

Boyd, Robert. 1986. Strategies of Indian burning in the Willamette Valley.

Canadian Journal of Anthropology. 5(1): 65-86.

Describes the major food plants of the Kalapuya Indians of the Willamette Valley.

Major food species found in forest environments were salal (Gaultheria shallon),

Cascade Oregongrape (Mahonia nervosa), and berries (Fragraria chiloensis;

Rubus and Vaccinium spp.). Important food plants from savannah environments on

the valley floor were acorns from Oregon white oak (Quercus garryana), hazelnuts

(Corylus cornuta), camas lily (Camassia quamash), tarweed (Madia spp.), wapato

(Sagittania esculenta), and berries (especially R. ursinus). An examination of

historical records and diaries from early Euro-American settlers and archeological

data show that indigenous people burned in specific seasons and ecosystems and

thereby exerted a selective effect on the development of ecosystems in the

Willamette Valley and adjacent regions. The authors present a reconstructed

annual burning schedule. Fire had multiple managerial uses; two uses, the circle

hunt of deer and gathering of tarweed, were predominant. Regular low-intensity

burns beneath oak trees cleared competing vegetation, made acorn gathering

easier, and provided attractive foraging areas for deer. Hazel also was important

for basket weaving, and material was collected from shoots in recently burned

areas. Numerous references are made to burning practices of other Pacific Northwest peoples, and there is an extensive bibliography. Much of Kalapuyan subsistence practices and fire management must be inferred as the archaeological

and ethnographic record is meager.

This article describes forest management for nontimber forest products before

Euro-American settlement.

Keywords: Kalapuya Indians, Willamette Valley, burning, indigenous uses.

Bratkovich, Stephen M. 1991. Shiitake mushroom production on small diameter

oak logs in Ohio. In: McCormick, Larry H.; Gottschalk, Kurt W., eds. Proceedings of the 8th central hardwood forest conference; 4-6 March 1991; University

Park, PA. Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-148. Radnor, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station. 543-549.

Reports on an initial experiment to test the productivity of four different spawn

strains of shiitake mushrooms grown on small-diameter oak and beech logs. Some

logs were additionally treated in subsequent years by soaking in water. Soaked

logs had higher yields. Differential fruiting times among strains extends the

marketing season for a commercial grower. Determining the optimum combination

of host tree species, spawn strain, and log management is crucial and may be site

specific.

Although this study is directed at private, nonindustrial timberlands in Ohio, there

are significant implications for the Pacific Northwest. Experimentation with intentional inoculations of native edible fungi (for example, Pleurocybella and Pleurotus

spp.) on down wood on public lands has not been conducted widely in the Pacific

Northwest.

Keywords: Inoculation, spawn, wild edible mushrooms.
41

Bray, David Barton; Carreon, Marcelo; Merino, Leticio [and others]. 1993.

On the road to sustainable forestry. Cultural Survival Quarterly. 17(1): 38-41.

Browder, John O. 1992. The limits of extractivism. BioScience. 42(3): 174-181.

Identifies a key contradiction between the underlying logic of extractive reserves

and the logic of biodiversity protection. Protection of biodiversity typically requires

low human population densities, but successful extractive reserves may require a

much more widespread human presence. The history of extractivism in tropical rain

forests suggests that extraction typically operates in ways that protect economic

opportunities of the extractors at the expense of the forest ecosystem; moreover,

most extractive reserve harvesters are linked into global economic structures that

tend to funnel profits toward intermediaries rather than toward extractors. Consequently, the author questions whether extractive reserves can meet their goals

for either economic development or biological conservation.

Three case studies of rubber tapper communities in Brazil and Peru are reviewed

to explore whether rubber tapping and sustainability are compatible. These case

studies revealed that most rubber tapping groups are very heterogenous, deeply

indebted, nomadic, and prone to degrading natural resources for reasons beyond

their control. Rather than freeing rubber tappers from the patron system that keeps

them in debt to middlemen, extractive reserves may serve to maintain the existing

imbalance in economic and political power. The author observes that it is more

realistic to see extractive reserves as only one part in a set of solutions to achieve

sustainable development; and argues that the major issue is how to get sustainable development outside such reserves. Suggested alternatives include more

intensive natural forest management, such as intensive agroforestry and managing

second-growth forests; intensifying continuous cropping through the use of natural

fertilizers and agroforestry techniques; and protection of small forest reserves

rather than focusing solely on large areas.

Keywords: Extractive reserves, agroforestry, sustainable development, Amazon,

rubber trees.

British Columbia Ministry of Forests, Integrated Resources Section. 1994.

Pine mushroom [matsutake] task force: workshop results; [dates of meeting

unknown]; [location of meeting unknown]. Victoria, BC.

Brown, Nelson Courtlandt. 1950. Forest products: the harvesting, processing,

and marketing of materials other than lumber, including the principal derivatives,

extractives, and incidental products in the United States and Canada. New

York: John Wiley and Sons. 443 p.

Provides an overview of nonlumber forest product industries in the United States

during the 1940s and on ways of managing and using forests for a variety of wood

products other than lumber. Chapters include discussions of various construction

uses of wood (veneers, plywood, posts, poles, shingles, and shakes), chemically

derived products (naval stores, tannins, oils, exudates), fuel (firewood, charcoal,

wood gas), and miscellaneous products (bark, Christmas trees, ornamental plants,

and wild edible plants). Each chapter outlines the history of the industries covered,
42

the areas of primary production, and an evaluation of the economic viability of the

industry in current social and economic contexts. Of particular interest for the

Pacific Northwest is the section on development of the Christmas tree industry,

which is gradually shifting from an extraction to domestication mode of production.

Sections on Christmas trees, floral greens, and wild edibles provide a few examples of regulations and permit fees for National Forest lands.

Keywords: Historical use, naval stores, tannins, essential oils, resins, exudates,

bark, Christmas trees, ornamental plants, wild edible plants, permits.

Budriuniene, Danute. 1988. A model of rational non-ligneous forest resource

consumption in intensive forestry in Lithuanian SSR. In: Bannine, I; Raatikainen,

M., eds. Proceedings of the Finnish-Soviet symposium on nontimber forest resources; 25-29 August 1986; Jyväkylä, Finland: Acta Botanica Fennica. 139:

7-8.

Argues that management strategies for timber and nontimber products are often

competitive, and that sustainable or increasing production of nontimber products is

possible only when management plans specifically take nontimber products into

account. The Lithuanian Scientific Research Institute of Forestry has designed a

model for “specialized forest husbandry” on 6 percent of state-owned forests.

Three classes of nontimber vegetation are considered: (1) berry-producing plants

under moderate to intensive cultivation (for example, Vaccinium spp. and

Arctostaphylos uva-ursi); (2) species under protective management to assure

regeneration (for example, Vaccinium spp. and prime edible mushroom species);

and (3) species less intensively used and able to regenerate naturally (for example,

hazel [Corylus spp.], hawthorn [Crataegus spp.], and red raspberry [Rubus

idaeus]).

The first stage of model implementation is an extensive quantitative and qualitative

resource evaluation, including assessing frequency and density of key nontimber

species. Three productivity grades are then distinguished based on projected cover

and forest stand density, and classified by administrative units, age classes and

soil types. These data form the basis for nontimber management plans, the establishment of conservation and production areas, and design of regulations.

Keywords: Wild edible mushrooms, berries, wild edible plants, land allocation,

management intensification, Lithuania.

Budriuniene, Danute. 1993. Changes in Vaccinium myrtillus coenopopulations in

oligotrophic pine stands of different ages. Aquilo Ser. Bot. 31: 13-16.

Finds that the most significant declines in whortleberry (Vaccinium myrtillus)

populations occur between the final felling or clearcutting of Scotch pine (Pinus

sylvestris) stands through to the time of the first thinning of the regenerated stand.

Highest yields of whortleberries are found in forests between 60 and 80 years of

age.

Keywords: Wild berries, clearcutting.
43

Bulman, Teresa L.; von Hagen, Bettina. 1994. Forests. In: Asbaugh, James, ed.

The Pacific Northwest: geographical perspectives. Dubuque, IA: Kendall Hunt

Publishing Company: 159-186.

Describes Pacific Northwest forests, including distribution, ecology, management,

and ownership patterns. The section on nontimber forest products summarizes the

use and distribution of the most commercially significant species, assesses market

opportunities, and discusses the potential sustainable development potential of the

nontimber forest product industry.

Keywords: Pacific Northwest, sustainable development.

Burgess, M.A. 1994. Cultural responsibility in the preservation of local economic

plant resources. Biodiversity and Conservation. 3: 126-136.

Presents examples from the American Southwest to illustrate the need for cultural

understanding and participation in conservation of wild and domestic threatened

plants. Describes how a nongovernmental conservation organization, Native

Seeds /SEARCH, developed from 1977 to 1993. Native Seeds /SEARCH grew out

of a nutrition program serving rural areas into an organization of 3,700 members

with 17 part-time employees. Its goal is to provide Native American farmers or any

gardener with traditional seeds at no cost. Their mission is to conserve indigenous,

heirloom-crop genetic resources, and both ex situ and in situ measures are used.

Educational outreach is a critical part of their program.

Native Seeds/SEARCH supports several activities designed to build local capacity

in resource management. For example, the Native American Farmers network was

begun in 1991 to link traditional farmers together. Native Seeds/SEARCH also

supports biocultural restoration projects, such as the chile reserve partnership

recently entered into with the USDA Forest Service to protect the chiltepin pepper

(Capsicum annuum var. glabriusculum).

Keywords: Indigenous knowledge, cultural protection, genetic diversity, intellectual

property rights, threatened plants.

Busing, Richard T.; Halpern, Charles B.; Spies, Thomas A. 1995. Ecology of

Pacific yew (Taxus brevifolia) in western Oregon and Washington. Conservation

Biology. 9(5): 1199-1207.

Reviews the distribution and population dynamics of the Pacific yew (Taxus

brevifolia) in the mountains of western Oregon and Washington in response to

recent intensive harvest of yew bark. The review is based on three sources of data:

(1) a vegetation survey of 216 stands, (2) long-term permanent plot observations

following logging and burning of three experimental watersheds in the H.J. Andrews

Experimental Forest in the central Oregon Cascades, and (3) repeated measurements of tree growth and survival in three sets of plots in mature and old-growth

forests in the Oregon and Washington Cascades. The authors conclude that the

Pacific yew is widespread but primarily a late-successional species. The Pacific

yew is most abundant in old-growth forests and slow to recover from major disturbance. Two major recommendations offered for the conservation and management
44

of the Pacific yew and similar species are that (1) source populations should be

maintained and should serve as important sources for recolonizing disturbed areas,

and (2) adding landscape units with sufficiently long absences of disturbance will

enhance population viability.

Keywords: Taxol, medicinal plants, management, conservation, distribution, population dynamics.

Cagniart, Pierre. 1968. Commerce et réglementation de la truffe=Trade and

regulation of truffles. In: Atti del I congresso internazionale sul tartufo; 24-25

May 1968; Spoleto, Italy. [Place of publication unknown]: [Publisher unknown]:

1-6. In French.

Traces the development of the truffle industry in France. Production at the end of

the 19th century is estimated to have been 200-250 tonnes annually and grew to

1200 tonnes by the mid-1960s without any concern about overproduction. The high

price for truffles has led to instances of commercial fraud. French law restricts the

use of the word “truffles” to members of the genus Tuber. Marketed black truffles

must consist only of T. melanosporum and T. brumales (“winter truffles”). “Autumn

truffles” (T. uncinatum) may comprise up to 2 percent of fresh, labeled black

truffles, because identification among species without a microscope is not always

possible. The use of summer white truffles (T. aestivum) in pâtés also is regulated.

Artificial coloring of white truffles to make them appear black is illegal. Coordination

among the principle truffle-producing countries (Spain, Italy, and France) is

advocated as a means to maintain product standards and consumer confidence.

For people in the Pacific Northwest, this article outlines some of the consumer

protection issues addressed by other countries to regulate marketing and commercializing native truffle species.

Keywords: International coordination, legislation, regulation, truffles, France.

Campbell, B.M. 1994. The monetary valuation of tree-based resources in

Zimbabwe: experience and outlook. In: Commonwealth Science Council.

Non-wood forest products: proceedings of a regional consultation for Englishspeaking African countries; 17-22 October 1993; Arusha, Tanzania. Series

CSC(94)AGR-21, Tech. Pap. 306. Rome: United Nations, Food and Agricultural

Organization.

Calculates values of nonwood forest products for an average Zimbabwean

household and for an average hectare of woodland per year. Thirty to forty percent

of the value of woodlands in Zimbabwe is ascribed to the indigenous plant foods

from the forest. Estimates of forest values are based on contingent valuation and

replacement-production valuation methods. The author proposes an agenda for

research to improve economic methods for calculating the jointly produced

resources for Zimbabwean forests.

Keywords: Valuation, contingent valuation, replacement-production valuation,

Zimbabwe, household.
45

Campbell, E.; Nicholson, A. 1991. Working plan to study the ecology of Taxus

brevifolia Nutt. in British Columbia. Victoria, BC: British Columbia Ministry of

Forests, Forest Science Research Branch.

Carlson, Alvar. 1986. Ginseng: America’s botanical drug connection to the Orient.

Economic Botany. 40(2): 233-249.

Examines how the ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) export trade developed in the

United States and how production came to be concentrated in north-central

Wisconsin. French missionaries appear to have been instrumental in developing

the ginseng export trade. Gathering for export, the bulk of which was done by

Indians who then sold the product to fur traders, began in the 1720s. Fur trading

companies then exported the product to China, where demand was increasing as

native supplies were overharvested.

In the 1800s, the supply of American wild ginseng was threatened by overharvesting and clearcutting, and by the 1890s several states had passed regulation

to prohibit spring and summer gathering. As wild supplies declined, attempts were

made to cultivate ginseng. Grower associations came into being as a means for

distributing information about cultivation experiments, and the USDA supported

ginseng as a crop in its extension programs. Ginseng cultivation began in 1904 in

Marathon County, Wisconsin, currently the Nation’s major producer of ginseng.

To prevent overharvesting, Wisconsin has passed a series of laws regulating the

ginseng harvest on public and private land. Seasonal restrictions on gathering

have been imposed, and diggers have to be licensed except when digging on their

own land for personal use. Digging on state lands was prohibited in 1979. Export of

wild ginseng now falls under the Convention on International Trades in Endangered

Species, and the product has to be certified as cultivated or wild when it is

exported. The bulk of both wild and cultivated ginseng is shipped to the Far East,

primarily to Hong Kong. Recent attempts by the former Soviet republics to market a

shrub with properties similar to American ginseng pose a potential threat to the

existing market.

Keywords: Harvesting regulations, medicinal plant, domestication.

Cesaro, Luca; Linddal, Michael; Pettenella, Davide. 1993. Regional differences

in benefits of non-wood forest products and services in Europe. Draft manuscript. Paper presented at a European Union Workshop; Scientific criteria for the

establishment of zonal afforestation plans; 1993 November; Brussels, Belgium.

On file with: Social and Economic Values Research Program, Pacific Northwest

Research Station, Forestry Sciences Laboratory, P.O. Box 3890, Portland, OR

97208-3890.

Characterizes major European nonwood forest products by region. Five regions

are considered: the Mediterranean basin, central Europe, northern Europe,

Scandinavia, and Eastern Europe. Data about production and export value are

presented for European Community countries. Market values and volumes of

annual production are given for conifer boughs in Denmark; chestnuts, mushrooms, and truffles in Italy; and cork and chestnuts from Spain. Production data
46

for berries from Belarus and berries and medicinal plants from Romania are listed.

Abundant forest area in Scandinavia is a reservoir for berries and wild edible

mushrooms. Sidebars describe truffle markets in Italy, the cork industry in Portugal,

and berry and lichen production in Finland.

A major problem in pricing nonwood products is the discrepancy between the

product’s value (often very high) and its market price (often zero). Another problem

is the scarcity of data for nonwood products; information on price elasticity and

demand patterns is seldom known for them. Nonwood products can help stabilize

economies because the products yield income, though small, at more frequent

intervals than do timber products. Regions with declining rural economies and

increasing unemployment are apt to benefit most from development of nontimber

forest products. European forests are becoming less important as producers of

wood and more important for environmental amenities and nonwood products.

This is especially true in the Mediterranean region where 50 percent of the

woodland is considered to have low timber production. Development of special

forest products can help preserve forests on marginal lands. The authors cite the

need for improving knowledge of producing, collecting, and processing nonwood

forest products, standardizing collection of statistical data about products, researching markets and market identity, developing information systems, and promoting

adequate public financing. Greater efficiency in production will be possible with

increased cultivation of species based on agronomic techniques. When published,

this paper will give key trends and policy issues in economic development and the

societal use and benefits of forests that parallel those in the Pacific Northwest.

Keywords: Europe, market values, nuts, cork, wild edible mushrooms, truffles,

berries, lichens, edible wild foods, conifer boughs, forest conservation, policy.

Chakravarti, Ila; Verma, Rekha. 1991. Marketing of minor forest produce (MFP) in

tribal subplan (TSP) area through cooperatives in Rajasthan. Indian Journal of

Economics. 71: 311-320.

Studies the effectiveness of cooperative marketing of minor forest produce (roots,

bark, leaves, flowers, honey, and medicinal plants) to help indigenous people

derive greater income. The Rajasthan Tribal Area Development Cooperative

Federation established large-scale multipurpose agricultural cooperative societies

(LAMPS) to collect, store, market, and distribute minor forest produce. Wild honey

is used to exemplify the change in economic performance between 1977-78, when

the cooperative societies were first created, and 1987-88, the fourth year after the

establishment of a honey processing facility to add greater value to the honey

products. Quantities and product values have fluctuated greatly from one year to

another, largely because of unpredictable droughts. The federation sets aside 10

percent of the total production costs as profit and still keeps its shelf prices lower

than other honey brands in the region. Operations of two LAMPS also were

studied. Product waste and spoilage is high. The societies’ payments to indigenous

collectors are not as high as those paid by private agents. The default rate on

loans made to indigenous collections is high and jeopardizes liquidity. Poaching

and smuggling of minor forest produce on tribal lands remain widespread as the

result of limited regional authority of the LAMPS over nontribal lands. Honey prices

are fixed and do not account for quality grades. Flexible economic policies and

efficient and modern operating capacity are needed to make the LAMPS more

viable in serving the needs of local indigenous people.
47

This article highlights the importance of integrated economic policy in programs

designed to use nontimber forest products as instruments for rural economic

development.

Keywords: Cooperatives, indigenous people, loan default, marketing, pricing,

value-added processing, wild honey, India.

Chandler, R.F.; Hooper, S.N.; Harvey, M.J. 1982. Ethnobotany and phytochemistry of yarrow, Achillea millefolium, Compositae. Economic Botany.

36: 203-223.

Reports on the Native American medical uses of yarrow (Achillea millefolium

species complex) for treating bruises, sprains, and swelling; healing wounds; and

relieving rashes. It is useful also in decorative gardens and is purported to have

insect-repellent properties. A description of prominent chemical compounds forms

the main emphasis of the article. The existence of multiple genotypes of A.

millefolium may explain the diversity of medical uses of the plant among different

folklore traditions.

Keywords: Horticultural plants, medicinal plants, phytochemistry, yarrow.

Chandrasekharan, C. 1994. Issues involved in the sustainable development of

non-wood forest products. In: Commonwealth Science Council. Non-wood forest

products: proceedings of a regional consultation for English-speaking African

countries; 17-22 October 1993; Arusha, Tanzania. Series CSC(94)AGR-21,

Tech. Pap. 306. Rome: United Nations, Food and Agricultural Organization.

22 p. [+ appendix].

Covers majors constraints and areas for future action in sustainable development

of nonwood forest products in Africa. Factors constraining development of products

include neglect and omission of nonwood products from programs for economic

development; the need for scientific forest management and conservation;

resource depletion stemming from intense exploitation and inappropriate regulation

and economic incentives; loss of habitat from land use changes; lack of stability

and reliability of product supplies and lack of enduring markets; a lack of processing and storage technology and facilities; lack of research, technology, and information for nonwood forest products; absence of inventories; and a lack of clear

and appropriate policy support for development of these products. Integrated

management furnishes a more holistic view by combining indigenous silvicultural

practices and conventional forestry for a broadened definition of sustainable

production of goods and services from forest ecosystems. In multi-product forest

management, the need for compromise and compatibility is central. Questions

about conservation, domestication of wild plant stocks, and joint management with

watershed protection services are important to optimizing societal benefits. Nonwood forest products give indigenous forest dwellers a competitive advantage in

situations where they may be otherwise economically disadvantaged, and these

products provide work for all members of a household to maximize possible

incomes and benefits of improved health and nutrition. The author suggests the

following steps be taken to promote fuller development and use of nonwood forest

products: inventory and assess products in selected priority areas; promote

domestication of wild species; improve harvesting efficiency and control negative
48

impacts of harvesting with more sophisticated management; develop value-added

local processing of nonwood products; develop new products, improve old products, and develop markets; establish comprehensive databases linked to management and marketing; and provide extension support, credit on easy terms for new

business enterprises, and incentives for targeted groups to accomplish key

objectives.

Keywords: Sustainable development, indigenous people, barriers, Africa, policy.

Chaney, Constance. 1990. Managing wild blueberries for recreation on the

Chippewa National Forest. Cass Lake, MN: Chippewa National Forest. 27 p.

[+ appendix].

Reports on surveys conducted in 1989 of 131 local blueberry (Vaccinium

angustifolium and V. myrtilloides) pickers about sites preferred for picking. Data

were collected on time spent picking per trip, number of picking trips, quarts picked

per season, distance willing to travel, and distance willing to walk. Pickers desired

sites that were productive, accessible, and easy to find. Most pickers were over

55 years old, and those under 55 usually had children accompanying them.

Frequently cited reasons for picking were the recreation of finding berries, gathering a natural food, and being outdoors.The Chippewa National Forest Plan

includes projects to burn sites to encourage new and more productive growth of

native blueberries, usually on 4- to 5-year cycles in early spring or late fall. Local

researchers and managers defined sites suitable for management and methods

for promoting productivity. The author suggests that berry sites be monitored for

harvest use to control overcrowding and over-harvesting and that plots be established to accomplish monitoring. A copy of the survey used is provided in the

appendix.

Keywords: Berries, dispersed recreation, user preferences, site selection,

demographics.

Chang, S.T.; Hayes, W.A., eds. 1978. The biology and cultivation of edible mushrooms. New York: Academic Press.

Cheng, T.H. 1965. Utilization of wild plants in communist China. Economic Botany.

19(1): 3-15.

Provides data on harvest amounts and species of wild plants in China.

Keywords: Wild plants, China.

Cherkasov, A. P. 1988. Classification of nontimber resources in the USSR. In:

Bannine, I; Raatikainen, M., eds. Proceedings of the Finnish-Soviet symposium

on nontimber forest resources; 25-29 August 1986; Jyväkylä, Finland: Acta

Botanica Fennica. 139: 3-5.

A classification scheme in the USSR is proposed for vegetation, including wild

fruits and mushrooms, honey plants, medicinals and forage; wildlife, including
49

game animals and ecologically significant vertebrates and invertebrates; and

environmental conservation and social uses, including climate regulation and

recreation. Important nectar-producing plants are red raspberry (Rubus idaeus),

fireweed (Epilobium spp.), willow (Salix spp.), Viburnum spp., and mountain ash

(Sorbus spp.). Fireweed may yield up to 350 kg/ha of honey, and willows can yield

up to 150 kg/ha. The author analyzes the economic value of selected nontimber

products, providing volume and some monetary value estimates for edible plants,

mushrooms, honey, forage for livestock, and game animals and concludes that

nontimber values make up about 50 percent of the total economic value in commercial forests and 93 percent of the total value in a protected forest.

This brief article provides an overview of products commonly harvested in the

former USSR and that could be adopted in the Pacific Northwest. Of particular

interest are the honey-producing plants, which occur or have congeners that occur

in the Pacific Northwest.

Keywords: Berries, production, economic uses, honey, total value, wild edible

plants, medicinal plants, wild edible mushrooms.

Cherkasov, Aleksey; Mironov, Konstantin; Shutov, Vasiliy. 1993. Response of

the berry plants of the genus Vaccinium to anthropogenic stress in the European

southern taiga of Russia. Aquilo Ser. Bot. 31: 9-12.

Reports on ecosystem management experiments from 1980 to 1990 involving

overstory cutting, site draining, and prescribed fire to test their respective

effects on the productivity of lingonberry (Vaccinium vitis-idaea), whortleberry

(V. myrtillus), bog blueberry (V. uliginosum), and small cranberry (V. oxycoccos).

Regeneration of the first two species are adversely affected by clearcutting of

forests and the subsequent mineralization and mixing of soil layers. As much as

60 years may be required to reestablish lost productivity of these species. Bog

blueberry and cranberry generally respond with increased yields after clearcutting.

Thinning naturally regenerated birch (Betula spp.) stands caused lingonberry to

begin flowering and fruiting, and the bog blueberry crop more than tripled within

3 years relative to unthinned controls. Lingonberry appears within 7 to 8 years of

draining mire sites, and high yields of berries occur after more than 15 years.

Moderate draining improves bog blueberry yields but excessive draining causes

drier site species to take over a site. Cranberry growth is best in areas of undrained bogs. Major factors in the composition and productivity of berry plants in

drained sites are weather conditions during the growing season, forest canopy

closure, and the level of the water table.

Fire response differs among the berry species. Whortleberry and lingonberry

regenerate after severe ground fires about twice as fast (in 30 years) as do bog

blueberry and cranberry. Fast berry plant regeneration occurs in sites affected by

surface fires that are weak or moderate in intensity. In such cases, whortleberry

and lingonberry take only 4 to 5 years and bog blueberry and cranberry 5 to 7

years to recover after low fires of moderate intensity. Subsequent abundance of

postfire plants exceeds initial levels for at least 10 years as the result of improvements in light availability, humidity, and soil chemistry.
50

The authors maintain that an awareness of the human-caused impacts on berry

plant physiology and reproduction may lead people to reduce forest practices that

have an adverse effect on valuable understory products.

Keywords: Berries, forest fires, improvement cuttings, site draining, thinnings,

Russia.

Chopra, Kanchan. 1993. The value of nontimber forest products: an estimation

for tropical deciduous forests in India. Economic Botany. 47(3): 251-257.

Estimates the value of tropical dry forests in India. Forested land tends to be

undervalued because the value of nontimber forest products is poorly documented.

The distinction is made between market exchange value (price) and value to the

user; the two values may be divergent and indicate imperfect markets or asymmetry between preferences. Exchange value also depends on the distribution of

income and property rights. Subsistence users may not assign high exchange

value to products that have high-use values. Other notions of value needed for

inclusion in an economic analysis are existence value and option value. Existence

value refers to the extent to which a resource is irreplaceable or its loss is

irreversible.

The article uses a mix of market and nonmarket techniques to derive value of

nontimber forest products: change in productivity approach, alternative technology

approach, opportunity cost of labor-time approach, experimental data, and

secondary data from national accounting. The value of nontimber goods and

services from tropical deciduous forests in India is estimated at US$4,035-6,662

per hectare. Nontimber forest products (excluding fodder and fuelwood) account

for 9 to 15 percent of the value. Only soil conservation and existence values

(the role of the forests in a global context) exceed the value of nontimber forest

products.

Keywords: Economic valuation methods, option values, existence values, India.

Christiansen, P. 1969. Schnittgrün—Erfahrungen bei Anbau, Aufarbeitung und

Vermarktung in Schleswig-Holstein=Ornamental greenery—experiences in

growing, utilizing and marketing in Schleswig-Holstein. Forstarchiv. 40(9): 185-

193. In German with English summary.

Points out that rising costs of forest management along with static stumpage

prices have prompted forest managers to find new sources of incomes from

secondary products such as decorative greens. Prospects for continued economic

development are good but must be accompanied with programs for marketing,

product improvement, and diversification of products. Many species are involved;

for example, spruces (Picea spp.), true firs (Abies spp.), cedars, eastern white pine

(Pinus strobus), northern red oak (Quercus rubra), and European mountainash

(Sorbus acuparia). Preferred species that originate in the Pacific Northwest are

noble fir (Abies procera), Pacific silver fir (A. amabilis), and Douglas-fir

(Pseudotsuga menziesii). At present, most decorative greens are produced in

Denmark. The German contribution of conifer greens to the German markets is

still modest and consists mostly of Douglas-fir and Norway spruce (Picea abies).
51

The author covers management questions about single- and joint-use of stands for

ornamental greens and timber. Most stands grown for greeery usually have no

more than a 25-year rotation. With ample fertilization, harvests can begin in year 6

and be repeated on a 2- or 3-year cycle. Tools and practices (for example, topping)

are described. Schedules and techniques for combined wood and bough production are suggested, but in most cases monocultures are advisable for best yields.

Costs of stand establishment of exotic species for bough crops are DM3600-4500/

ha and annual management costs average DM300-500/ha. Soil and fertilizer

requirements for specific species are described. Planting with 2- or 3-year-old trees

is recommended. Details of planting, protection measures from frost, drought, and

animal damage, and stand care are provided. Suitability of the stock origin to the

planting site is emphasized. Also, market considerations are important; for example,

Douglas-fir with foliage having a bluish cast (from the Fraser Valley in British

Columbia) has a higher market value than that from other sources.

The section on usage and marketing describes the market niches for products

(graveside plantings, ornamental greenery for wreaths, pieces for floral arrangements, and boughs) and specifies the market standards for these products.

Volume of decorative greens in the Hamburg wholesale market amounts to more

than a DM1 million yearly for just the true firs, spruces, and Douglas-fir.

Keywords: Conifer greens, Germany, production, marketing.

Christensen, Paul. 1982. Production and marketing of Christmas trees and decorative greenery in Denmark. American Christmas Tree Journal. 26(4): 42-45.

Reports on Denmark’s leadership role in European production of Christmas trees

and conifer greens. Profits from these products constitute 25 to 30 percent of the

profit in the Danish private forestry sector, and two-thirds of the production is

exported, primarily to Germany (80 to 90 percent of the export total), Austria,

Sweden, and The Netherlands. Between 1960 and 1980, exports rose from 6000

tonnes to more than 23 000 tonnes. Noble fir (Abies procera), introduced into

Denmark after World War II, is used principally for decorative greenery. Details of

stand preparation, planting, weed control, spacing, fertilization, and harvesting are

given for decorative greenery. Normally one whorl is cut off each year, either the

fourth or the fifth whorl from the top. Initial harvesting occurs when trees are 8 to

10 years old. Noble fir is much less subject to deer browse than is Caucasian silver

fir (A. nordmanniana), the other major ornamental conifer species. Demand for

better and more uniform quality is rising. There is a need to expand export markets

in Europe. Labor is generally inadequate, although national unemployment is high.

This article surveys the role of Denmark as a competitor to the Pacific Northwest in

the sale of decorative conifer greenery. Details of Danish methods for growing

noble fir stands may be instructive for more intensive management of North

American stands.

Keywords: Conifer greens, export markets, stand management, Denmark.
52

Ciani, Adriano. 1990. Il circuito commerciale del tartufo in Italia. In: Bencivenga,

M.; Granetti,B., eds. Atti del II congresso internazionale sul tartufo; [dates of

meeting unknown]; Spoleto, Italy. Spoleto, Italy: Comunità Montana dei Monti

Martani e del Serano: 621-631. In Italian with English summary.

Analyzes the unique economic position of truffles (Tuber spp.) in Italy. Truffles

are attractive products for marketing because they are cherished by affluent consumers and are relatively rare. Production is variable and seasonable, thereby

causing sharp fluctuation in prices. Between 60 and 80 percent of the national

harvest is packaged, canned, or dried. Marketing truffles in Italy is a virtual monopoly. Increasing quantities of product have not meant lower prices in domestic

markets.

Low productivity, poor job opportunities, and depopulation continue to plague rural

Italy. Increasing agroindustrial production of truffles is part of a broad strategy to

raise the standard of living of rural people, but this can be accomplished only if

monopoly power is diminished. One alternative is commercial associations of truffle

producers to gain more producer control over markets. Technical innovations are

needed to improve the short-term packaging of fresh truffles and to expand

processing capacity for long-term packaging. Truffle growers will have to become

more business oriented in promoting and marketing truffle products.

In export markets, Italy competes strongly with France for the black truffle markets

in Germany, France, Switzerland, and the United States. White truffles, which are

less well known, are exported mainly to restaurants in the United States. Export

markets will likely continue to expand.

This article describes the development and use of the truffle industry for rural

development through more concerted production and producer market power.

Analogous development of the Oregon white truffle (Tuber gibbosum) crop might

also have similar capacity to promote rural development in the Pacific Northwest.

Keywords: Commercialization, domestication, marketing, monopoly, producer

associations, processing, technological innovation, truffles, rural development,

Italy.

Cizek, Petr. 1993. Guardians of Manomin: aboriginal self-management of wild rice

harvesting. Alternatives. 19(3): 29-32.

Chronicles comanagement efforts over the last 15 years between the Canadian

government and aboriginal representatives in Ontario. Comanagement has

become an increasingly common mechanism for dealing with multijurisdictional

management issues, such as migratory species or large-scale projects. Aboriginal

management is likely to become an issue in wild rice (Zizania spp.), which has

been controversial since the 1970s when nonnative harvesters began harvesting

commercial quantities using airboats rather than traditional canoes. The conflict

came to a head in 1979 when the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources issued a

wild rice permit to an entrepreneur under the authority of the Wild Rice Harvesting

Act. Both native and nonnative harvesters in the area joined forces to pressure the

Ministry to revoke the license. When it became clear that the Ministry would

continue to issue permits, local harvesters created the Indian, Métis, and Settlers

Wild Rice Association and requested that it be granted sole harvesting rights to the
53

stand under dispute. In 1982, the association was granted an annual harvest

permit to the area.

Long an important wild food among native North Americans, wild rice stands have

degraded with rising water levels, increased pollution, and the use of motorized

airboat harvesters. A new threat in the form of recreational speedboats has

recently emerged. Presently the future of the rice stands is unclear, as the Ministry

of Natural Resources has refused to restrict either motorboat size or access to

Mud Lake.

The author argues that an indigenous resource management regime would lead to

sound management of wild rice at Mud Lake. The author proposes that a decisionmaking body consisting of provincial representatives and wild rice harvesters be

established to develop and carry out a habitat management plan. This would be a

new direction in comanagement, as it would be the first time the Ontario government has entered into an agreement with off-reservation Indians and Métis.

Keywords: Comanagement, wild rice, wild edible plants, user conflicts, local

knowledge, Canada.

Clay, Jason. 1992. Some general principles and strategies for developing markets

in North America and Europe for nontimber forest products: lessons from

Cultural Survival Enterprise, 1989-1990. Advances in Economic Botany. 9: 101-

106.

States general principles and strategies needed for developing markets for nontimber forest products. Practical experiences in the first years of a nongovernment

organization’s operation in tropical forests illustrate the following principles: begin

with products that already have markets, diversify production, diversify markets for

both raw and processed forest products, add product value with local processing

which otherwise would be captured elsewhere, expect to make a decent profit and

not a “killing,” and emphasize certification of environmental sustainability.

Keywords: Market development, tropical forests, certification.

Cohen, Kathryn A. 1989. Wrangell harvest study: a comprehensive study of wild

resource harvest and use by Wrangell residents. Juneau, AK: Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Division of Subsistence. 114 p.[+ appendices].

Documents the harvest of wild food resources by Wrangell, Alaska, residents.

Local natural history, culture, and demography of residents are presented as a

backdrop for present harvest activities. In 1987, 57.5 percent of Wrangell households engaged in berry harvesting, and each participating household harvested an

average of 11 lb of berries. Forty percent of gathering households shared some of

their harvest, and 23 percent of all households received those berries. Berry

consumption was nearly twice as high as use of all other plants combined. This

study is the result of a collaboration among the Alaska Department of Fish and

Game, the USDA Forest Service, and the Institute for Social and Economic

Research at the University of Alaska. The survey consisted of a structured questionnaire and detailed mapping of harvest areas. The appendices are valuable as

templates for conducting similar studies in the Pacific Northwest.

Keywords: Alaska, berries, gathering, hunting.
54

Columbia Pacific Resource Conservation and Development Council. [no

date]. Agroforestry business plan. Seattle, Washington: Tradec.

Presents a preliminary business plan for the establishment of an agroforestry

cooperative serving Gray’s Harbor, Mason, Pacific, and Wahkiakum Counties in

Washington State. Although the special forest products industry generates US$60-

70 million in annual sales in the Pacific Northwest, 80 percent of the products are

distributed out of the region and larger companies are responsible for most of the

sales. Small businesses have difficulties meeting the quantity demands of buyers,

and therefore have trouble competing successfully. The establishment of a cooperative will allow small firms to aggregate sales and meet buyer demands. The

completed business plan will determine the optimal type of cooperative, evaluate

the facility needs, and provide a detailed marketing strategy and financial analysis

of the proposed cooperative.

Keywords: Agroforestry, cooperative, Gray’s Harbor County, Mason County,

Pacific County, Wahkiakum County, Washington.

Columbia-Pacific Conservation and Development Council. [no date].

Agroforestry: community concerns about special forest products in Mason

County. Shelton, WA: Washington State University Cooperative Extension,

Mason County. 1 p.

Outlines problems related to special forest product harvesting in Mason County,

and discusses proposals to address these problems and concerns.

Keywords: Resource conflicts, Mason County, Washington.

Columbia-Pacific Conservation and Development Council. [no date].

Agroforestry: phase II. Shelton, WA: Washington State University Cooperative

Extension, Mason County. 4 p.

Summarizes business plan development projects for two agroforestry product

lines: floral greenery and specialty vegetables or herbs. Two opportunities are

presented for floral greenery: the development of a harvesters’ cooperative and

a floral greenery supply house. Opportunities in the area of specialty vegetables

and herbs include investments in hydrocooling or vacuum-packing capacity and

the development of either a central or several feeder greenhouses.

Keywords: Agroforestry, floral greens, specialty vegetables, herbs, producers’

cooperatives, Washington.

Columbia-Pacific Conservation and Development Council. [no date].

Agroforestry: tourism development and recreational natural resource harvesting.

Shelton, WA: Washington State University Cooperative Extension, Mason County.

3 p.

Describes a proposal to develop the recreational mushroom harvesting industry

on the Olympic Peninsula in response to increased interest in this activity. The

author estimates the value of recreational harvesting of matsutake to illustrate the
55

potential economic benefits of targeting recreational harvesters. Promotion of the

region as a recreational mushroom harvesting destination would require protection

of recreational picking areas from commercial interests; this could be accomplished

by setting aside and managing land for recreational harvests.

Keywords: Wild edible mushrooms, recreational harvesting, Olympic Peninsula.

Columbia-Pacific Resource Conservation and Development Council. 1991.

Agroforestry 1991 project summary. Shelton, WA: Washington State University

Cooperative Extension, Mason County. 3 p.

Presents the findings of the 1991 agroforestry research team, charged with

investigating the economic options presented by agroforestry management in

Gray’s Harbor, Mason, Pacific, and Wahkiakum Counties. Agroforestry holds great

promise for a broad-based economic development effort in these counties, and a

number of specific recommendations are made for further research.

Keywords: Agroforestry, Gray’s Harbor County, Mason County, Pacific County,

Wahkiakum County, Washington, economic development, research priorities.

Commeaux, G.; Coujard, J.L. 1981. Contribution à l’étude des modalités de la

cueillette et de l’utilisation de la myrtille spontanée=Contributions to the study

of types of harvest and utilization of wild whortleberries. In: Productions

spontanées: Colloque sur les productions spontanées, 17-20 June 1980;

Colmar, France. Les colloques de l’INRA 4. Paris: Institut National de la

Recherche Agricole: 17-26. In French.

Analyzes the market for wild whortleberries (Vaccinium myrtillus) in France by

contrasting berry harvest strategies in two regions. Isolation of individual collectors

and the diffuse nature of commercial market structure make general descriptions

difficult. Pharmaceutical use and jam production comprise an increasing proportion

of the berry harvest. Regional data from the Vosges mountains for whortleberry

production are given from 1968 to 1977. Over that time, jam production increased

threefold. Major markets are Germany, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom.

Imported whortleberries were required to meet national demand after 1974, with

Poland, Romania, and Sweden serving as the primary suppliers. Exports have

fallen as the result of rising domestic consumption. The rise in price of whortleberries since 1950 is shown to be dramatically higher year for year than the rise in

the price of milk, particularly after 1960.

Sociological studies in the Vosges mountains show that 70 percent of families

interviewed have at least one family member who takes part in the wild harvest.

Housewives and people with multiple jobs comprise most of the workforce. Participating families collect on average 20 to 25 kg of various berry species per year.

Gatherers who spend more than 30 hours each season comprise 23 percent of all

gatherers and account for nearly 70 percent of the volume collected. Less than 5

percent of the gatherers stated that they gathered to make profit. Generally,

income from wild whortleberries is regarded as pocket money and supplemental

income. One in three years is a bad whortleberry crop year in the Vosges, so

reliance on the crop for income alone is avoided.
56

In the Massif Central, an entirely different mode of berry harvest has emerged.

Harvests amount to between 2500 and 5000 tonnes annually and are crops

managed along agricultural models. The harvests may contribute as much as

60 percent of household incomes. Comparative benefits are high relative to grain

and cattle farming. This creates potential for resource conflicts between the right

to gather for commercial use and the right to gather for personal use.

This article highlights types of sociological research useful for characterizing the

population of nontimber forest product gatherers in the Pacific Northwest.

Alternative harvest strategies provide diverse benefits.

Keywords: Agricultural crops, berries, economic analysis, harvest data, markets,

patterns of resource development, price series, resource conflict, France.

Coujard, J.L.; Commeaux, G. 1981. Les déterminants des modes de mise en

valeur des “productions spontanées”=Factors determining valuation of

“spontaneous productions.” In: Productions spontanées. Les colloques de

l’INRA 4. Paris: Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique: 7-15. In

French.

Surveys the social evolution of collecting nontimber forest products in France. The

value of many forest resources lies in their future use as well as their present use.

Foraging for forest fruits and fungi is largely a vestige of past necessity in France

to provide subsistence goods. Forest products that appeared “spontaneously”

without cultivation provided a means for people to evade the economic limits of

medieval social regimentation and regulation of food production. With the advent

of an industrialized and urbanized society, nontimber forest products lost their

significance as basic elements of existence. Increasingly, collecting became

restricted to the most marginalized and poorest rural people. A recent rise in the

demand for nontimber forest products represents a shift away from subsistence

use toward recreational markets. This new context stems from a desire among

affluent, urbanized people to reestablish contact with nature.

Collecting products often serves to emphasize community solidarity and also

increasingly serves a symbolic function. The potential for conflict is heightened and

the sources of conflict are novel: conflict usually occurs among competing interests

for either commercial or subsistence use, but increasingly conflict occurs between

symbolic users (recreational or tourist use) and material users (subsistence and

commercial use). Trespassing and overharvesting by “strangers” occurs. The

authors advocate a systematic market-based distribution of rights to prevent

abuses in which preferential rights are granted for specific areas to collectors of

nontimber forest products. To achieve a sustainable supply for commercial

distributors, gatherers would limit their harvest volumes and, for doing so, retain an

exclusive right to gather at a site. The authors analyze the different origins of user

groups of special forest products in a postindustrial society and describe causes of

conflict about resource use. These analyses may have parallels in the Pacific

Northwest.

Keywords: Harvesting, policy formulation, resource use rights, resource conflicts,

social norms, France.
57

Couture, Marilyn Dunlap. 1978. Recent and contemporary foraging practices of

the Harney Valley Paiute. Portland, OR: Portland State University. 132 p. M.S.

thesis.

Coville, Frederick V. 1897. Notes on the plants used by the Klamath Indians of

Oregon. Contributions from the U.S. National Herbarium. 5: 87-108.

Recounts information obtained from several Klamath Tribe members over 3 days

in 1896 about traditional uses of lichens and vascular plants. Accompanying each

plant is the Klamath language name and details of the preparation, social significance, and distribution of the plant in the Klamath region. This is the first published ethnobotanical work from the Pacific Northwest.

Keywords: Wild edible plants, indigenous uses, dye plants, basketry and weaving,

medicinal plants, Klamath Indians, lichens.

Cronemiller, Lynn F.; Woods, John B. Jr.; Ladd, Charles H. [and others].

1950. Secret treasures in the forest. Bull. 14. Salem, OR: Oregon State Board of

Forestry. 47 p.

Surveys minor forest products and opportunities for employment in Oregon in

minor forest products. Value of minor products is estimated at US$5 million

annually. Christmas season byproducts include greenery boughs, cones from

conifers, and Pacific mistletoe (Phoradendron villosum) from Oregon white oak

(Quercus garryana).

Directions are given for establishing and caring for cascara plantations and proper

techniques for peeling and storing cascara (Frangula purshiana) bark. Other

commercially significant medicinal plants are purple foxglove (Digitalis purpurea),

Oregongrape (Mahonia spp.), lady’s slipper (Cypripedium spp.), and prince’s-pine

(Chimaphila umbellata). The chapter on decorative greens details harvests for

western swordfern (Polystichum munitum) and evergreen huckleberry (Vaccinium

ovatum). Tree moss is used for hanging baskets and packing material. Cutover

and otherwise denuded forest lands can be used for bee pasture. Fireweed

(Epilobium spp.) is the prime source of nectar, but there is concern by apiarists

that nectar flow from fireweed is generally declining. Other useful plants for food

are blackberries (Rubus spp.), Klamath plum (Prunus subcordata), and wild

huckleberries (Vaccinium spp.).

Entrepreneurs are cautioned to obtain landowners’ permission, secure permits for

harvesting forest tree products (such as cascara and conifer boughs), and pay

yield taxes. Required permits differ in eastern and western Oregon. A system of

farm foresters jointly funded by the USDA Forest Service and the state forestry

department provides advice to landowners from regional offices in western Oregon.

District fire wardens provide comparable service elsewhere in the State.

Keywords: Oregon, value, employment opportunities, conifer greens, floral greens,

cones, medicinal plants, honey, wild edible plants.
58

Cunningham, A.B. 1991a. Development of a conservation policy on commercially

exploited medicinal plants: a case study from southern Africa. In: Akerele,

Olayinola; Heywood, Vernon; Synge, Hugh, eds. The conservation of medicinal

plants: Proceedings of an international consultation; 21-27 March 1988; Chiang

Mai, Thailand. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press: 337-358.

Describes the conditions leading up to the need for policies to protect commercially

important species in Natal Province, South Africa. Overexploitation of medicinal

forest plants affects the poorest people of a community first, as they often are the

people who do the collecting. Reducing harvesting rates of endangered wild

populations is critical for recovery and future sustainability. Necessary alternative

sources of medicinal plants stocks are possible from sustainable management

units, plant salvage and transplanting efforts, and large-scale cultivation. The latter

option must offer plant supplies at a lower cost than wild sources. Habitat conservation, education to reduce plant damage, and domestication are important

goals.

Keywords: Medicinal plants, development policies, plant conservation, habitat

conservation, domestication, education, South Africa.

Cunningham, A.B. 1991b. Indigenous knowledge and biodiversity: global commons or regional heritage? Cultural Survival Quarterly. 15(3): 4-8.

Likens indigenous knowledge of tropical plants to patentable knowledge in the

industrial world. Ethnobotanists and anthropologists essentially function as brokers

among knowledge communities, but little attention has been paid to who gains and

loses from this knowledge flow. To date, the benefits have largely flowed one way.

Professional societies have begun to recognize the ethical dimensions of their

work and have started to establish codes of ethics to regulate how indigenous

knowledge holders are compensated.

The author suggests several mechanisms for ensuring that more of the value of

these resources rest with their owners. One mechanism is to strengthen the role of

traditional medicine within primary health care systems. A second is to provide

royalties to holders of traditional knowledge. The author also advocates product

labeling as a means for getting wider recognition of the value of these resources

and the development of formal reciprocal links between traditional specialists and

researchers. Patents are less likely to be useful because much of the knowledge is

already partially in the public domain, which makes patent enforcement difficult.

Legal contracts are favored, though people need to be aware that relatively few

products are ever commercialized on a large scale. The ethnobotanist could play a

critical brokering role by helping negotiate agreements between traditional healers

and drug companies, and by helping to establish recordkeeping systems that

prevent “poaching” of indigenous knowledge.

Keywords: Intellectual property rights, medicinal plants, local knowledge, labeling,

patents.
59

Davis, G.W. 1992. Commercial exploitation of natural vegetation: an exploratory

model for management of the wildflower industry in the Fynbos Biome of the

Cape, South Africa. Journal of Environmental Management. 35: 13-29.

Chronicles the rapid expansion of the wildflower industry in South Africa. The lack

of harvest regulations threatens water quality, ecotourism, and the survival of a

number of threatened and endangered plant species. Little scientific information

exists that would help resource managers develop policies supportive of an

economically and ecologically viable wildflower industry. To address this lack, the

author has developed a model that can be used to model the flow of material from

the veld to consumer, and the flow of cash from consumer to the veld. The model

has been verified for internal consistency, but validation with the real world is not

feasible due to lack of basic data on the volumes and values of materials harvested. The author notes that the model is most useful for helping develop a better

sense of where information gaps are. The author notes that the biggest gaps are

in economic, not biological, data. The author concludes that a monitoring ethic will

need to be created if the kind of information needed is ever to be obtained, and he

points to Australia’s experience with mandatory information forms for wildflower

pickers that were instituted during the 1980s as a model for South Africa to follow.

Keywords: Wildflowers, simulation model, wildflower industry, South Africa.

de Beer, J.H.; McDermott, M.J. 1989. The economic value of nontimber forest

products in southeast Asia. Amsterdam: Netherlands Committee for the IUCN.

174 p.

Discusses the market aspects of trade and household economies involved in rattan

(Calamus spp.) collection in southeast Asia. Local populations involved in gathering rattan and labor arrangements are identified. The authors also describe middlemen, such as small traders, shopkeepers, trade boat operators, and the networks,

that supply rattan. Market structure and the generation of local economic value at

the rural level also are characterized. Decentralization of the industry is widespread with production of goods often occurring inside homes and with simple

technology; neither one requires much in the way of capital inputs. Production is

seasonal, occurring when agricultural crops require less labor. Rattan weaving is a

part-time activity, often done at night. Value-added processing at the local level is

generally of three types: rudimentary processing of raw products before export,

manufacture of products for local markets, and production of high-quality products

for sale outside local markets. Products originally intended for private use have

found markets in urban areas and among tourists.

Factors affecting the economy of nontimber forest products in Southeast Asia

include widespread deforestation and degradation. Agricultural and export cash

crops in an increasingly commercialized rural economy compete with nontimber

forest products for land and labor. Government policies, particularly in Indonesia,

aimed at resettling people fundamentally change land tenure arrangements and

hasten the decline of traditional management systems. When supplies of nontimber forest products decline, people may allot more time to collecting (with

decreased unit returns to labor), allot more time to alternate activities such as

farming, wage labor, and so forth, evolve new management systems, shift activity

to less depleted areas, or abandon nontimber forest product collecting altogether.
60

Value of nontimber forest products is often unstable because uses for products fall

out of favor, knowledge about their collection is disappearing, synthetic substitutes

are increasingly preferred, and changes in dietary preferences develop. Individual

households change their economic uses of nontimber forest products and allocation of labor in response to changes in a variety of environmental, commercial,

cultural, and personal factors. Impacts of changes on rural welfare also are

discussed.

The authors advocate improvements in forest resource management that include

increased attention to managing nontimber forest products; improved methods of

harvest, storage, transport, and processing; increased processing and manufacturing near the forest source; improved marketing; diversification of products;

integrating forest species into agricultural and agroforestry systems; greater

attention to conservation and restoration of nontimber forest products; improved

accounting of production, consumption, and trade; and increased investment in

research and extension.

Keywords: Southeast Asia, economic value, households, rattan, value-added

processing, basketry, weaving, furniture.

de Geus, N. 1992. Wild mushroom harvesting discussion session minutes. In:

Proceedings of a conference on wild mushroom harvesting; 3 March 1992;

Victoria, BC. Victoria, BC: Ministry of Forests, Integrated Resources Branch.

47 p.

Summarizes the proceedings of a 1-day conference on commercial harvesting of

wild mushrooms in Canada. The stated purpose of the conference was an

exchange of information among representatives of the mushroom industry, researchers, and government agencies. Summaries of three formal papers and the

question and answer sessions that followed each session are presented, followed

by minutes of an open forum, which included specific concerns of the Vancouver

Mycological Society, the Canadian Wild Mushroom Association, the immigration

section of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, First Nations representatives, and

the British Columbia Ministry of Environment, Land and Parks. The three formal

papers were “History of picking and selling matsutake in Canada,” presented by

Graham Howard; “Studying the effects of harvesting on chanterelle productivity in

Oregon’s Mt. Hood National Forest,” presented by Lorelei Norvell, University of

Washington; and “An overview of commercial harvesting in Canada,” presented by

Scott Redhead, Agriculture Canada. The open forum included discussions on the

socioeconomic impacts and benefits of mushroom collecting, conflicts between

mushroom pickers, options for regulation, Canadian immigration regulations for

foreign pickers and buyers, long-term effects of harvesting, and various other

topics.

Keywords: British Columbia, wild edible mushrooms, regulation.

de Geus, Nelly. 1993. Agroforestry industry in British Columbia: identification of

issues, responsibilities and opportunities for the Ministry of Forests. Victoria, BC:

British Columbia Ministry of Forests, Integrated Resources Branch. Draft manuscript. On file with: Nelly de Geus, Integrated Resources Branch, BC Ministry of

Forests, 1450 Government St., Victoria, BC V8W 3E7.
61

de Geus, Nelly. 1995. Botanical forest products in British Columbia: an overview.

Victoria, BC: British Columbia Ministry of Forests, Integrated Resources Policy

Branch. 51 p.

Provides an overview of botanical forest products harvested in British Columbia,

examines relevant issues, and provides recommendations for managing the

industry. In addition, the report overviews the harvesting of botanical products in

other jurisdictions, such as the Pacific Northwest and Minnesota.

In British Columbia, nontimber forest products are divided into special forest products, such as fence posts, rails, shakes, utility poles, and Christmas trees, which

are regulated, and unregulated botanical forest products. This report focuses on

the latter category, examining 211 botanical products divided into eight categories:

wild edible mushrooms; floral and greenery products; medicinal and pharmaceutical products; wild berries and fruit; herb and vegetable products; landscaping

products; craft products; and miscellaneous botanical forest products. For each

category, the author examines uses, markets, distribution, ecology, and harvesting

practices in other jurisdictions. The report concludes with resource issues and

recommendations, which address sustainability, multiple forest resource use,

revenue to government, social and economic factors, health and safety, and

interagency coordination. This report is an excellent synthesis of information on the

state of the botanical products industry in British Columbia with highly readable

and informative charts. Charts include name, use, and market for each species as

well as summary information on 1993 pine mushroom (or American matsutake,

Tricholoma magnivelare) harvest, Japanese matsutake production, import and

consumption from 1950 to 1988, and 1991 redcedar foliage harvest for essential

oils.

Keywords: British Columbia, wild edible mushrooms, floral greens, medicinal

plants, berries, wild edible plants, horticultural plants, craft products, essential oils,

matsutake, markets, distribution, regulation, policy.

Delmas, J. [1987]. La cueillete des “champignons sauvages” et la loi=Harvesting

wild mushrooms and the law. [Place of publication unknown]: [Publisher

unknown]. 15 p. In French.

Surveys the legal foundation of French law regarding the gathering of wild edible

mushrooms. Private property rights are affirmed for the ground itself and for goods

derived out of the ground. Legal aspects of three types of harvest are considered:

harvests for commercial sale (with each département responsible for defining what

species may be harvested at which seasons), free harvests from access granted

by the landowner in quantities determined at the discretion of the landowner, and

harvests for family consumption, where the definition of family is vague and the

possibility of abuse high. Laws are promulgated at the departmental, prefectural,

and municipal levels.

Keywords: France, wild edible mushrooms, law, private property rights.
62

Denison, W.C.; Donoghue, J. 1988. The wild mushroom harvest in the Pacific

Northwest: past, present and future. [Place of publication unknown]: [Publisher

unknown]. 15 p.

Identifies the special forest products industry as having significant potential for the

Pacific Northwest. For the industry to grow and thrive, though, regulation is needed

to address the conflicts among different groups of mushroom harvesters, to satisfy

public health concerns, and to return a portion of the mushroom income to landowners. Without financial returns to landowners from mushroom harvests, there is

no incentive to manage forests for the simultaneous production of mushrooms and

timber production, and no incentive to invest in the continued long-term health of

the wild mushroom industry. Five recommendations are offered.

Keywords: Pacific Northwest, wild edible mushrooms, regulation, incentives.

Denison, W.C.; J. Donoghue. 1992. Regulating the wild mushroom harvest.

[Place of publication unknown]: [Publisher unknown]; report to the Committee on

Sustainable Forestry, Oregon State University,Corvallis; OR; May 12, 1992. 12 p.

Explores various rationales for regulating the wild mushroom harvest, including

protecting public health, protecting future mushroom crops, ensuring landowners

are fairly compensated for resources taken from their lands, and protecting the

public’s right to enjoy public forests that have not been harvested commercially.

Existing regulation—both formal and informal—in the areas of public health,

conservation, land tenure, and economic issues is reviewed. Finally, several conclusions and recommendations are made regarding adoption of research programs, inspection, uniform revenue distribution practices, and categories of forest

land that should be exempt from commercial mushroom harvests.

Keywords: Wild edible mushrooms, regulation.

Douglass, B. 1970. Special forest products: 1969 harvesting report, Oregon and

Washington. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,

Pacific Northwest Region, Division of State and Private Forestry. 39 p.

Summarizes volumes and values of special forest products harvested in Oregon

and Washington in 1969. This is the second in a series of reports on special forest

product harvests produced every 5 years; the first report summarized harvest

activity for 1964. The report was compiled by county and includes information on

special forest products that are harvested commercially, such as Christmas trees

and boughs, floral greenery, native transplants, wild fruits, medicinals, forest seed

cones, fuelwood, decorative woods, split cedar products, and small roundwood

products. Recreationally harvested products, such as mushrooms and edible

greens, also are described. Special forest products yielded about US$15 million

in annual income to harvesters in Oregon and Washington in 1969. The report

contains fairly detailed descriptions of the distribution and use of the products

covered as well as harvest data.

Keywords: Oregon, Washington, harvest volume, economic value, harvest data,

distribution, use, Christmas greens, floral greens, horticultural plants, medicinal

plants, cones, decorative woods, wild edible mushrooms, wild edible plants.
63

Douglass, Bernard S. 1975. Floral greenery from Pacific Northwest forests.

Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest

Region. 35 p.

Surveys supply and demand trends, advises harvesters about prerequisites for

selling to processors, and describes the cultural practices and conservative harvest

techniques for evergreen huckleberry (Vaccinium ovatum), salal (Gaultheria

shallon), and western swordfern (Polystichum munitum) for use as floral greenery.

Includes some discussion of minor floral products, including scotchbroom (Cytisus

scoparius), Port-Orford-cedar (Chamaecyparis lawsoniana), redwood (Sequoia

sempervirens), and boxleaf myrtle (Paxistima mysinites). Changing tastes alter

market demand for products over time. Conifer boughs are used mostly (80 percent) during the Christmas holiday season. Processors must stockpile materials of

shrubby species before late May and June, when new plant growth is forming and

is unsuitable for picking. Western true fir (Abies spp.) and cedar (Chamaecyparis

spp., Calocedrus decurrens, and Thuja plicata) boughs must compete against

Eastern species. Transportation costs can be critical. Increased salal harvests

have come from British Columbia to meet rising demand, capturing one-third of the

total market in 1972. Western swordfern production has been in decline since 1947

with major competition from ferns with similar appearance from Florida, Mexico,

and Guatemala.

Harvesters are cautioned to obey laws and landowners’ wishes, to enter into formal

contracts for gathering, to obtain necessary permits, to use efficient transportation,

equipment, tools, cutting techniques, and clothing, and to store floral greens

appropriately before delivery. For landowners, coordination of floral green production with timber management goals and use of fertilizers is recommended to secure

and improve product quality. Data for regional production of the major floral greens

are given for 1969 and 1972, and prices for selected species are as of 1972.

Douglass’ publication, although dated, is an outstanding introduction to native

products and collection practices in the Pacific Northwest floral trade. Updating this

volume would be a significant contribution to knowledge of the nontimber forest

products in the Pacific Northwest.

Keywords: Conifer greens, harvesting methods, fertilization, floral greens, market

demand, market supply, pruning techniques, Pacific Northwest.

Economic Commission for Europe. 1993. The forest resources of the temperate

zones: the UN-ECE/FAO 1990 forest resource assessment. Volume II: benefits

and functions of the forest. New York: United Nations. 268 p.

Characterizes the role of temperate forests, by nation, in supplying environmental

and other nonwood goods and services. Details of nontimber vegetation products

were not explicitly solicited. Many countries, however, provided data about edible

fungi, honey, berries, nuts, syrups, aromatic and medicinal plants, decorative

foliage, wicker cane, and essential oils. Economic values for some products from

some nations are given. Respondents from each country describe with varying

specificity major nontimber products and frequently provide information about

areas of public concern and conflicts between forest functions.
64

This volume is an invaluable reference resource for an overview of special forest

products from temperate regions. The summary from Sweden is particularly valuable for its bibliography about management experiments of Vaccinium spp. and

economic methods of resource valuation.

Keywords: Aromatic plants, international survey, conifer greens, floral greens,

economic valuation, wild edible mushrooms, wild edible plants, essential oils,

honey, medicinal plants, nuts, resource conflict, basketry, weaving, Sweden.

Egli, S; Ayer, F.; Chatelain, F. 1990. Der Einfluss des Pilzsammelns auf die

Pilzflora: Zwischenergebnisse einer Untersuchung im Pilzreservat “La

Chanéaz,” Montagny-les-Monts, FR=The influence of mushroom collecting on

the mushroom flora: preliminary results from research in the La Chanéaz

mushroom reserve, Montagny-les-Monts, Canton of Fribourg. Mycologia

Helvetica. 3(4): 417-428. In German.

Reports preliminary results from a long-term study of mushroom harvests on

populations of mushroom species from five blocks. Three treatments were carried

out in each block: no harvest and census of all edible and inedible mushrooms

sporocarps; census of all edible and inedible mushrooms and plucking edible

mushrooms; and census of all edible and inedible mushrooms and cutting all edible

mushrooms. Weekly censuses occurred from mid-May to mid-November from 1975

through 1988. Previously counted mushrooms were marked with methylene blue

dye. The Wilcoxon rank sum test and cluster analyses were used to test statistical

significance. In the study time frame, no significant effects resulted from harvesting

or harvest methods (plucking vs. cutting) among the 15 species investigated on the

basis of their presence in all three treatments of at least one block. Other negative

effects from people were found: populations of fruiting bodies of Cantharellus

lutescens underwent distinct but reversible declines as the result of trampling, and

a colony of C. cibarius studied for many years disappeared as the result of a

regeneration cut in the stand.

Keywords: Wild edible mushrooms, harvesting effects, forest practices, trampling,

Switzerland.

Ehlers, H.-U. 1968. Der Wald als Schmuckgrünlieferant=The forest as supplier of

ornamental greenery. Forst- und Holzwirt. 22(24): 528-530. In German.

Characterizes the market and production of ornamental conifer greens in Germany.

Consumption of greens averages 5 kg per family per year, amounting to 50 000-

60 000 tonnes annually for western Germany. Total yield is 10 000 kg/ha for each

harvest, which occurs every 2 to 3 years. The majority of decorative greens comes

from The Netherlands and Denmark (10000 tonnes from Denmark in 1967). Major

domestic sources are in Schleswig-Holstein and the Black Forest region. Selected

uniform, fresh, full foliage in 10-kg bundles is the preferred market quantity.

Major urban areas with wholesale foliage and flower markets are Hamburg, the

Ruhr region, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, and Munich. Different markets require different

dimensions of branches. Noble fir (Abies procera) is given the highest grade (first

quality extra). Constant observation of market demand is a precondition for profit

with boughs and greens. Eastern white pine (Pinus strobus) is always in demand,

but Thuja and Cupressus spp. are not as popular. Other popular specialty products
65

are larch (Larix decidua) branches covered with lichens, selected mosses, northern

red oak (Quercus rubra) branches, holly (Ilex aquilfoium), and willow (Salix spp.)

catkins.

Keywords: Moss, floral greens, conifer greens, foreign trade, Germany, harvest

scheduling, lichens, markets.

Ehlers, H.-U. 1970. Schneiden und marktfertiges Bündeln von Schmuckgrün:

Erfahrungen und Hinweise aus dem Anbaugebiet Schleswig-Holstein=Cutting

and bundling ornamental branches for sale: experiences and tips from

Schleswig-Holstein. Forstarchiv. 41(10): 214-216. In German.

Traces the process for market preparation of decorative greens from conifer stands

in Schleswig-Holstein. In 1967-68, decorative greens constituted 18.4 percent of

the average timber income. Preconditions for profitable harvest are sustainable

production of large quantities of decorative greens and constant contact with

buyers. Data are provided about best ages for first and final cuttings, minimal tree

height for the first bough cut, harvest frequency, optimal stand spacing, and

average yield per hectare for many locally grown species: Douglas-fir

(Pseudotsuga menziesii), Thuja spp., Chamaecyparis spp., grand fir (Abies

grandis), and noble fir (A. procera). True fir species command the highest prices.

In monoculture stands, the product yield is generally greater and has better quality

than in mixed-species stands. At harvest, the two or three top whorls and the

leader are left on the tree. New branches grow out very quickly and permit another

harvest usually within 2 years.

The biggest demand for decorative greens is in late October through December.

Organization of the labor force is essential. Average production rates are 250-500

kg per person per day, depending on the type of equipment used. Fresh, debrisfree greens are preferred, cut to uniform length and branch diameters, and

arranged in 10-kg bundles. Guidelines for storage and shipment of foliage are

given. Criteria for grading and sorting for sale to retail outlets also are given.

This article surveys the market for decorative conifer greens in northern Germany

and provides guidelines for managing and harvesting species native to the Pacific

Northwest and for preparing products.

Keywords: Conifer greens, Germany, grading, harvesting, labor efficiency, packing,

sorting.

Eligh, P.K. 1989. The harvesting of edible wild mushrooms in British Columbia.

Victoria, BC. British Columbia Ministry of Forests, Integrated Resources Branch.

Elisabetsky, Elaine. 1991. Folklore, tradition, or know-how? Cultural Survival

Quarterly. 15(3): 9-13.

Discusses the pharmaceutical use of plants with bioactive compounds. Statistics

from the pharmaceutical industry indicate that roughly 7,000 natural compounds

are used in modern medicine and 25 percent of the drugs prescribed in the United

States contain at least one plant-derived ingredient. In 1985, medicinal plants
66

accounted for US$43 billion of the estimated US$90 billion value of drugs sold on

world markets. Despite the importance of plant compounds in medicine, only a

small percentage (2 percent of the vascular plants) have been tested for their

medicinal values. Tropical forests are a “hotspot” of biodiversity and likely are

repositories of plants with potential medicinal value. Sorting out useful plants is a

daunting task. Learning from people who already use such plants (ethnopharmacologists) would considerably reduce production costs and reduce the time

needed to research and produce drugs. Elisabetsky notes that traditional remedies

are social products whose production requires considerable effort and skill.

The author proposes the formation of joint ethnopharmacological ventures among

research laboratories in developed countries and local healers to reduce the costs

of drug production and provide incentives for rain forest conservation. The author

notes that in destroying the rain forest we lose more than the plants; we also lose

the knowledge of those plants, and thus a valuable medical resource. Securing

local cooperation is not easy, however, in large part because few of the benefits of

such research accrue to local residents. To ensure that indigenous people receive

adequate compensation for their knowledge, scientists have argued for legislation

that secures intellectual property rights. The author suggests establishing a patent

system modeled on utility patents in the United States to compensate healers and

local communities for their knowledge and genetic resources.

Keywords: Ethnopharmacology, intellectual property rights, indigenous knowledge,

patents.

Ellanna, Linda J.; Sherrod, George K. 1985. Subsistence mapping: an evaluation

and methodological guidelines. Tech. Pap. 125. Juneau, AK: Alaska Department

of Fish and Game, Division of Subsistence. 266 p. [+ appendix].

Gives theoretical foundations for the research methodologies and variables

involved in mapping resource use with special reference to subsistence activities.

Mapping is fundamental to understanding the relations among people for resource

acquisition. Studies that map gathering activities by people also inform managers

about gathering productivity, time constraints for achieving adequate harvests,

effects of tenure and access, “predator-prey” relations, optimal foraging strategies,

resource valuation, and optimal management scenarios. Knowledge of harvest

quantities alone does not provide adequate criteria to assess the socioeconomic

benefits to people. Other important features of a map-configured database of wild

product harvests include intensity of resource use, changes in use, delineation of

group or individual territories. Chapters in this book include a description and evaluation of methods for mapping resource use patterns and yields in North America

and guidelines for advancing the process of subsistence mapping in research.

Documentation, hypothesis formulation, technical considerations, sampling

design, data collection, and data analysis methods are essential to useful

subsistence mapping of nontimber forest products. This volume is an outstanding

tool for providing direction to monitoring programs in nontimber forest product

management.

Keywords: Alaska, mapping, management tools, resource use, subsistence.
67

Eriksson, L.; Ingelög, T.; Kardell, L. 1979. Blåbär, lingon, hallon: förekomst och

bärproduktion i Sverige, 1974-1977=Whortleberry, lingonberry, and red raspberry: distribution and berry production in Sweden 1974-1977. Rapport 16.

Garpenberg, Sweden: The Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences. 124 p.

In Swedish with English summary.

Summarizes data gathered during National Forestry Surveys from 1974 through

1977 with emphasis on whortleberries (Vaccinium myrtillus), lingonberries (V. vitisidaea), and red raspberries (Rubus idaeus). Berry pickers accompanied survey

crews from 1975 to 1977 to estimate berry production nationally for those years.

Historically, berries had little significance in Swedish diets, and berry picking was

not considered real work. Berries were most important in times of famine. Trade in

berries is known as early as the 1730s, and exports of lingonberries to Germany

began about 1900 and continued until World War II. Since then, Sweden has been

a net importer of lingonberries. Total annual biological production of berries equls

about 500 000 tonnes, but estimates of human consumption of that production

range from only 2 to 5 percent.

Forest practices considerably affect the distribution of berry plants and production

of berries. Clearcutting drastically reduces the cover of whortleberry shrub biomass

to less than 5 percent of the clearcut area. Recolonization occurs as the regeneration stand grows, and whortleberry cover levels off at 22 to 24 percent of total area

after year 30. Raspberries, in contrast invade clearcuts and cover 2 to 4 percent of

a clearcut area but disappear by year 30.

Keywords: Berries, inventory, survey methods, historical use, clearcutting,

management practices, Sweden.

Eriksson, L; Kardell, L. 1980. Murklor—en ekonomisk tillgang?=Morels—an

economic asset. Skogsvardsforbunds Tidskrift. 78(5): 21-44. In Swedish.

External Affairs and International Trade Canada. 1990. The mushroom market.

Ottawa, ON: External Affairs and International Trade Canada, The Japan Trade

Development Division.

Falconer, Julia; Chapel, C.R.S. 1990. The major significance of minor forest

products: the local use and value of forests in the West African humid forest

zone. Comm. For. Notes 1990/nr. 6. Rome, Italy: United Nations, Food and

Agriculture Organization. 232 p.

Underscores the major economic and social importance of so-called minor forest

products to rural economies in West Africa. Such products are important both daily

and seasonally, allowing people to survive periods of famine and economic

hardship. The author cites examples of minor forest product use in Ghana to

illustrate how the products fit within the socioeconomic framework of rural communities. Both urban and rural households depend on trade in these products.

The market at Kumasi, Ghana, where 700 people are full-time traders of forest

products, is described. Demand seems to be increasing, and prices fluctuate

radically over the course of a year.
68

Sustainable-development advocates assume that commercialization of minor forest

products is somehow more sustainable than commercial timber production. They

also assume that by focusing on increasing the exploitation of minor forest products, rather than timber, local people will benefit more. The author argues that

these assumptions are flawed because they focus on the products rather than on

the needs of the people, which drive use of the products. The author observes that

poor people are more likely to harvest minorforest products, because minor forest

products often are located on common areas, the profit margins are low, and their

extraction is sometimes difficult. Developing minor forest products thus is a twoedged sword from an economic equity standpoint, because by increasing their

value, wealthier people are likely to assert claims over these resources and thus

deprive poorer people of access to them.

Keywords: Sustainable development, Ghana, household strategies, trade patterns.

Farnsworth, N. 1988. Screening plants for new medicines. In: Wilson, E.O., ed.

Biodiversity. Washington DC: National Academy Press: 83-97.

Points out the continued reliance of U.S. consumers on vascular plants as the

active ingredients in about 25 percent of prescribed drugs, representing in excess

of US$8 billion in annual pharmaceutical sales. Globally, about 80 percent of residents of developing countries rely on traditional medicines for their primary health

care needs, and about 85 percent of this traditional medicine is derived from plant

extracts. Despite these facts, no U.S. pharmaceutical firm had an active research

plan investigating higher plants as a source for new drugs.

Keywords: Medicinal plants, phytomedicines, indigenous medicines, economic

values, pharmaceutical industry.

Farnsworth, Norman R.; Soejarto, Djaja Doel. 1985. Potential consequence of

plant extinction in the United States on the current and future availability of prescription drugs. Economic Botany. 39(3): 231-241.

Addresses the question of placing a monetary value on a plant species so that the

cost to society of extinction can be calculated. One way is to estimate the pharmaceutical value of a species. In the period 1959-73, an average of 25.36 percent of

all prescriptions sampled had one or more chemical compounds derived from

higher plants. The total value estimated of plant-derived drug sales in the United

States in 1973 is estimated by doubling the amount of drugs sales (valued on

average at US$4.13 per prescription) from public pharmacies to include untracked

dispensing through hospitals, government agencies, and mail order. This totaled

US$3.188 billion. An extrapolated value for 1980 (not adjusted for inflation) was

US$8.112 billion. No plant can be wholly discounted no matter how intensively it

has been studied for biological effects. The authors assume, however, that 5,000

species of flowering plants have been “exhaustively” researched for potential

drugs and only 40 plant species are currently used in the United States as drug

sources. Each of the 40 species was thus individually worth US$203 million in

1980. Projected extinction of 16 useful drug plants by 2000 would represent a

US$3.248 billion loss.
69

The authors remark that presumptions of value include much value-added processing and combining with other drugs. American scientists, unlike their counterparts

elsewhere, have not traditionally investigated native American flora for their

medical properties. Budgets of pharmaceutical companies for research and development are limited, and in 1980 no U.S. drug company had programs to develop

new drugs from plants.

Keywords: Economic valuation, medicinal plants, pharmaceuticals, research and

development, species extinction.

Farolfi, Stefano. 1990. Ruolo economico dei prodotti secondari spontanei del

bosco: un’indagine nel Casentino=The economic role of wild-grown secondary

forests products: an analysis in the Casentino region. Monti e Boschi. 41(1):

49-52. In Italian with English summary.

Examines the changing socioeconomic function of collecting wild foods in the face

of increased urbanization, the growth of individual wealth, and ample access to

substitutable food sources. Use of the principal products, boletes (Boletus edulis)

and honey mushrooms (Armillariella mellea), among residents of two communities

in the Casentino region are studied. Although the values of these resources are

less than timber and watershed protection, income and benefits from commercial

and recreational use of special forest products are significant. Annual harvest

amounts and the value of boletes ranged widely over the 3-year study. Only 20

percent was for personal use, the rest going to restaurants, local stores, and

wholesalers. The collectors came mostly from middle to lower income classes.

Housewives were the most numerous group of collectors, but professional collectors were the most productive. Nearly 45 percent of mushroom collectors were

between 50 and 60 years old. This study represents one of the few studies available that characterizes the wild mushroom pickers living in a postindustrial society.

Keywords: Wild edible mushrooms, demography, harvesters, Italy.

Farris, G.J. 1982. Aboriginal use of pine nuts in California: an ethnological, nutritional, and archaeological investigation into the uses of the seeds of Pinus

lambertiana Dougl. and Pinus sabiniana Dougl. by the Indians of northern

California. Davis, CA: Department of Anthropology, University of California,

Davis. PhD. dissertation.

Fearnside, Philip. 1989. Extractive reserves in Brazilian Amazonia. BioScience.

39(6): 387-393.

Describes the history and formation of extractive reserves to legally protect forest

land traditionally used by extractivists or special forest product harvesters. The

author cautions against the practice of justifying extractive reserves based on the

economic value of the rubber (Hevea brasiliensis). The Brazilian government is

having trouble maintaining price supports for Amazonian rubber, and tropical

hardwood prices are rising by contrast. The author suggests instead that

extractivists should diversify and that marketing mechanisms for new products
70

should be developed. He argues against the strict use of cost-benefit analysis in

determining forest use, given the difficulty in estimating the large and uncertain

numbers associated with medicinal products. Instead, forest preservation should

be a given, from which economic options are considered.

Keywords: Extractive reserves, Amazon, resins, exudates, economic analysis.

Fellows, Linda. 1992. What are forests worth? Lancet. 339: 1330-1333.

Describes one method to assign economic value to a plant species. Full economic

value consists of the use value (the current and future utilitarian value of the

species) and the nonuse value (the vicarious value that individuals place on the

continued existence of a species). Use values may be further divided into direct,

indirect, and option values. Direct consumption includes local consumption, use in

plant breeding or medicine, and recreation. Indirect uses involve the species’ contribution to essential ecological processes, such as nutrient recycling, watershed

protection, and air quality. Option values refer to the possibility that a species, as

yet without economic use, might have some future value, either direct or indirect.

Analyses of value usually treat only direct uses and market values. Underestimates

of true value are inevitable under such circumstances.

Plants used in medicine offer one means of forecasting financial benefits foregone

when biological diversity is lost. The author cites Peter Principe’s work: assuming

that 25 percent of known plant species will be extinct by 2050, the foregone benefit

from loss by plant extinctions when discounted at 5 percent will amount to US$3-5

billion (1990 dollars). This total refers only to retail drug sales and not to the value

of lives saved or extended. The analysis gives an idea of the magnitude of benefits

from plant conservation and points to the need to improve methods of analyses for

quantifying benefits of ecosystems and their constituent species.

Keywords: Use value, non-use value, direct value, indirect value, option value,

biodiversity value, phytomedicines, medicinal plants.

Fischer, Hartmut. 1992. Schnittgrün aus Übersee: Transport per Flugzeug oder

Schiffscontainer =Cut greens from overseas: transport by airplane or ship

container. Gärtnerbörse und Gartenwelt. 92(39): 1937-1940. In German.

Reports on the German market for imports of floral greens, which is increasing in

volume as the variety of marketed cut greens increases. Imports of greens come

primarily from the United States (38.1 percent in 1991), Costa Rica (22.7 percent),

and Italy (19.8 percent). German and Dutch traders in floral products in turn supply

over 85 percent of the total European imports of greens. Imports from the United

States are estimated at DM60 million rather than the official figure of DM33.2

million. Import data for individual species of floral greens are not available. Major

centers for floral greens in the United States are Florida (tropicals), North Carolina

(Galax spp. and Lycopodium), and the Pacific Northwest (western swordfern

[Polystichum munitum], salal [Gaultheria shallon], beargrass [Xerophyllum tenax],

huckleberry [Vaccinium ovatum], Oregongrape [Mahonia spp.], and scotchbroom

[Cytisus scoparius]). The export activity in the Pacific Northwest is concentrated in

Seattle. A costly infrastructure is necessary because the collection area in native

forests extends 1200 km from north to south.
71

Salal and western swordfern are shipped from August to May in refrigerated containers by rail to the U.S. East Coast and then by ship to Europe. From May

through July, air transport is used when the greens cannot survive the 3-week

voyage without damage. Beargrass is sent by rail and ship year round. Air cost

per kilo is DM2.35 versus DM1.10 for containers via land and sea. In 1992, the

European Common Market lifted trade tariffs on floral greens from Central America

in an attempt to encourage economic development there.

Keywords: Germany, markets, Pacific Northwest, floral greens, transportation

routes, transportation costs, Olympic Peninsula.

Fitzgerald, Stephen. 1986. Southcoast Oregon “brush” provides income source

for woodland owners. Northwest Woodlands. 2(1): 12-13.

Describes economic options for landowners in managing understory vegetation as

an income source between timber harvests. Local buyers purchase floral and

Christmas greens and medicinal species and in turn sell them to wholesalers in the

Eastern United States. Major floral species in southern Oregon are western

swordfern (Polystichum munitum), evergreen huckleberry (Vaccinium ovatum),

salal (Gaultheria shallon), and Port-Orford-cedar (Chamaecyparis lawsoniana).

Major medicinal species are cascara sagrada (Frangula purshiana), Oregongrape

(Mahonia spp.), purple foxglove (Digitalis purpurea), prince’s pine (Chimaphila

umbellata), and British Columbia wild ginger (Asarum caudatum).

The harvest season begins in midsummer and continues through autumn in a

sequential pattern through different forest habitats. Careful picking and pruning

improve foliage yields. Joint production with timber is easy and thinning allows for

controlling light levels on the forest floor. Salal harvesting occurs mainly from

midsummer to early autumn. Prices for salal in 1985 were US$0.55-0.60 per bunch

(11/4 lb). In 1985 western swordfern prices ranged from US$0.45 to US$0.60 per

bunch (52 fronds per bunch). One-fourth to one-third of the fronds from a plant

may be harvested without damage to the plant. Port-Orford-cedar is harvested

year-round. Good quality foliage sprays were US$0.15 per lb.

Between 1.4 and 1.1 million bunches of huckleberry, salal, and western swordfern

were harvested in coastal Oregon counties in 1969 and 1972. One buyer estimates

harvests of these species from Coos and Curry Counties alone at US$500,000

annually. Pickers earn US$50-$100 or more per day.

Keywords: Economic value, harvest price, southern Oregon, medicinal plants, floral

greens, conifer greens, Coos County, Curry County.

Fleischer, Mark S. 1980. The ethnobotany of the Clallam Indians of western

Washington. Northwest Anthropological Research Notes. 14: 192-210.

Documents the ethnobotanical uses of plants by the Clallam people on the northern shore of the Olympic Peninsula. Data are compiled from existing publications

and from two Clallam-Salish speakers. Native names for plants are given in an

appendix.

Keywords: Ethnobotany, Clallam, Olympic Peninsula.
72

Food and Agriculture Organization. 1991. Non-wood forest products: the way

ahead. For. Pap. 97. Rome, Italy. 37 p.

Calls attention to nonwood forest products as valuable resources for rural communities and vehicles for rural development. Recognition of the important role

these products play in providing rural people with food, construction materials,

medicines, forage, and other products, as well as cash from the sale of these

products, underlines the need to keep forested ecosystems intact. Consequently,

the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) has recently created a nonwood

forest products position, and the Tropical Forest Action Plans being prepared

under FAO guidance in 80 countries will incorporate nonwood forest products

concerns.

Past interest by the FAO in nonwood forest products has focused on commercial

products and has generally ignored nonwood forest products used for subsistence.

Community forestry programs, however, have demonstrated that these other

products need to be included. The authors recommend that FAO increase

collaboration with other international organizations in the nonwood forest product

sector. Nonwood forest products have been difficult to address within the FAO

structure because they cross sectoral lines (forestry, agriculture, horticulture).

Similar difficulties exist within many governmental bureaucracies where some

nonwood forest products are considered part of forestry and others are treated as

agricultural crops. The diverse nature of nonwood forest products thus requires

collaboration among traditionally noncollaborative departments at both the national

and international levels.

Governments tend to ignore nonwood forest products because their markets

usually are domestic and thus generate less foreign exchange. As a consequence,

the contribution of nonwood forest products to the rural economy is undervalued,

and little research or monitoring is conducted. However, nonwood forest products

are likely to receive more attention in the future, because developing countries

often lack the foreign exchange needed to import many products for which locally

available nonwood forest products could substitute. As realization grows of the

benefits of nonwood forest product development to rural communities, new

markets are developing. The green movement in the West, new ethnic markets

due to migration, and the growing recognition of the need to retain forested areas

also contribute to the growing interest in nonwood forest products.

Keywords: International policy, economic diversification, rural development, Food

and Agriculture Organization.

Forests and People. 1989. Weaving pine needles into gold. Forests and People.

39(3): 30-31, 36-37, 40.

Describes the emergence of pine straw baling as an industry in Louisiana. Producers and representatives of government agencies have formed a group, the Pine

Straw Industry Work Group, to help catalyze the growth of the industry. Pine straw

baling has increased in Louisiana as competition in North and South Carolina has

become more intense. The pine straw is used for mulch by commercial and

noncommercial users.

Keywords: Pine straw, Louisiana, mulch.
73

Forlines, David R.; Tavenner, Terri; Malan, Johannes C.S.; Karchesy, Joseph

J. 1992. Plants of the Olympic coastal forests: ancient knowledge of materials

and medicines and future heritage. In: Hemingway, R.W., ed. Plant polyphenols.

New York: Plenum Press: 767-782.

Represents an effort to reconcile the cultural use of forest plants with the presentday needs of science. Indigenous people have used polyphenolic compounds of

native plants from the Olympic Peninsula to make dyes, paints, adhesives, medicinal teas, and medicinal herb mixtures. Lists of plants and their dye products and

medicinal uses are provided. Parallels exist with European and Chinese medicinal

traditions for similar species, particularly in the Rosaceae family. Rubus spp. have

the greatest number of plant uses. The biochemical function of most of the active

compounds of the native plants of the Olympic Peninsula is yet to be described.

The authors call for greater attention to the pharmaceutical potential of traditional

medicinal plants. This article is useful for its synthesis of economic botany and

plant chemistry and makes a case for increased awareness and research of Pacific

Northwest plant species for industrial applications.

Keywords: Indigenous uses, medicinal plants, dye plants, Olympic Peninsula,

polyphenols.

Fortmann, Louise. 1992. Locality and custom: non-aboriginal claims to customary

usufruct rights as a source of rural protest. Journal of Rural Studies. 6(2): 195-

208.

Examines the dynamics of three protests over the allocation of fuelwood and

timber harvesting rights on National Forest land in the Western United States

between 1983 and 1986. The author argues that legal pluralism, or the coexistence

of multiple legal systems in a single society, continues to play an important role in

the allocation of resources in the United States, despite the paucity of scientific

studies on the extent of customary usufruct rights. She categorizes the usufruct

claims that form the basis for the protests into two types: subsistence claims and

preferential livelihood claims. Both claims are based on the idea that local needs

for forest products and economic opportunities should take preference over outside

claims. The protesters clearly perceived that they had legitimate, though de facto,

rights to National Forest resources surrounding their communities. The protests

also illustrate that residents of the communities are willing and able to mobilize

various sources of power, including appeals to local ordinances, as a means to

enforce their claims. The author concludes that understanding of resource conflicts

between government and local communities will be enhanced if the role of informal

law is recognized.

Keywords: Usufruct, resource conflicts, firewood, timber harvesting, Western

United States, law.

Forum, Steen. 1988a. De nye sorteringer i nobilis=The new grading system for

Abies procera boughs. Pyntegrøntsektionen Nåledrys. 4(8): 4-7. In Danish.

Forum, Steen. 1988b. Høst af mellemgrene fra skørtet i nobilis—og den mulige

økonomiske gewinst=Harvest of side branches in Abies procera—and the

possible economic gain. Pyntegrøntsektionen Nåledrys 4(7): 12-14. In Danish.
74

Foster, Steven. 1991. Harvesting medicinals in the wild: the need for scientific

data on sustainable yields. HerbalGram. 24: 10-16.

States that the increase in popularity of herbs and herb products has led to uncertainty about the long-term effects of harvesting native medicinal plants. There is

little information on the sustainable yield of wild native medicinal plants; however,

some broad categorizations can help determine which species are especially at

risk of overharvesting. The greatest questions on sustainable harvest arise with

root commodities where the whole root is harvested. The author cites American

ginseng (Panax quinquefolius), once frequent in eastern North America and now

listed as threatened or endangered, as the classic example of overexploitation.

Goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis), Echinacea spp., pink lady’s slipper

(Cypripedium acaule), and Trillium spp. also are discussed. Cascara sagrada

(Frangula purshiana) in the Pacific Northwest is the major medicinal bark crop.

Coordinating of timber operations with partial debarking of cascara trees deserves

investigation. The author ends with a plea to develop information on sustainable

harvest levels or develop cultivated species before it is too late.

Keywords: Medicinal plants, sustainability, harvesting effects.

Foster, Steven, ed. 1992. Herbs of commerce. Austin, TX: American Herbal

Products Association. 78 p.

Compiles common names of commercial herbal plants in U.S. trade and crossindexes them with their corresponding scientific binomial. This publication seeks to

reduce the confusion in commerical labeling for herbal products by standardizing a

single common English name for a single plant species.

Keywords: Medicinal plants, food plants, taxonomy.

Foster, Steven. 1995. Forest pharmacy: medicinal plants in American forests.

Durham, NC: Forest History Society. 57 p.

Provides an overview of the historic and current role of plants in traditional and

modern medicine, with a particular focus on the changes that have occurred in the

United States over the past century. Also provides a chart of medicinal trees and

plants, including scientific names, common names, form in which used, and medicinal value and uses for plants of the United States. Notes that new technologies

introduced over the past 15 years have made the identification of medically useful

plant compounds easier and less costly. These advances, coupled with a renewed

interest among Americans and Europeans in the use of traditional medicines have

contributed to rising demand for a variety of plants and plant parts. The bulk of

medicinal plants in the United States are harvested in the east and southeast; only

recently has extensive commercial gathering of medicinal plants begun to occur in

the west and southwest. In contrast to Europe, where many plant compounds are

categorized as drugs, in the United States most medicinal plant compounds are

categorized as foods. The author attributes the relative lack of interest in developing plant compounds on the part of U.S. pharmaceutical companies to an inability

to patent whole plant compounds. In addition, extensive testing is required

before plant compounds can be categorized as drugs and their healing qualities
75

advertised. The Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act of 1994 addresses

some of these concerns by shifting the burden of proof of safety for dietary supplements to the government. It remains inadequate in the author’s view, however, in

that manufacturers of herbal supplements are prohibited from making any claims

about the connections between use of these plant compounds and treatments of

disease.

Foster contrasts the U.S. regulatory framework with that of Germany, where an

expert commission develops monographs outlining the therapeutic value of numerous plant-derived drugs. These monographs, which include guidelines for labeling,

quality control, and safe dosages, and a system of phytomedicinal training for

medical students have contributed to the widespread use of plant-derived drugs in

German medicine. Foster recommends that a similar system be adopted in the

United States.

Keywords: Medicinal plants, United States, regulation, economic value.

Franz, Chlodwig. 1991. Kultivierung bedeutender wildwachsender Arznei- und

Gewürzpflanzen =Domestication of significant wild medicinal and fragrance

plants. Entwicklung + Ländlicher Raum. 4(91): 3-7.

Comments on the growing demand for quality in plant materials gathered from wild

sources and the attendant threat of overexploitation. Agricultural sciences are

striving to rapidly domesticate wild species to protect wild stocks and their

ecosystems. Domestication can be a drawn out, complex process. The author

proposes an eight-step strategy for research in domesticating plants: (1) site

studies of taxonomy, soils, climate, growth, natural reproduction, and distribution;

(2) sampling plants and seeds for phytochemical content; (3) research into

generative and vegetative means for reproduction; (4) planting trials of various site

and environmental conditions, planting methods, and care; (5) research into plant

diseases, pests, and means for plant protection; (6) plant breeding to improve

ecological amplitude, disease resistance, yields, and desired compounds; (7) work

on reducing time-to-harvest, harvest technology, and postharvest processing;

(8) and attention to profitability, including labor needs, machinery, tools, infrastructure, use of agrochemicals, yields, and income.

Keywords: Domestication, policy, research agendas, medicinal plants, wild edible

plants.

French, K.; French, D. 1955. The Warm Springs Indian community: will it be

destroyed? American Indian. 8: 3-17.

Fuller, Douglas O. 1991. Medicine from the wild: an overview of the U.S. native

medicinal plant trade and its conservation implications. Washington, DC: World

Wildlife Fund. 28 p.

Presents an overview of trade in medicinal plants native to the United States.

Wildcrafting, the gathering of wild medicinal plant for economic use, is most widespread in three regions of the United States: the southern Appalachian Mountains,
76

the Ozark Mountains, and the Pacific Northwest. Poor rural residents practice

wildcrafting during times of underemployment, but it is a tenuous business. In the

southern Appalachians, a few wholesale distributors control pricing, and prices

paid to gatherers are held artificially low. Sustainable collection practices are particularly crucial for species with bark products.

Western Europe is the focus of a growing herbal medicine industry, with a doubling

of consumption of medicinal herbs between 1980 and 1990. Herb exports to the

United Kingdom, Germany, and Switzerland from the United States are summarized. India and Brazil provide much larger amounts to these countries in

comparison. Already, native U.S. medicinal plants, such as Echinacea purpurea,

are widely cultivated in Europe as a way to eliminate the uncertainty of U.S.

supplies. Increased personal preference for natural medicines as a more holistic

approach to health and healing still may decimate natural stocks of wild plants; for

example, consumers often are willing to pay three times the amount that cultivated

ginseng sells for to acquire wild U.S. ginseng (Panax quinquefolius).

American ginseng is the only U.S. medicinal herb tracked by the Convention on

International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES). Ginseng offers an example of

responding to international demand by supplying domesticated stock. Commercial

crops have come mostly from Marathon County, Wisconsin. Between 1980 and

1987, American ginseng crop production nearly tripled in the United States.

Establishment of ginseng costs about US$30,000 per acre, but payoff within a few

years with a product worth about US$200/lb makes for a promising investment.

The author proposes that wildcraft prices are the best available indicator of species

scarcity until scientifically credible surveys of plant populations can be undertaken.

Species native to the Pacific Northwest that are in commercial demand are

maidenhair ferns (Adiantum spp.), kinnikinnick (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi), prince’spine (Chimaphila umbellata), yellow lady’s slipper (Cypripedium calceolus; protected), scouringrush horsetail (Equisetum hyemale), common juniper (Juniperus

communis), hollyleaved barberry (Mahonia aquifolium), sweetgale (Myrica gale),

cascara (Frangula purshiana), smooth sumac (Rhus glabra), willows (Salix spp.),

blue skullcap (Scutellaria lateriflora), Pacific yew (Taxus brevifolia), and Trillium

spp. Genera in the Pacific Northwest that have related medicinal commercial

species in the Eastern United States are Agastache, Asarum, Asclepias,

Ceanothus, Cimifuga, Crataegus, Eupatorium, Ligusticum, Pinus, Populus, Prunus,

Quercus, and Sambucus.

The author calls for prudent collection linked to propagation and cultivation.

Ginseng serves as a model for sustainability through agricultural domestication.

Entrepreneurial wildcrafters need information on cultivation to assist them in raising

commercial quantities of herbal crops. Better trade information is needed so that

people can identify and target domestic and foreign markets. Thinning studies for

selective harvesting of herbal materials need to be conducted to document the

effects of harvest intensity. Establishment of regional cooperatives also may give

local residents greater control over prices. Increased prices may reduce the pressure to overharvest valuable and scarce species. Competition with other conservation issues may make acquiring funds for research difficult.

Keywords: Medicinal plants, conservation, policy formulation, sustainability, Pacific

Northwest, Appalachia, Ozarks.
77

Galambosi, Bertalan. 1993. Considerations and experiences regarding the

cultivation of medicinal wildflowers in Finland. Aquilo Ser. Bot. 31: 161-166.

Reports on results of studies by the University of Helsinki on the potential of native

wildflower species for agricultural production of medicinal crops. The growing

market for phytotherapeutic medicinals in Finland makes growing these plants a

promising source of commercial income. The Finnish Four-H Youth Organization

has been active in collecting medicinal plants from wild sources, but domestic

needs have not been met by internal supplies. The types and quantities of plant

materials imported are poorly documented in government trade statistics. Domestic

agricultural production may produce better growing conditions, emphasize best

plant varieties for production of plant chemicals, and assure product quality and

safety.

Field conditions were studied for yarrow (Achillea millefolium, PNW [Pacific

Northwest] native), common selfheal (Prunella vulgaris, PNW native), stinging

nettle (Urtica dioica, PNW native), common St. Johnswort (Hypericum perforatum,

PNW introduced species), and goldenrod (Solidago spp.) congeners in PNW). The

species native to the Finnish flora adapt well to more intensive growing conditions

in fields and with fertilization. Crops may be harvested once or twice a year. The

importance of siting fields away from factories and traffic is important to secure

pure plant products without heavy metal contaminants.

This article outlines the possibilities for advances in domestication of native medicinal plants in the Pacific Northwest.

Keywords: Domestication, medicinal plants, Finland.

Garbaye, J.; Kabre, A.; Le Tacon, F. [and others]. 1979. Production de

champignons comestibles en forêt par fertilisation minerale—premiers resultats

sur Rhodopaxillus nudus [=Clitocybe nuda]=Production of edible mushrooms in

a forest using mineral fertilization—first results with Rhodopaxillus nudus

[=Clitocybe nuda]. Mushroom Science. 10(part 1): 811-815. In French with

English summary.

Describes an installed experiment of five fertilization treatments plus a control on

30 plots. The plots were arranged in three blocks by humus type to measure the

production of wood blewits (Clitocybe nuda). Mushroom fruiting bodies were

counted and weighed for three harvests in autumn 1977. Before fertilization, the

species was not apparent in any of the sites. Phosphate fertilization did not have

any effect. Fertilization with nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and calcium induced

abundant fruiting. The value of the mushroom crop more than recouped the value

of the fertilizer, labor, and transport and approximated the average annual value

per hectare for timber. Fertilization may not be necessary every year because

fertilization effects may persist. Comparable results were found in other parts of

France.

This replicated experiment shows that in some instances in the short term,

fertilization may be practical for inducing production of wild edible mushrooms.

Market price of the mushroom species must be fairly high to cover management

costs.

Keywords: Fertilization, management costs, wild edible mushrooms, France.
78

Geisler, Charles; Silberling, Louise. 1992. Extractive reserves as alternative land

reform: Amazonia and Appalachia compared. Agriculture and Human Values.

Summer: 58-70.

Compares current concepts of extractive reserves in the Amazon with the grazing

reserve program at what was formerly Finger Lakes National Forest in New York

State to illustrate that extractive reserves can address concerns for conservation,

social equity, and economic efficiency in the United States, as well as in the

tropics.

According to Geisler and Silberling, extractive reserves are a policy alternative

when extraction patterns are decentralized, where the likelihood of assuring limited

access and ownership in land and associated resources is high, where local level

management is either necessary or desirable, and where there is an interest in

sustainable management. They note that the land use areas established in the

United States during the 1930s and 1940s are analogous to the extractive reserve

concept and represent an alternative to the public-versus-private framing of land

ownership and management options.

The authors observe that a major weakness of most land reform strategies is that

they allocate uniform parcels to recipients regardless of resource base variability.

They argue that this approach provides little social or environmental security and

note that extractive reserves are an alternative to the standard approach that might

allow for sustainable development. They caution, however, that extractive reserves

alone cannot meet rural economic development needs as they are inherently

nonintensive and, thus, unable to support dense populations.

Keywords: Extractive reserves, Amazon, New York, land utilization areas, land

reform, public-private partnerships.

Geldenhuys, C.J.; van der Merwe, C.J. 1988. Population structure and growth of

the fern Rumohra adiantiformis in relation to frond harvesting in the southern

Cape forest. South African Journal of Botany. 54(4): 351-362.

Studies the effect of various harvest intensities under controlled conditions on the

size of fronds from Rumohra adiantiformis used for floral greenery. A management

experiment was begun in 1982 to allow harvesting of fern fronds from state lands.

Only mature, hardened (nonwilting), unblemished fronds have value for the florist

trade. Frond size, color, and form are crucial to quality. Demographic and phenological studies of fern populations showed that populations were sensitive to

moisture levels and should not be harvested during months of bud initiation and

frond maturation. Cycles of total harvest of mature fern fronds had marked effects

on the population structure and size of mature fronds when compared to control

plots. Deficiencies of potassium and phosphorus may be the cause of loss of

productivity in harvested fern plots. Limiting harvests to only 50 percent of mature

ferns may allow for nutrient recycling. Recommendations are made for policies on

issuing permits and contract terms, length of harvest season, establishment of

permanent reference plots, conditions for site closure to harvest, monitoring and

future research, and efforts to develop nursery techniques for domestication.

A brief description of the land area, labor force, and infrastructure also are
79

included. This article exemplifies adaptive management strategies using scientific

method and statistical analysis for ecosystem conservation of viable populations of

commercially valuable species used in the floral greenery trade.

Keywords: Adaptive management, ferns, floral greens, growth rate, harvesting

effects, phenology, population structure, South Africa.

Gill, Steven J. 1983. Ethnobotany of the Makah and Ozette people, Olympic

Peninsula, Washington (USA). Pullman, WA: Washington State University,

Department of Botany. 344 p. Ph.D. dissertation (unpublished).

Details the traditional uses, harvest methods and seasons, and indigenous names

of plants by the Makah and Ozette people since 1792 when contact with Spanish

explorers occurred. Interviews with 17 residents of the Makah Indian Reservation

provided additional previously unpublished data. Plants supplied essential nutrients

and fiber not otherwise available from abundant marine fish. With the exception of

wild berries, the Makah today have little reliance on the native flora for food.

Rights to scarce plant resources, (for example, western redcedar [Thuja plicata]

bark) often were in individual or collective possession and could be inherited.

Management of sites with small cranberries (Vaccinium oxycoccos L.) also

occurred. Technological uses of plants included tools, weapons, canoes, nets,

clothing, mats, dyes, glues, and baskets. Women were responsible for making

baskets and mats from cedar bark and other plant materials. Among the important

species for crafting indigenous tools, western redcedar, red alder (Alnus rubra),

slough sedge (Carex obnupta), stinging nettle (Urtica dioica), and devilsclub

(Oplopanax horridus) were the most important. Compares plant use with that of the

Nitinaht people from the west coast of Vancouver Island. Seeds from the Ozette

village site reveal that 99.7 percent were from salmonberry (Rubus spectabilis), red

elderberry (Sambucus racemosa ssp. pubens), salal (Gaultheria shallon), and

Vaccinium spp. This work is one of the few archaeobotanical studies from the

Pacific Northwest to uncover physical evidence of traditional uses of native plants.

Keywords: Ethnobotany, Makah, Ozette, Nitinaht, berries, wild edible plants, dye

plants, basketry, weaving, indigenous uses.

Giordano, E. 1983. Il bosco tra economia ed ecologia=Economic and ecological

aspects of forests. Italia Agricola. 120 (4): 17-24. In Italian.

Attributes the reduction in importance of nontimber forest products to the decline in

extensive land use and to technological improvements in agricultural production

favoring production of wood and environmental services (for example, erosion

protection). Several products have retained their full value to society, such as

chestnuts (Castanea spp.), hazelnuts (Corylus spp.), and pine (Pinus spp.) nuts.

Programs have been established for domestication of these formerly wild products.

Wild mushrooms such as boletes (Boletus spp.) and chanterelles (Cantharellus

spp.) retain an important place in Italian and German cuisine. Ease of access to

forested areas has increased interest in mushroom gathering. The economic value

of mushroom harvests is difficult to assess. In many regions, such as Abruzzo
80

and Viterbo, there are large commercial operations. The long-term effects of

exploitation on the sensitive ecological relations among mushrooms, soils, and

trees is unknown. Fungal productivity has been declining in zones close to urban

and recreation centers. Descriptions of the five major truffle species (Tuber spp.)

and their preferred habitats are given. Increased demand for truffles has prompted

domestication into truffle plantations. These plantations are intensively managed

with weeding and tree pruning. The truffle industry contributes Lit 20 billion

annually. Other significant understory products include strawberries (Fragaria

vesca and F. viridis), red raspberries (Rubus idaeus), and asparagus (Asparagus

spp.). Domestication of Rubus berries is not as widespread in Italy as in northern

Europe and North America. Nontimber forest products are likely to have the most

impact on economic development in foothill and montane zones. A secondary

benefit of understory vegetation is as a food source to support native fauna, which

are food species for many Italians.

Keywords: Environmental services, economic value, wild edible mushrooms,

truffles, fungal productivity, truffle cultivation, truffle markets, Italy, wild edible

plants, nuts.

Giunta Regionale dell’Umbria. 1987. Norme concernenti la disciplina della

raccolta, coltivazione, conservazione e commercio dei tartufi=Legal norms

concerning the collecting, cultivation, conservation and commercialization of

truffles. Regional law (dated 3 Nov. 1987) 47. Bollettino Ufficiale della Regione

dell’Umbria. 18(81, parts 1, 2, and 3): 2156-2161. In Italian.

Sets forth the legal framework for harvesting, cultivation, conservation, and marketing of truffles (Tuber spp.) in Umbria. Truffle collectors have open access in forests

and other lands not under cultivation. Truffles under managed production, however, are the property of the landowner. Acceptable management operations to

exclude the public from truffle collection in native forests are set forth (for example,

irrigation or drainage structure, canopy manipulations). Truffles in areas established specifically for truffle production are subject to separate regulation. Seasons

for collecting each of the nine native truffles are stipulated. Immature truffles are

protected and no truffle hunting is to occur at night. Excavations are to be covered

up immediately after extraction of truffles. Truffle gatherers must pass an examination about collection methods, conservation, the national and local laws,

biology, and identification of individual species before a license to gather is issued.

The Umbrian government also is obligated to fund training for technical personnel

for overseeing truffle harvests, experimental research, public education, marketing

initiatives, and demonstration sites for truffle cultivation. Fines are established for

hunting truffles without a dog, illegal digging, harvesting of small truffles, and

improper terracing of hillsides.

This document details the extensive regulation of an especially valuable nontimber

forest product. Although not all regulations may be appropriate to the products,

ecological conditions, and social norms of the Pacific Northwest, this law serves as

one model for legislation to conserve nontimber forest products.

Keywords: Conservation, funding, Italy, legislation, penalties, public funding,

truffles.
81

Glowacki, Stanislaw. 1988. Die Rohstoffbase von Waldfrüchten auf natürlichen

Standorten und Plantagen in Polen=The resource base for forest fruits in natural

stands and plantations in Poland. Norwegian Journal of Agricultural Sciences.

2(2): 151-159. In German.

Describes the changing circumstances of minor forest product production in Polish

forests involving vegetation, animals, and soil products (peat). Inventorying of

minor forest products has been done since 1956 through description, sampling,

and statistical methods. Research is directed from the Ntional Agricultural

University in Warsaw. Forest land with berry plants is divided into four categories

based on percentage of berry cover. Forestry employees directly sample the presence and yield of berry plants. A considerable database of yields has accumulated

over time. Since 1962, particular emphasis has been placed on tracking the cover

density, spatial distribution, and height of whortleberry (Vaccinium myrtillus)

bushes nationally. Whortleberries comprise 60 to 70 percent of the national wild

fruit harvest and 90 percent of wild fruit exports. Data now exist to describe the

changes in yield and spatial dynamics of whortleberry plant distribution. Phenological observations led to development of equations to predict production of

whortleberries as a function of stand site productivity, flowering, and the number

of early ripening fruits.

A state-run minor forest products corporation, LAS, is the major processor and

maintains data on fruit that it processes. Additional important species are Rubus,

Sorbus, Sambucus, Prunus, Crataegus, and Fragaria species. Since the 1970s,

yields of wild berries have fallen considerably, and in the 1980s harvests have not

exceeded 10 000 tonnes annually. A labor shortage and frequent late frosts are

seen as major causes for the decline. The authors estimate collection for private

use to be 20 to 25 percent of the commercial crop.

Exporting whortleberries has a long tradition with the earliest markets in England.

Other major importing countries are Germany, Sweden, Finland, the Netherlands,

and Belgium. Large quantities of frozen whortleberries began to be exported to the

United States in the 1960s. To meet national demand, development of agricultural

crops of berries has brought the American highbush blueberry (V. corymbosum)

to Poland.

In Poland, commercial use of minor forest products developed earlier and is more

advanced than in many other countries. Polish management and inventory practices may be of considerable assistance in inventorying and managing Vaccinium

spp. in the Pacific Northwest.

Keywords: Exports, inventory, Poland, sampling, wild fruits, yield predictions,

berries, wild edible plants.

Godoy, Ricardo; Lubowski, Ruben. 1992. Guidelines for the economic valuation

of nontimber tropical-forest products. Current Anthropology. 33(4): 423-433.

Provides a framework with which to analyze the value of nontimber forest products.

Inadequate data about costs, quantities extracted, and prices have traditionally

impeded valuation studies of nontimber products. Social anthropologists,

ethnographers, ethnobotanists, and natural resource economists are important

sources of information and need to work in concert to provide accurate analyses.
82

Examples are drawn from literature and field work. A summary of existing studies is

given for reference. Careful descriptions of ecosystem sites being evaluated for

economic return are needed so that false inferences are not made for ecologically

different sites. It is difficult to achieve an appropriate stratified random sample of

the hunter-gatherer population. Multiyear and multiseasonal studies are needed to

obtain a complete picture of the economy of gatherers. Tracking gatherers’

activities and mapping their harvest areas, weighing their harvests, and survey

techniques for memory recall are useful. Potential harvest quantities (stocks) and

actual harvests (flows) must be distinguished. Products for subsistence and products for sale in markets ought to be valued differently. Cost of equipment and cost

of time spent foraging should be incorporated into the analyses. Researchers

should define and measure the sustainability of the existing economic system of

nontimber product extraction.

Keywords: Economic analyses, foraging costs, market costs, sampling methods,

sustainability, tropical forests, weighing techniques.

Godoy, Ricardo; Lubowski, Ruben; Markandya, Anil. 1993. Economic Botany.

47(3): 220-223.

Presents methods for valuing nontimber products and obtaining better estimates of

output quantities, marginal costs, and prices to identify economically advantageous

projects for rural development. In the existing literature, nontimber products in

tropical forests have been valued from US$1-420•ha-1•yr-1. Differences are the

result of biological diversity in forests, diversity of economic methods used in

analyses, and ambiguities in measurements. For example, a depletion premium

based on the expected date of extraction is generally omitted from the cost of

extraction when extraction rates are unsustainable. Identification of important

demographic and technological patterns, careful statistical sampling, and accounting for effects of seasonality are necessary as well. Diaries and interviews are

helpful but may be subject to biases of the informants. Obtaining accurate price

information is difficult. Where price information is not available from market information, close substitute products and contingent valuation are two alternative

methods for pricing. As yet, economic studies of nontimber forest studies have

not valued the shadow prices. Generally, information on time spent foraging for

plants and the marginal cost of extracting plants have not been calculated. To get

better data about marginal values and foraging patterns, researchers can use focal

subject sampling. With this method, a researcher tracks the activities of and time

spent by a randomly selected gatherer and assigns a value to the gatherer’s time,

often based on an official wage minimum.

Keywords: Economic valuation, pricing methods, shadow prices.

Godoy, Ricardo A.; Bawa, Kamaljit S. 1993. The economic value and sustainable

harvest of plants and animals from the tropical forest: assumptions, hypotheses,

and methods. Economic Botany. 47(3): 215-219.

Cites three untested but widely held assumptions about extraction of plants from

forests by local populations. The first is that rural people extract resources in a

sustainable fashion. Evidence suggests, however, that sustainable extraction
83

occurs only when there are stable property rights, low population density, traditional uses, and simple technology. The second assumption maintains that extraction of plants is useful for enhancing rural people’s incomes. Often, however, rural

people view foraging as a temporary occupation with low status. As rural societies

become wealthier, they spend less time extracting and using wild plants and

animals and instead use more processed substitutes. Third, there is the assumption that forests should be preserved because the economic values of many plants

used by local people is high; however, values of forests for nontimber products

range widely. The authors propose that economic research about nontimber forest

products is needed in five areas: (1) shifts toward specialization of resource use

with increasing wealth; (2) the share of nontimber forest products in household

incomes; (3) the opportunity cost of forest factors affecting sustainability and

depletion of resource supplies; (4) relations between extraction costs and species

richness; and (5) the role of commercialization and domestication on deforestation.

Keywords: Sustainable harvesting, rural development, economic valuation.

Goldberg, Michael. 1992. New hope for forest communities. American Forests.

(March/April): 17-20.

Highlights a new group of people, calling themselves “forest practitioners,” that has

emerged to turn the “jobs versus environment” debate into a “jobs and environment”

issue. These forest practitioners represent a wide range of interests, geographical

locations, and cultures and are united by a commitment to sustainable development. Some groups, such as the Natural Resources Services in Humboldt County,

California, focus on restoration of degraded ecosystems; others such as La

Madera focus on making better use of timber that is harvested and processing in

local areas. In Washington, one such group, the Columbia Pacific Resource

Conservation and Development Council, has initiated plans for an agroforestry

project.

The goal of such programs is to initiate a process of economic development to help

local people and maintain local communities while simultaneously ensuring a

healthy environment. The USDA Forest Service also has begun to take part in

these efforts, as evidenced by its support for Forest Trust, a network created in

Santa Fe in 1991. This network is helping the Forest Service fill its commitment to

rural development. Several problems inhibit achieving this objective, such as the

congressional appropriations process in which money is allocated for cutting trees

but not for rural development. One item on the Forest Trust agenda is to create a

line item for rural development in the Forest Service budget.

Keywords: Forest practitioner, rural development, sustainable development, Forest

Trust.

Gorbunov, Aleksey B. 1993. Wild fruit and berry plant resources of Siberia and

the Soviet Far East and their use for plant breeding. Aquilo Ser. Bot. 31: 75-77.

Discusses wild fruit and berry species and their distribution in Siberia and the

Soviet Far East. Genera and species under cultivation that are common to the

Pacific Northwest include Crataegus, Lonicera, Prunus, Ribes, red raspberry
84

(Rubus idaeus), Sorbus, Vaccinium, and cranberry viburnum (Viburnum opulus).

The Food Plant Introduction Laboratory of the Central Siberian Botanical Garden in

Novosibirsk is currently developing a wide range of hybrids between Siberian and

North American species.

Keywords: Domestication, wild edible plants, berries, Siberia, Soviet Far East,

cultivation.

Gottesfeld, Leslie M. Johnson. 1992. The importance of bark products in the

aboriginal economies of northwestern British Columbia. Economic Botany.

46(2): 148-157.

Describes the role that bark products played in the economies of aboriginal

peoples in west-central British Columbia. Data about present and past uses of

plants were obtained through indepth interviews over 5 years with 31 men and 41

women of the Gitksan, Wet’suwet’en, and Haisla groups. The study identifies 21

different species of trees whose bark was used for various purposes. The inner

bark of lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) and western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla)

was highly valued as a food source and sweetener. The bark from a variety of

species, including white spruce (Picea glauca) and Engelmann spruce (P.

engelmannii), red alder (Alnus rubra), and western hemlock was widely used to

treat illnesses. Bark also was used for construction materials, cordage, and fiber.

Bark-derived products have virtually disappeared with the influx of manufactured

and agricultural products to the study area. The major exception is the rising

demand for western redcedar (Thuja plicata) and willow (Salix spp.) bark for

basketmaking, which is concurrent with the demand for handicrafts. A number of

informants attribute the decline in the use of bark products to harassment from

forestry officials, who reportedly discourage the practice of bark-stripping on the

grounds that it will decrease timber quality.

Keywords: Ethnobotany, Gitstkan, Wet’suwet’en, Haisla, bark, basketry, weaving,

medicinal plants, wild edible plants, resource conflicts, British Columbia.

Gottesfeld, Leslie M. Johnson. 1994. Aboriginal burning for vegetation management in northwest British Columbia. Human Ecology. 22(2): 171-188.

Characterizes historical burning practices of the Gitksan and Wet’suwet’en peoples

of British Columbia to stimulate new stems and berry production, principally of blue

huckleberry (Vaccinium membranaceum) and dwarf blueberry (V. cespitosum), for

a winter food supply. The author conducted interviews with older members of the

two groups, mapped current sites burned annually in the spring, and researched

archival records of aboriginal burning. The Gitksan burned patches of montane

blue huckleberry patches lightly in the late summer. Fire suppression policies of

the British Columbia Forest Service have been in force since the 1930s and

together with changes in land tenure have changed the vegetation composition of

land adjacent to aboriginal towns. Dwarf blueberry is no longer an important economic species, but blue huckleberry remains available in sites clearcut or burned

naturally.

This article describes useful details of historical management for wild edible berry

production and points out the changes in vegetation and resource availability that
85

occurred when different cultural values toward fire supplanted traditional aboriginal

values.

Keywords: Aboriginal burning, berries, British Columbia, Gitksan, vegetation

management, Wet’suwet’en.

Gow, D. 1992. Forestry for sustainable development: the social dimension.

Unasylva. 169(43): 41-45.

Argues that forests can make a unique contribution to sustainable development

because of the multiple economic and environmental benefits they provide. He

distinguishes between ecological sustainability, which addresses resource

stewardship, and social sustainability, which is concerned with the continuing

improvement of the quality of life. The social aspects of sustainability can be

successfully addressed by encouraging local participation and control of forest

resources. Social analysis, which attempts to understand the effects of planned

interventions on specific social groups, can improve the social impact of forestry

activities. Various mechanisms and examples of social analysis are described.

Keywords: Sustainable development, ecological sustainability, social sustainability,

social analysis.

Grabenstedt, H. 1969. Douglasiengrün als nachhaltige Zwischennutzung für eine

astfreie Starkholzerzeugung=Douglas-fir greenery as a sustainable interim

product while managing for large-dimension clear timber. Forstarchiv. 40(10):

198-200. In German.

Describes German methods used in Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) stands

to manage for production of both decorative greenery and knot-free clearwood.

Planting Douglas-fir in combination with European beech (Fagus sylvatica) or

Norway spruce (Picea abies) is common in central Europe. When Douglas-fir is

spaced at no less than 2- by 2-m intervals, the trees yield a continuous harvest of

greenery until they are pruned. Best yields require even lighting on all sides of the

trees; foliage remains dark green without yellowing. Harvesting for greenery begins

in the fifth or sixth year after planting. The lowest branches harvested are cut at

their base. Subsequent harvests of greenery come from trimming upper branches

back to the first bifurcation of side branches. Thereafter, the regrowing branch

produces even higher quantities of foliage for periodic harvest. Crops of greenery

are harvested until age 25 when selected Douglas-fir trees are pruned and others

are thinned to promote development of clearwood in the remaining trees. Where

Norway spruce is grown with Douglas-fir, the spruce is removed for Christmas

trees and for decorative greens. In the first 10 years, these stands may produce as

much as DM6330 per hectare (undiscounted) net profit. Douglas-fir contributed

about 40 percent of the net value.

This article shows some of the possibilities for more intensive, integrated management on public land using species native to the Pacific Northwest.

Keywords: Stand management, integrated management, conifer greens, timber

management, Christmas trees, Germany.
86

Grafton, William. N.; Ferrise, Anthony; Breiding, Michael. A. [and others].

1993. Wild plants for income. Nat. Resour. Manage. Income Oppor. Ser. R.D.

771. Morgantown, WV: West Virginia University, Extension Service. 32 p.

Covers the legal status of wild plant resources and requirements for access in

West Virginia under various jurisdictions of private (rented and owner-occupied)

and public (state and Federal parks and forests, Army Corps of Engineers

property) lands. Laws, responsibilities, penalties, and liabilities are described.

Basic information is provided on the advantages and disadvantages of business

enterprises (sole proprietorship, partnership, corporation), taxation, business

licenses, insurance, and labor and wage laws. Special mention is made of regulations regarding American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius), endangered species,

and commercial activities in wetlands, Federal wildernesses, and designated wild

and scenic rivers. Additional information includes marketing laws, regulations, and

quarantines, and a list of addresses of pertinent government offices in West

Virginia.

This document provides a template for state and local publications that seek to

inform people of the business and legal aspects of small businesses involved with

nontimber forest products.

Keywords: Access, endangered species, land tenure, legal regulations, marketing,

quarantines, West Virginia.

Greber, Brian. 1993. Economic evaluation of options. In: Forest Ecosystem

Management Assessment Team. Forest ecosystem management: an ecological,

economic, and social assessment. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture; U.S. Department of the Interior [and others]. [Irregular pagination].

Chapter 6.

Summarizes the potential economic role of nontraditional “special” forest products

in the Pacific Northwest based on the work of Schlosser and Blatner. Four major

segments of the industry exist: floral greens, Christmas ornamentals, wild edible

mushrooms, and edible and medicinal wild plants. Current data and projections are

uncertain because of inaccurate pricing and a lack of record keeping. For southwest British Columbia and western Oregon and Washington, US$42 million in

greens (including moss) were harvested from forests in 1989. Over US$11 million

was paid to mushroom harvesters in 1992. Mushroom harvests occur in spring in

northern California and eastern Oregon and Washington; fall mushroom harvests

occur west of the Cascade Range.

Western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) vegetation zones have the greatest

potential for production of special forest products. The mountain hemlock (Tsuga

mertensiana) zone is important for harvests of valuable beargrass stocks. Silvicultural management is important for enhancing yields of special forest products.

Floral greens are most lucrative in forests where mid- to late-seral forest stages

with partially closed canopies are maintained. Tables of harvest volumes for floral

greens and Christmas ornamentals and preliminary estimates of edible wild

mushroom by species are provided. The author advocates that land management

agencies take a more active role in managing harvests. Standards and guidelines

for harvesting need to be established with appropriate fee schedules. Product

quality is very important to price level. Setting harvest fees for mushroom is highly
87

risky because size of the crop differs by location and by year. Work is needed to

assess sustainable supplies of products and their future role in the Pacific Northwest economy.

Keywords: Pacific Northwest, economic value, floral greens, conifer greens, wild

edible mushrooms, wild edible plants, medicinal plants.

Grochowski, W.; Ostalski, R. 1981. Recherches sur les productions spontanées

des étages inférieurs de la forêt de Pologne=Research concerning the nontimber product production in forest understories of Poland. In: Productions

spontanées; 17-20 June 1980; Colmar, France. Les colloques de l’INRA 4.

Paris: Institut National de la Recherche Agricole: 39-48 p. In French.

Describes inventory research conducted in Poland as part of a national program

for augmenting production of berries and mushrooms. Inventorying economically

useful plants and fungi is an integral part of forest management and part of a

broader research agenda to ensure that increasing production occurs without

jeopardizing the overall productivity of the forest environment. The Forest Production Cooperative, LAS, oversees these research and production programs.

A national inventory tracks the quantity and value of existing secondary forest

products, provides data for determining the productivity class, helps to calculate

potential production based on quantity and quality of yield, and defines environmental and economic constraints. Policymakers can perform economic analyses to

determine whether increased investments are warranted to protect stands and to

establish an operational infrastructure for research and commercial collection.

State forests are inventoried every 10 years from fixed-point plots. The inventory

determines the number of fruits or fungi required to maintain the population of the

secondary resource, whether harvested commercially or not. Particular attention is

paid to recording the quality of the fruit or fungi products in conjunction with

quantitative data about forest conditions. An example of the inventory method is

given by using whortleberry (Vaccinium myrtillus), the most important economic

berry species in Poland. Empirical data are used to estimate an abundance class

and to derive a regression equation of potential whortleberry production per

hectare for an ecoregion. Available labor, the mode of harvesting, and market

conditions define the real harvest, however. This article demonstrates the practicality of including nontimber forest products in programs for forest ecosystem

inventory and monitoring and provides an outline of policies and practices based

on inventory data.

Keywords: Inventory, potential yield, site classification, berries, wild edible mushrooms, wild edible plants, Poland, cooperative.

Grochowski, Wieskew. 1966. Les productions forestières secondaires en

Pologne=Minor forest products in Poland. Revue Forestière Française. 18(3):

160-170. In French.

Makes the case for managing secondary forest products to prevent their overexploitation and to promote greater forest productivity. Management has been

based on intensifying use without overexploitation since World War II and has

been guided by three basic principles: inventorying potential production, applying

techniques to increase production, and organizing commercial use of products.
88

Short- and long-term planning, long-term investments, trained forestry personnel

and gatherers, coordinated research, and elimination of waste by closely linking

collecting and marketing are all important.

The state cooperative LAS was founded in 1945 (and nationalized in 1950 as part

of the Ministry of Forestry and Forest Industries) to promote the collecting of forest

fruits, edible mushrooms, medicinal plants, resins, snails, and honey, and the

maintaining of osier willow (Salix spp.) and staghorn sumac (Rhus hirta) plantations, fruit orchards, and Christmas tree farms. A total of 5,500 collection points are

found throughout the country, and processing plants are found in each of the forest

administrative units. Whortleberries (Vaccinium myrtillus) are the most important

fruit with many other species contributing to the national harvest. Production data

at LAS are given for 1947 to 1964. Exports of whortleberries are substantial to

western Europe and the United States.

The king bolete (Boletus edulis) is the principal wild mushroom gathered, but it is

not well adapted to commercial use owing to its fragility and irregular fruiting.

Golden chanterelles (Cantharellus cibarius) are more easily prepared for fresh,

canned, or dried markets. Switzerland and Germany are prime markets. Data for

mushroom production at LAS is given for 1945 to 1964. Development of an herbal

medicine industry is not anticipated in the near future.

Major centers of research in secondary forest products are at the forestry faculties

in Warsaw, Poznan, and Krakow. Direction of research concentrates on phenological studies, characterization of chemical compounds, and new uses.

Keywords: Berries, wild edible mushrooms, wild edible plants, basketry, weaving,

Poland, cooperatives, economic development.

Grünwald, Jörg. 1994. Europe: phytomedicines, market growth and investment

opportunities. In: Proceedings, Drug discovery and commercial opportunities in

medicinal plants; 19-20 September 1994; Arlington, VA. Southborough, MA:

International Business Communications. [Not paged].

Describes recent market conditions for phytomedicines in Europe. Germany,

France, and Italy have the strongest markets. European Economic Union nations

comprise the largest block of sales in herbal medical sales, totaling US$2.5 billion

annually, followed by continental Asia and Japan at US$2.3 and US$2.1 billion,

respectively. Forecasts of annual growth in sales by region range from a low of

8 percent in western Europe to 15 percent in Japan, India, and Pakistan. In recent

years, pharmaceutical companies in the United States have been buying up small,

traditional phytomedicine manufacturers in Europe.

Keywords: Medicinal plants, sales volume, phytomedicine, Europe, Asia, Japan.

Gunatilake, H.M.; Senartne, D.M.A.H.; Abeygunawardena, P. 1993. Role of

nontimber forest products in the economy of peripheral communities of Knuckles

National Wilderness Area of Sri Lanka: a farming systems approach. Economic

Botany. 47(3): 275-281.

Describes cultivation of cardamon (Elettaria cardamomum) and shifting cultivation

in forest understories above 3500 m in Sri Lanka. Restrictions on cultivation of
89

nontimber forest products in agroforestry settings may induce economic hardship

on families living in and near the wilderness area. A structured questionnaire was

given to 18 percent of households in three villages; one-third of the households

were randomly selected for detailed interviews (n=20). The role of nontimber forest

products in the local rural economy was examined by using a farming systems

approach with base data analysis. Different components of the agroforestry farming

system were identified, a list of products identified, and income estimated (less

transport costs). Market prices or price of substitutes were used to value products.

Accuracy of data is a problem because the marginal costs of extraction and values

of medicinal plants and buffalo forage were difficult to calculate. All the respondents

in the survey gathered nontimber forest products. The products comprised, on

average, 5.3 percent of cash income and 16.2 percent of total value income to

households in the region. Cardamon agroforestry provides, by contrast, 49.8 percent of the cash income and 26.0 percent of the total value income to households.

With increasing affluence, however, the proportion of income derived from nontimber forest products declined from 30 percent for the poorest to 10 percent for the

wealthiest.

This article outlines research methods for an economic analysis of household

incomes that could be adapted and applied to the Pacific Northwest.

Keywords: Economic valuation, social surveys, Sri Lanka, spices, shifting cultivation, conservation, resource conflicts.

Gunatilleke, I.A.U.N.; Gunatilleke, C.V.S.; Abeygunawardena, P. 1993. Interdisciplinary research towards management of nontimber forest resources in

lowland rain forests of Sri Lanka. Economic Botany. 47(3): 282-290.

Examines deficiencies of forestry planning on the national level in Sri Lanka for

traditional forest uses of nontimber resources, such as resin tapping and collecting

of medicinal plants, food, and rattan. Reasons for the disregard of nontimber uses

are a lack of understanding of the social significance of nontimber resources to

rural economies and the dearth of adequate quantitative information about nontimber forest products and their ecology. Socioeconomic, biological, and silvicultural information is needed. Nontimber forest products are one option for protecting

forests by maintaining forest structure in conjunction with continuing economic

outputs. Studies from the Sinharaja rain forest have shown that the products with

the highest market value (less labor extraction costs) are fuelwood, and syrup and

alcoholic beverages from the palm Caryota urens. Gaps in integrated research are

identified that would facilitate improved forestry policy for managing these biologically rich forests.

Keywords: Economic analysis, Sri Lanka, rural development, conservation.

Gunther, E. 1973 (1940). Ethnobotany of western Washington: the knowledge and

use of indigenous plants by Native Americans. Seattle: University of Washington

Press. 71 p.

First published in 1940, this ethnographic decription of the use of plants among the

Native Americans inhabiting the western coast of Washington has recently been

reissued in response to an upsurge of interest in the uses of wild plant species.
90

Information was gathered from the following tribes: Chehalis, Cowlitz, Green River,

Klallam, Lower Chinook, Lummi, Makah, Nisqually, Puyallup, Quileute, Quinault,

Samish, Skagit, Skokomish, Snohomish, Snuqualmi, Squaxin, and Swinomish. The

information is arranged by botanical family, and the uses of each species amongst

the various tribes is provided. A chart of the plants used by each tribe is particularly

useful in describing the variety and extent to which plants were part of these

cultures.

Keywords: Indigenous knowledge, ethnobotany, western Washington, Chehalis,

Clallam, Cowlitz, Green River, Klallam, Lower Chinook, Lummi, Makah, Nisqually,

Puyallup, Quileute, Quinault, Samish, Skagit, Skokomish, Snohomish, Snoqualmi,

Snuqualmi, Squaxin, Swinomish.

Gupta, Tirath.; Guleria, Amar. 1982a. Non-wood forest products of India. CMA

Monogr. 87. New Delhi: Oxford and IBH Publishing Company. 147 p.

Studies the potential production, employment, and revenues from nontimber forest

products in India under the premise that forests are primarily managed for maximizing timber and fuelwood production. The contribution of forests to the gross

domestic product is considered low because consumption of nontimber forest

products has not been appropriately identified and valued, most of the consumption

occurs locally, and few efforts are underway to manage known nontimber resources

because of the primacy of timber production. From 1968 to 1977, the role of

nontimber forest products rose from 30 to 40 percent of the revenues from the

forestry sector and contributed disproportionately to annual foreign exchange

earnings (>70 percent) from that sector. The foreign trade potential for these products is yet to be fully realized. Major product groups include fibers and flosses,

grasses, bamboo, essential oils, industrial lubricants, tans and dyes, gums, drugs,

spices, tendu (Diospyros melanoxylon) leaves, and food. Little investment has been

put into development of processing facilities; most products are exported in raw

form.

Current employment is believed to be 1.6 million person years with potential to

grow to 4.0 million person years with increased rural development of nontimber

products. Full-time employment amounts to only 68,000 positions currently. Spring

gathering of products competes with labor required for farming operations and

therefore may be suboptimal. Competition for rural labor is viewed as desirable

because dependence on agriculture is reduced and encourages improvements in

productivity per unit of land and labor employed. Nontimber forest products are an

important means for employing otherwise unskilled workers.

Development of nontimber resources must safeguard the interests and rights of

people in and near forests for reasons of social justice and maintaining the cultural

links of stewardship for the forest. Programs have been hindered by scanty,

conflicting, and out-of-date information. This book necessarily makes untested

assumptions regarding some of the hypotheses and projections made. A national

inventory carried out by a proposed national survey unit at regular intervals could

provide the basic data for better scientific management.

Keywords: India, employment, forest revenues.
91

Gupta, Tirath; Guleria, Amar. 1982b. Some economic and management aspects

of a non-wood forest product in India: tendu leaves. CMA Monogr. 88. New

Delhi: Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. 119 p.

Studies in depth a single nontimber forest product in India. The book provides

details about collecting, processing, grading, and foreign and domestic trade in

tendu (Diospyros melanoxylon) leaves. Tendu leaf collection is regulated by

individual Indian States. Contrasting regulations and practices are described for

Maharashtra and Orissa. Management systems for production and marketing are

analyzed in reference to revenue generation, labor wage rates, and revenue

sharing among different levels of government. Annual production fluctuates

significantly. Gross and net revenues have continued to increase, but slowly.

Sealed bids are used in awarding tendu product sales to prevent collusion. Better

data are needed to estimate price trends, production costs, and overhead. Recommendations are made for greater central control in the production and trade of

tendu leaves. Such actions would generate more revenue to the government and

concentrate the responsibility for production and marketing of tendu leaves as a

way to gain greater quality control, cost reductions, and coordination among

government agencies.

This book is a model for the multifaceted form it adopts in investigating the natural

production, product processing, and socioeconomic benefits of a valuable nontimber resource.

Keywords: India, tendu leaves, regulation, management systems.

Haglund, John; Lankford, Nancy; Sullivan, Molly [and others]. 1994. Go

native!: a summary of native plant projects on the Mt. Hood National Forest.

Document R6-MTH-TP-04-94. Gresham, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture,

Forest Service, Mount. Hood National Forest. 18 p.

Outlines current projects for seed and plant collections, propagation efforts,

revegetation and restoration, and plant inventorying in the Mount Hood National

Forest. Many of the plants propagated are native fruit-producing species. Beargrass (Xerophyllum tenax) and kinnikinnick (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi) are used in

erosion control.

This booklet provides information about existing sources of economically valuable

nontimber species in Forest Service nurseries and describes a spectrum of

projects for reintroducing important nontimber forest products in the forest

landscape.

Keywords: Inventories, nurseries, plant collection, restoration, revegetation, seed

collection, Mount Hood National Forest.

Hall, Ian R.; Brown, Gordon. 1989. The black truffle: its history, uses, and cultivation. Wellington, New Zealand: Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries. 73 p.

Analyzes the economic feasibility of adapting black truffle (Tuber melanosporum)

mycoforestry into New Zealand forest plantations. A prototype model predicts the
92

production function of truffles in a domesticated “truffière.” Two scenarios, one

high yield and the other low yield, are presented during the first 35 years of the

truffière. Projected annual yields are translated into dollar values and compared

with assumed costs of material, labor, and management to determine the internal

rate of return for each scenario. Initial investment costs are high. Returns are

based on extrapolation of European yields to New Zealand without experimental

verification. This method has potential application for calculating the feasibility of

more intensive management of native truffle species in the Pacific Northwest.

The need to process truffles efficiently for quality is emphasized. Mycoindustrial

production of truffles in New Zealand would represent a significant departure from

the time-honored traditions of direct contact among truffle growers and collectors

and the buyers in southern Europe.

Keywords: New Zealand, truffles, cultivation, economic analysis.

Hall, Pamela; Bawa, Kamaljit. 1993. Methods to assess the impact of extraction

of nontimber tropical forest products on plant populations. Economic Botany.

47(3): 234-247.

Distinguishes between economic sustainability and ecological sustainability as a

first step in assessing harvests of nontimber forest products. The authors describe

efficient methods for sampling different vegetation layers within large, heterogeneous landscapes by using combinations of transects and plots. In addition,

information on topographic features, soil conditions, habitat changes, and signs of

harvesting should be recorded. Initial data provide information on population

structure of economic species and on relations of population age and density to

habitat types if the habitats are distinctly demarcated in recorded data. Attention to

sample size for statistical significance is important for undersampled habitat types.

Inventory information also identifies poorly represented age cohorts in the life

history of plants sampled and can provide the first evidence of loss of reproductive

capacity or presence of variable recruitment of new individuals over time. These

patterns may be the result of ecosystem events or anthropogenic disturbances

such as harvesting. Having control sites where no human harvesting occurs is

important for detecting whether human impacts are a significant cause of age-class

distributions of economically valuable species.

Sampling design also must be appropriate to the species. Procedural details are

given for annuals, herbaceous perennials, and woody perennial species. Shortterm and long-term effects on population structure can be monitored from the data.

Rapid assessment for short-term effects focuses on the life stage of the species

being harvested. Rate of mortality, recruitment of new individuals, and growth need

tracking. Basic equations are provided for calculating rates. Long-term assessment

involves complex interactions among plants, people, and other fauna in an ecosystem. Marking trees, establishing permanent plots, and long-term institutional

commitment to record keeping and analysis are essential to the complete understanding of demographic development of economically important nontimber forest

species.

Keywords: Sampling techniques, economic sustainability, ecological sustainability,

monitoring.
93

Härkönen, Marja. 1988. Training people to collect and sell natural products in

Finland. Acta Botanica Fennica. 136: 15-18.

Reports on a program begun in 1969 by the Finnish Department of Forestry

Education to train mushroom advisors and pickers in mushroom harvesting techniques. The purpose of the program was to facilitate better use of mushrooms

resources at the commune level. The average edible mushroom yield in Finland is

estimated to be 1.5 billion kg, of which only 1 percent is collected. Courses are

taught at forestry schools throughout the country by mushroom inspectors, who are

usually affiliated with universities. Participants are given a commercial mushroom

advisor certificate at completion, and are authorized to train commercial pickers in

their districts. Commercial mushroom pickers who go through the 1-day training

given by the advisors receive a card indicating that they have some knowledge of

mushroom picking. Many of the larger retail outlets require this card to improve the

likelihood that the products brought to them are of good quality. Mushroom sales

are regulated by a variety of laws, including a decree of the Commerce and

Industry Board, that specifies which mushrooms may be sold. The list of commercial mushrooms includes 15 wild species and 5 cultivated and imported species of

mushrooms.

Wild herb collection is less common than mushroom collection, largely because

the “every person’s rights” that allow people to gather mushrooms and wild berries

on private lands do not apply to herbs. Finland has no specific laws governing wild

herbs, but the herb trade is regulated by various laws governing food, health, and

marketing. The National Board of Vocational Education is beginning a program to

train wild herb advisers in the same kind of format as that for mushrooms. Wild

berries also are commonly collected for home consumption and for export. The

quality of berries tends to be uneven, however, and exports have declined. A berrypicker certification program was scheduled to begin in 1987 with a focus on quality

control.

Keywords: Finland, training, harvesting techniques, licensing, regulation, wild

edible mushrooms, herbs, berries, wild edible plants.

Härkönen, Marja; Järvinen, Irma. 1993. Evaluation of courses for mushroom

advisors in Finland. Aquilo Ser. Bot. 31: 93-97.

Evaluates both basic and advanced courses for county mushroom advisors from

the National Board of Vocational Education in Finland for 1989 and 1990. Advisors

in turn train commercial mushroom pickers to identify, pick, and prepare for sale

one to three mushroom species per 1-day course. The mushroom advisors also

furnish information to local residents about mushrooms during nature walks and

mushroom shows and in marketplaces.

Students in county mushroom education classes were presented with 30 to 50

fresh mushroom species, which are viewed for 1 minute each at the beginning and

end of each course. They also filled out a brief questionnaire that asked for selfevaluation of their expertise in mushroom identification, personal consumption of

mushrooms, sources of their knowledge of mushrooms, previous course work

about mushrooms, kinds of information about mushrooms shared with the public,

and personal involvement with commercial picking.
94

The authors propose additional curriculum to cover a broader range of species for

interested advisors who have already mastered the commercial species and their

marketing. This article provides information helpful to establishing rural extension

programs for potential commercial mushroom pickers.

Keywords: Wild edible mushrooms, education, extension, Finland, mushroom

advisors.

Härkönen, Marja; Saarimaki, Tiina; Mwasumbi, Leonard [and others]. 1993.

Collection of the Tanzanian mushroom heritage as a form of developmental

cooperation. Aquilo Ser. Bot. (31): 99-105

Documents initial work in ethnomycology in Tanzania undertaken jointly by the

Universities of Helsinki and Dar-es-Salaam. In many cases, knowledge of the

original importance of mushrooms and traditions of use have been lost. North

American and European researchers have incorrectly assumed that mushrooms

are not much used in East Africa. Researchers accompanied mushroom gatherers

and observed methods of food preparation and the mushroom species being sold

at roadside stands or in markets. A collection of color photographs of more than

30 species was assembled to show to people to elicit vernacular names and

opinions regarding the species.

Interviews were conducted in Swahili or English among different ethnic groups.

Questions consisted of personal information about the person and specific questions about mushroom collection, consumption, acquisition of knowledge about

mushrooms, and determining important species. Preliminary results from interviews are reported.

Keywords: Ethnomycology, wild edible mushrooms, social survey, Tanzania.

Hartwig, V. 1977. Der gegenwärtige Weihnachtsbaum- und Schnittgrünmarkt und

die Möglichkeiten der Einnahmensteigerung bei diesen Nutzungen aus der Sicht

der Landesforstverwaltung Hessen=Current markets for Christmas trees and

decorative greens and the possibilities for increasing income from them from the

point of view of the Hessian State Forest Administration. Allgemeine

Forstzeitschrift. 32(46): 1136-1138. In German.

Proposes that decorative greens and Christmas trees can provide an income

source to breach the negative balance, present since 1966, in the difference

between annual returns and expenditures in forest management in the Hessian

State Forest Administration. From 1966 to 1976, returns increased 55 percent in

value but management costs increased 84 percent. Data about demand for

decorative greens are virtually nonexistent. The major cause is the seasonality of

the harvest and the large number and diversity of suppliers. Expenditures of retail

horticultural firms and foreign trade data also has been lacking. To remedy the

information gap, a national research center, the German Central Agricultural

Marketing Corporation, has been established. It receives government funding for

advertising, market research, market strategic development, and research and

development of forest products.
95

Decorative greens garnered only minuscule amounts in the total revenue from

forest products in 1972: DM70,500 from Hessian state forests, DM134,500 in

Hessian private industrial forests, and DM14,000 from private nonindustrial forests.

In 1976, returns had risen 30 percent over 1972 levels in state forests, 21 percent

in private industrial forests, and 200 percent in private nonindustrial forests.

Since 1976, new directives have given more discretion in marketing and sales to

local forest districts, simplified the process of awarding permits to established

purchasers of greens and trees, promoted better market linkages to the floral and

horticultural sectors for guaranteeing supply amounts, coupled prices more closely

to local demand, and shifted silviculture in state forests to produce more true firs

(Abies spp.), including exotics, and Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) as a way

to meet increasing consumer demands for quality. Projections of the share of

decorative greens and Christmas trees in the total forest product economy predict

a rise from 0.4 perent to 2 to 3 percent of the total value of receipts. This forecast

contrasts greatly with the situation in Denmark; in the Århus State Forest District,

for example, 36 percent of total receipts were derived from the sale of nontimber

forest products (including Christmas trees).

Intensification of forest management for nontimber forest products without an

increase in management personnel is impractical. Foresters view additional workload for producing greenery as burdensome and unproductive. Work increases

especially in the weeks before Christmas and includes weekends. Temporary

assignment of forest personnel to the districts that produce abundant greenery

and Christmas trees helps to relieve some of the workload. Pensioners and people

participating in government job programs can gather and resell greens and trees

to supplement their incomes. If forests are to meet a growing demand for

decorative greens, forest districts will have to rely on purchasers with consistently

larger orders over the long term. Of particular importance to purchasers is the

organization of transport from forests to markets, but proximity of forests to urban

areas is no longer essential to marketability.

Keywords: Conifer greens, Christmas trees, revenue generation, Germany.

Hawboldt, L.S. 1965. The future of Christmas trees, maple syrup, charcoal, and

blueberries. Forestry Chronicle. 41(1): 34-51.

Reviews the development since 1950 of the lowbush blueberry (principally

Vaccinium angustifolium and V. myrtilloides) industry in eastern Canada. Widespread burning to promote blueberry crop production was largely stopped by 1945.

Land use has shifted from wild blueberry production to timber, and many major

sources of wild blueberries have declined. At the same time, blueberry production

with clonal stocks has shifted to otherwise low-productivity farmland. Data from

1952 through 1963 from the Atlantic provinces show national production of lowbush blueberries. Quebec and Nova Scotia have been major producers. Production has differed considerably from year to year but averaged 19,246 tons over the

study period.

Keywords: Berries, eastern Canada, burning, production.

Hayden, Brian. 1992. Complex cultures of the British Columbia plateau: traditional

Stl’atl’mx resource use. Vancouver, BC: University of British Columbia Press.
96

Heckman, Hazel. 1951. The happy brush pickers of the high Cascades. Saturday

Evening Post. 4: 35-40. [October 6, 1951].

Describes the working conditions of “brush pickers” in the Pacific Northwest in the

early 1950s and the historical origins of the industry. Advantages for the labor force

are freedom from supervision and taxes, low investment costs and overhead, and

the choice of work hours and seasons. Daily wages ranged from US$18 to US$40

a day with maximum weekly earnings as much as US$400. The industry is

believed to have originated as early as 1915. Major products are evergreen

huckleberry (Vaccinium ovatum), western swordfern (Polystichum munitum), and

salal (Gaultheria shallon). Refrigerated transport of fern material began in 1926.

In the early 1940s, the workforce in the floral greens sector was more than 2,000

people. More than 90 percent of the greens used by florists in the United States

come from the 150-mile-wide, 600-mile-long area from the Canadian border to

Crescent City, CA. The industry is labor intensive with manual picking, sorting,

washing, and packing. Many pickers combine harvest work with other sporadic or

seasonal occupations such as logging and fishing. Descriptions are given of

payments to landowners, work hours, and working conditions.

Keywords: Floral greens, salary and wages, working conditions, Pacific Northwest.

Hergert, Herbert L. 1983. The tannin extraction industry in the United States.

Journal of Forest History. 27(2): 92-93.

Surveys the development of the use of plant extracts for the tanning industry in the

United States. Before the American Revolution, tanning was a cottage industry, but

then became increasingly industrialized as the demand for leather rose during the

1800s. Bak of various species, including black oaks (Quercus spp.) and eastern

hemlock (Tsuga canadensis), were the main sources of tannic acid. By the end of

the 1800s, the major tanning company of the era, United States Leather Company,

had obtained control of most of the hemlock stumpage in its headquarter State,

Pennsylvania. The quantities of bark required were large: almost 1.2 million cords

of hemlock bark were produced in 1900, comprising 72 percent of the Nation’s

total tannin production. Tanning also was a major industry on the Pacific coast,

where the major source of tannin was tanoak bark (Lithocarpus densiflorus).

As both sources of hemlock and tanoak bark dried up, the industry switched to

chestnut (Castanea dentata) wood chips as the source of tannin. This source dried

up in the 1930s with the chestnut blight, and imported tannin replaced domestic

supplies. By 1960, the two remaining domestic tannin producers had shut down.

Attempts by Rayonier Incorporated to use hemlock tannins for well-drilling fluids

met with moderate success until another less costly source was discovered.

The author concludes with the observation that increased interest in renewable

resources may eventually revive interest in tannin as a raw material.

Keywords: Tannin, resource history, United States, technological advances,

industrial restructuring.

Hévin, H. 1980. Les champignons sylvestres comestibles: aspects économiques=

Edible forest fungi: economic aspects. Revue Forestière Française. 32(3): 305-

315. In French.
97

Reviews the economic importance in France of edible forest mushrooms. Data

about wild mushrooms are inexact and identify only orders of magnitude of

harvests. Harvests also fluctuate considerably from year to year as the result of

variability in temperature and rainfall. Data for commercial harvests from eight

departments and their total value are provided for 1965 through 1977. For the

study period, between 5 and 6 thousand tonnes were collected annually. Average

market price per kilogram was F14-15 in 1977 with total national value amounting

to F70-75 million. These data do not include information about recreational or

subsistence harvests. Harvesting is concentrated in the south-central part of

France and in Lorraine. Regional trends in harvest levels are not clear at present.

Trade data indicate that the French imports of chanterelles (Cantharellus spp.)

and boletes (Boletus spp.), fresh or refrigerated, has generally increased, but the

annual amounts imported, their values per kilogram, and the countries of origins

differ greatly from one year to another. Trade data are given for 1968 through

1978. Exports of chanterelles and boletes are stable, averaging 50 tonnes

annually. Switzerland is the major and most reliable foreign market. Exports sales

in 1978 commanded an average of F3115/kg, while imports to France for the same

category of products cost on average only F733. The different mix of chanterelle

and bolete species is believed to cause the difference in price data. French imports

of “mushrooms preserved without acetic acid” have ranged from 85 to 435 tonnes

annually for the period, with Spain and Morocco being the major source countries;

French exports have been on the decline. Exports of preserved mushrooms,

particularly to Germany, have declined precipitously since 1976 as prices have

risen.

French production of canned mushrooms has risen fourfold to fivefold since 1968.

The quantity of canned boletes and morels (Morchella spp.) has increased tenfold.

Boletes comprise a stable 30 percent of the canned market; Lactarius mushrooms

and yellow slippery jack (Suillus luteus) are increasing their market share, and the

percentage of canned Tricholoma species is falling. This article demonstrates the

volatility of mushroom markets internationally and provides a level of detail not

generally available in the United States.

Keywords: Wild edible mushrooms, France, harvest volume, economic value,

canned mushrooms, trade data.

Hinesley, L. Eric; Snelling, Layne K. 1992. Yield of decoration greenery from

Fraser fir Christmas trees. HortScience. 27(2): 107-108.

Proposes dedicating small parts of Fraser fir (Abies fraseri) Christmas tree plantations to intensive production of decorative greenery. A sample (n=126) of conventionally grown and managed Fraser fir from western North Carolina was used. No

sideshearing occurred in the harvest year. Commercially valuable greenery was

defined as symmetrical, nonsheared, and fully foliated branch segments with

1- and 2-year internodes, 18 to 30 cm long, and twig basal diameter less than

7 mm. The usable proportion for decorative greenery for each tree was calculated

as the usable weight in a foliage subsample from the tree, divided by the total

subsample weight, and multiplied by the total branch weight. Regressions were

developed to estimate total fresh weight of branches and usable greenery.

Explanatory variables included commercial height of the tree, crown density, and

crown taper. During the last half of a 10-year Christmas tree rotation, production
98

of commercial grade greenery per tree averaged 4.0 to 4.5 kg per year and 1.9 to

2.3 kg per year for the entire rotation. These figures coincide with yield studies

from Denmark and the Pacific Northwest.

This methodology and collected data can help to estimated potential yields of

decorative greenery and determine required land area to produce a specified

quantity of greenery over the course of a Christmas tree rotation.

Keywords: Conifer greens, shearing, yield estimates.

Holstener-Jørgensen, H. 1972a. Afgrødeanalyser i pyntegrøntbevoksninger af

Abies nobilis=Chemical analyses of produce from decoration green stands of

Abies procera. Forstlige Forsøgsvaesen i Danmark. 33(1): 51-73. In Danish

with English summary.

Holstener-Jørgensen, H. 1972b. Gødskningsforsøg i pyntegrøntbevoksninger af

Abies nobilis=Fertilizing experiments in decoration green stands of Abies

procera. Forstlige Forsøgsvaesen i Danmark. 33(1): 77-82. In Danish with

English summary.

Holstener-Jørgensen, H. 1973a. Gødskning og herbicidanvendelse i

klippebevoksninger af Abies nobilis=Fertilizing experiments in decoration green

stands of Abies procera. Forstlige Forsøgsvaesen i Danmark. 33(3): 281-287.

In Danish with English summary.

Holstener-Jørgensen, H. 1973b. Gødskningsforsøg i Abies nobilisklippebevoksninger 1967-1971=Fertilizing experiments in Abies procera

decoration-greenery stands 1967-1971. Forstlige Forsøgsvaesen i Danmark.

33(3): 289-301. In Danish with English summary.

Holstener-Jørgensen, H. 1975. Gødskningsforsøg i 7 kulturer af Abies nobilis:

udslag på højdevaeksten=Fertilizing experiments in 7 plantations of Abies

procera: effects on height growth. Forstlige Forsøgsvaesen i Danmark. 34(3):

293-306. In Danish with English summary.

Holstener-Jørgensen, H. 1978. Vedmassefaktorer i gødede og ugødede nobilis

kilppebevoksninger=Volume factors in fertilized and nonfertilized decorationgreenery stands of Abies procera. Forstlige Forsøgsvaesen i Danmark. 36(2):

205-219. In Danish with English summary.

Holstener-Jørgensen, H. 1986. Gødningsforsøg i nobilis bevoksninger til

grøntproduktion=Fertilization experiments in noble fir [Abies procera] stands for

greenery production. Forstlige Forsøgsvaesen i Danmark. 41(1): 36-40. In

Danish with English summary.
99

Holstener-Jørgensen, H.; Johansen, V. 1975. Vanding af nobilisklippebevoksninger=Irrigation of decoration-greenery stands of Abies procera.

Forstlige Forsøgsvaesen i Danmark. 36(3): 307-316. In Danish with English

summary.

Holstener-Jørgensen, H.; Stope, E. 1985. Et gødskningsforsøg i Chamaecyparis

lawsoniana på Aalholm skovdistrikt=A fertilizer experiment with Chamaecyparis

lawsoniana at the Aalholm Forest District. Forstlige Forsøgsvaesen i Danmark.

40(1): 77-84. In Danish with English summary.

Reports on a block-design experiment to compare the effects of differing levels of

fertilization of Port-Orford-cedar (Chamaecyparis lawsoniana) in plantations grown

for production of floral greenery in Denmark. Two fertilizer treatments were applied

in 1972 without control: 275 kg NPK per ha and 550 kg NPK per ha. Yields of cut

boughs under the heavier application are not statistically significantly greater than

in the lower fertilizer treatment, and costs of the extra fertilizer do not pay for the

added yield. Trees pollarded to a height of 5 m provided high yield per tree, but

excessive harvesting of boughs may have caused increased mortality in one plot.

In plots with less fertilizer applied, averages of individual tree production ranged

from 13.5 to 21.5 kg per tree with the 3-year cutting cycles.

Keywords: Conifer greens, fertilization, production, Denmark.

Hosford, David; Molina, Randy; Pilz, David; Amaranthus, Michael. 1995.

Ecology and ecosystem management of the commercially harvested American

matsutake mushroom. 18 p. Draft manuscript. On file with: Randy Molina,

Pacific Northwest Research Station, Forestry Sciences Laboratory, 3200 SW

Jefferson Way, Corvallis, OR 97331.

Charts a course for future management to sustain harvests of the American

matsutake (Tricholoma magnivelare), the most valuable mushroom, by weight, in

the Pacific Northwest. Most of the crop, harvested from northern interior British

Columbia to northern California, is exported to Japan where demand for the

Japanese matsutake (T. matsutake) and related species has increased greatly

over the last 30 years. Management of matsutake is difficult because the fruiting

bodies are ephemeral, patchy in their distribution, and highly variable in their

annual productivity. Survey methods and training to inventory fungi are urgently

needed. Improved grading and increased attention to presentation and marketing

of American matsutake will improve the image of the mushroom in Japan. Descriptions of current management of Japanese red pine (Pinus densiflora) forests in

Japan give details of site selection for mushroom tending (stands 40 to 50 years

old on southwest slopes or ridgetops) and management practices (stand thinning,

removal of understory vegetation and litter). These details may provide guidelines

for adapting management practices to American matsutake, although the extent to

which Japanese practices apply to Pacific Northwest conditions is not known.

Questions remain about the active human introduction of matsutake into stands

where they have not previously existed.

The authors outline social and economic considerations affecting commercial

harvest in the Pacific Northwest. Resource managers must consider the diverse

social backgrounds and attitudes of mushroom harvesters. Harvesting for
100

economic profit generates costs, such as providing necessary camping and sanitation amenities, litter accumulation, and fire danger. Harvesting also engenders

conflicts with other resource interests. For example, conflicting goals between

timber production and matsutake production are complex and unique to specific

sites. Law officers are required for patrols to enforce new regulations. Human

impacts on local matsutake productivity will differ by soil type and effects of

trampling intensity. As yet, there are no good economic analyses of matsutake

harvests or the structure of the matsutake industry in North America.

The authors recommend adaptive management to detect and monitor matsutake

populations, to evaluate site and populations for harvest suitability, and to continually revise harvest levels on the basis of monitoring and experimental research

data. In this way, risk and uncertainty are diminished with the orderly accumulation

of ecological knowledge and managerial experience. Existing research on the

long-term effects of harvesting on matsutake populations is already underway in

British Columbia and Oregon.

Keywords: Edible wild mushrooms, Pacific Northwest, management, cultivation,

resource conflicts, social considerations, economic considerations, adaptive

management.

Howell, Sharon. 1991. The brush business. Philomath, OR: The Ruralite. 38(4):

6-11.

Provides background history of nontimber forest products in central western

Oregon. Diverse nontimber forest products industries have been active for more

than a 100 years. Since the 1880s, people have been cutting cascara bark

(Frangula purshiana) and digging Oregongrape (Mahonia spp.). Gathering conifer

cones was commercially important in the 1920s. Some medicinal plants such as

British Columbia wild ginger (Asarum caudatum) and American false hellebore

(also called skunk cabbage, Veratrum viride) are no longer in demand because

synthetically produced substitutes have been found. The growth of the wild edible

mushroom industry in the last 20 years has been impressive. Other foods include

western brackenfern (Pteridium aquilinum) fiddleheads, juniper berries (Juniperus

spp.), blackberries (Rubus spp.), and huckleberries (Vaccinium spp.). Native

mosses growing on bigleaf maples (Acer macrophyllum) are very popular in the

floral industry. Wholesalers purchase moss from collectors for about US$0.30/lb.

Among currently collected medicinal plants, both native and exotic plants found in

the Pacific Northwest are significant; they include mullein (Verbascum spp.,

introduced), prince’s-pine (Chimaphila umbellata), aspen (Populus tremuloides),

purple foxglove (Digitalis purpurea), Oregongrape (Mahonia spp.), Douglas-fir

(Pseudotsuga menziesii) , Pacific yew (Taxus brevifolia), wild cherry (Prunus spp.),

and cascara (Frangula purshiana).

One processing company purchases, on average, 1,000 fern bunches and 1,800

salal (Gaultheria shallon) bunches daily from 25 to 50 pickers during the summer.

Winter months find fewer willing pickers, but the best picking time for floral greenery is from July to May. Seasonal items include Port-Orford-cedar (Chamaecyparis

lawsoniana), western redcedar (Thuja plicata), conifer boughs, and mistletoe

(Phoradendron spp.). Successful pickers must be familiar with the ecology and

distribution of their product and know how to harvest it without damaging wild

populations.
101

Work in inclement weather and lack of employment benefits for pickers are balanced with the freedom of setting their own hours and workload. Permits are

required for any commercial forest harvesting. Dealers in special forest products

must be vigilant about maintaining strict control over product quality and take an

active role in training and advising new pickers.

Keywords: Floral greens, conifer boughs, medicinal plants, processing, central

western Oregon, edible wild mushrooms, berries, edible wild plant.

Huber, Dean W. 1992. Utilization of hardwoods, fuelwood, and special forest

products in California, Arizona, and New Mexico. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-218. Fort

Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain

Forest and Range Experiment Station.

Argues that special forest products collectively represent a large percentage of

annual value on forest lands and that they can provide economic diversification

opportunities for rural communities. Notes that in ignoring hardwoods, people have

ignored the importance of special forest products, which are primarily derived from

hardwoods. The authors attribute the lack of a viable hardwood industry to a

number of factors, including negative attitudes about the industrial profitability of

hardwoods, the difficulty of managing mixed stands, the low timber value of

hardwoods relative to softwoods, high harvesting costs, and the difficulties of

drying hardwoods. The fragmented nature of industries that use special forest

products from hardwoods, the difficulties of marketing products from highly fragmented, unorganized cottage enterprises, and the lack of technical information on

how to use hardwoods have made managing for hardwoods difficult for forest

managers.

The authors note that, historically, nonlumber uses of hardwoods have been critical

to southwestern economies. Bark from the tanoak (Lithocarpus densiflorus), for

example, supported extensive tanneries in California as early as the 1850s. At the

present time, hardwoods are in high demand as fuelwood, and in some National

Forests such fuelwood sales provide a significant percentage of total forest

income. Special products derived from hardwood species also are sold in many

southwestern forests. One difficulty in setting up special forest product sales, is

that unit measures differ by product. Most are sold through small contract sales

and are registered under the “nonconvertible” sales category. Data on such sales

from five southwestern National Forests indicate that in areas where softwoods are

limited, special forest products form as much as 46 percent of the total value of

products sold.

The author observes that although special forest products are unlikely to form the

basis of a major industry, they are an important source of economic diversity for

rural communities. He describes and compares three paradigms for conceptualizing the relations between harvesting and land management practices: (1) “cut-nconvert” industries, which rely on killing and then replacing the root stock that the

product comes from; (2) “cut-n-reuse” industries, which harvest the bole in ways

that allow the tree to develop from root sprouts; and (3) “retain-n-reuse” industries,

which harvest products on an annual or short-term cycle. He argues that the retainn-reuse paradigm fits many special forest products, where various tree parts or

plants are collected without destroying the source tree or plant. The author notes
102

that the three paradigms exist on a gradient in terms of impact on the land and

capital intensiveness, with the cut-n-convert being on the high end of the scale and

the retain-n-reuse at the low end.

The author notes that the strengths of the retain-n-reuse paradigm are that the

small scale of special forest product sales allows foresters to keep “resource use in

closer balance with resource management,” thereby creating a “vested local

interest in the land base and its management.” He argues that this advantage also

extends into the processing realm where the cottage industry nature of special

forest product processing “contributes to the diversity of industry and thus

economic stability of rural communities.” He provides several examples of how

special forest product harvesting contributes to the maintenance of ecosystem

conditions as well. The author notes that a better understanding of special forest

product industries is needed if management objectives include community

development and stabilization.

Keywords: California, Arizona, New Mexico, tanning, rural development, community stabilization, economic diversification, regulation, government policy.

Hultkrantz, Lars. 1991. National account of timber and forest environmental

resources in Sweden. Arbetsrapport 130. Garpenberg, Sweden: Swedish

University of Agricultural Sciences, Faculty of Forestry, Department of Forest

Economics. 35 p.

Outlines a process for determining the net national product from national income

accounting of Swedish forest resources for 1987. Production of nontimber forest

products are included in the accounting, and recreation and aesthetic amenities

are omitted. Because Swedish law permits open access for its citizens to private

forest land, there are no exclusive property rights assigned to berries, and berry

picking for personal use is widespread. Most of the volume of berries (predominantly whortleberries [Vaccinium myrtillus] and lingonberries [V. vitis-idaea])

is not marketed but is instead consumed by pickers. Only a small amount of the

marketed crop, totaling SKr100 million, appears in the national accounting, but the

estimated market value of the entire crop is six times the value reported in the

national account. After accounting for production costs, profits are estimated at

SKr500 million.Similarly, the mushroom crop for 1987 is estimated to be SKr550

million, consisting mostly of morels (Morchella spp.) and chanterelles (Cantharellus

spp.). The net value of berry and mushroom crops in Sweden equaled nearly

6 percent of the net Swedish timber product value in 1987.

Keywords: Net national product, economic value, wild edible mushrooms, berries,

Sweden.

Hultman, Sven G. 1983. Hur mycket bär och swamp plockar vi egentligen?=

How many berries and mushrooms do we actually pick? Vår Föda. 35: 284-297.

In Swedish with English summary.

Reports results of a survey of household use of wild edible berries and mushrooms

in Sweden in 1977. A thousand questionnaires were sent to a random population

between 16 and 74 years old. Response rate was 84.1 percent. Data were

checked and corrected through followup telephone interviews. Fifty-four percent of
103

households picked wild berries and 32 percent picked wild edible mushrooms. The

most popular berry species were whortleberries (Vaccinium myrtillus), lingonberries

(V. vitis-idaea), and red raspberries (Rubus idaeus). Average amounts picked per

person were calculated. Berry picking is more widespread in northern Sweden and

mushroom picking is more widespread in central and southern Sweden. Combining

national inventory data of berry and mushroom stocks, the authors estimate that

7 percent of berries and 3 percent of mushrooms are picked nationally. Demographic productivity by human age class and preferences are calculated. Women

pick slightly more than men; more educated people pick more wild mushrooms and

fewer berries than the rest of the population. Berry and mushroom picking may not

become a major industry but is important for subsistence in rural areas where

sources of income are scarce and as a recreational opportunity for other groups.

Keywords: Social survey, berries, wild edible mushroom, harvestings, households,

Sweden, subsistence, recreation.

Hunn, Eugene S.; Norton, Helen H. 1984. Impact of Mt. St. Helens ashfall on fruit

yield of mountain huckleberry, Vaccinium membranaceum, an important Native

American fruit. Economic Botany. 38(1): 121-127.

Proposes that volcanic activity may severely reduce resource yields on which

hunters and gatherers depend but that reductions are usually of short duration and

highly variable impact. Much depends on the timing of the eruption and the

resource under consideration. The original indigenous subsistence economy was

based on fishing, root-digging, and montane berry collection. Blue huckleberry

(Vaccinium membranaceum), an important food species to the Yakama and other

native peoples, is gathered in August at high elevations in the Cascade Range.

Following the eruption of Mount St. Helens in May 1980, 64 plants from seven sites

with heavy ash depositions and 54 plants from six sites with only traces of ash

were sampled for numbers of berry fruits per square meter of berry crown area.

Yield at sites (after outliers were removed) with minimal ash averaged 3.7 times

greater than at sites with plentiful ash. The timing of the eruption coincided with the

huckleberry flowering and the apparent mortality of pollinator bees. The authors

speculate that the extensive network of social relations among Native groups, with

generous reciprocal exchanges of food and their reliance on multiple food

resources in a subsistence economy were strategies to minimize risk of starvation

during earlier volcanic eruptions in the region.

Keywords: Berries, ash, productivity, Mount St. Helens.

Hunn, Eugene S.; Turner, Nancy J.; French, David. [In press]. Ethnobiology

and subsistence. In: Walker, Deward, ed. Handbook of North American Indians,

volume 12. Washington, DC: The Smithsonian Institution.

Hunter, J. Robert. 1981. Tendu (Diospyros melanoxylon) leaves, bidi cigarettes,

and resource management. Economic Botany. 35(4): 450-459.

Proposes that nonwood forest products have economic significance for populations where population density is high, wages low, and returns from agriculture
104

are uncertain. Where deficits exist in subsistence or mixed economies, nonwood

products can improve well-being. The economic structure of the market in Madhya

Pradesh, India, for leaves of the tendu tree (Diospyros melanoxylon) as wrappers

for bidi cigarettes illustrates problems arising from development of nonwood forest

products. Tendu leaf collection comes during the dry season when new branching

and leafing from burnt stumps occurs and when local women and children have

few other opportunities to earn cash. Pickers earn on average US$0.77 per day.

Their wage scale and social status are the lowest in the region.

The system for payment of rights to leaf collection is complex. Competitive bidding

is open to tendu leaf purchasers and bidi manufacturers for collection rights in

specified areas. The highest bidder incurs risk by paying the state government

before the harvest begins. In 1979, state revenues amounted to US$40 million.

Indigenous residents receive only a small fraction of the US$12.5-15 million

subsequently paid by the state to labor contractors for manual harvesting. Manufacturers do not believe that labor wages can be increased because their gross

profit remains at US$0.003 per package, less than 4 percent of total sales.

Remaining royalties to the state cover increasing budget deficits in public health,

public works, education, and so forth. Little money is reinvested in the forests or

the indigenous communities. Current extraction levels cannot be sustained. To

prevent ecological collapse, a coordinated planning effort is needed to integrate

the social welfare of the indigenous people into regional development plans, devise

a sustainable forest management and harvesting schedule based on research and

monitoring, and provide adequate funding for forest management to maintain and

improve economic productivity.

Keywords: India, resource management, market structure, ecological sustainability,

economic productivity.

Hvass, Jens. 1964. Pyntegrønt-produktion=Production of evergreen branches for

decoration. Norsk Skogbruk. 10(1): 10-13. In Norwegian.

Introduces Danish forest practices for production of decorative conifer boughs to

Norwegian foresters. Major commercial species from the Pacific Northwest grown

in Denmark are noble fir (Abies procera), Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), and

Port-Orford-cedar (Chamaecyparis lawsoniana). Noble fir competes for highest

prices with Caucasian silver fir (A. nordmanniana). Minor Northwest species

planted in Denmark are western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla), western redcedar

(Thuja plicata), and Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis). Grand fir (A. grandis) also has

limited use. Guidelines for pruning boughs and bundling are given as well as

grading criteria and average prices. The author also outlines general silvicultural

practices regarding spacing and species composition. Conditions in southern

Norway are similar enough to Denmark to initiate parallel forestry practices.

Keywords: Conifer boughs, silviculture, production, Denmark, Norway.

Iqbal, Mohammad. 1993. International trade in non-wood forest products: an

overview. Rome: United Nations, Food and Agricultural Organization. 100 p.
105

Surveys many nonwood forest products and their commercial production

worldwide. Of particular importance to the Pacific Northwest is the discussion of

production of wild mushrooms from other regions, which might compete with

products from the Pacific Northwest. Total world production of morels (mostly

Morchella spp.) annually is estimated at 150 tonnes (dry). Pakistan and India are

the main producers, with 50 dry tonnes each, produced annually for export.

The market structure is briefly described. France, Switzerland, and Germany are

the major importer of morels, and total annual imports to western Europe amount

to 100-120 tonnes with a rising trend. Morels in Pakistan cost about US$117-

133/kg, and collectors receive about half to two-thirds of the export price.

Morels imported to western Europe frequently are reexported to the United States.

Profits are considered high. Processing and packaging in the countries of origin

would be profitable as long as USDA and FDA standards could be met economically. Limits to market growth in Asia include unsustainable collecting practices,

unhygienic methods of storing and drying, and the lack of a good market information system. Industrial cultivation of morels does not appear to be feasible any

time soon.

Truffle (Tuber spp.) production is concentrated in France and Spain. Most of the

15 to 30 tonnes of truffles harvested in Spain are exported to France. French

production of truffles in 1988 was 5 percent of the level 95 years ago. The United

States imported 5.4 tonnes of fresh or refrigerated truffles in 1989 at a cost

of US$1.48 million or US$273/kg. Efforts to incorporate truffle production into

afforestation programs have already begun in New Zealand.

Yellow slippery jacks (Suillus luteus) appear in the 4th year of Monterey pine

(Pinus radiata) plantations and have peak production in year 7. Chile exported 943

tonnes in 1981 at a value of US$2.03 million or US$2.15/kg. The United States,

France, and Peru were the major importing countries. More recent data are not

available.

Trends, prospects, and constraints to development of special forest products are

discussed in the concluding chapter. Nonwood timber products tend to fluctuate

considerably in availability. Serious attention to sustainability of supplies needs to

compliment research efforts in market development. Domestication and cultivation

require advance investment in the biology and breeding of target species.

Development of nonwood forest products seems to occur in countries where labor

is cheap and in ample supply. The commercial feasibility of most nonwood forest

products is limited in highly developed countries. Integration of nonwood products

with incomes early in timber rotations may in some cases make slower but more

sustainable rates of timber extraction more attractive. Economic data are usually

obtainable only for export products, and the quality of data differs considerably

from one country to another. The study concludes with recommendations that call

for policy reorientation, knowledge acquisition, programs for product improvement,

improved marketing, and coordination among international agencies in the United

Nations and regional trade organizations.

Keywords: Truffles, wild edible mushrooms, international trade, policy, United

Nations, Pakistan, Chile, France, Spain.
106

Ismail, A. 1981. Introduction to growing blueberries in Maine. In: Productions

spontanées: Colloque sur les productions spontanées; 17-20 June 1980;

Colmar, France. Les Colloques de l’INRA 4. Paris: Institut National de la

Recherche Agricole: 205-208.

Describes the blueberry industry in Maine where 15 to 20 percent of the North

American blueberry crop is harvested. The field cash value of the crop is US$9-10

million. Management of wild populations consists of pruning, fertilizing, pollinating

with bees, irrigating, regulating soil acidity, and controlling insects, disease, and

weeds. Most lowbush blueberry fields are burned after every harvest (every 2nd

year) or after every second harvest (every 4th year). Major species are Vaccinium

angustifolium and V. myrtilloides.

Keywords: Berries, Maine, economic value, management.

Ito, Takeshi; Ogawa, Makoto. 1979. Cultivating method of the mycorrhizal fungus,

Tricholoma matsutake (Ito et Imai) Sing. II: Increasing the number of shiros (fungal

colonies) of T. matsutake by thinning the understory vegetation. Journal of the

Japanese Forestry Society. 61: 163-173.

Iwamura, Mitimasa; Nishida, Teruaki; Ishikawa, Tatsuyoshi. 1966. Analysis

of environmental factors in Japanese red pine forest producing the fruit body of

matsutake. I: The change of forest composition, light-intensity and the yield of

fruit body in the treated matsutake forest. Scientific Reports of the Faculty of

Agriculture 27. [Okayama, Japan]: Okayama University: 17-26. In Japanese

with English summary.

Reports on a nonreplicated experiment to test the response of mushroom fruiting

bodies to manipulation of forest understory vegetation and soil to increase the

production of matsutake (Tricholoma matsutake) in a Japanese red pine (Pinus

densiflora) forest. Plots 20 m2 were compared. In the control plot, all vegetation

was maintained. In the treatment plot, understory trees and shrubs were reduced

to 33 percent of the levels in the control plot. The surface soil also was raked.

Numerous environmental factors were altered in the treatment plot: ambient

temperature, soil temperature, humidity, and light intensity. During the season

studied, matsutake yield in the plot with cleared and raked understory was

different; in general, the regression for production of matsutake fruiting bodies

against fairy ring diameter had a higher average and a greater variance than did

the population of matsutake growing under natural stand conditions.

This article relates the trial experiment for management of matsutake that might

have experimental relevance for management of the American matsutake

(T. magnivelare) in the Pacific Northwest.

Keywords: Wild edible mushrooms, productivity, forest composition, Japan.

Jacobsen, Jens Søgaard. 1994. Foraedling af nobilis klippegrønt=Product

improvement for Abies procera boughs. Pyntegrøntsektionen Nåledrys. 10(19):

43-46. In Danish.
107

Jansen, A.E; de Vries, F. 1988. Mushrooms decline in 10 of 18 countries.

Mushroom, the Journal: Summer: 7-10.

Summarizes the results of a survey conducted by the European Committee on the

Protection of Fungi on the status of macrofungi in 19 European countries. A distinct decline of macrofungi was observed in 10 countries; either no decline or

insufficient data were reported for the remaining 9 countries. The declines were

generally attributed to human activities resulting in the degradation, destruction,

and elimination of habitats. Intensive picking of edible mushrooms was cited as a

possible cause of decline in Italy and Czechoslovakia, but a study in the

Netherlands indicated that changes in the soil from natural succession or air

pollution were responsible for the decline there. Regulatory protection of fungi and

research on changes in distribution patterns were limited to only a few countries.

Keywords: Wild edible mushrooms, Europe, productivity, monitoring.

Jäppinen, Juk-Pekka; Hotanen, Juha-Pekka; Salo, Kauko 1986. Yields of wild

berries and larger fungi and their relationship to stand characteristics on MT and

VT-type mineral soil sites in Ilomantsi, eastern Finland, 1982-84. Folia Forestalia.

670: 1-25. In Finnish with English summary.

Investigates annual variation of wild berries and edible fungi on upland sites.

Mean yields of whortleberries (Vaccinium myrtillus) were highest in mature mixedspecies stands and young pine stands; 1983 was a good year, 1982 a poor year.

Frost and drought during the flowering period caused the poor yields in 1982.

Other berry species (V. vitis-idaea, V. uliginosum, Empetrum nigrum, and Rubus

saxatilis) had much smaller crops. Annual variation among crop yields prevented

finding a significant regression equation to predict yield from one year to the next.

Moist uplands generally had higher yields of mushrooms than drier sites. Smallest

yields were found in clearcut sites, and the largest yields were in spruce stands

ready to be harvested. The commercial mushroom yield, however, is higher on dry

sites than moist sites.

Keywords: Berries, wild edible mushrooms, productivity, Finland.

Johnson, James Holbrook. 1992. The secret harvest. American Forests.

65: 28-31.

Describes current issues in the special forest products industry. Small landowners

in the Pacific Northwest are deriving additional income from special forest products from such diverse species as willows (Salix spp.), roses (Rosa spp.), beard

moss (Usnea spp. and Alectoria spp.), and Oregon white oak (Quercus garryana).

The global scope of potential markets for nontimber products from forests of the

Pacific Northwest is described. The special forest products industry involves sales

of US$130 million a year and employs 10,000 people nationwide, but the dearth of

knowledge about the industry is troubling. Recent harvesting of beargrass

(Xerophyllum tenax) and Pacific yew (Taxus brevifolia) demonstrate how quickly

and unexpectedly market demands for special forest products develop. National

Forest Service staffs have had to acquire expertise quickly to manage newly
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evolving resources in a vacuum of information. The USDA Forest Service, for

example, has no data on yew stocks or models to project sustainable harvests.

The author also addresses equity issues about distribution of income within the

special forest product industry. Pickers receive perhaps one-eighth of the price that

wholesalers and value-added processors receive. “Underground” traditions of the

industry and the lack of regulation and information prevent restructuring the

industry to help rural communities.

Firtech, an emerging broker of special forest products, is profiled, and problems

the company has experienced due to variations in permit procedures and costs are

highlighted. Suggested solutions to the dilemmas facing the special forest product

industry are increased research and commitment to special forest products by land

management agencies, wider use of stewardship agreements, and promotion of

user groups for each type of special forest product to develop effective harvesting

techniques and user ethics.

Keywords: Pacific Northwest, harvest volumes, equity, management, Firtech.

Kalamees, Kuulo; Silver, Silja 1988. Fungal productivity of pine heaths in northwest Estonia. Acta Botanica Fennica. 136: 95-98.

Examines the fungal productivity of two types of pine heaths in the Nova and

Vihterpalu Forest Districts in northwest Estonia from 1978 to 1981. The authors

established seven permanent plots in an 80-year-old Scotch pine (Pinus sylvestris)

heath, a 100-year-old pine heath, and a 25-year-old pine wood. All the fruiting

bodies of edible macrofungi in these plots were harvested, sorted, counted, and

weighed. In addition, fruiting bodies of inedible and poisonous fungi were recorded.

Data are provided on species composition, the average number of fungal bodies

per hectare, the average production of fungal fruiting bodies, the annual variation

in production, the extent of worminess, and other characteristics of the three forest

types. The results are compared to previous studies.

Keywords: Wild edible mushrooms, productivity, pine heaths, Estonia, experimental design, age class.

Kalotas, Arpad C. 1993. Recording and applying aboriginal botanical knowledge

in Western Australia: some recent examples and future prospects. In: Williams,

Nancy M.; Baines, Graham, eds. Traditional ecological knowledge: wisdom for

sustainable development: Based on the traditional ecological knowledge workshop; 18-29 April 1988; Canberra, Australia. Canberra: Australian National

University, Centre for Resource and Environmental Studies: 94-103.

Reports on methods used to record Aboriginal botanical knowledge in Western

Australia. This knowledge holds promise for innovations in domestication and

development of previously uncommercialized natural resources, particularly in

nutritional and medical sciences. There is lack of integration between historical

records of information and present uses and practices by Aboriginal peoples in

the region. Cooperative and complementary efforts to blend Western science

and technology with Aboriginal botanical knowledge can be beneficial to all
109

Australian society. Transmission of cultural knowledge also has important roles in

primary and secondary educational systems, ecosystem management, resource

conservation, employment, and economic development in Aboriginal communities.

This knowledge is crucial for non-Aboriginal people in Australia to gain a broader

perspective in national political decisionmaking.

Economic justice requires thorough consideration of intellectual property rights.

Recognition of the value of indigenous knowledge to the rest of society is essential

to the fair economic exchange among coexisting cultural groups. Collaboration

between scientists and indigenous people can organize information about the

ecological requirements and horticulture of traditionally valuable plants, expand

the range of human economic uses, strengthen traditional uses by ensuring

sustainable supplies of plant materials, and derive additional sources of income

for Aboriginal communities. Resource managers have an obligation to inform

Aboriginal people about real and potential problems for resource management,

and ethnobotanists have an ethical obligation to make the people they work with

aware of the value of Aboriginal knowledge to the rest of society.

This essay outlines important issues confronting comparable efforts in the Pacific

Northwest to expand ecosystem knowledge and options for economic development

of native plant resources.

Keywords: Indigenous knowledge, collaboration, domestication, horticultural plants,

cultural patrimony, intellectual property rights, Australia.

Kantor, Sylvia. 1994. Local knowledge and policy development: special forest

products in coastal Washington. Seattle: University of Washington. 46 p. M.S.

thesis.

Examines the role that local knowledge plays in state and Federal special forest

products policy processes in the State of Washington, and identifies constraints

and barriers to local participation in policymaking. Interviews were conducted with

24 individuals, including land managers and owners, tribal members, buyers, and

harvesters involved in the special forest product industry in coastal Washington.

Information was collected on perceptions and views related to the sources of

knowledge about special forest products, and the kinds of knowledge used in

making policy decisions, the ways in which various stakeholders communicate with

each other, the barriers and opportunities to communication, the degree to which

various stakeholders participate in decisionmaking, and whether and how they

think forums for participation should change.

Some of the obstacles to communication and participation included language

differences, ethnic differences, class differences, physical distance between those

who make policy and those who live near and depend on special forest product

resources, and cultural isolation. Interactions among the various kinds of stakeholders were mapped, and a diagram of those interactions indicates that agency

land managers and buyers serve as communication nodes. Land managers

receive most of their information from other agencies or buyers and reported very

little reliance on pickers and tribal members. In general, tribes fell outside the

communication loops among stakeholders.
110

Major communication barriers identified included mutual distrust, particularly

among managers and pickers; lack of resources and initiative on the part of

resource agencies to seek information from unorganized groups; and unwillingness

on the part of pickers to share knowledge with other stakeholders. The media,

which have tended to overdramatize the conflicts occurring around special forest

products, are viewed as obstacles to better understanding.

Kantor suggests several strategies for addressing communication and participation

barriers, including additional research on how communication networks are structured among special forest product stakeholders, the use of a variety of communication and participation forums including workshops and public meetings that

encourage interaction among harvesters and land managers in which the participation of harvesters might be subsidized, and identification of ethnic-based and

other harvester associations that can serve as a point of contact between harvesters and managers. Key difficulties that need to be considered are how to

develop processes that enable previously unheard voices to enter policy dialogues,

and how to structure research that breaks down, rather than creates, barriers to

genuine knowledge sharing.

Keywords: Local knowledge, communication networks, barriers, policy development, Washington.

Kardell, Lars. 1980. Forest berries and mushrooms—an endangered resource?

Ambio. 9(5): 241-247.

Chronicles public concern over the perceived conflict between the use of Swedish

forests for timber production and for other products, principally berries and mushrooms for recreational picking. Swedish public perception, in part reinforced

through the country’s largest daily newspapers, is negative toward herbicide

applications. Herbicide applications coincide with mushroom or berry collection

times. Historically, berries and other edible wild plants were never a major feature

of Swedish diets, but the supply of wild foods at times enabled people to survive

famines. Berries acquired greater significance in Sweden after 1900 with improvements in transportation and storage and development of large urban markets.

Wild mushroom consumption is a phenomenon of the late 20th century.

Berry and mushroom gathering are important recreational activities among

Swedes, 80 percent of whom gather berries and 50 percent of whom gather mushrooms every year. Both are open-access resources on both private and public

land. In recent years, tension between timber harvesters and berry and mushroom

gatherers has increased as the latter object to spraying operations that take place

during the gathering season. Berries and other wild plants have long provided

vitamins otherwise lacking in the Swedish diet. The most important berries are

whortleberry (Vaccinium myrtillus), lingonberry (V. vitis-idaea), cloudberry (Rubus

chamaemorus), and red raspberry (Rubus idaeus). The four species are found in

very different forest environments.

Berries first entered the market in large quantities in the latter portion of the 19th

century, when railroads permitted shipments to city markets. Export markets

opened up around 1900 and increased the demand for forest berries. In the last

30 years, however, berries have become more important as a recreational
111

resource than as a commercial resource. A study conducted in the mid-1970s indicates that Swedes consume an average of 125 l of berries and 100 l of mushrooms

per capita per year. In 1977, 80 million l of berries and 23 million l of mushrooms

were gathered for domestic consumption. Annual production of fresh-weight forest

berries and edible wild mushrooms averages 1000 million l and 480 million l,

respectively, based on inventories of mushrooms and berries conducted by the

Swedish National Forest Survey between 1974 and 1977 on 29,000 test plots.

Forest inventories indicate that the effects of clearcutting differs with the berry and

mushroom species. Morel (Morchella spp.) and whortleberry take years to recover,

lingonberry bounces back after just a few years, and red raspberry produces more

after the forest canopy is removed. The authors conclude that spraying does not

affect a significant amount of berries and mushrooms, given their relative

abundance. They believe that the antispray campaign is fueled more by feelings of

powerlessness than by actual declines in available resources. They recommend

political, rather than technical solutions, but do not specify the nature of those

solutions.

Keywords: Resource conflicts, Sweden, Scandinavia, joint production, berries, wild

edible mushrooms, herbicides, policy.

Kardell, Lars; Carlsson, E. 1982. Hjorton, tranbär, lingon: förekomest och

bärproduktion i Sverige, 1978-1980=Red raspberry, whortleberry, and lingonberry: distribution and berry production in Sweden, 1978-1980. Rapport 25.

Garpenberg, Sweden: The Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences. 139 p.

In Swedish.

Kauppi, M. 1979. The exploitation of Cladonia stellaris in Finland. Lichenologist.

11(1): 85-89.

Analyzes the economic use of lichen (Cladonia stellaris) in Fennoscandia for

reindeer forage, floral decorations, and architectural models. Weights and values of

exports from Finland, Norway, and Sweden, the major exporting nations, are given

for 1970 through 1975. The major destination is Germany for 83 percent of the

harvests. Denmark is a distant second at 10 percent. In Finland, the lichen processing industry is centered in Oulu, the Norwegian industry in Lillehammer, and the

Swedish industry in Sveg. Lichens are collected between May and November,

dried into easy-to-handle blocks, and then packed into transport trays. Annual

income from lichen in a productive forest is usually greater than the value of timber

from the same forest.

The industry began in 1910; national regulation began in 1931. Current employment in the Finnish lichen industry is estimated at 500 people working full-time for

5 months a year. Additional people work temporarily during the summer when

school is out. People on the island of Hailuoto, off Oulu, derive one-third of their

income from lichens. Overharvesting, gravel quarrying, clearcutting, and trampling

have been major causes of deterioration of site and lichen product quality.

Research indicates that only 20 percent of the lichen cover should be picked at a

site and picked only at 5- to 6-year intervals.

Keywords: Lichen, Finland, Norway, Sweden, trade, processing, conservation.
112

Kauppi, Matti. 1993. The gathering of lichens as a trade. Aquilo Ser. Bot. 31:89-91.

Describes the market for Cladonia (=Cladina) stellaris supplied from Sweden,

Norway, and Finland for wreaths, floral decorations, and architectural models.

Germany has been the major importer from 1910 to the present. An inspection law

for controlling lichen exports was introduced in 1931. Little of the volume destined

for export is rejected. Most lichen is exported dry; moist lichens are exported only

in autumn and comprise only 10 percent of the total crop. Major collection areas

are just south of the reindeer herding region in xeric Scotch pine (Pinus sylvestris)

woodlands.

Lichen gathering can be of considerable economic importance locally in Finland.

In Hailuoto, one-third of all income is based on lichen gathering in productive years

and often is more valuable than the standing tree volume. About 8,000 person

days are required to harvest and handle lichen exports.

Total exports of C. stellaris from Fennoscandia amount in recent years to 2000

tonnes annually. Since 1988, Sweden has exported more lichen than Finland, but

the Finnish product remains more valuable. Finnish exports alone peaked in 1970

with 2000 tonnes then fell dramatically to under 1000 tonnes in 1974, and since

1987 to under 500 tonnes. Harvest reductions are the result of reduced foreign

demand and fall in prices.

Other important economic lichens are Evernia prunastri and Pseudevernia

furfuracea from France, the southern Balkans, and Morocco. In southern France,

10 000 tonnes of dry lichens are processed annually.

Keywords: Lichens, trade, collection, processing, Finland, Sweden, France,

Morocco, the Balkans.

Kemp, R. 1992. The conservation of genetic resources in managed tropical forests. Unasylva 169(43): 34-40.

States that genetic conservation must be an integral part of overall national

development policies. Although the goal may be to preserve particular target

species, successful preservation will depend on maintaining essential functional

components of ecosystems, which in practice is likely to mean conserving whole

communities. In situ conservation of forest resources should be an integral part of

production forests.

Keywords: Conservation, genetic resources.

Kerr, K. 1991. The economic potential of handicrafts enterprises in rural development: focus on Indonesia. Unasylva. 42(165): 31-36.

King, Steven R. 1991. The source of our cures. Cultural Survival Quarterly. 15(3):

19-22.

Reports that a wide variety of popular drugs derived from plants were first recognized and used by indigenous peoples. Tropical areas contain a huge number of
113

plant species (at least 90,000 of the world’s 250,000 species), but only a few have

been investigated by scientists for their medicinal properties. Indigenous peoples,

on the other hand, have catalogued and continue to use many of these species for

various medical purposes. The high cost of biotechnology has led many drug firms

to shift back into research and development of naturally occurring compounds.

This shift could potentially result in the destruction of large numbers of genetic

resources in the tropics.

The author notes that many drug patents are linked more to who has the power

to control and protect discoveries than to the right of first discovery. The author

argues for the development of joint ventures between Western drug research

companies and indigenous peoples, in which there would be “a new set of

reciprocal obligations and a more global and ecologically sensitive orientation.”

He provides an example of one such company, Shaman Pharmaceuticals, which

works in conjunction with a nonprofit conservation organization to support knowledge sharing with indigenous people and sustainable production and marketing

institutions that are more beneficial to indigenous people. New harvesting techniques and purchasing and scheduling techniques are also being developed.

The Periwinkle Project of the Rainforest Alliance also is conducting research on

medicinal plant and conservation issues.

Keywords: Medicinal plants, intellectual property rights, joint ventures, market

expansion.

Kinugawa, Kenjiro; Goto, Toranobu. 1978. Preliminary survey of the “matsutake”

(Armillaria ponderosa [=Tricholoma magnivelare]) of North America. Transactions of the Mycological Society of Japan. 19: 91-101.

Summarizes the phenology, distribution, and consumption of the American matsutake (Tricholoma magnivelare) by Japanese residents in the Pacific Northwest.

The authors document new collection sites, particularly in association with western

hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla). Besides ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), other

associated species include Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) and lodgepole

pine (Pinus contorta).

Keywords: Distribution, wild edible mushrooms, tree mycorrhizal associates,

Tricholoma magnivelare.

Kisgeci, Jan. 1989. Historical background and tradition of medicinal plants in

Yugoslavia. Acta Horticulturae. 249: 15-19.

Reviews sources on the production, processing and trade of aromatic and medicinal plants and spices in Yugoslavia dating back to Slovenian monastery records

of the 8th century. Describes Yugoslavia’s geography and climate as ideal for the

production of a diverse array of medicinal plants and provides lists of species of

wild and cultivated medicinal plants for six climatic zones.

Keywords: Medicinal plants, Yugoslavia.
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Kjersgård, O. 1982. Gødskning i en Chamaecyparis lawsoniana bevoksning=

Fertilization in a Chamaecyparis lawsoniana stand. Forstlige Forsøgsvaesen i

Danmark. 38(3): 331-335. In Danish with English summary.

Kjersgård, O. 1983. Gødskning i en Abies nobilis bevoksning på Boller

Statsskovdistrikt=Fertilization in an Abies procera stand at the Boller State

Forestry District. Forstlige Forsøgsvaesen i Danmark. 38(4): 383-388. In Danish.

Kjersgård, O.; Gøhrn,V. 1978. Abies grandis provenienser i Danmark=Abies

grandis, a provenance test in Denmark. Forstlige Forsøgsvaesen i Danmark.

36(2): 267-287. In Danish with English summary.

Klausen, Kenneth. 1990. Nobilis reaktion på pyntegrøntklipning—en undersøgelse

af klippemetodens betydning for udbyttet=Response of Abies procera to bough

harvests—a study in the effect of bough cutting methods on production.

Pyntegrøntsektionen Nåledrys. 6(11): 24-26. In Danish.

Kloppenburg, Jack. 1991. No hunting! biodiversity, indigenous rights, and

scientific poaching. Cultural Survival Quarterly. 15(3): 14-18.

Describes the development of a new technology to manipulate genes in ways

useful to humans that has created a new resource: genetic diversity. Nature has

favored the Third World with a large and diverse gene pool, and thus gene

“hunters” from the developed countries, which possess the technology to manipulate genes, are very active in those regions. Little of the value of those resources

is captured by local populations. The author notes that this phenomenon parallels

that of food crops, most of which were derived from Third World countries. He sees

indigenous knowledge as a critical factor of production that the food and biotechnology industries have been able to acquire cheaply because local people do not

have access to the markets or the technology required to add value to their knowledge resources. He likens this knowledge extraction to a reverse foreign aid

program where resources are transferred from the poor to the rich.

To offset this knowledge and power imbalance, Kloppenburg argues for a policy

of building awareness among local peoples and nongovernment organizations.

One possibility is to develop bilateral agreements between indigenous peoples and

outside researchers. He cites the example of the Kuna in Panama, who established a forest reserve of 60 000 ha in 1983 for wildlife protection and scientific

study with support from the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute. In 1988, the

Kuna developed a set of rules regulating scientific activities and laying out

knowledge transfer and compensation rules. Professional societies also have

begun to develop codes of conduct for their researchers. Multilateral agreements,

such as the International Undertaking on Plant Genetic Resources (IUPSR)

developed by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), are

another option. The IUPGR states that farmers have a right to compensation for

protection and encouragement of genetic resources, just as plant breeders have

a right to compensation for the varieties they develop. To provide compensation,

FAO has initiated the International Fund for Plant Genetic Resources. Such
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mechanisms are the first step to adequately compensate holders of valuable

knowledge for their contribution.

Keywords: Biodiversity, indigenous knowledge, intellectual property rights, genetic

resources, policy.

Knudson, Ruthann. 1980. Fish, roots, game, and trade in the Columbia Plateau.

Journal of Forestry. 78(8): 542-556.

Provides a historical account of Columbia Plateau Native Americans who relied

heavily on fish and roots for survival. Both of these food supplies were highly

predictable. Of the roots, camas (Camassia quamash) and cous biscuitroot

(Lomatium cous) were the most important. Camas tends to grow in wet meadows

and was abundant prior to disturbance by farming and logging. Cous biscuitroot is

found in dry rocky slopes. Both camas and cous are highly nutritious. The two

provided 90 percent of the vegetable diet for certain plateau groups. These

staples were supplemented by berries rich in vitamins and sugar. Groups developed kinship, friendship, and residence ties across the plateau to have access to

all the vegetable foods they required.

The author also describes the social organization of food collection on the

plateau. Groups concentrated in villages during the winter and then dispersed into

small task groups in spring and summer. Camas meadows and fishing grounds

were apportioned and shared. Collection tended to be linked to major social

events such as horse racing, gambling, trading, and marriages.

Principles of crossutilization and stewardship governed the system. Crossutilization is defined as “the right of any individual to exploit any resource needed,

whether or not within the territory of one’s own group” (p. 545). Thus the prevailing tenure mode was not “exclusive ownership” but rather relatively open access.

Claims to resources were tempered by the principle of stewardship so that “by

improvement and regular and wise use of the resource locality, an individual

gained a right to determine who used the improvements and disposed of the

resource gathered there” (p. 545). Decisionmaking over the management of these

resources was largely consensus based, and warfare was not a typical mechanism for controlling resources or territory. Groups relied heavily on trading and

marriage partnerships to structure access to resources.

Keywords: Social organization, resource tenure, resource management regime,

Columbia Plateau tribes, Oregon, Washington, edible wild plants.

Koch, N. Elers. 1978. Et plantetidsforsøg med nobilis (Abies procera Rehd.)=

A planting time experiment with noble fir (Abies procera Rehd.). Forstlige

Forsøgsvaesen i Danmark. 36(2): 313-340. In Danish with English summary.

Koistinen, Riitta. 1993. The cultivation of edible mushrooms in Finland today.

Aquilo Ser. Bot. 31: 127-129.

Estimates data on consumption patterns of wild and cultivated mushrooms by

Finns. Of the 2 to 5 billion kg of mushrooms produced in Finnish forests annually,
116

only 606 400 kg are harvested for domestic markets. Commercial collecting is most

widespread in eastern Finland. Wild mushroom harvests compete most strongly

with cultivated mushrooms in the late summer and early autumn when native

species are collected. The author predicts that the relative importance of cultivated

mushrooms, currently estimated at 34 percent of the domestic market, will dominate mushroom consumption in Finland and that trade in wild mushrooms will

decline.

The perception in Finland that cultivated mushrooms will supplant wild mushrooms

might be applicable to conditions in the Pacific Northwest.

Keywords: Cultivated mushrooms, market share, wild edible mushrooms, Finland.

Kostov, P.P.; Stojanov, D.T. 1985. Rational utilization of blueberry finding places

in Bulgaria and their cultivation. Acta Horticulturalis. 165: 281-285.

Reports on the national inventory for wild berries, principally lingonberry

(Vaccinium vitis-idaea) and whortleberry (V. myrtillus), and their use in Bulgaria.

Both recreational and commercial harvests are widespread. Lingonberries are the

major export with most going to Austria, Germany, Canada, and the Netherlands.

Export data are given for 1980 through 1983. Profits realized from berry harvests

range from 10 to 40 percent. National inventorying began in 1976, and data are

collected for phenology, ecology, and aboveground biomass. Managers use these

data to determine protection and usage of berry fields. Management practices used

to favor berry production include reducing the stand overstory density, delaying the

time of tree planting after clearcut harvest, and controlling grass growth. Access to

sites is limited to improve site quality and quantities of commercial harvest by

forestry enterprises. Breeding selection has begun for native species, and cultivars

of North American species (particularly V. corymbosum and V. ashei) have been

introduced since 1983.

Keywords: Inventory, berries, Bulgaria, trade, management, cultivation.

Kravchenko, Aleksey. 1993. The effect of human recreation activity on some

berry-producing ericaceous dwarf shrubs. Aquilo Ser. Bot. 31: 107-110.

Reports on studies conducted in 1981-89 in southern Karelia to measure damage

to berry-producing shrubs as the result of recreational berrypicking. A five-stage

scale of recreation damage was used. Shoot system damage and regeneration

were evaluated on 4-m2 plots on which a predetermined number of steps were

calculated depending on species. Species under consideration were whortleberry

(Vaccinium myrtillus), lingonberry (V. vitis-idaea), and kinnikinnick (Arctostaphylos

uva-ursi). Trampling in all situations caused meadow and weed species to increase

as the shrub species decreased. In stands with heavy recreation use, the distribution of age and vigor of the plants changed. Plants bore fruit at a later age and

senescence and death occurred earlier. Overall, vitality and the population age

declined. The timing of trampling (early June vs. early August) determined the type

of regeneration sprouting response in the species.

Keywords: Recreational harvesting, wild edible plants, ecological impacts, berries,

Russia.
117

Krochmal, Arnold; Krochmal, Connie. 1982. Uncultivated nuts of the United

States. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 89 p.

Provides descriptions of American nut plants, their phenology, habitat, and nut

palatability. Recommended edible species from the Pacific Northwest include

beaked hazel (Corylus cornuta) and golden chinkapin (Castanopsis chrysophylla).

Pine species bearing seeds large enough to be edible are whitebark pine (Pinus

albicaulis) and sugar pine (P. lambertiana). Tanoak (Lithocarpus densiflorus) is

recommended when tannins are removed by leaching. Native Americans ate fresh

and roasted nuts of California laurel (Umbellularia californica). A table of nutritional

values also is provided.

Keywords: Nuts, nutrition, distribution.

Kuhnlein, Harriet V. 1989. Factors influencing use of traditional foods among the

Nuxalk people. Journal of the Canadian Dietetic Association. 50(2): 102-108.

Calls attention to the importance of research on traditional food systems to improve

existing community health and sense of cultural and environmental awareness.

Such research provides rural people with new knowledge of useful foods and an

information base for the potential development of new food products to society as

a whole. Interviews were conducted in British Columbia with 61 Nuxalk female

heads of households in three age classes: grandmothers, mothers, and daughters.

Multiple regression analysis was used with interview data to correlate factors of

taste appreciation, availability, and harvest times to total use by the Nuxalk. Of 70

traditional foods studied, 22 were berry species, 17 were vegetable and root

species, and 5 tea and tree foods. Use of berries, greens, and roots for food has

declined at a slower rate than for other traditional plant foods. Most commonly

used plant foods were strawberries (Fragaria spp.), red raspberries (Rubus

idaeus), whitebark raspberries (R. leucodermis), thimbleberries (R. parviflorus),

salmonberries (R. spectabilis), russet buffalo-berries (Shepherdia canadensis),

blueberries (Vaccinium spp.), red huckleberries (V. parvifolium), and thimbleberry

shoots. Dietary changes since 1920 have resulted from legislation restricting

traditional and subsistence food resources, demographic changes, availability of

new foods from home gardens and food stores, images of social acceptability or

modernity brought through education, social contact, media, changes in employment and leisure time, and breakdown of knowledge transfer from one generation

to the next.

Keywords: Nuxalk, British Columbia, social survey, indigenous foods, wild edible

plants, berries.

Kuhnlein, Harriet V.; Turner, Nancy J. 1987. Cow-parsnip (Heracleum lanatum

Michx.): an indigenous vegetable of Native people of northwestern North

America. Journal of Ethnobiology. 6(2): 309-324.

Kuhnlein, H.V.; Turner, N.J.; Kluckner, P.D. 1982. Nutritional significance of two

important “root” foods (springbank clover and Pacific silverweed). Ecology of

Food and Nutrition. 12: 89-95
118

Provides nutritional data from samples of silverweed (Argentina egedi), springbank

clover (Trifolium wormskioldii), and potato (for comparison). Both native species

had much higher levels of the macronutrients calcium and magnesium and of the

micronutrients iron, copper, and zinc than did the potato. Clover was slightly more

palatable to people than silverweed. The authors suggest that these native plants

would be good candidates for reintroduction into the diets of native peoples in

coastal British Columbia.

Keywords: Nutritional analysis, wild edible plants, traditional foods, native people,

nutrition, British Columbia.

Kujala, Matti. 1988. Ten years of inquiries on the berry and mushroom yields in

Finland, 1977-1986. Acta Botanica Fennica. 136: 11-13.

Gives a synopsis of national estimates and forecasts of wild berry and mushroom

yields. The study was financed by the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, supported by trade organizations, and conducted by the Marketing Research Institute

of the Pellervo Society. Three estimates of yields were made during the harvest

season (July to September) plus another at the end of the season. Prices were

tabulated at the same time to obtain regional and national average prices and total

incomes. These so-called Marsi inquiries relied on data provided by 200 local

reporters and furnish the basis for estimates released to the mass media.

Traditionally lingonberries (Vaccinium vitis-idaea) were the most important crop but

whortleberries (V. myrtillus) have become more significant. Estimates for home

use of berries are about 10 times greater than the commercial volume. Annual

yields during whortleberry and lingonberry seasons vary by a factor of ten. Commercial value of berries is greater than for mushrooms. Milk caps (Lactarius spp.)

are the most important mushrooms for domestic consumption. Commercial picking

of mushrooms and berries is most extensive in northern and eastern Finland.

Keywords: Berries, edible wild mushrooms, yields, economic survey, subsistence,

Finland.

Kurtz, W.B.; Garrett, H.E.; Kincaid, W.M., Jr. 1984. Investment alternatives for

black walnut plantation management. Journal of Forestry. 82(10): 604-608.

Sets forth economic considerations in a multiresource agroforestry system with

black walnut plantations in Missouri. Sixty-year rotations on medium- and highquality sites were examined for application on privately owned lands. Proposed

regimes were compiled from multiple sources and remained hypothetical because

entire rotations were yet to be completed and evaluated. Early financial returns

from intercropping and grazing helped to offset initial stand establishment costs.

The most complex regime incorporated production of nuts, wheat, soybeans,

fescue hay, and grazing. As complexity in management increased, greater labor

and materials per acres are needed, and there is often greater risk. Forage yields

for the first 15 years were higher under the walnut canopy; grazing began in the

16th year. Present net value and internal rate of return were calculated at a 7.5-

percent interest rate by using actual or projected prices of products and inputs.

Different products had relatively greater importance depending on site productivity.

Nut production was more important to stand value on less productive sites; nuts
119

provided a continuous stream of stable returns early in the rotation (beginning at

year 20).

Black walnut agroforestry systems from the Midwest suggest that creative diversification of multiple products could be created in the Pacific Northwest on public

and private lands as a means to intensify land use and increase economic productivity per unit of area. Examples of useful economic analyses were provided as

a guide.

Keywords: Agroforestry, nuts, multicropping, product diversification.

LaChance, L. 1981. Le bleuet nain au Québec: façons culturales et intervention

de l’État =The wild blueberry in Quebec: cultural techniques and government

policy. In: Productions spontanées: Colloque sur les productions spontanées:

17-20 June 1980; Colmar, France. Les colloques de l’INRA 4. Paris, France:

Institut National de la Recherche Agricole: 210-224. In French.

Describes the cultural practices and government measures to promote wild blueberry (Vaccinium spp.) collecting in Quebec. During a 4-week period in summer,

hundreds of people cover fire-prone sites to collect millions of kilos of blueberries

for industrial production of jellies and jams. Widespread collecting began after

massive forest fires in 1870. Government officials realized the market demand

and value of blueberries and instituted organized exploitation. Beginning in the

1960s, the government invested funds to study the cultural requirements and

management of native blueberry species. Details of Canadian government

projects for rural development involving blueberries are provided. Blueberry fields

were leased to 16 producer cooperatives and three private corporations on the

condition that they be used for producing blueberry crops according to tested

methods. The government also built a processing plant for blueberry preserves in

the 1960s that handles 70 percent of blueberries collected from forests and 90

percent of the blueberries grown in plantations. There are 16 plantations but they

supply only 20 percent of the blueberries in Quebec.

Blueberries are grown on sites with recent fires or clearcuts. The principal species

are Vaccinium angustifolium and V. myrtilloides. Since 1968, a thousand hectares

have been burned annually to maintain land area for blueberries. Blow torches

with cones to direct the flames are mounted on chassis drawn by tractors. Beehives are introduced to increase the rate of pollination, and nitrogen fertilizers are

applied. Blueberry combs are used to improve harvests, but leaves and twigs still

must be removed from fruits.

Annual crops since 1941 have ranged from less than 1 million to more than

10 million kg. Only experienced blueberry pickers make a profit from blueberry

picking. In years when blueberries are abundant and the price is high, pickers

travel widely in family or clan groups, camping out, and setting up “territories.”

A 1971 study found that more than 800 families participated in the harvest, with

each family averaging 3 to 4 pickers picking 6 to 7 hours a day for 14 days.

Average daily harvest was 80 to 150 kg, and family revenues ranged from

Can$1,500-3,000.

Keywords: Government policy, management practices, social surveys, clearcutting, berries, burning, rural development, Quebec, Canada.
120

La Pierre, Yvette. 1994. Illicit harvest. National Parks. May/June: 33-37.

Defines illegal mushroom harvest as a part of wild plant poaching activities that

pervade national parks. A survey conducted in 1992 of the national parks in the

United States indicated that 37 park units reported plant poaching in 1990 and 41

reported cases in 1991. Few cases result in arrests, and most thefts occur in the

Southeast, Pacific Northwest, and West. American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius),

which is exported as a medicinal plant to the Far East, is the major plant sought.

Others, such as showy lady’s slipper (Cypripedium reginae) and rhododendrons

(Rhodendendron spp.), are destined for gardens. Park officials attribute the

increased incidence of theft to the growing value of these plants and the low cost

of the fines relative to potential benefits. The park service lacks the staff to enforce

regulations. In response, park rangers have formed an independent nonprofit

organization to support resource protection: The National Park Ranger Resource

Protection Fund. This fund was organized in November 1993, has about 5,000

members, and is supported by the park service. The fund is used to provide

investigative equipment to parks, support ranger training, provide a reward system

for tips leading to the apprehension of plant thieves, finance a toll-free hotline, and

educate the public on the costs of plant poaching.

The parks have adopted policies to enhance interagency collaboration to address

the problem of plant poaching. Parks adjacent to Forest Service land have been

setting up collaborative arrangements with Forest rangers to prevent illegal collection on park lands. Public-private partnerships also have been initiated. Recently,

Acadia National Park allied itself with the Garden Club Federation of Maine to

protect sealavender (Limonium spp.). The federation initiated public outreach to

stop its members from collecting and has placed pressure on the clothing manufacturer, L.L. Bean, to pull sealavender from its catalog.

Keywords: Government policy, poaching, law enforcement, interagency collaboration, public-private partnerships, Maine, horticultural plants, medicinal plants.

Largent, David L.; Hewlett, Sally; Sime, A. David. 1994. Influence of environmental factors on fruiting of edible, mycorrhizal mushrooms. 32 p. Unpublished

manuscript. Prepared for: California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection,

1416 9th Street, Sacramento, CA, 95814.

Largent, David L.; Sime, A. David. 1995. A preliminary report on the phenology,

sporulation, and lifespan of Cantharellus cibarius and Boletus edulis basidiomes

in Patrick’s Point State Park. In: Adams, David H.; Rios, Jesse E.; Storer,

Andrew J., eds. Symposium: Proceedings, 43d annual meeting of the California

Pest Council; 1-17 November 1994; Rancho Cordova, CA. Sacramento, CA:

California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection: app. 32-46.

Larrère, Raphael; de la Soudière, Martin. 1985. Cueillir la montagne: plantes,

fleurs, champignons en Gévaudan, Auvergne et Limousin.=Harvesting the

forest: plants, flowers, and mushrooms in Gévaudan, Auvergne, and Limousin.

L’Homme et la Nature. Lyon: La Manufacture. 251 p. In French.
121

Provides a detailed look at the social organization of nontimber forest product

harvesting in the Massif Central region of France. This study is a rare example of

an ethnographic study of nontimber forest product harvesters in a postindustrial

society and describes the production, labor markets, harvesting techniques, and

product markets for three major crops, or “seasons”: lichens, chanterelles

(Cantharellus spp.), and narcissus (Narcissus spp.). Three harvester categories

are discussed: those who take part in several seasons, those who take part in

only one season per year, and amateurs, who sell products only occasionally.

The harvesting population is extremely heterogenous in terms of gender and age;

harvests are conducted as individuals and in groups.

A historical overview of nontimber forest product harvesting in the region also is

provided. Once important resources of the rural community, nontimber forest

product harvesting fell into disrepute with the rise of the market economy and

industrialized farming and manufacturing. Harvesting historically was done collectively, mainly by nomadic gatherers. In recent years, it has become individualized and sedentary. Lichen and narcissus are still in demand as ingredients in

perfume, and the demand for edible mushrooms and berries has risen since the

1960s.

The authors describe the marketing networks and the relations that exist among

harvesters, local middlemen, wider ranging buyer-dealers, and wholesalers.

They note that often the lower organizational levels exhibit some loyalty to a

parent company, but that price wars result in a shift to other dealers. Gathering is

portrayed as far more than an economic activity. The authors note that it remains

one of the few economic sectors that is largely unregulated. Participation in the

harvest thus serves both to augment incomes and to establish resistance aganst

the encroachment of the state and corporations.

Recently, conflicts have emerged between local and nonlocal harvesters where

the outside harvester is viewed as a symbol of dispossession and a scapegoat for

anger. The authors note that the professinal harvesters are best equipped to

resist the encroachment of outside harvesters; it is the occasional local harvesters who are hurt most by competition from outsiders. They note that current

efforts to promote nontimberforest product markets and rationalize nontimber

forest product harvesting and marketing resemble efforts to professionalize and

industrialize agriculture. In agriculture, industrialization had negative consequences for the less well-to-do farmers; the authors caution that a similar outcome also could result from attempts to industrialize nontimber forest product

production.

Keywords: France, horticultural plants, edible wild mushrooms, lichens, social

conflict, ethnography, harvest practices, economic structure.

Larsen, J. Bo. 1985. Økofysiologiske og morfologiske undesøgelser af

foreskellige Abies procera provenienser med hensyn til deres egnethed til

pyntegrøntproduktion=Ecophysiological and morphological investigations of

different Abies procera provenances in relation to greenery producion.

Forstlige Forsøgsvaesen i Danmark. 40(2): 173-199. In Danish with English

summary.
122

Lawrence, Brian H. 1979. Commercial production of non-citrus essential oils in

North America. Perfumer and Flavorist. 3: 21-23.

Describes existing essential oil producion industries of native plants from the

eastern and midwestern United States. Many of these plants have congeners in

the Pacific Northwest. Important aromatic conifer species from eastern North

America are found among the genera: Abies, Juniperus, Picea, Thuja, and Tsuga.

Other genera worthy of investigation are Betula, Conyza, Gaultheria, and Solidago.

Keywords: Essential oils, native plants, eastern United States, midwestern United

States.

Lawrence, Brian H. 1985. A review of the world production of essential oils (1984).

Perfumer and Flavorist. 10(5): 1-16.

Reveals that there is very little commercial development of native plants for essential oils at present in North America, although an extensive industry in exotics

(mints and citrus) is very productive. Native plants historically harvested for use as

essential oils include species of Abies, Betula, Conyza, Gaultheria, Juniperus,

Picea, Tanacetum, and Tsuga.

Keywords: Essential oils, native plants, North America.

Lawrence, J.H.; Hardesty, L.H.; Chapman, R.C.; Gill, S.J. 1992. Agroforestry

practices of non-industrial private forest landowners in Washington State.

Agroforestry Systems Journal. 19(1): 37-55.

Reports on a statistically designed survey to characterize agroforestry practices in

the State of Washington among nonindustrial private forest landowners. Three

areas of the state were sampled: the north Cascade and east Puget Sound region,

the northern tier of counties east of the Cascade Range, and inland, nonmontane,

southwest Washington counties. Respondents received a questionnaire developed

from previous scoping that inquired about land tenure, land management practices,

reasons for practicing agroforestry, socioeconomic profiles, and information needs.

Chi-square tests of significance were used to detect statistically different

responses. Special forest products were considered overall as an important

income source to 14.6 percent of respondents. Differences in special forest products did not vary statistically among agroforesters and nonagroforesters statewide;

however, the percentage of people involved in commercially gathering special

forest products was significantly higher west of the Cascade Range (20.2 percent

vs. 8.2 percent for the east side). Respondents overall (66.8 percent) cited technical assistance and educational support for agroforestry as the major obstacle to

practicing agroforestry. Collecting special forest products accounted for 12 percent

of agroforestry systems and was concentrated primarily in western Washington

where most high-value special forest product plant species are found.

Keywords: Agroforestry, Washington, industrial forest owners, income, survey.

Lepofsky, Dana; Turner, Nancy J.; Kuhnlein, Harriet V. 1985. Determining the

availability of traditional wild plant foods: an example of Nuxalk foods, Bella

Coola, British Columbia. Ecology of Food and Nutrition. 16(3): 223-241.
123

Determines the availability during summer 1981 of 42 of the 135 plants traditionally

used by the Nuxalk people. Estimates of accessibility and harvest yields were

made by using nonrandom plot censusing techniques for herb, shrub, and tree

layers. Sampling intensity depended on variability of vegetation cover. Data on

species were collected for coverage, frequency, and accessibility. The time

required to harvest 250 ml of food by one person and the area needed to collect

the amount also were recorded. Much of the landscape has 60-degree slopes and

access was impractical for food collecting.

Twenty species had high availability and deserve further nutritional research, and

14 of those species required less than 10 minutes to harvest 250 ml of food.

Results of this study did not present a complete picture of the supply of foods

available throughout the year. In other years, changing cover types and annual

variations in growing conditions for individual species might give different results.

Burning, used to stimulate berry growth in particular, has decreased in the area.

Logging has in part replaced burning as a disturbance to encourage berries.

The authors propose a selective logging program to promote growth of desirable

berry species in accessible locations.

The potential for increased human use of traditional foods and the adaptation of

the plants to horticulture deserve research. People can devise systems to manage

forest vegetation that increase the availability of traditional foods in Pacific Northwest forests. Research of this type may lead to enhancing the diet and health

status of rural people by encouraging use of nutritionally rich indigenous foods.

Keywords: Availability, indigenous foods, Nuxalk, British Columbia, burning,

logging, wild edible plants.

Leung, Albert Y. 1977. Cascara sagrada: new standards are needed. Drug and

Cosmetic Industry. 121(6): 42-44, 143-145.

Describes the use and economic value of cascara sagrada (Frangula purshiana),

points out the lack of adequate standards and controls on production, and suggests corrective measures. Cascara sagrada, also known as sacred or chittem

bark, is the most prescribed, naturally derived laxative, with a retail value of US$75

million in the United States. The author describes the chemistry of cascara bark

and the variation in active ingredients in cascara extracts resulting from differences

in processing. He suggests quality control procedures for evaluating the active

principles in cascara extracts.

Keywords: Medicinal plants, processing, United States, economic value.

Lewington, Anna. 1993. A review of importation of medicinal plants and plant

extracts into Europe. Gland, Switzerland: WWF/International Plant Program/

IUCN. 37 p.

Analyzes the trade in medicinal plants in western Europe and gives an overview of

market structure in the sector. The focus of the analysis is on Germany and the

United Kingdom. The categories provided by trade statistics are not helpful for

sorting data on medicinal plant imports because the categories are too broad, and

plants with multiple economic uses (for example, linden [Tilia spp.] flowers, rose
124

[Rosa spp.] hips, licorice [Glycyrrhiza glabra]) are not distinguished by their end

uses. Reticence among brokers and purchasers to discuss types, quantities, and

sources of medicinal plants impedes collecting information about the industry.

Trade catalogues provide some information on products available. Plants constitute important sources for the three major medical traditions (Western allopathic

medicine, Chinese herbal medicine, and Ayurvedic medicine) and numerous

indigenous systems in Africa and Latin America. Recent reemphasis on the herbal

basis for medicine has encouraged pharmaceutical companies to expand from the

singular focus of drug synthesis as a source for new drugs. In many cases, plants

remain the least expensive producers of needed drugs; industrial synthesis often

is too costly.

During the 1980s in western Europe, medicinal plant consumption doubled. This

occurred despite the generally dismissive attitudes by public and government

agencies in the United Kingdom regarding phytomedicines. French and German

governments have prepared definitions and standards for 250 and 170 medicinal

plants, respectively. These countries also are the major importers of medicinal

plants in the European Community. Hamburg is the center of the European medicinal trade, and 500-600 species of medicinal plants are imported. To control

quality and assure supplies, many importers contract with growers in countries of

origin. Cycles of scarcity and oversupply cause prices to fluctuate greatly. The

major source country for medicinal plants is India. Argentina, China, Poland,

Bulgaria, and the former Yugoslavia also are important sources. Very little cultivation of medicinal plants occurs within Germany.

Attitudes in Germany are very positive about herbal medicines: 90 percent of

people surveyed considered herbal medicines as good or better than chemical

medicines. Herbal medicines constitute 15 percent of all medicines on the German

market. A product from Gingko biloba is the most widely used herbal prescription.

German and Swiss firms are major suppliers of finished plant-based pharmaceutical products. The German market for herbal medicines in 1989 was estimated

to be US$1.7 billion. Between 1980 and 1990, the share of imports of medicinal

plants to the United Kingdom from the United States increased 12-fold although

the market share remains small compared to India.

Consumption of medicinal plants in western Europe is believed to be increasing.

Trends toward domestication of plants will aid in conserving wild stocks. Presently

many species originate sourced from both cultivated and wild population (for

example, American ginseng [Panax quinquefolius] and eastern purple coneflower

[Echinacea purpurea] in North America). Most medicinal plants imported by

Germany are believed to be from wild stocks. Asian consumers prefer to purchase

wild American ginseng and will pay three times the price offered for cultivated

varieties. Overcollection of wild stocks often occurs because of price signals to

local gatherers. Poverty and low wages encourage collectors to harvest entire

populations without thought for conservation and sustainability.

The author recommends studying German trade in medicinal plants for information

on species and their import volumes, the status of rare plant imports, the proportions of wild and domesticated stocks, and the degree of species misidentification.

Consumers, traders, and collectors are encouraged to initiate conservation
125

programs, ecological assessments, sociological and health studies, and guidelines

for sustainable harvest.

Keywords: Medicinal plants, herbal medicine, phytomedicine, survey, attitudes,

market structure, economic value, sustainability, Germany, United Kingdom,

Europe, trade.

Liegel, L. 1992. Concerns and issues for special forest products research in the

Northwest. 2nd draft. 6 p. On file with: Leon Liegel, Pacific Northwest Research

Station, Forestry Sciences Laboratory, 3200 SW Jefferson Way, Corvallis, OR

97331.

Summarizes the research priorities and management recommendations of the

Western Oregon Special Forest Products Council, which is composed of Federal

and state land managers, industry, and academic and conservation interests. The

council identified five major research issues for special forest products harvested

in Washington and Oregon: (1) synthesis of existing information, (2) description of

critical biology and management unknowns, (3) development of appropriate inventory and monitoring techniques, (4) determination of economic and marketing

forces, and (5) identification of relevant policy considerations. The paper provides

background information, information needs, and potential implementation steps for

each of the research categories. In addition, six major recommendations are

summarized.

Keywords: Research priorities, management recommendations, Western Oregon

Special Forest Products Council, Washington, Oregon.

Lipske, Mike. 1994. A new gold rush packs the woods in central Oregon. January:

35-45.

Portrays the harvest of American matsutake mushrooms (Tricholoma magnivelare)

in the Winema and Deschutes National Forests. Price wars, shortages of mushrooms, ethnic tensions, weapons, and high profits characterize the developing

fungus bazaar in Crescent Lake, Oregon. Local residents fear the influx of migrant

collectors who harvest the majority of matsutake fruiting bodies and leave little

financial benefit to local communities. Concern about excessive and careless

harvesting may be undermining forest health and productivity. In the Chemult

Ranger District, Winema National Forest, 3,000 picking permits were sold in 1993,

and a daily picker population averages 800 to 1,200 persons. The District netted

US$65,000 from 25 tons of mushrooms. Controlling illegal picking in the nearby

Crater Lake National Park is a major undertaking for law enforcement. The network

of mushroom harvesting, purchasing, processing, shipping, and export in the

Pacific Northwest is diagramed. This article is one of the few documents available

about the matsutake harvest in the Pacific Northwest.

Keywords: Wild edible mushrooms, Winema National Forest, Deschutes National

Forest, Oregon, resource conflicts, economic value, market structure.
126

Love, T.; Molina, R.; Liegel, L.; Cromack, K. 1993. Biological, socioeconomic

and managerial concerns of harvesting edible mushrooms on the Olympic

Peninsula and in the southern Appalachians. Washington, DC: U.S. Department

of State; U.S. Man and the Biosphere; U.S. MAB Temperate Ecosystems. 21 p.

[plus appendices].

Points out that forest management plans and nontimber development strategies

are being developed with little or no information on production levels of special

forest products, sustainable harvest levels, and special forest product harvesters.

This study attempts to address these information needs by evaluating production

of golden chanterelle (Cantharellus cibarius) mushrooms on various plots in the

forests of the Olympic Peninsula, by developing socioeconomic and cultural profiles of mushroom harvesters, and by integrating these research results with the

technical expertise of local land managers and harvesters to develop management

plans. In addition, the net present value of golden chanterelle and Douglas-fir

(Pseudotsuga menziesii) harvests will be evaluated and compared. An initial evaluation of the mushroom industry will be conducted in the southern Appalachians,

which contain a Man and the Biosphere Reserve and where the small, fragmented

forested tracts provide an interesting comparison to the large, extensive forested

tracts of the Olympic Peninsula. Research products include a preliminary operational field guide for managing chanterelle production on the Olympic Peninsula.

The proposal contains a discussion of the issues and concerns surrounding special

forest products, a detailed research plan, and an extensive bibliography.

Keywords: Wild edible mushrooms, social organization, productivity, test plots,

economic value, southern Appalachians, Olympic Peninsula.

Love, Thomas. 1991. A system of sustainable development “extractive” reserves

for the Pacific Northwest temperate rainforest. Paper presented at the annual

meeting of Oregon Academy of Sciences, 23 February 1991, Monmouth, OR.

7 p. On file with: Tom Love, Sociology and Anthropology Department, Linfield

College, McMinnville, OR 97128.

Suggests that the total value per acre of minor forest products may be three times

that of the logging value, and that minor forest product harvesting is generally

beneficial or neutral to the target species and to the integrity of the forest ecosystem. At the same time, the increasing development of large-scale commercial

harvesting is threatening the traditional smaller scale, family labor, long-term

management system. To protect the interests of the smaller harvesters and their

sustainable resource management system, Love proposes an extractive reserve

model similar to that created by the Brazilian and Peruvian governments in the

Amazon for rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) tappers, Brazil nut (Bertholletia excelsa)

collectors, and other harvesters. The paper describes the historical evolution of

extractive reserves in Amazonia, and analyzes the applicability of the model to the

Pacific Northwest.

Keywords: Pacific Northwest, Amazon, extractive reserves, harvesters, sustainability, nuts, resins, Brazil, Peru.
127

Love, Thomas; Denison, William; Donoghue, John; Zasada, John. 1992.

Nontimber forest products extraction in the Pacific Northwest: Who is involved,

and how widespread is this activity? Paper presented at the 4th North

American symposium on society and resource management, 17-20 May 1992,

Madison, WI. 10 p. On file with: Tom Love, Sociology and Anthropology

Department, Linfield College, McMinnville, OR 97128.

Describes six images of special forest product harvesters held by the general

public and the professional forestry community. The lack of knowledge about

harvesters, such as ethnicity, gender, age, size of harvesting group, and local

culture, is a serious impediment to successful resource management. This lack of

scientific interest in social issues is attributed not only to the false images of the

harvesting activity as minor or marginal but also to the supplementary, seasonal

nature of harvesting, which makes it difficult to study and monitor. Surveys on the

scale of harvesting within the 22 Ranger Districts in National Forests of western

Oregon contrast the best estimates by special forest product officers of harvests

(including illegal harvests) with official permit and contract data, and reveal substantial underreporting of actual harvest levels. The authors fear that the actual

contribution of special forest product harvesting to community stability is being

prematurely dismissed and conclude that much basic social science work is

urgently needed to better understand the significance of special forest product

harvesting for households and local communities.

Keywords: Social organization, harvesters, survey, household, rural development,

Pacific Northwest.

Macdonald, B. 1989. Ornamental native plants of British Columbia: their selection, propagation, and introduction. Combined Proceedings of the International

Plant Propagators’ Society; [date of meeting unknown]; [location of meeting

unknown]. Wooster, OH: Collier Pub. Co. 39: 243-249.

Presents native plants of the Pacific Northwest considered by the University of

British Columbia as suitable for further selection and introduction into nursery

production for use as ornamental plants. The article covers distribution, phenology, and directions for seed storage, germination, and vegetative reproduction.

The list of plants includes Cornus nuttalli, Arbutus menziesii, Amelanchier

alnifolia, Paxistima myrsinites, Vaccinium ovatum, Ribes sanguineum,

Philadelphus lewisii, Potentilla fruticosa, Arctostaphylos uva-ursi, Rosa woodsii,

and Shepherdia canadensis. Numerous other members of the Ericaceae family

have great horticultural value as well: Andromeda polifolia, Arctostaphylos

columbiana, Cassiope mertensiana, Elliottia pyroliflorus, Gaultheria ovatifolia,

Kalmia polifolia (=K. microphylla ssp. occidentalis), Menziesia ferruginea,

Rhododendron macrophyllum, and Phyllodoce empetriformis. After consultations

with the floral industry, the university has decided to research market introductions for the following herbaceous perennial plants: Anemone multifida, Douglasia

laevigata, Dryas spp., Lupinus spp., Penstamon spp., Polemonium spp., and

Phlox spp. Economic emphasis will be on plants suitable for use in highway mass

plantings, garden center retail sales, and exports to the United States.

Most of these species are native to the Pacific Northwest and represent plant

species resources available for product development within the region as well.
128

Keywords: Horticultural plants, cultivation, economic development, British

Columbia.

Mack, Cheryl A. 1992. In pursuit of the wild Vaccinium-huckleberry processing

sites in the southern Washington Cascades. Archaeology in Washington.

4: 3-16.

Magdanz, James. 1990. Cooperation in the production of wild food. Juneau, AK:

Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Division of Subsistence. 4 p.

Analyzes the complex system of interactions among households to distribute wild

foods, including berries and edible greens, in the predominantly Inupiat Eskimo

community in northwest Alaska during 1984. Cooperation is extensive within Native

Alaskan communities. Productivity of an individual food gatherer is a function of

knowledge of the target food species, skill, good equipment, location, and luck.

Food gatherers acquire prestige through their generous donations of food, particularly to elderly people. Kinship is a basic organizing principle for distribution.

Attempts to legally regulate subsistence use might disrupt community function and

increase government costs.

Keywords: Alaska, community organization, cooperation, kinship, subsistence,

indigenous food, wild edible plants, berries.

Magherini, Romano; Giannini, Piera; Menghini, Alessandro [and others].

1988. Schede delle principali piante medicinali e aromatiche=Schedules for the

principal medicinal and aromatic plants. Italia Agricola. 125(3): 153-225. In

Italian.

Consists of descriptions of the uses, botanical features, pharmocognosy, chemical

composition, active compounds, and horticultural details of major medicinal and

aromatic plant species grown commercially in Italy. Details of plants native to the

Pacific Northwest include common yarrow (Achillea millefolium), field horsetail

(Equisetum arvense), and cascara (Frangula purshiana). Commercially introduced

and now wild in the Pacific Northwest are greater burdock (Arctium lappa),

oneseed hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna), purple foxglove (Digitalis purpurea),

English ivy (Hedera helix), and common St. Johnswort (Hypericum perforatum).

The Pacific Northwest has species in the following genera for which congeners are

important in Italian markets: Angelica, Arnica, Artemisia, Betula, Fraxinus,

Gentiana, Iris, Juniperus, Linum, Mentha, Pinus, Quercus, Ribes, Rosa, Salix,

Sambucus, Satureja, Sorbus, Vaccinium, and Valeriana. This work is important as

an introduction to potential further development of native and introduced species

in the Pacific Northwest as medicinal and aromatic plant crops.

Keywords: Aromatic plants, horticultural plants, Italy, medicinal plants.

Mann, H.-J. 1990. Reinertrag im kleineren Privatwald Niedersachsens=Net profit

from a small privately owned forest in Lower Saxony. Forst und Holz. 45(21):

627-630. In German.

Presents a case study of a private, nonindustrial forest in Germany for demonstrating the role of minor forest products (hunting fees, Christmas trees, and
129

decorative greens) in the total forest economy. Stands of Douglas-fir

(Pseudotsuga menziesii) at least 8 to 10 years old are used for production of

decorative greens. One-meter lengths are cut from the largest branches so that

thick foliage can be obtained. Buds from the uncut parts of the branch serve as

stems for later harvests. Spacing between trees must be wide enough to allow

new foliage growth amounting to 1 to 2 kg per tree per harvest, thus yielding up to

9000 kg/ha per cut and a total of 12 000 kg/ha on average for an entire rotation.

Total management cost for greenery production is DM280-350 per tonne and

returns amount to DM600-800 per tonne, for a net profit of about DM5000/ha.

Value-added tax must be deducted from this amount. Exotic conifers also are

grown for sale as Christmas trees and for sale to garden centers. Blue spruce

(Picea pungens) plantations managed only for decorative greenery and

Christmas trees, for example, yield a net profit of DM1650 ha/yr as compared to

the timber production from Douglas-fir (DM569 ha/yr) and Sitka spruce (Picea

sitchensis; DM712 ha/yr) on 80-year rotations from the best sites. These figures

presume the absence of catastrophic infestation and disease.

Keywords: Management practices, economic valuation, conifer boughs, economic

value, Germany.

Mannozzi-Torini, Lorenzo. 1968. Sulla disciplina della raccolta e del commercio

del tartufi freschi e conservati=Regulation in the harvest and trade of both fresh

and processed truffles. In: Atti del I congresso internazionale sul tartufo; 24-25

May 1968; Spoleto, Italy. [Location of publisher unknown]: [Publisher

unknown]: 1-10. In Italian.

Describes the origin and evolution of a proposed national law in Italy governing

harvests and trade of truffles (Tuber spp.). The problems in regulating the truffle

industry are complex and large. Lawmakers believe regulation of the truffle

industry is essential to prevent fraud, bolster the reputation of the product and the

industry, and educate the public about collection practices that do not damage the

productivity of truffle areas. The law is to cover the two premier species among

the five commercial Italian species in the genus Tuber: T. melanosporum (black

truffle) and T. magnatum (white truffle).

Proprietorship of subsoil resources such as truffles in Italy belong to the landowner. Unless the landowner posts his or her lands with signs forbidding the

collection of mushrooms or truffles, however, the public has free access to collect

them. Monetary penalties are to be set for infractions based on damages

incurred. Truffle harvesters must have a dog or pig to assist in the detection of

truffle to avoid undue soil disturbance in the truffle-growing area. Holes must be

filled after the truffle is removed. The law establishes fixed harvest seasons for

each species. Truffles are salable when they have been cleaned, selected for

freshness, and sorted by species.

Use of inferior truffle species is allowed only in pâtés sold in quantities greater

than a kilogram and must be labeled with the scientific and popular name of the

truffle(s) in the pâté. Processing standards for canned truffles are given. The

Italian law is compared with parallel French laws. The article also includes a

description of the five commercial truffle species, their grades, and grading

criteria.
130

Regulations concerning collection of truffles and other fungi in the United States

are not developed. As the markets for American species develop and the values

for certain species rise, concerns for harvest sustainability and resource conservation will increase. An examination of legal issues regarding similar valuable species

in other countries can help to clarify options for resource protection in the United

States.

Keywords: Truffles, regulation, processing, Italy.

Markstrom, Donald C.; Donnelly, Dennis M. 1988. Christmas tree cutting:

demand and value as determined by the travel cost method. Western Journal of

Applied Forestry. 3(3): 83-86.

Lays out the structure of an economic analysis by using the travel cost method.

The method is appropriate to determining the value of nontimber forest products

where the true value of the products may not be expressed by market values. The

following data were collected from cars exiting a Christmas tree sale area in the

Roosevelt National Forest, Colorado: number of adults and children, automobile

license numbers, number of Christmas trees, and tree length. A demand curve was

developed by converting travel distance and time to a single travel cost figure.

Cost of travel time was based on simplifying assumptions about median wage,

average travel speed, relative adult and child time values, and number of adults

and children per vehicle. Distances were calculated by using “most logical” routes

from population centers of each of the surrounding 15 counties, and an average

variable travel cost was assumed.

Dependent variables were the per capita vehicle visits and the natural log of per

capita vehicle visits. Seven variables and their natural logs were used as

independent variables—four relating to travel costs, and one each for per capita

income, median age, and percentage of urban population in the originating

counties. The t-statistic, F-ratio, and r2 values were used to evaluate regression

relations. A sensitivity interval for average consumer surplus per vehicle was

determined by substituting the 95 percent confidence interval limits for the cost

coefficient. This serves as a relative index of variation in consumer surplus. The

dollar value of Christmas tree cutting is site-specific. It depends on the characteristics of the site, the options for substitutes, the size of the market population, the

location of the market area for the cutting site in question, and substitute cutting

sites.

Keywords: Travel-cost method, regression, economic value, consumer surplus,

Christmas trees, Colorado.

Maser, C.; Trappe, J.M.; Nussbaum, R.A. 1978. Fungal-small mammal interrelationships with emphasis on Oregon coniferous forests. Ecology. 59(4): 799-

809.

Examines the roles of small mammals in the dispersal of fungi, and the implications

for timber management. The stomach contents and fecal pellets of over 400 small

mammals were examined, and fungal spores were classified and volumes

estimated. Of the over 1,000 fungal sporocarps found, 88 percent originated from
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hypogeous fungi, with little preference shown for particular species. The majority

of spores were associated with ectomycorrhizal fungi (79 percent) or vesiculararbuscular-endomycorrhizal fungi (10 percent). The role of small mammals in

dispersal is species-dependent; the contribution by established forest dwellers

may be repeated inoculation of hypogeous fungi on host plant roots rather than

dispersal to new habitats, while deer mice and chipmunks deposit spores in

adjacent nonforested areas. Fungal taxa frequency, fungal content and mycophagy

frequency are analyzed for 31 small mammal species, and the relation between

plant succession and population changes of two vole species is explored. The

authors advocate a clearer understanding of the interrelations of ecosystem components, such as trees, fungi, and small mammals, in the development of forest

management strategies.

Keywords: Mammals, dispersal, fungi, management.

Mater, Catherine. 1993. Minnesota special forest products: a market study.

St. Paul, MN: Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, Division of Forestry.

100 p.

Focuses on the market demand for special forest products from Minnesota and

provides one approach for analyzing the development of nontimber forest products.

The author attributes the past lack of attention to special forest products in

Minnesota to the poor and fragmentary knowledge about the industries. Special

forest products are attaining greater significance now because of the growing

constraints on timber production and the need to obtain economic value from

renewable forest resources more quickly. Six major categories of special forest

products are discussed in reference to their market potential and at various geographic scales: cones, decorative greenery, dried flowers, herbs and medicinals,

decorative woods, and smoking and flavoring woods. Species and products with

the best development potential were selected for closer examination.

Obstacles to development of both traditional and nontraditional products also are

outlined, and policy recommendations based on interviews with people involved in

the business of special forest products or in the management of the plant

resources are summarized. These recommendations include better coordination of

timber harvest activities and foraging activities for related special forest products;

reduced inefficiency through commercial use of biomass conventionally left

unutilized or unrecycled; expanded development and management of agroforestry

systems with multiple forest product outputs; developing product cooperatives for

market expansion; developing value-added manufacturing and processing jobs;

and establishing programs for nontimber products research. Considerable

expansion might best be explored in the decorative greenery industry. Numerous

strategies are suggested for improving returns for the major product groups.

Greater exploitation of plant resources entails concerted management for sustainability and regulation of foraging.

Keywords: Economic development, market potential, Minnesota, management

recommendations, policy recommendations, floral greens, cones, medicinal plants,

conifer boughs.
132

Mater, Catherine M. 1994. Factors affecting special forest products marketing and

business management throughout North America. 7 p. Unpublished manuscript.

On file with: Mater Engineering Ltd., 101 SW Western Blvd., Corvallis, OR

97333.

Synthesizes observations about obstacles to full development of special forest

products based on research throughout North America. Response to market

demand must not substitute for evaluation and understanding of site-specific

product quality. This observation is especially important in the development of oil

extracts and medicinal plants as local forest products. Missing opportunities for

developing new products is widespread; for example, in the Pacific Northwest,

foresters have been trying to eradicate salal (Gaultheria shallon) rather than

managing its harvest to provide another source of forest income.

Among National Forests in the United States, those in Oregon and Washington

have taken the lead in establishing baseline inventories and procedures for subsequent annual monitoring. National emphasis has been concentrated on lower

value products (cones and boughs) and not on higher value products (medicinal

plants, floral greens). Most National Forests did not know the magnitude of commerce in special forest products locally. Loss in potential permit fees might be as

much as 90 percent. Public awareness and information is even lower for state

forests and forest lands in Canada.

The author proposes nine key actions: (1) develop value-added processing locally;

(2) identify multiple markets from single resources; (3) create public-private

partnerships; (4) implement agroforestry and land stewardship principles for

product cultivation; (5) convert “waste” biomass to marketable products; (6) apply

new technologies; (7) manage the business of special forest products more

diligently; (8) stay attuned to demographic changes in needs, tastes, and preferences; (9) and be aware of global markets.

Keywords: Monitoring, marketing, economic development, policy.

Mater Engineering, Ltd. 1992. Analysis and development of a conceptual business plan for establishing a special forest products processing plant. Corvallis,

OR: Oregon State University Press. 234 p. [plus appendices].

Is a report commissioned by the Sweet Home Ranger District in the Willamette

National Forest, western Oregon. It explores the potential of establishing a special

forest products processing plant in Sweet Home, which would use products harvested in the Willamette National Forest and other surrounding forests within a

50-mile radius. Pro forma income projections indicated profitable operations in the

first year, US$2.3 million in sales once full production is achieved, and an initial

focus on huckleberry (Vaccinium spp.), western swordfern (Polystichum munitum),

beargrass (Xerophyllum tenax), and Christmas boughs. The marketing and engineering evaluation involved the following steps:

1. Estimating abundance, distribution and quality of selected special forest product

species in the target area. Estimates were based on analysis of 70 randomly

sampled potential commercial harvest sites.

2. Evaluation of special forest product market opportunities, including a broader

array of products than those selected for initial focus. Products evaluated include
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floral greens, Christmas greens, medicinals, and fungi. Major market categories

and trends are analyzed and individual products are described, including an

assessment of use, market history, land tenure and economic issues, and regulatory and conservation issues.

3. Evaluation of appropriate species-specific, environmentally sound harvesting

methods.

4. Evaluation of appropriate management policies and administrative issues,

including a discussion of permits, fees, and enforcement of special forest product

harvests in National Forests, state forests, and private lands. Information was

based mainly on a telephone survey. Several recommendations are offered to

address the management issues identified.

5. Feasibility study of a processing facility, including pro forma income and cash

flow projections for the startup year and a full production year. Five spread sheets

are used: product purchase and sales income, volume calculations and space

requirements, labor and payroll calculations, capital construction requirements,

and a pro forma analysis. A sensitivity analysis and identification of critical areas of

concern also is undertaken.

6. Opportunities for growth and diversification through emerging and niche

markets. Various product and customer trends are identified.

7. Identification of potential funding sources. A variety of different public and private

financing sources, mechanisms and strategies are reviewed.

8. Development of an implementation plan.

Exhibits include a schedule of fees for special forest products, a summary of

National Forest special forest products permit and enforcement policies, and a

summary of various states’ special forest products permit and enforcement

policies. In addition, there are numerous tables and charts throughout the report,

which summarize information on consumption and prices of selected special forest

products.

Keywords: Wild edible mushrooms, medicinal plants, floral greens, conifer boughs,

rural development, harvesting, processing, marketing, economic feasibility,

Oregon.

Mater Engineering, Ltd. 1993a. North Fork value-added and special forest products market research project. Corvallis, OR: Mater Engineering Ltd; phase 1

final report. 119 p.

Gives details of research to identify species and potential markets for special forest

products such as dried florals, ornamental evergreen foliage, forest medicinal and

food plants, seeds, nuts, and cones in North Fork, California, near the Sierra

National Forest. Species selected for consideration were indigenous within a 50-

mile radius of North Fork and need to be managed for sustainable regeneration

and restoration in the event of overharvest. Interviews from around the country and

abroad about special forest products revealed information about availability and

access, consumer buying trends, factors affecting product distribution, and issues

of product design and packaging. Recommendations are made to maintain the

genetic integrity and diversity of natural plant populations, to establish a system of

permits and fees that also tracks harvest quantities, and to forego propagating and

sustaining exotic plants in the Sierra National Forest.
134

Targeted plants with attractive flowers for potential product development in floristry

and horticulture that also are found in the Pacific Northwest include yarrow

(Achillea millefolium), brodiaea lilies (Brodiaea spp.), mariposa lilies (Calochortus

spp.) larkspur (Delphinium spp.), western pearly everlasting (Anaphalis

margaritacea), wild buckwheats (Eriogonum spp.), Phlox spp., blue flax (Linum

spp.), Pacific dogwood (Cornus nuttallii), and deergrass (Muhlenbergia spp.).

Trees for preserved foliage markets include Oregon white oak (Quercus garryana)

and quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides). Manzanita (Arctostaphylos spp.)

branches are important in twig and branch craft products. Important herbal plants

include skullcap (Scutellaria spp.), California laurel (Umbellularia californica),

chickweed (Stellaria spp.), Pacific dogwood (Cornus nuttallii), stinging nettles

(Urtica spp.), Artemisia spp., prince’s-pine (Chimaphila umbellata), western

brackenfern (Pteridium aquilinum), and yarrow. Sugar pine (Pinus lambertiana)

provides prized cones, and native oaks produce acorns for subsistence use.

Information is presented on domestic and global consumption patterns of fresh cut

flowers, dried and preserved flowers, medicinal and herbal plants, and morels.

Abundant data also are displayed for exotic plants that could be grown in local

private nurseries for national distribution.

Several factors are key to sustaining enterprises based on special forest products:

awareness of global demands, matching harvest supplies to demand, extracting

maximum value from sustainable harvests, assessing new marketing opportunities,

improving technology to become competitive, assuring consistency of the labor

supply with good wages and opportunities for training, consistency of product

quality, and increasing marketing information and networks.

Following this study, two business strategies are presented that include options for

cooperative development, sources of public and private funding, and necessary

infrastructure for a manufacturing and processing facility for value-added production. The authors suggest establishing a dried florals cooperative and a special

forest products manufacturing center.

Keywords: Economic development, market potential, management, policy, floral

greens, horticulture, medicinal plants, trade, feasibility study, cooperative,

processing, California.

Mater Engineering, Ltd. 1993b. Special forest products market analysis for

Saskatchewan Timberlands Division. Weyerhaeuser Canada, Ltd. Project 3017.

Prince Albert, SK: Forestry Canada. 16 p.

Studies the feasibility of expanding special forest product production and marketing

in Saskatchewan. The study was conducted for Weyerhaeuser Canada and the

Saskatchewan Department of Agriculture and Food in 1993. Data on special forest

products were gathered for inclusion into Weyerhauser’s existing forest inventory

database and were used to guide efforts to diversify rural economies while

managing forests sustainably.

On the basis of some 200 interviews with buyers and sellers about the market

potential of about 40 special forest products, the researchers discovered that

interest for certain products, including moss, branches, tree tops, and birch bark,

was already high, and immediate demand for these products is in the US$1.5
135

million range. Markets in Europe and Mexico were felt to offer viable expansion

possibilities. Oil extracts from conifer oils were considered as having high market

potential, as were cones and decorative woods. Market demand is likely to expand

for other resources as demand for medicinals and flavorings for beverages, such

as gourmet teas and coffees, increases. Subsequent sections address product

prices, concerns about reliability and quality issues, and options for value-added

manufacturing.

A survey of Canadian and U.S. government agencies indicated that inventories of

special forest products were essentially nonexistent. New Brunswick, however, is

presently expanding its forestry extension services to incorporate special forest

product management. Officials noted that the recently passed Environmental

Access Act could potentially jeopardize the ability of harvesters to remove plants

from forest sites. Current regulations are described as nonexistent or minimal. In

the United States, special forest product inventories and regulations have just

recently begun to emerge. The researchers cite efforts by Ranger Districts in the

Pacific Northwest to develop inventory methods for special forest products as an

example of the enhanced interest in these products on the part of the Federal

government. They note that both the Bureau of Land Management and the Forest

Service are developing regional and national strategies for special forest product

management.

Keywords: Market potential, rural development, sustainable development,

regulation, value-added, survey, feasibility study, Saskatchewan, Canada.

Mattsson, Leif; Li, Chuan-Zhong. 1993. The non-timber value of northern

Swedish forests: an economic analysis. Scandanavian Journal of Forest

Research. 8: 426-434.

Mattsson, Leif; Li, Chuan-Zhong. 1994. How do different forest management

practices affect the non-timber value of forests?—an economic analysis. Journal

of Environmental Management. 41: 79-88.

Accounts for the total value of nontimber commodities from forests, including

harvesting of berries and mushrooms, which are viewed as leisure activities.

A contingent valuation survey was mailed to 800 randomly selected individuals in

the county of Västerbotten, Sweden; 436 replies were received. The questionnaire

presented four photographs representing different stages of stand development

and then asked about people’s forest visits, preferences for tree species, and

personal information to construct a market scenario. Both continuous and discrete

choice formats were used in questionnaires. Probit analyses and nonlinear optimization provided maximum-likelihood estimates of forest composition and age class

for the combination that produced the highest nontimber commodity value

nationally. A decrease of clearcutting with artificial regeneration increases the

nontimber value. Presentation of even more options into the survey format raises

the value to society but becomes computationally difficult to reckon. Dividing the

original sample of respondents into subsamples maintains double objectives of

simplicity and detail.

Keywords: Contingent valuation, external effects, forest practices, nonlinear

optimization, nontimber commodity value, probit analysis, berries, wild edible

mushrooms.
136

May, P.H. 1991. Building institutions and markets for non-wood forest products

from the Brazilian Amazon. Unasylva. 165(42): 9-16.

Effective use of nonwood products in sustainable development strategies depends

on the existence of the necessary institutional framework, for product development,

production, and marketing. Attempts in the Brazilian Amazon to create this framework are described. The process cannot begin without secure land tenure,

accomplished in Brazil through the use of extractive reserves, among other mechanisms. Markets were expanded and strengthened through local organizing efforts

and through an alliance with Cultural Survival, an indigenous support group that

screened forest products for viable market opportunities. Relations were then

forged with progressive North American and European businesses and consumers.

May cautions that expanding markets for nonwood timber products has its risks,

including the encouragement of cultivation of specific products at the expense of

natural vegetation, the capture of new market opportunities by large landowners

and merchants, and overdependency of forest dwellers on particular products and

newly obtained market goods.

This article is relevant in the Pacific Northwest. Vertical and horizontal integration

in the industry is producing “superregional” special forest product processors that

outcompete small, community-based companies, with serious implications for the

link between nontimber forest product harvesting and community development.

Keywords: Amazon, land tenure, extractive reserves, market development,

Cultural Survival.

McCutcheon, A.R.; Ellis, S.M.; Hancock, R.E.W.; Towers, G.H.N. 1992. Antibiotic screening of medicinal plants of the British Columbian native peoples.

Journal of Ethnopharmacology 37: 213-223.

Gives results of screenings of 100 methanolic plant extracts for antibiotic activity

against 11 bacterial strains. Details of extraction and disc preparation for disc

diffusion assays of the bacterial strains are described. The authors found that 95

percent of plants targeted as possible antibiotics, based on uses by British

Columbian indigenous peoples, demonstrated significant antibiotic activity. Extracts

with the broadest range of activity against bacteria (10 out of 11) were red alder

(Alnus rubra, bark and catkins), beach strawberry (Fragaria chiloensis, leaves),

single delight (Moneses uniflora, aerial parts), and smooth sumac (Rhus glabra,

branches). Species with extracts effective against 9 out of 11 strains were

kinnikinnick (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi, branches and roots), Louisiana sagewort

(Artemisia ludoviciana, aerial parts), arrowleaf balsamroot (Balsamorhiza sagittata,

aerial parts and roots), western cordilleran bunchberry (Cornus unalaschkensis,

aerial parts), largeleaf avens (Geum macrophyllum, roots), roundleaf alumroot

(Heuchera cylindrica, roots), common juniper (Juniperus communis, branches),

western larch (Larix occidentalis, branches), fernleaf biscuiroot (Lomatium

dissectum, roots), and redflower current (Ribes sanguineum, branches).

The authors warn that limiting the size of the screen to only five bacteria would

have doubled the number of plants found to be inactive and would have resulted

in failure to uncover important medical properties.

Keywords: Medicinal plants, antibacterial potency, indigenous use, British

Columbia.
137

McRae, Michael. 1993. Mushrooms, guns, and money. Outside. 18(10): 64-69,

151-154.

Reports on the robbery and murder of a wild mushroom harvester in northeastern

Oregon during spring 1993. Wide availability of firearms and territoriality among

pickers have led to anger and violence. Violence has increased the call for regulation of mushroom harvesting. The author describes the business relations at a La

Grande, Oregon, mushroom processor. Business transactions are virtually all

cash-based, armed guards are necessary, and only the buyers are becoming

wealthy. Conflicts in work customs and ethics between local residents and Asian

immigrant mushroom pickers are creating resentment. Rumors of Canadian mushroom brokers who help launder Asian crime syndicate money are repeated.

Unemployment and poverty in the Northwest are listed as reasons for seeking

employment in mushroom collecting. For rural people and immigrants with low

incomes, mushroom picking is one of a portfolio of seasonal activities by which

they make ends meet and maintain personal freedom.

Keywords: Wild edible mushrooms, resource conflict, Asian immigrants, Oregon.

McRobert, Gussie. 1985. A walk on the wild side. Oregon Business. October:

105-106.

Discusses the rapid increase in wild mushroom harvests in the Pacific Northwest,

which is estimated to have tripled in 5 years and to yield estimated annual industry

sales of US$21.4 million. Industry trends and issues are reviewed, including foreign

investment, lack of financing, the development of the cultivated mushroom market

and conflicts among resource users. Provides vignettes of emerging companies

involved in buying, processing, and selling mushrooms.

Keywords: Wild edible mushrooms, Pacific Northwest, economic value.

Midwest Research Institute. 1992a. Aromatics. MRI Tech. Pap. Kansas City, MO.

16 p.

Discusses important essential oils including oil from western redcedar (Thuja

plicata), which is native to the Pacific Northwest. Oil is produced from branch ends

and leaves and is used in embalming fluids, microscope slide specimens, room

deodorants, cleaning fluids, perfumes, and salves. Most production of western

redcedar comes from British Columbia. Another native species, Canadian horseweed (Conyza canadensis), is a weedy species, widespread in the Pacific Northwest, that also produces economic quantities of erigeron oil.

Most consumers of essential oils live in developed industrial countries. China, eastern Europe, and Russia are potential major competitors supplying similar products

from many species. Important factors to consider before large-scale investments

are made in aromatic oil production include good yield of high-quality oil; availability of large enough volumes for economies of scale; cost-efficient distillation

technology; and available capital to produce at least a 6-month supply without

sales. Small-scale operations can engage in distillation operations for tourist sales
138

with considerable value-added by bottling in small volumes, but sales to volume

buyers require considerable investment to assure a dependable supply and product purity.

Keywords: Essential oils, Pacific Northwest, production.

Midwest Research Institute. 1992b. Berries and wild fruit. MRI Tech. Pap.

Kansas City, MO. 16 p.

Important species mentioned that are found in the Pacific Northwest are the introduced Himalayan blackberry (Rubus discolor), Oregongrapes (Mahonia spp.),

Saskatoon serviceberry (Amelanchier alnifolia), and wild huckleberries (Vaccinium

spp.). Berries often serve as a draw for tourism and recreation, local confection

industries, and local festivals (for example, blueberries (Vaccinium spp.) in the

upper Midwest and in the East). Although closely related to blueberries, huckleberries have different management requirements. Huckleberry fields become

established after subalpine forests burn, but huckleberry management does not

profit from subsequent burnings. Removing individual trees is the best control of

overstory trees. Requirements for less risk prone landscapes for consistent huckleberry production are discussed: natural sites for recreational picking, a mix of

ecological sites for berry production, and sites located within 30 miles of a tourist

destination and within 1/2 mile of a road.

A profile is included of a successful Idaho firm that sells value-added huckleberry

products from berries purchased for US$2/lb during the 4-week harvest season in

adjacent National Forests.

Keywords: Berries, stand management, market development, burning.

Midwest Research Institute. 1992c. Cones and seeds. MRI Tech. Pap. Kansas

City, MO. 15 p.

Major decorative cone species in the Pacific Northwest are Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla), ponderosa pine (Pinus

ponderosa), lodgepole pine (P. contorta), sugar pine (P. lambertiana), and western

white pine (P. monticola). Cones of different species are generally readily substitutable. Western hemlock cones and scales from noble fir (Abies procera) are mainly

used for potpourri. Important sources are Federal lands, large industrial forest

landowners, seed companies, and seed tree nurseries. In general, the market for

seed cones is very small as compared to the market for decorative cones.

The decorative cone market is not stable but has greatly increased over the last

2 years. There are four major decorative cone markets in the United States:

Tennessee, Minnesota, the East Coast, and California. The German market is

estimated, however, to be 10 times that of the United States. Foreign competitors

include Guatemala and other Latin America sources. The wide distribution of

lodgepole pine makes its cones one of the most marketed worldwide.

Wildcrafters are advised to sell to brokers or wholesalers rather than to manufacturers. Red alder (Alnus rubra), western redcedar, and incense-cedar (Calocedrus

decurrens) are the most valuable cones per pound, based on a 1991 cone price list
139

from an Oregon firm, and the sugar pine cone is the most valuable individual

cone in the Rogue River National Forest, Oregon. Information is provided about

distribution, packaging, equipment needs, costs, and suppliers. The business of

a decorative cone collector from Oregon is profiled.

Keywords: Cones, United States.

Midwest Research Institute. 1992d. Forest botanicals. MRI Tech. Pap. Kansas

City, MO. 40 p.

Potential botanicals include redroot amaranth (Amaranthus retroflexus), western

brackenfern (Pteridium aquilinum), henbit deadnettle (Lamium amplexicaule),

pepperweeds (Lepidium spp.), Allium spp., and Viola spp. Also having agroforestry potential are field horsetail (Equisetum arvense), immature maple (Acer

spp.) seeds, miner’s lettuce (Claytonia perfoliata), nettles (Urtica spp.), wood

sorrels (Oxalis spp.), prickly pears (Opuntia spp.), salmonberry (Rubus spectabilis)

shoots, smooth sumac (Rhus glabra) for tea, and willow (Salix spp.). Botanicals

with commercial potential are listed as well. Those species from the Pacific

Northwest include California laurel (Umbellularia californica), cascara (Frangula

purshiana), Arctic sweet coltsfoot (Petasites frigidus), devilsclub (Oplopanax

horridus), kinnikinnick (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi), American false hellebore

(Veratrum viride), Pacific mistletoe (Phoradendron villosum), hollyleaved barberry

(Mahonia aquifolium), prince’s-pine (Chimaphila umbellata), blue skullcap

(Scutellaria lateriflora), and British Columbia wild ginger (Asarum caudatum).

In general the market for the harvest and sale of wildcrafted fresh greens is more

limited than for fresh edible wild mushrooms because of perishability. Entry for

new products into medicinal plant markets is fairly easy. Producers need to be

familiar with Federal and state regulations for health products. Making medical

claims requires extensive testing and certification.

The author advises growers and gatherers to deal with brokers rather than

buyers, do a feasibility study, provide samples, make the effort to establish an

ethical reputation, and learn the trade and business thoroughly. Details of harvesting, drying, storage, packaging, distribution, equipment needs, supplies, and

costs are discussed. Aspects of resource conservation of wild stocks and measures for self-policing in the industry are described. An extensive bibliography and

lists of pertinent professional organizations, resources, journals, videos, wholesalers, and resource people are given.

Keywords: Wild edible plants, medicinal plants, economic development, United

States.

Midwest Research Institute. 1992e. Greenery, transplants, and floral products.

MRI Tech. Pap. Kansas City, MO. 74 p.

Describes the Pacific Northwest as the most active region in the United States

for providing decorative floral greenery, transplants, and horticultural greenery.

Important floral greens are beargrass (Xerophyllum tenax), which is also used

for making baskets, western swordfern (Polystichum munitum), evergreen
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huckleberry (Vaccinium ovatum), salal (Gaultheria shallon), and many moss

species. Prominent uncultivated nonnative plants of economic value are scotchbroom (Cytisus scoparius) and babysbreath gypsophila (Gypsophila paniculata).

Tree species used for decorative boughs include Pacific silver fir (Abies amabilis),

subalpine fir (A. lasiocarpa), noble fir (A. procera), lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta),

western white pine (P. monticola), Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), western

juniper (Juniperus occidentalis), incense-cedar (Calocedrus decurrens, western

redcedar (Thuja plicata), and Port-Orford-cedar (Chamaecyparis lawsoniana).

In addition, broadleaf cattail (Typha latifolia), deer fern (Blechnum spicant),

manzanitas (Arctostaphylos spp.), boxleaf myrtle (Paxistima mysinites), western

pearly everlasting (Anaphalis margaritacea), and willows (Salix spp.) are widely

collected. Major horticultural transplant species in the Pacific Northwest are

mountain hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana), lodgepole pine, subalpine fir, noble fir,

vine maple (Acer circinatum), beargrass, and cattail.

People interested in harvesting wild floral products are cautioned to calculate time

and expense for harvest, drying, processing, packaging, and distributing products.

Considerations for rural development suggest that education about different uses

of native plants is important. Cultivation of commercial species on private lands will

become increasingly important. Cooperatives and stewardship contracts are two

institutions that could transform the structure of floral products marketing and

cultivation. The appendix includes an extensive bibliography and lists of trade

journals and buyers. Conditions for obtaining permits for forest greens and boughs

from the Randle Ranger District (Gifford Pinchot National Forest, Washington) are

given as well as the contents of a 1983 manual with guidelines for picking greenery

in western Washington, a list of buyers, and texts of pertinent laws.

Keywords: Floral greens, conifer boughs, horticultural plants, rural development,

cooperatives, stewardship contracts.

Midwest Research Institute. 1992f. Honey. MRI Tech. Pap. Kansas City, MO.

16 p.

Major sources of honey in spring are alders (Alnus spp.), willows (Salix spp.),

maples (Acer spp.), and serviceberries (Amelanchier spp.). Rubus spp. are

important for summer nectar flow, and goldenrods (Solidago spp.) and asters

(Aster spp.) are the major autumn nectar species. The Apalachicola National

Forest in Florida yields substantial quantities of tupelo (Nyssa sylvatica) honey.

Major international competition comes from China, Argentina, Mexico, and

Canada. Other important byproducts are bee pollen and beeswax. Commercial

beekeepers may decide to move mobile hives close to nectar plants currently in

flower. Generally the value of the bees as pollinators is much greater than the

value of the honey product. Details of packaging, distribution, equipment needs,

supplies, and costs are provided. An overview of bee management also is

included. The appendix contains a bibliography and lists of relevant periodicals,

professional associations, extension resources, USDA research facilities, and

sources of apiarist supplies.

Keywords: Honey, bee pollen, beeswax, United States.
141

Midwest Research Institute. 1992g. Mushrooms. MRI Tech. Pap. Kansas City,

MO. 34 p.

Discusses the growth of the market for wild edible mushrooms in the Pacific Northwest. The initial surge began with the canning of golden chanterelles (Cantharellus

cibarius) for European markets. Other commercially important species are morels

(Morchella conica and M. esculenta), American matsutake (Tricholoma

magnivelare), king boletes (Boletus edulis), and hedgehog mushrooms (Dentinum

repandum). Details of annual harvest volumes, prices, and regulations in the

Pacific Northwest are provided. Important information on distribution, packaging,

equipment needs, and costs for forest harvesting is given. Issues of resource conservation, harvest regulation, links to forest management practices, social conflicts

among harvesting groups, and options for permits and licenses also are analyzed.

The appendix includes a bibliography and lists of resource experts, professional

associations, periodicals, suppliers, and buyers.

Keywords: Wild edible mushrooms, Pacific Northwest.

Miller, Melanie. 1977. Response of blue huckleberry to prescribed fires in western

Montana larch-fir forest. Res. Pap. INT-188. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of

Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment

Station. 33 p.

Reports on results from treatments with prescribed fire on blue huckleberry

(Vaccinium membranaceum). Fire intensity accounted for differences in sprouting

response. Nine spring burns and eleven autumn burns were conducted on 1/3-acre

sites in Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) / western larch (Larix occidentalis)

stands near Missoula, Montana. Data on shrubs were collected on 26 1-m2

quadrants within each burn plot. Fuel loadings, fuel and duff moisture content, and

environmental variables were statistically related to the number of stems recorded

1 and 2 years after the fires.

Plants burned in the fall did not produce sprouts from released buds until the following spring. Spring fires typically resulted in more sprouts than were found in

sites before the fire. These fires removed senescing stems but caused minimal

damage to the rhizome. Fall fires were more intense and often reached below the

depth of all rhizomes. Fall rains raised the moisture content of fine fuels and duff

but did not seem to soak through to soil layers. Little or no sprouting occurred on

many of the plots 1 year after the autumn burns, but numbers of total stems

increased over the prefire conditions in eight of the plots by the end of the second

year. In general, plant numbers increased from prefire conditions if stems were

burned off above ground level. When heat penetrated to deeper levels, sprout

density was low; however, fall fires in areas with light fuel loadings, wet duff, and

fine fuels rarely killed rhizomes. Fire responses in other shrubs with sprouting root

crowns, such as Saskatoon serviceberry (Amelanchier alnifolia), may be quite

different because of differences in the form, size, and location of sprouting sites.

Management practices to promote single species may be quite different as well.

Keywords: Burning, sprouting, productivity, berries.
142

Miller, Richard Alan. 1988. Native plants of commercial importance: the nomadic

life of the professional forager. Grants Pass, OR: OAK, Inc.

Minore, Don. 1972. The wild huckleberries of Oregon and Washington—a dwindling resource. Res. Pap. PNW-143. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station.

20 p.

Summarizes the status of huckleberries (Vaccinium spp.) in the Pacific Northwest,

management considerations, and techniques. Huckleberries are found on at least

160,000 acres in Oregon and Washington. The economic importance of berry fields

can be considerable. Very productive fields near Trout Lake, Washington, yielded

up to US$300 per acre in 1969. Often the most productive fields are in poor timbergrowing zones. The cluster-fruited species, V. uliginosum and V. ovatum are more

productive than single-fruited species, but the berries are not as choice. The three

red-fruited species (V. parvifolium, V. scoparium, and V. myrtillus) are either tart or

produced in insignificant quantities. Of the remaining species, blue huckleberry (V.

membranaceum) is the most widely picked.

Huckleberry fields depended originally on wildfire for establishment and reinvigoration. Lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta), western mountain ash (Sorbus sitchensis),

and beargrass (Xerophyllum tenax) are the most vigorous competitors with

Vaccinium species. With wildfires suppressed and with more intensive reforestation, huckleberry areas appear to be declining in size and berry output. Factors

influencing huckleberry occurrence and productivity in clearcuts are not well understood. Management of berry fields has faltered because funding has been abset,

and no one knows how to manage the fields for production.

By analogy, management of eastern North American Vaccinium species can

provide some general guidelines for management in the Pacific Northwest.

Management findings gleaned from studies conducted in the East are summarized.

Burning prunes the old, less productive stems, stimulates new sprouting, and

sometimes reduces competition from other species. Cutting rhizomes has the

same effect on rowth but is more labor intensive. Fire may not promote Vaccinium

colonization on newly cleared land. Chemical weed control is another option.

Maintaining relatively low soil pH (4 to 5) may be important. Extractable iron is

particularly important for plant growth. Use of phosphorus-potassium fertilizers

without nitrogen improves berry production.

Selecting and propagating superior wild clones of native huckleberries may

increase profitability of managed fields on public lands in the Pacific Northwest.

Sheep grazing also benefits huckleberry growth. Shading may protect some plants

from starting to grow too early, before the last hard freeze. The author advises a

complete inventory of the huckleberry resource. Researchers have already carried

out trial procedures for an inventory at the Mount Adams Ranger District, Gifford

Pinchot National Forest, Washington.

Keywords: Berries, management, clearcutting, burning, herbicides, fertilizers,

Gifford Pinchot, Washington, Pacific Northwest.
143

Minore, Don. 1983. Western redcedar—a literature review. Gen. Tech. Rep.

GTR-PNW-150. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,

Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 70 p.

Compiles comprehensive information about all aspects of western redcedar (Thuja

plicata) and provides citations about Native American uses of redcedar bark to

make baskets, ropes, blankets, mats, clothing, and thatch; branches to make

baskets; twigs to make whaling ropes and arrows; and roots for fishhooks. Cedar

leaf oil is used in perfumes, insecticides, medicinal and antibacterial preparations,

veterinary soaps, shoe polishes, and room deodorants.

Keywords: Essential oils, ethnobotany.

Minore, Don. 1984. Vaccinium membranaceum berry production seven years

after treatment to reduce overstory tree canopies. Northwest Science. 58(3):

208-212.

Reports on research to control the amount of overstory in subalpine blue huckleberry (Vaccinium membranaceum) patches. A completely randomized experimental design with five treatments replicated four times for the overstory was

carried out. Treatments consisted of overstory cut and burn, 2,4-D frill, 2,4-D spray,

Phellinus weirii inoculation, and a control. Berry production was sampled every

other year from 1975 through 1981. The 2,4-D frill treatment provided significantly

higher berry production in 1981. Elimination of overstory shade without disturbing

understory vegetation appeared most effective for berry production. The response

of berry productivity to fire was slower than expected.

This article is important as one of the very few controlled experiments conducted

in the Pacific Northwest about management options for nontimber forest products.

It also suggests a method to calculate ripe weight of berries from data sets of

picked berries.

Keywords: 2,4-D, berries, girdling, huckleberry, productivity, fire.

Minore, Don; Dubrasich, Michael E. 1978. Big huckleberry abundance as

related to environment and associated vegetation near Mt. Adams, Washington.

Res. Note PNW-322. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest

Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 8 p.

Reports on results of research on blue huckleberry (Vaccinium membranaceum)

ecology and management conducted between 1972 and 1977 in the Gifford

Pinchot and Mount Hood National Forests. Huckleberries cover an estimated

100,000 acres in Washington and Oregon. Many of the fields have originated from

wildfires occurring above 3,000-ft elevation. As much as 100 gal/acre were

harvested at one high-quality site in 1976; in 1977 production fell to 77 gal/acre.

Berry prices averaged US$10-11 per gallon at the same time. If only half the

potential crop were picked, yield would exceed $300 per acre. Loss of huckleberry

habitat to invading trees of low timber value may mean a loss of net value to

society.

At Mount Adams, in southern Washington, randomized 120-ft2 plots of five

treatments (control, cut and burn, burn, borax application [boron fertilization], and
144

sheep grazing) with four replications were established in 1972. By 1977, huckleberry and beargrass (Xerophyllum tenax) had recovered biomass but berry production was minimal in control plots. Intensive sheep grazing reduced berry production

for 2 years then increased it in the 3d year after treatment; young conifer trees

were reduced in number. Borax did not affect berry production, but beargrass

declined on the same plots. All treatments failed to control competing species

without damage to huckleberries. Vegetation and huckleberries were sampled in

1975 and 1977 as at Mount Adams. Lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) was the tree

species most affected by the herbicide spray of 2,4-D; in general, overstory cover

was significantly reduced. Burning reduced the huckleberry cover significantly; full

recovery had not occurred in 1977. Herbicide damage from 2,4-D in the “brown”

and burn treatment was less severe than in the burning treatment, and recovery

appeared to be faster. Huckleberry cover on the 2,4-D frill, Phellinus, and control

plots all increased slightly from 1975 to 1977 without statistically significant differences among treatments. Berry production remained absent in 1977 from huckleberries burned in 1975. Berry production in frilled-tree plots was significantly higher

than in controls. Burning as an effective management technique probably works

under conditions of high fire hazard. Killing foliage with a herbicide appears not to

provide enough dry fuel to support a stand fire. Phellinus inoculations may achieve

effects at a rate that the time frame of these experiments did not cover.

Other studies were conducted southwest of Mount Hood, Oregon. The effect of

overstory removal with a bulldozer and subsequent slash burning on huckleberry

growth and berry production was tested. Bulldozing occurred in 1973 and burning

in summer 1974. Competing vegetation was eliminated, but fire damaged the

huckleberries and reduced berry production for the subsequent 3 years as compared to control plots. On a separate plot grid, three treatments of karbutilate

(5, 10, and 15 lb/acre) plus controls were randomly replicated four times in early

spring. Randomized 120-ft

2

 grid plots all with 30-ft buffer strips were treated one

of five ways: control, cut and burn, “brown” vegetation with a low volatile ester of

2,4-D and burn, 2,4-D applications to frilled trees, and inoculation with Phellinus

weirii (Murr.). Phellinus weirii was intended to thin overstory trees continuously by

rotting tree root systems.

Details of rooting and germination trials are also given. Differences in timing of

first flowering and rhizome formation were found among V. membranaceum and

V. deliciosum. Vaccinium deliciosum was the most frost-tolerant species. Beargrass seeds germinated well under the identical conditions of nutrients, temperature, and photoperiod as V. membranaceum.

Tentative suggestions for management of ecological conditions for higher elevation

huckleberry patches are made: partial shading obtained through partial overstory

removal, and avoidance of shrub disturbances. Girdling of overstory trees may be

more suitable than using herbicides. Sheep grazing promotes huckleberry growth,

but sheep should be removed from huckleberry fields before berry picking begins.

Nitrogen fertilization is recommended. Burning is useful only if a significant delay

before the onset of new huckleberry crops (for example, ≥5 years) is acceptable

and if the overstory trees are not of merchantable quality.

Keywords: Berries, management, Gifford Pinchot National Forest, Mount Hood

National Forest, Oregon, Washington, harvest, price, yield, plots, burning, borax,

grazing, karbutilate, bulldozing, fertilization, monitoring.
145

Minore, Don; Smart, Alan W.; Dubrasich, Michael E. 1979. Huckleberry

ecology and management research in the Pacific Northwest. Gen.Tech. Rep.

GTR PNW-83. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,

Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 50 p.

For centuries, wildfires and fires set by Native Americans created and maintained

open, tree-free environments above 3,000 ft which were ideal habitat for

huckleberries (Vaccinium spp.). High berry production in these fields resulted in

economic yields of over US$300 per acre (1977 dollars), and high recreation

values, reflected in a tally of 163,000 visitor-days in a heavily used field in 1969.

Suppression of fire in recent decades has resulted in trees invading the huckleberry fields and eventually shading out the shrubs and eliminating huckleberry

production. The authors explored, through experiments in the field and the laboratory, various methods to control competing species without reducing huckleberry

growth or berry production, including sheep grazing, cutting and burning, borax

application, bulldozing and burning, herbicides, and biological controls. Based on

the results of these experiments, herbicide use (2,4-D amine) or girdling were

recommended for low tree-density areas and bulldoze-and-burn treatments were

recommended for eliminating dense, unmerchantable, overstory canopies.

Keywords: Berries, economic value, herbicides, girdling, vegetation control.

Minore, Don; Weatherly, Howard G. 1994. Effects of partial bark removal on the

growth of Pacific yew. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 24(4): 860-862.

Measured growth rates of 121 Pacific yew (Taxus brevifolia) trees in the Cascade

Range of Oregon and Washington that had been damaged from windthrow or

logging activity from 3 to 92 years ago, and the growth rate of 121 undamaged

trees. Results from the data indicated that yew trees survive and grow well for

extended periods after partial bark removal. By inference, trees are likely to survive

after partial (<50 percent) bark stripping for taxol supplies in the event of continued

harvests for taxol.

Keywords: Bark removal, bark stripping, logging damage, taxol, windthrow

damage.

Miyamoto, T.; Tsuzuki, K; Yoshida, M. 1985. Prediction of bed log production in

[a] stand of Quercus acutissima. Bulletin of the Forestry and Forest Products

Research Institute. 333: 173-199. In Japanese.

Uses least squares estimation techniques to predict the amount of wood volume

from an oak stand for bed logs in the production of commercially grown edible

mushrooms. Regression equations are used to sort logs by diameter class and

length. This article is particularly valuable as a guide to planning for the production

of down wood. Down wood can enhance nutrient cycling and create diverse forest

habitats while producing economic value from edible wild mushrooms inoculated

on the down logs.

Keywords: Bed logs, down wood, joint production, cultivated mushrooms, regression techniques, volume projections.
146

Möhrer, Günther. 1977. Die Praxis der Schmuckgrünwerbung und -sortierung=

Gathering and sorting practices for decorative greenery. Allgemeine

Forstzeitung. 32(46): 1143-1144. In German.

Analyzes the means for acquiring forest products from North Rhein/Westphalia

forests in Germany for marketing. There are three major strategies: gathering

greens using a firm’s own personnel, contracting out for greens collection, or

obtaining greens from a wholesaler. Studies show that the second method seems

to be most efficient, but each forest products company needs to conduct its own

analyses. The author includes discussion of ornamental trees, Christmas trees,

decorative cut greens, and dried material including cones, mushrooms, and moss.

Most work is seasonal by nature with delivery for most products from October

through December. Good business organization assures delivering by required

dates and improves profits. Tools (scissors, packing knives, files), equipment

(scales, cutting boards, carts), machinery (chainsaws, packagers), packing

material (rustfree wire, cord, labels, cardboard boxes), and rainproof clothing are

essential to produce the desired quantity and quality.

Average productivity per contracted worker per hour for greenery gathering ranges

from 50 kg for finely branched decorative greens, such as Port-Orford-cedar

(Chamaecyparis lawsoniana), to 150 kg for Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii)

and eastern white pine (Pinus strobus) when bundled into 5-kg packages. These

figures come from stands not specifically managed for greens production alone.

Workers are paid for piece work. State forest workers were 40 to 50 percent less

productive than contracted workers. Customers prefer to have products in standardized 5-kg bundles except for small bunches of branches for florists, which are

picked at a rate of 70 per hour (eastern white pine at 0.5 kg each) and 120 per

hour (Douglas-fir and true firs at 1.0 kg each). Number of branches per bundle is

more important than weight. A nationwide grading system to define and assure

product quality has not been developed.

Single workers trim a block of eight rows of trees no further than 15 m from a

portable scale set up between the fourth and fifth row to weigh bundles. The

bundles are collected twice a day. Another system uses two workers on a block of

four rows of trees who trim greenery tree by tree. While one person sorts, weighs,

and bundles the greens, the other person brings the bundles to a truck pickup spot.

All processing is done in the stand and there is no need for a processing center.

Special considerations are needed for blue spruce (Picea pungens) to protect the

blue color and to maintain ambient dryness. Douglas-fir needles often turn yellow

after packing.

Many factors come into play when determining a harvesting schedule. Cutting

should begin early in the stand rotation. Leaving the top three to four whorls alone

while cutting lower branches back to leave a branch remnant capable of producing

lateral branching for future greenery has proven a good practice. When trees get

too tall, managers emphasize management for timber production. Frequency of

harvests depends on the size of the operation. Some stands are harvested for

greenery every year, others only every 2 or 3 years.

Keywords: Conifer boughs, Christmas trees, cones, wild edible mushrooms, moss,

marketing, production, worker productivity, harvesting, pruning, management,

Germany.
147

Molina, R.; Amaranthus, M.; Pilz, D.; Fischer, C. [In press]. Commercial harvest

of edible ectomycorrhizal fungus sporocarps from Pacific Northwestern forests:

ecological and management implications. In: Proceedings of the 4th European

mycorrhiza symposium; 1994 August; Granada, Spain. [Place of publication

unknown]: [Publisher unknown].

Reports on the status of commercial mushroom harvests in the Pacific Northwest,

biological and management concerns, and appropriate monitoring. Decline in availability of chanterelles (Cantharellus spp.) in Europe and matsutake (Tricholoma

matsutake) in Japan spurred the growth of mushrooms exports from the Pacific

Northwest in the early 1980s. Presently, exports consist mostly of fresh, airshipped mushrooms. The rapid increase in commercial mushroom harvest had

raised questions about the range and productivity of major commercial species,

the sustainability of current harvest levels, the effect of management practices

(grazing, fertilization, and so forth) on mushroom production, the population

biology, and the reproductive rates of mycorrhizal species. Three types of

monitoring are proposed: detection monitoring for questions of productivity and

distribution, evaluation monitoring to explain effects from forest management, and

research monitoring to clarify biological and ecological phenomena.

Keywords: Pacific Northwest, wild edible mushrooms, monitoring.

Molina, Randy; O’Dell, Thomas; Luoma, Daniel [and others]. 1993. Biology,

ecology, and social aspects of wild edible mushrooms in the forests of the

Pacific Northwest: a preface to managing commercial harvest. Gen. Tech. Rep.

PNW-GTR-309. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,

Pacific Northwest Research Station. 42 p.

Provides an excellent review of the biology, ecology, and management issues

surrounding commercial wild mushrooms in the Pacific Northwest. A primer on

forest mycology is followed by brief descriptions of 12 of the most sought-after

mushroom and truffle species. Major economic species discussed are Boletus

edulis, Cantharellus cibarius, C. subalbidus, Craterellus cornucopiodes, Dentinum

repandum, Hericium abietis, Lepiota rhacodes, Morchella esculenta, Picoa

carthusiana, Sparassis crispa, Tricholoma magnivelare, and Tuber gibbosum. The

descriptions include color photographs and a list of references to the technical

literature on each species. Historical uses and attitudes toward fungi are

described, and the variety of user groups are discussed, along with a description of

the resource conflicts that exist among users and between users and landowners.

The development of the commercial wild mushroom harvest is reviewed, with a

focus on the history and results of the Wild Mushroom Harvesting Act in

Washington State. Finally, the need for monitoring to design sustainable and

equitable harvesting practices is discussed. Three kinds of monitoring systems are

suggested: detection to determine mushroom production over space and time,

evaluation to determine the extent and cause of any changes in production, and

research on the role of fungi in ecosystem processes.

This report offers a comprehensive overview of the social and economic policy

issues that confront ecosystem managers in the Pacific Northwest involved with

regulating edible mushroom harvests.

Keywords: Wild edible mushrooms, harvesting, monitoring, truffles, regulation,

resource conflict, Washington State, Wild Mushroom Harvest Act.
148

Moore, Michael. 1993. Medicinal plants of the Pacific West. Santa Fe: Red Crane

Books. 360 p.

Introduces prominent medicinal plants of the Pacific States. Descriptions of

species’ appearance, habitat, and active compounds are given. The author

emphasizes that medicinal plants should be collected only in habitats where the

plants are common. Harvesters should not pick more than one-third of the plants in

a stand and no more than a fourth of the foliage or twigs of a single plant, and

should dig up roots of only half the visible plants, at most. Plants whose populations obviously would be harmed by collection are omitted from discussion. Techniques for plant drying and preparing salves, teas, eye washes, poultices, and

herbal tinctures are detailed.

Keywords: Medicinal plants, Pacific States, conservation, ecological sustainability.

Moreno-Black, Geraldine; Price, Lisa Leimar. 1993. The marketing of gathered

food as an economic strategy of women in northeastern Thailand. Human

Organization. 52(4): 398-404.

Describes the economic changes that occurred as members of a Thai village

began to market gathered food commercially that traditionally had been used for

subsistence. Increasing participation in a cash-based economy transformed the

role of women as gatherers of nonstaple wild food crops. Commercial sale of

gathered foods frequently was a major income source for women who were

virtually the exclusive vendors in Kalasin city markets. Surveys and interviews were

conducted over 3 months in 1988. Information was collected about gathering habits

and earnings, economic data for households of gatherers, the products for sale,

food consumption, family histories of vendors and customers, and demographics.

Interviews were done with both vendors and nonvendors. Eighteen percent of the

gathered foods came from forests; 78 percent of women earned more from gathering and selling foods than the going rate for daily agricultural labor. Gathering

noncultivated and nondomesticated foods for sale required less risk and less cash

investment than cultivation for cash income. Women gained greater economic

autonomy, could purchase more expensive material goods, made greater contributions to social and religious obligations, and improved their social status.

This article describes potential approaches to sociological studies of gatherers and

vendors of nontimber forest products in the Pacific Northwest to gain greater

insight into the motivations and benefits of gathering products.

Keywords: Household strategies, gathering, Thailand, edible wild plants.

Morra, Francesco. 1955. La produzione ed il commercio dei tartufi=Truffle production and trade. Allionia. 2(2): 51-55. In Italian.

The best quality truffles (Tuber spp.) in Italy are produced in the region from the

Astigiano to the Canallese Rivers in Alba. Deforestation limits the production of

truffles in the area. Major collection occurs in October through December. The

grading system for product quality is described, but mislabeling is common in Italy,

especially out of season. The foreign market is saturated by black truffles (Tuber
149

melanosporum) from France, but markets for Italian white truffles have developed

in France, Switzerland, Belgium, and South Africa. The 30 to 40 percent higher

price for white truffles is an obstacle. Black truffles, which rival the best in France,

are found in Italy as well.

Keywords: Truffles, grading, competition, Italy.

Murray, M.D.; Crawford, P.D. 1982. Timber and boughs: compatible crops from

a noble fir plantation. In: Oliver, C.D.; Kendady, R.M., eds. Proceedings of a

symposium on the biology and management of true fir in the Pacific Northwest;

24-26 February 1981; Seattle. Contrib. 45. Seattle: University of Washington,

Institute of Forest Resources: 215-219.

Details a case study charting the growth and economic productivity of a 24-yearold plantation of noble fir (Abies procera) in western Washington. Young stands of

noble fir generated incomes from the sale of boughs for ornamental uses. Noble

fir accounted for about 75 percent of the true fir bough harvest in the Pacific

Northwest. Desirable qualities included durability, density and color of foliage,

symmetrical branching, and excellent needle retention. Although the profit

potential for noble fir has not been widely publicized in the Northwest, noble fir is

important in Denmark as a bough tree. Danish research has investigated yields of

different cutting intensities, effects of irrigation and fertilization on bough yields,

and changes in nutrient status of soils growing noble fir.

Timber production and bough harvests are compatible joint products. Bough

harvests can begin when trees are just 8 years old and can be sustained for up to

25 years. On this particular shallow and rocky site, bough harvests began at a

stand age of 13 years. Cutting was concentrated on dominant trees that were

2 to 3 years past breast height. Only outer parts of branches were cut so that the

remaining branch part could serve as a ladder for cutters to reach higher boughs

in the future. Usually at least five uncut upper whorls were left on each tree.

Open-grown, sapling-sized trees had the best quality and greatest quantity of

foliage. Mortality in the stand was avoided by thinning for Christmas trees.

In general, harvesting for boughs was more profitable than selling Christmas

trees.

Average annual harvest over the past 10 years was 1,720 lbs•ac-1•yr-1 or for each

tree about 4.4 lb/yr. Most trees had boughs removed at least twice during the

period. Boughs estimated at 10,920 lb/ac and valued at US$982 per acre provided enough revenue to more than cover the cost of the thinning. A three-stage

thinning procedure involved marking trees to be thinned, stripping marked trees of

salable boughs, and removing stripped trees. No further bough harvests would

occur after stocking control. Harvested boughs were carried to the road by hand.

Keywords: Conifer boughs, Christmas trees, harvest, pruning, thinning,

Washington, joint production.

Nash, June. 1994. Global integration and subsistence insecurity. American

Anthropologist. 96(1): 7-30.
150

Nelson, T.C.; Williamson, M.J. 1970. Decorative plants of Appalachia: a source of

income. Agric. Info. Bull. 342. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture.

31 p.

Provides descriptions of important Appalachian plant species used for decorative

floral and foliage arrangements. Many of the plants mentioned have congener

species in the Pacific Northwest that are not known or are underutilized in the

ornamental trade. Genera to investigate include Kalmia spp., Rhododendron spp.,

Phoradendron spp. (mistletoe), Lycopodium spp. (clubmoss), and mosses

(especially the genus Hypnum). Particular attention is given to conifer species that

might compete with Pacific Northwest species, especially in Eastern markets.

The authors also provide tips on marketing and seeking local advice and assistance in beginning a decorative plant business. Details of legal restrictions on the

collection and transportation of decorative plant materials for each of the

Appalachian states also are provided.

Keywords: Horticultural plants, Appalachia, regulation.

Nepstad, Daniel C.; Schwartzmann, Stephan. eds. 1992. Nontimber products

from tropical forests: evaluation of a conservation and development strategy.

[Advances in Economic Botany]. [9]. 146 p.

Addresses the problem of how to use forests for profit and habitat at the same

time. Consists of a compilation of papers and discussions that occurred at an

international symposium on extractive economies in tropical forests held in 1989.

It includes chapters on the ecology of nontimber forest products, barriers to

nontimber forest product expansion, strategies for expanding nontimber forest

product extraction, socioeconomic case studies, and a discussion of the political

context in which nontimber forest product extraction must operate. Although the

focus is on nontimber forest product extraction in the Amazon, many of the

principles can be applied to other forests. Two of the case studies address this

issue directly: the suitability of the extractive reserve concept for Indonesia, and

the history of the gum arabic (Acacia nilotica) trade in West Africa as it illustrates

some of the ecological and socioeconomic implications of industrial extraction.

Key themes emerging from these articles include:

1. Not all forests are suitable for nontimber forest product extraction. Oligarchic

forests, where relatively few species are found in dense concentrations, seem to

be the most economically viable type of forest for extraction.

2. Nontimber forest product extraction is best seen as one strategy in a wide range

of land management and economic development strategies.

3. Government policies need to be structured to support, rather than undermine,

the social, market, and political institutions fostering sustainable nontimber forest

product extraction. Currently, nontimber forest products tend to be undervalued,

and the costs of logging and forest conversion tend to be underestimated. Elimination of subsidies favoring unsustainable forest use and the use of national resource

accounting, which incorporates the costs of natural resource depletion into national

income accounts, are suggested as mechanisms for shifting the balance in favor

of nontimber forest product extraction.
151

4. Nontimber forest product extraction faces a number of social and economic

barriers to its widespread use as a forest conservation or economic development

mechanism. For example, the heterogeneity of Amazonian forests leads to high

extraction costs, a problem exacerbated by weak markets and high substitution

potential. Extractors tend to live on the margin of subsistence and thus have limited

possibilities for engaging in conservation behavior if other, more lucrative, alternatives for making a living are available. This difficulty is enhanced by the generally

low percentage of a product’s market value that reaches the nontimber forest product harvester. Developing marketing systems that enhance the value that reaches

harvesters, foster value-added industries in forested locations, and address the

threats posed by weak markets and substitution is thus critical to the success of

nontimber forest product extraction strategies.

5. Expanding economically and ecologically sustainable nontimber forest product

extraction requires reconfiguring existing political and social institutions. Extractive

reserves, for example, offer the possibility for providing small holders the tenure

security needed to encourage sustainable extraction and discourage forest

conversion. Coalitions between extractor groups and nongovernment organizations

can help these groups to mobilize more effectively to demand government policies

that support rural community development rather than maximizing commodity

production. Such coalitions also can level the playing field between multinational

corporations and small-scale producers.

Keywords: Tropical rain forest, rural development, barriers, land tenure, partnerships, market expansion, extractive reserves, political economy, sustainability.

Newton, Ivan Leon. 1957. The gathering industry west of the Cascades. Corvallis,

OR: Oregon State University. 109 p. M.S. thesis.

Outlines nontimber forest products in western Oregon and Washington in detail.

The author conducted nonsystematic interviews of gatherers, users, purchasers,

and distributors. Problems of adequate supply and rights to access are discussed.

Product groups include decorative greens, native landscaping material, medicinal

plants, seeds and cones, and wild berries. The author includes a description of

harvesting techniques, seasonality, range, grading features, packaging, existing

processors, and current estimates of harvest levels for each noteworthy species.

Decorative plant species include western swordfern (Polystichum munitum),

evergreen huckleberry (Vaccinium ovatum), salal (Gautheria shallon), Port-Orfordcedar (Chamaecyparis lawsoniana), and western redcedar (Thuja plicata).

Horticulturally valuable species are vine maple (Acer circinatum), hollyleaved

barberry (Mahonia aquifolium), redflower current (Ribes sanguineum), Lewis’

mockorange (Philadelphus lewisii), Pacific dogwood (Cornus nuttallii), pink honeysuckle (Lonicera hispidula), Pacific rhododendron (Rhodedendron macrophyllum),

western azalea (R. occidentale), Pacific madrone (Arbutus menziesii), hairy

manzanita (Arctostaphylos columbiana), maidenhair ferns (Adiantum spp.), and

licorice fern (Polypodium glycyrrhiza). Major medicinal plants are cascara

(Frangula purshiana) and purple foxglove (Digitalis purpurea). Sphagnum spp.

for horticultural use and Pacific mistletoe (Phoradendron villosum) for holiday

decorations are described as well.

Keywords: Berries, buyers, cones, floral greens, conifer greens, harvesting

techniques, horticultural plants, medicinal plants, mistletoe, seeds, Oregon,

Washington.
152

Nicolaou, K.C.; Yang, Z.; Liu, J.J. [and others]. 1994. Total synthesis of taxol.

Nature. 367: 630-637.

Nicolas, Jose J. 1973. La trufa=The truffle. Boletin de la Estación Central de

Ecología. 2(3): 3-28. In Spanish.

Describes native species of truffles (Tuber spp.), their distribution and biology, and

the program of the National Institute for the Conservation of Nature in Spain to

develop populations of truffle species and parallel policy measures to ensure

sustainable use. In 1971, a national commission was established to study legal

means to improve conservation of the most valuable truffle species, and the first

formal conservation legislation was passed in 1972. Truffle consumption had

remained a localized phenomenon in Spain until 1954, when black truffles began

to be exported to meet growing demand in France. Truffle harvests have the

potential to revitalize rural economies of oak forests in much of Spain.

The rapid intensification of truffle collection and timber felling has created a need to

prevent rapid degradation of truffle habitats. Increasing value of truffles has caused

landowners to limit access to commercial collectors. Recommendations for protecting truffle populations include limiting the season for collection, limiting truffle

collection to trained people, requiring use of dogs (not pigs) in locating truffles,

requiring replacement of soil, proper equipment, care of symbiont trees, and fire

protection measures. In addition, programs for research in soil-vegetation-truffle

interactions, for reestablishment of truffle populations, and in rural extension are

advocated. A comparison of existing legislation in France, Italy, and Spain for the

collection, marketing, and exportation of truffles is included.

Keywords: Truffles, conservation, regulation, sustainability, rural development,

Spain, Italy, France.

Nielsen, Ulrik Bräuner. 1994. Breeding noble fir (Abies procera Rehder) and

Caucasian silver fir (Abies nordmanniana (Stev.) Spach) for Christmas trees and

greenery in Denmark. In: Lee, Steve J., ed. Progeny testing and breeding

strategies: Proceedings of the Nordic group for tree breeding; 6-10 October

1993; Edinburgh. London: United Kingdom Forestry Commission: 118-127.

Nishida, Teruaki; Ishikawa, Tatsuyoshi. 1967a. Analysis of environmental

factors in a Japanese red pine forest producing the fruit body of matsutake.

II: The influence of light intensity on the growth of the fruit body of matsutake.

Scien. Rep. Fac. Agric. 29. [Okayama, Japan]: Okayama University: 9-18.

In Japanese with English summary.

Examines the role of light intensity on the production and development of matsutake (Tricholoma matsutake) fruiting bodies. Boxes to control light at the sites

where matsutake mycelia fruit reduced light to between 5 and 6 percent of that

reaching the ground in two nearby stands, one treated with overstory removal and

one left as a control. Fruiting was studied during September and October in 1963-

66. Humidity, but not temperature, was higher inside the boxes as well. The light

control boxes did not significantly change the production of fruiting bodies or the
153

growth of mycelia. This work addresses light as an environmental variable possibly

affecting the productivity of matsutake and provides insights to manipulations of

vegetation overstory to create best light conditions for economic production of

matsutake.

Keywords: Fruiting bodies, light, mycelium, wild edible mushrooms, yield.

Nishida, Teruaki; Ishikawa, Tatsuyoshi. 1967b. Analysis of environmental

factors in a Japanese red pine forest producing the fruit body of matsutake.

III: Soil moisture conditions and soil respiration in the fungal zone of matsutake.

Scien. Rep. Faculty Agric. 29. [Okayama, Japan]: Okayama University: 19-26. In

Japanese with English summary.

Analyzes properties of soil containing mycelia of matsutake (Tricholoma

matsutake) in a pine forest. Contrasts appeared between soil inside the fairy ring,

on the ring, and outside the ring. Soil moisture holding capacity was lower within

the fairy ring, creating an environment unsuitable for the growth of Japanese red

pine (Pinus densiflora). The fairy ring zone has a high rate of soil respiration as

evidenced by CO2 levels in the soil. Levels of CO2 fall off rapidly in the soil after

the growth season for matsutake fruiting bodies.

Keywords: Wild edible mushrooms, soil conditions, Japan.

Noda, Hideshi. 1988. Policy relating to special forest products. In: Handa, R., ed.

Forest policy in Japan. Tokyo: Nippon Ringyo Chosaku.

Outlines Japanese forest policy on special forest products. The author notes that

their contribution to forest earnings has steadily increased over time, from 3 to 4

percent in 1960 to 13 percent in 1980. Much of that growth is due to the increasing

demand for edible mushrooms, particularly shiitake (Lentinus edodes). Edible

mushroom production is important as a stabilizing factor for rural household

economies, particularly during periods when timber is in decline. The author ties

the interest in shiitake production by the Japanese producer to the decline in

charcoal demand, previously a major income source for mountain villagers. The

author notes that shiitake cultivation also allowed rural dwellers to earn income

from forests that had been cut to provide timber for reconstruction, but which had

not yet reached maturity for additional cutting. The Japanese forest administration

has recently begun to emphasize special forest product production as a means of

offsetting loss of income during the recent recession.

The author also links the rise in mushroom demand to changes in eating habits

after World War II. These changes included a shift toward nonstaples, including

mushrooms; a trend toward eating out; and a shift toward processed and alreadycooked foods. Prior to the 1950s, shiitake mushrooms were produced largely for

export to China and Southeast Asia, and domestic demand was low. Supply was

kept low due to the inefficiency of the predominant method of cultivation—the

so-called scarring method. After World War II, the spawning method caught on,

enabling production to expand. Most of the shiitake production was dried for

export, and the trade was dominated by a few wholesalers.
154

During the 1960s and 1970s demand for shiitake and other edible mushrooms

expanded in Japan. The growth of a domestic industry was facilitated by new

transportation and refrigeration processes, which allowed fresh mushrooms to be

marketed. Rising interest in natural foods also contributed to increased demand for

edible mushrooms, and the growth of supermarkets provided a ready outlet. To

meet the demand for standardized mushrooms, small-scale producers sold to

wholesale auctions, where the products were graded. They also formed producer

cooperatives to offset the monopoly of the traditional wholesalers. Export

production continued to expand simultaneously, and the major markets remain

Hong Kong, Singapore, and China.

The author concludes with a short review of government policy in the special forest

product arena. Until the 1940s, government interest in special forest products

focused mainly on bamboo, resin, and wax production. In 1947, however, a

shiitake development program was begun, with support in the form of technical

assistance. In the late 1950s and 1960s, a system of subsidies for shiitake production started as a way to help rural households diversify from charcoal dependence.

In the late 1960s and 1970s, the government provided support for the formation of

producer cooperatives. In 1978, the government established a Special Forest

Products Office and, in 1979, issued basic guidelines for developing special forest

products as government policy.

Keywords: Wild edible mushrooms, cultivated mushrooms, Japan, policy, economic history, producer cooperative, rural development.

Norton, H.H.; Hunn, E.S.; Martinsen, C.S. [and others]. 1984. Vegetable food

products of the foraging economies of the Pacific Northwest. Ecology of Food

and Nutrition. 14: 219-228.

Presents nutritional analyses of 27 species of plants native to the Pacific Northwest

common in the diets of Native Americans before the arrival of Euro-Americans.

All foods were found by foraging, because Native American societies in the Pacific

Northwest did not practice crop agriculture. Berries along with salmon were the

mainstay of the diet of people living east of the Cascade Range. Important berry

species are salal (Gaultheria shallon), salmonberry (Rubus spectabilis), small

cranberry (Vaccinium oxycoccos), elderberries (Sambucus spp.), currents (Ribes

spp.), Saskatoon serviceberry (Amelanchier alnifolia), and 12 species of

huckleberries (Vaccinium spp.). Important root species were camas (Camassia

spp.), western brackenfern (Pteridium aquilinum), Pacific silverweed (Argentina

egedi), Oregon bitterroot (Lewisia rediviva), Lomatium spp., Fritillaria spp.,

Erythronium spp., Linum spp., Calochortus spp., Brodiaea spp., and Allium spp.

Native Americans also ate fresh stems and sprouts, especially in the early spring

when stored food was scarcest.

Samples of the food plant species were collected during their traditional collection

seasons, stored at 4 °C within 48 hours of collection, and analyzed within 72 hours

of collection. Samples, whether roots or berries, were weighed to 3- to 5-g samples

and then dried in an oven. For each sample, there was an analysis for protein,

lipids, ash, carbohydrates, kilocalories, minerals, and ascorbic acid. Nutritive

contents of the foods are as good or better than cultivated berries and fruits and

such staples as potatoes and sweet potatoes.

Keywords: Foraging strategies, indigenous foods, wild edible plants, nutrition.
155

Norton, Helen H. 1979a. Evidence for western brackenfern as a food for aboriginal

peoples of western Washington. Economic Botany. 33: 384-396.

Describes Native American uses of western brackenfern (Pteridium aquilinum).

Keywords: Ethnobotany, ferns, indigenous use, wild edible plants, Washington

State.

Norton, Helen H. 1979b. The association between anthropogenic prairies and

important food plants in western Washington. Northwest Anthropological

Research Notes. 13: 175-200.

Describes the unique dietary function of prairies in western Washington created by

Native Americans to provide a supply of carbohydrates and vegetable protein from

western brackenfern (Pteridium aquilinum) and camas (Camassia quamash) and

forage for deer. Burning, regular gathering, and tilling the soil by using digging

sticks shaped the prairies. Sites were located in glacial outwash plains prone to

drought where trees were scarce: a few Oregon white oaks (Quercus garryana)

and pines (Pinus ponderosa and P. contorta), atypical of most forest land in the

region, were the most common species. Evidence of Native American management is inferential rather than direct. All sites have archaeological remains and are

located near salmon runs.

Keywords: Ferns, burning, camas, carbohydrate source, indigenous foods, prairies,

protein, Washington State, wild edible plants.

Norvell, Lorelei; Kopecky, Frank; Lindgren, Jan; Roger, Judy. 1995. The

chanterelle (Cantharellus cibarius)—a peek at productivity. In: Schnepf, Chris,

ed. Dancing with an elephant: Proceedings of a conference and exposition

about the business and science of special forest products; 27-26 January 1994;

Hillsboro, OR. Pullman, WA: Washington State University Cooperative

Extension. 117-128.

Gives details of an experiment ongoing since 1986 to study the productivity of

golden chanterelles (Cantharellus cibarius) in a 100-year-old western hemlock/

Douglas-fir stand in the Mount Hood National Forest. Increasing commercial

harvest of chanterelles and other mushroom species in the Pacific Northwest has

prompted concern that harvests may jeopardize the long-term productivity of fungi

populations. Ten study plots of various sizes were established and subdivided in

4-m2 subplots to cover a single mycelial population. Plots are sampled for

chanterelles sporocarps every 2 weeks for the 5-month growing season. Treatments consist of four control plots, three plots where chanterelles > 1 cm in

diameter are cut, and three plots where chanterelles > 1 cm in diameter are pulled.

Average summer temperature appears to affect the production of chanterelle

fruiting bodies. Micrometeorological effects may be very important but are costly to

investigate. Weights can be estimated only for sporocarps from the control plots.

There appears to be little correlation between harvesting (cutting vs. pulling) and

productivity. Overall trends are not yet apparent. Observations suggest that coarse

woody debris and canopy cover are important factors in sustaining chanterelle

productivity and that conservatively managed forests produce more chanterelles

than do old-growth areas.
156

Keywords: Wild edible mushrooms, experimental design, harvesting, Mount Hood,

Oregon, conservation, monitoring.

Ogawa, Makoto. 1975. Microbial ecology of the mycorrhizal fungus Tricholoma

matsutake Ito et Imai (Sing.) in pine forests. I: The fungal colony (shiro) of

Tricholoma matsutake. Bull. 272. Tokyo: Government Forest Experiment

Station. 121 p. In Japanese with English summary.

Ogawa, Makoto. 1977a. Microbial ecology of the mycorrhizal fungus Tricholoma

matsutake Ito et Imai (Sing.) in pine forests. III: Fungal florae in shiro soil and

on the mycorrhiza. Bull. 293. Tokyo: Government Forest Experiment Station.

170 p. In Japanese with English summary.

Ogawa, Makoto. 1977b. Microbial ecology of the mycorrhizal fungus Tricholoma

matsutake Ito et Imai (Sing.) in pine forests. IV: The shiro of Tricholoma

matsutake in the fungal community. Bull. 297. Tokyo: Government Forest

Experiment Station. 104 p. In Japanese with English summary.

Ogawa, Makoto. 1979. Microbial ecology of the ‘shiro’ in Tricholoma matsutake Ito

and its allied species. IX: Tricholoma ponderosum [= Tricholoma magnivelare]

in Pseudotsuga menziesii-Tsuga heterophylla and Pinus contorta forests.

Transactions of the Mycological Society of Japan. 20: 370-382. In Japanese

with English summary.

Ogawa, Makoto; Ito, Takeshi; Kobayashi, Fujio; Fujita, Hiromi. 1980. On the

primary stage in ‘shiro’ formation of Tricholoma matsutake. Transactions of the

Mycological Society of Japan. 21: 505-512. In Japanese with English summary.

Ohenoja, Esteri. 1978. Mushrooms and mushroom yields in fertilized forests.

Annales Botanici Fennici. 15: 38-46.

Reports on the effects of fertilizer treatments on the production of fungi sporocarps

between 1973 and 1975. Mushrooms were collected weekly from July to October

and dried, counted, and weighed at room temperature. At each of six sites, sample

plots of 200 m2 for six treatments were established. Treatments included a control,

400 kg/ha urea added in 1972 only, 400 kg/ha urea in 1974 only, 600 kg/ha Oulu

saltpeter in 1972 only, 600 kg/ha Oulu saltpeter in 1974 only, and 600 kg/ha Oulu

saltpeter plus 200 kg/ha crude phosphate in 1972 only. The small number of

experimental plots, lack of comparable results, the short duration, and the multiple

factors involved prevent determination of definitive results. Wide fluctuations in

weather conditions occurred over the three summers of observations. Experimental

results differ from results likely obtained from economic harvests because immature sporocarps were frequently picked. Different people were responsible for

picking the mushrooms at different sites, thereby creating another source of

discrepancies.

Fertilization with urea was somewhat useful for sites with lower natural productivity

for mushrooms. Saltpeter seldom showed improvement in yields over controls, and

combining saltpeter and urea together depressed yields. Yields from fertilized plots
157

usually decreased in subsequent years, and the fertilization effects were not evident for long. Species benefitting most from fertilization were not prime economic

species. Effects of changes in species composition and interspecific competition

were not studied.

Keywords: Experimental design, fertilization, urea, saltpeter, productivity, mushrooms.

Ohenoja, Esteri. 1984. Fruit body production of larger fungi in Finland. 1: Introduction to the study in 1976-1978. Annales Botanici Fennici. 21: 349-355.

Ohenoja, Esteri. 1988. Effect of forest management procedures on fungal fruit

body production in Finland. Acta Botanica Fennici. 136: 81-84.

Discusses the influence of clearcutting, thinning, afforestation with exotic species,

herbicides, fertilizers, and road construction on the species composition, fruit body

biomass, and the function of fungi in forests and peatlands of Finland. Finnish

forests are estimated to produce 1.5 million tonnes of fruit bodies per year from

about 20 million ha of forest land. Clearcutting results in the appearance of the

economically significant false morel (Gyromitra esculenta) but also in the disappearance of many other fungus species. The author reviews the results of four

studies on clearcutting, plowing, and logging waste on mushroom diversity and

production in forests in Finland and Sweden.

Keywords: Mushrooms, clearcutting, thinning, exotic species, herbicides, fertilizers,

road construction, Finland, Sweden.

Ohenoja, Esteri; Koistinen, Riita. 1984. Fruit body production of larger fungi in

Finland. 2: Edible fungi in northern Finland 1976-1978. Annales Botanici Fennici.

21: 357-366.

Okholm, Debra; Abriel, Ray. 1994. Directory of forest and conservation tree

nurseries in the United States, 1994 edition. R6-CP-TP-0294. Portland, OR:

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region, State

and Private Forestry, Cooperative Programs. 99 p.

Compiles a national directory of nurseries, their addresses, contacts, and telephone and FAX numbers as a reference for foresters, nursery professionals,

natural resource managers, and other interested people in the lower 48 states,

Hawaii, American Samoa, and Puerto Rico. Production and potential production

data are given for each nursery for bareroot and container stock. This publication

lists nurseries specializing in diverse planting projects involving species producing

special forest products: blister rust-resistant western white pine (Pinus monticola),

Pacific yew (Taxus brevifolia), riparian species, and native shrubs. The authors

give guidelines for success in planting projects.

This book also reveals local or regional gaps in production and capacity for

supplying special forest product plants, which are needed for restoration and

reforestation projects.

Keywords: Directory, nurseries, United States.
158

Olivier, J.M.; Delmas, J. 1987. Vers la maîtrise des champignons comestibles=

Towards the mastery of edible mushrooms. Biofutur. 61: 23-41. In French.

Describes the recent technological advances to expand the selection of edible

mushroom species available for domesticated production. Mycorrhizal species

such as truffles (Tuber spp.) and boletes (Boletus spp.) are difficult to grow under

nonforest conditions. Saphrophytic mushrooms such as Pleurotus spp. are more

easily domesticated with carefully formulated substrates under controlled growing

conditions. Details of genetic incompatibilty, the reproductive cycle, and commercial characteristics of Pleurotus spp. are given. Successful efforts in France at

introducing and cropping truffles and granulated slippery jacks (Suillus granulatus)

are described. Managing harvests has been intensive thus far, involving inoculating

trees, maintaining best soil pH, fertilizing, irrigating, weeding, and maintaining

phytosanitary control. Research with other bolete species has started, but it is too

soon for conclusive results. Steps are underway to coordinate production of

commercial mycorrhizal species more efficiently. Details are given for French

production of domesticated mushrooms in 1985. Worldwide research in medicinal

products of mushroom species is described briefly.

Keywords: Wild edible mushrooms, domestication, cultivation, truffles, substrates,

France.

Paal, Jaanus; Paal, Taimi. 1993. Estimation of cowberry (Vaccinium vitis-idaea)

yields. Aquilo Ser. Bot. 31: 31-34.

Provides and compares methods for estimating lingonberry (Vaccinium vitis-idaea)

yields to provide an accurate forecast of crops. Four methods are considered:

random coordinates, nearest neighbor, wandering quarter, and random cross.

Random coordinates was considered the most costly and laborious with respect to

field materials required and plot sizes. The wandering quarter method tended to

overestimate or underestimate yields as compared to the other models. The most

economical, accurate, and therefore preferred method is the random cross method.

With this method, four transects pass from a randomly chosen tree in the four

cardinal directions until they encounter the next tree in the respective direction.

Random distances to the right or left of the unequal transects are used to anchor

sample subplots.

Keywords: Berries, yields, lingonberry, yield estimation methods, inventory

methods.

Pacific Yew Technical Committee. 1992. An interim guide to the conservation

and management of Pacific yew. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture,

Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region. 72 p.

Describes the need for new management of Pacific yew (Taxus brevifolia). Recent

and projected harvests of yew bark have changed the way society regards this

species. Until taxol can be produced commercially in nurseries or laboratory

synthesis, management must ensure that continued bark harvest does not deplete

natural stands of large old yew trees and prevent natural regeneration. In 1991,

about 57,000 trees were harvested to yield 28 kg of taxol. A general lack of information about population sizes, reproductive biology, genetic variation, mortality,

and ecosystem function prevented insightful estimates of the impact of long-term
159

taxol production from wild stocks of Pacific yew. The Pacific Yew Technical Committee responded by issuing this dichotomous key to guide management of the

yew resource given the multiple existing laws and regulations governing management of Federal forest lands. Fifty percent of each age class of yew trees is

recommended for retention in the stand provided that at least 5 trees per acre from

each age class remain. This rule is felt to uphold the ecosystem function of yew as

thermal cover for northern spotted owls (Strix occidentalis caurina) and to maintain

regeneration and gene flow of yew. Special caution is urged with managing to

control Phytophthera lateralis infections in areas where yew and Port-Orford-cedar

(Chamaecyparis lawsoniana) occur together. The planning period considered for

the management guide is 100 years but focuses on the period 1992-96. A 90-

percent probability is calculated for Pacific yew to survive for 100 years with the

managerial policies advocated; this is believed to be a sufficiently cautious probability. Revision of the management guidelines will occur as basic research and a

yew inventory are completed. Harvest of needles may change management in the

future, should needles be found to yield productive quantities of taxol.

Keywords: Medicinal plants, taxol, management, conservation, Pacific Yew

Technical Committee.

Pamela, H; Bawa, K. 1993. Methods to assess the impact of extraction of nontimber tropical forest products on plant populations. Economic Botany. 47(3):

234-247.

Panayotou, Theodore. 1991. Introduction: multiproduct forest management—

a key to sustainability? In: Wegge, Per, ed. Status and potential of nontimber

products in the sustainable development of tropical forests; Proceedings of

the international seminar; 17 November 1990; Kamakura, Japan. ITTO Tech.

Ser. 11. Yokohama: International Tropical Timber Organization: 3-7.

Provides an overview of the social and economic importance of nontimber products

and discusses the neglect of these products in forest management. Principal

reasons for neglect of nontimber forest products include lack of adequate economic and trade data, few established world markets, irregular product supply, a

lack of product quality standards, economies of scale achieved by plantations, lack

of processing and storage technology, inadequate marketing to potential markets,

and low returns. Use of forest resources at local, national, and international levels

must be simultaneously considered. Overlap of products and demand among the

three levels occurs. Many nontimber goods are not traded in markets or their

market activity is not documented. These facts lead to underestimation of their

value. In India, 36 percent of the total revenue of the Forest Department in 1980-81

stemmed from nontimber forest products.

Local forests often serve as the only source of livelihood for rural people, and nontimber goods often are the basis for small-scale industries. Compared with timber

crops, nontimber products require less investment, are labor intensive, and provide

annual, albeit smaller, cash flows. Harvesting of products can be staggered

throughout the year when climate conditions are favorable. Ecological disturbance

from nontimber products is apt to be less disruptive to ecosystem processes.

Keywords: Economic value, barriers, rural development, ecological sustainability,

India.
160

Panayotou, Theodore; Ashton, Peter. 1992. Not by timber alone: economics and

ecology for sustaining tropical forests. Washington DC: Island Press 280 p.

Argues that multiple-use management for timber and nontimber products and

services can both maximize economic growth and preserve a forest’s value.

The book describes the history of tropical forest exploitation, the rationale and

implications of the undervaluation of tropical timber, and the limited, but important,

examples of natural forest management. Nontimber products and environmental

“services” provided by the forest are identified and evaluated. Finally, a multiuse

management plan is described, which requires a full valuation of these products

and services and serves as a mechanism for sustainable forest use. Chapter 6

describes the social and economic importance of nontimber products worldwide

and provides a bibliography of over 60 references. The harvest and use of rattan

(Calamus spp.) is profiled in a case study at the end of the chapter.

Keywords: Multiple use, tropical forests, environmental services, management,

valuation, rattan.

Paré, Germain. 1982. Considérations économiques sur l’allocation des érablieres

en forêt publique. I: Méthodologie pour determiner le seuil de rentabilité d’une

érabliére exploitée pour la sève=Economic aspects of the allocation of maple

stands in state forests. I: Methodology for determining the profitability threshold

for a maple stand exploited for sap. Mémoire Service de la Recherche (Terres

et Forêts) 82. Québec, PQ: Gouvernement du Québec, Ministère de l’Énergie

et des Resources, Service de la Recherche (Terres et Forêts). 58 p. In French

with English summary.

Presents a methodology for use by public land managers and private contractors

to determine the threshold of profitability for production of maple sugar (Acer

saccharum) sap from publicly owned forest stands. The method can also be

adapted to operations on private lands. It permits the calculation of the minimum

volume of syrup to achieve a given profit level (0, 5, 10, or 20 percent). Fixed and

variable costs are identified as functions of site conditions, access, and production

technology. Once the minimum sufficient quantity is determined, analysis focuses

on whether the contractor can produce the desired quantity given the productivity

of the site and the technical capacity. This publication also provides an explanation

of the theory of modeling threshold points, an analysis of the financial operations

of a maple sugar business under different scenarios, and examples of the method

for calculating economic profitability.

This article provides a good basis to aid in the feasibility study of the establishment

of syrup collection operations for bigleaf maple (A. macrophyllum) in the Pacific

Northwest.

Keywords: Financial analysis, maple syrup production, profitability, technology,

threshold point, variable costs, fixed costs.

Park, Myong Kyu. 1984. A study on the investment effectiveness of oak mushroom cultivation. Journal of the Korean Forestry Society. 63: 61-68. In Korean

with English summary.
161

Examines production of shiitake (Lentinus edodes) mushrooms in rural Korea

through financial analyses of labor activity and costs of materials. Production is

hampered by the small scale of cultivation, lack of efficient technology, low labor

productivity, and lack of consistent management. A cross section of shiitake

cultivators serves as a sample. The sample population is divided into three categories depending on the amount of area each family has in shiitake cultivation.

Production figures show that people with more than 500 m2 of area in cultivation

have a higher production rate of mushrooms per m3 of bed logs. Person hours of

labor and cost of materials are figured per kilogram of shiitake produced and per

volume of bed logs. The financial rate of return averages 22.6 percent annually for

areas greater than 500 m2 but only 5.85 percent for plots less than 200 m2. This

article provides one useful methodology for studying activity costs, management

efficiency, and net benefits of growing edible wild mushrooms in semidomesticated

settings on public lands in the Pacific Northwest.

Keywords: Financial rate of return, investment effectiveness, cultivated mushrooms, economic analysis, scale, Korea.

Payne, Jerry A.; Coder, Kim D.; Horton, Dar L. [and others]. 1990. Neglected

native fruit trees and shrubs. Annual Report of the Northern Nut Growers

Association. 81: 78-92.

Describes native trees and shrubs in eastern North America that have been

neglected for their potential as a food source. The authors emphasize additional

functions of the species listed, such as landscape plants and wildlife habitat and

forage. Native American and colonial American uses also are given. Genera

having comparable species in the Pacific Northwest for potential or actual use are

Rhus, Sambucus, Vaccinium, Amelanchier, Crataegus, and Prunus.

Keywords: Wild edible plants, horticultural plants, North America.

Peluso, Nancy Lee. 1992. The political ecology of extraction and extractive reserves in East Kalimantan, Indonesia. Development and Change. 23(4): 49-74.

Examines the political and social organization for harvesting and marketing rattan

(Calamus spp.) in East Kalimantan to evaluate the appropriateness of extractive

reserves in Indonesia. The author’s analysis includes a brief discussion of the history of commercial and subsistence forest extraction in Indonesia. Such products

historically were subject to locally enforced usufruct rules. These systems have

been progressively replaced with state regulations imposed by a highly centralized

government interested in large-scale, industrial exploitation of forest resources.

Under state rule, the rattan trade has expanded to the point of risking resource

depletion.

The author provides a detailed description of rattan management, including production methods, marketing organization, and local regulations. Rattan is normally

a part-time activity that combines with other activities to contribute to peasant

livelihoods. Customary rights over rattan differ, with some boundaries defended by

force and others by negotiating the sale of rights. Kinship is a key factor in determining access and control over rattan sources. Extensive trade networks have long

existed between villagers and riverboat or sedentary middlemen, who are the links
162

with the exporters and processing places. Harvesters traditionally had permanent

links to particular middlemen, often in a debt-credit relation. Traders collude in

setting prices, and often are themselves indebted to urban investors. Recently cash

transactions between traders and harvesters have become more common, providing harvesters greater freedom but also placing greater pressure on the resource

as new harvesters enter the market.

The harvester cooperative model, widely adopted in the Amazon, is problematic in

Indonesia where cooperatives are controlled directly by the state. A more workable

alternative would be to organize extractive reserves around villages, which already

have a system of regulation and authority in place. To be workable, the structure of

the reserves would have to allow for change as ecological and socioeconomic

conditions change. Unless local people are provided political and economic capacity through control over forest resources, they will not be able to compete successfully with capital intensive firms. The chances are that, as in logging, contract

laborers rather than villagers will be hired to harvest rattan, depriving villagers of

both their means of subsistence and their means of earning an income.

Keywords: Political ecology, tropical rain forest, extractive reserve, trade networks,

rattan, producers’ cooperative, Indonesia, basketry, weaving.

Pernau, Winfried. 1990a. Der Markt für frische und verarbeitete Zuchtpilze in der

Bundesrepublik Deutschland und der Europäischen Gemeinschaft im Jahre

1989=The market for commercially grown fresh and processed mushrooms in

the Federal Republic of Germany and the European Union in 1989. Champignon.

352: 14-25. In German.

Reports on trade statistics for commercially grown mushrooms in the European

Union (EU). Only China is a significant exporter to the EU. Major producers within

the EU are France, Ireland, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom. Exports

from Ireland to the United Kingdom and from the Netherlands to Germany comprise

the major activity among EU partner nations.

Keywords: Cultivated mushrooms, trade, European Union, China, France, Ireland,

Netherlands, United Kingdom, Germany.

Pernau, Winfried. 1990b. Entwicklung des Marktes für frische und verarbeitete

Pilze in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland im Jahre 1989=Market development

for fresh and processed mushrooms in the Federal Republic of Germany in

1989. Champignon. 346: 4-7. In German.

Reports on the status of imports of commercially grown mushrooms to Germany

in 1989. Germany remains the largest consumer of mushrooms per capita worldwide (3.5 kg per person annually). Consumption of fresh mushrooms amounted to

213 000 tonnes of which about 50 000 tonnes were produced in Germany. The

demand for fresh mushrooms has increased, and German production has increased by 20 percent. The Netherlands, France, and Poland are the principal

supplier nations with the supply from the Netherlands nearly quadrupling in recent

years. The Netherlands also produces the major share of processed mushrooms;

China, France, and Poland are other important suppliers.
163

Keywords: Cultivated mushrooms, imports, trade, Germany, Netherlands, China,

France, Poland.

Peters, Charles M.; Gentry, Alwyn H.; Mendelsohn, Robert O. 1989. Valuation

of an Amazonian rainforest. Nature. 339: 655-656.

Argues that traditional forest accounting measures have generally ignored the

value of nonwood products and that, consequently, the value of leaving land

forested has been grossly underestimated. In this landmark study, the authors

analyze harvest strategies on a 1-ha plot along the Nanay River, 30 km southwest

of Iquitos, Peru. Of the 275 species on the site, 72 species (26 percent) yielded

products with a market value in Iquitos. These products included 11 kinds of edible

fruit, one species producing latex (rubber), and 60 species producing commercial

timber. The study indicates that the potential revenues from nonwood products

significantly exceeds the revenues from timber harvesting or cattle. Their calculations indicated that if a sustainable timber harvesting program were linked with fruit

and latex collection, the value of the products on 1 ha would be US$6,820. Of this,

fruits and latex comprise more than 90 percent of the total value. The value of

nonwood products would be even higher if medicinal plants and lianas were

included. Forest conversion to a timber plantation would yield a net value of only

US$3,184, and conversion to pasture would yield only US$2,960. The authors

attribute the lack of interest in retaining forests to the existence of public policies

that promote deforestation, rather than to the lack of value of the products

themselves.

Keywords: Economic valuation, Amazon, Peru.

Phipps, D.L. 1951. Secret treasures in the forests. Salem, OR: Oregon State

Board of Forestry. 47 p.

Pihlik, Ulve. 1993. Biomass and reserves of Vaccinium vitis-idaea in Estonia.

Aquilo Ser. Bot. 31: 157-160.

Gives details about the system of inventorying and managing lingonberry

(Vaccinium vitis-idaea) for production of berries, ramets, and leaves in Estonia.

The latter two uses are for medicinal purposes. Tree stands less than 20 years old

have a very small and noneconomic biomass of ramets as the result of logging and

replanting operations. Between years 20 and 35, biomass of ramets increases and

then falls off after year 35 because of worsening light conditions in the understory.

Different harvest intensities of ramets show that annual harvesting decreases

standing stocks permanently. Full restoration of productivity for lingonberry after

gathering material for medical use takes 6 to 7 years in most forest habitats found

in Estonia.

Forecasts of ramet biomass make use of regression equations tied to forest types.

Economically exploitable ramet reserves of lingonberry equal about 19 600 tonnes

but only about 12 percent of that amount actually is gathered. The main use of

lingonberry remains as a wild berry food. Estonian forest districts are divided into

five categories by their suitability for berry picking and gathering medicinal

material.
164

This article documents a program of studies designed to determine the sustainable

use and harvest level of a multiuse nontimber forest species of economic

significance.

Keywords: Harvest reserves, berries, medicinal plant, ramets, regeneration,

survey, management, harvest, research agendas, Estonia.

Pinedo-Vasquez, Manuel; Zarin, Daniel; Jipp, Peter; Chots-Inuma, J. 1990.

Use-values of tree species in a communal forest reserve in northeast Peru.

Conservation Biology. 4(4): 405-416.

Examines the nontimber “use values,” defined as the relative utility of species to

the local population, of trees in a communal reserve in the Amazon of northeastern

Peru. The study was conducted in a 50-year-old secondary stand in a communal

forest reserve that was established by the villagers of San Rafael. Although lacking

legal status, reserve management was governed by rules for the reserve by residents and nonresidents that described appropriate reserve uses and harvesting

techniques. Residents of San Rafael used 60.1 percent of the 218 tree species for

food, construction, craft, remedy, commerce, and other uses. Unlike timber harvesting, which generally benefits urban elites and a small fraction of rural elites,

nontimber forest products yield a wide array of benefits to rural residents. Communal reserves are suggested as an important method for the local promotion and

protection of forests.

Keywords: Use value, communal reserve, Amazon, Peru, equity, rural development, conservation.

Pinkerton, Evelyn W. 1992. Translating legal rights into management practice:

overcoming barriers to the exercise of co-management. Human Organization.

51(4): 330-341.

Addresses the conditions under which successful sustainable self-management

and comanagement of resources can occur, with a focus on recognition of legal

rights and negotiation of agreements and their implementation. The author cites

the landmark case U.S. v. Washington in its first (1974) and second (1980) phases

to explore the stages and successful strategies employed in translating rights into

comanagement practice. The article concludes with six theories about the necessary conditions for comanagement that address the barriers to implementing

comanagement and strategies for overcoming them.

Keywords: Comanagement, barriers, Washington.

Piot, J. 1983. La culture du shiitaké japonais, champignon lignivore de grande

qualité=The culture of the Japanese shiitake, a high-quality saprophytic mushroom. Revue Forestière Française. 35: 53-64. In French.

Describes the details of shiitake (Lentinus edodes) culture and research in Japan.

National production figures for shiitake are given for 1936, 1953, 1975, and 1979.

The experimental research station in Miyazaki, Kyushu, has dedicated a unit to
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study shiitake mushroom ecology and production. The demand of the Japanese

public for shiitake has become very high on account of its nutritional and medicinal

properties. Cultivation began widely in 1948. Oaks (Quercus spp.) and hornbeam

(Carpinus spp.) furnish most of the inoculant logs. Growers must control humidity

and populations of other competing fungi species. Characteristics and management guidelines for popular fresh and dried shiitake varieties are provided.

This article prompts an inquiry into possibilities for developing the market for new

species of fungi and the technology for culturing them in the Pacific Northwest on

logs of native tree species.

Keywords: Japan, research, mushroom culture, cultivated mushrooms.

Plotkin, Mark; Famolare, Lisa. eds. 1992. Sustainable harvest and marketing of

rain forest products. Washington, DC: Island Press. 334 p.

Addresses some of the key issues associated with the sustainable use and marketing of rain forest products. This edited volume consists of case study efforts to

develop sustainable strategies for tropical forest management. The examples

address various approaches, including more traditional ethnobotanical attempts to

catalogue the properties of various products, the formation of extractive reserves,

the development of joint ventures between drug companies and traditional healers,

and the creation of new international markets for rain forest products. Key themes

that emerge are the importance of ethics, the need to develop appropriate mechanisms for compensating indigenous peoples for their knowledge of the medicinal

properties of plants, the need for new forms of partnerships among local people,

private corporations, nongovernmental organizations, and governmental agencies

and the need for local participation in decisionmaking and marketing efforts.

Building local economic and political capacity through strengthening local control

over resources, training and education, and linking forest users to marketing

channels also are important.

Keywords: Tropical rain forest, partnerships, intellectual property rights, indigenous

knowledge, local participation, capacity building.

Pojar, Jim; MacKinnon, Andy, comps., eds. 1994. Plants of the Pacific Northwest coast: Washington, Oregon, British Columbia, and Alaska. Redmond, WA:

Lone Pine Publishing Co. 527 p.

Highlights findings of ethnobotanical research in the Pacific Northwest with particular emphasis on the role of wild plants as food; as raw materials for baskets,

hats, clothing, cordage, toweling, fishing lures, and so forth; and as sources of

indigenous medicines. Details of traditional and modern uses of plants are

described in notes accompanying the botanical and habitat descriptions and

photographs of prominent species found in the coastal zone of southeast Alaska

south to central Oregon.

Keywords: Botanical guide, economic botany, indigenous foods, medicinal plants,

wild edible plants, basketry, weaving, ethnobotany, Oregon, Washington, British

Columbia, Alaska.
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Prescott-Allen, Christine; Prescott-Allen, Robert. 1986. The first resource: wild

species in the North American economy. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

529 p.

Details the historical and current harvests of cascara (Frangula purshiana) in the

Pacific Northwest. Collecting begins in mid-April and extends to late August. Yield

ranges from 5 lb per 3-in diameter tree to 175 pounds for a 17-in diameter tree.

Harvesting is often excessive and destroys the tree. Daily yields per harvester

range from 100 to 300 lb. Dried bark, which is aged for a year before being used

as a laxative, commands a higher price. Cascara is found in nearly 200 products

sold in Canada, including veterinary products.

Keywords: Medicinal plants, harvesting methods, laxatives, processing, Canada,

Pacific Northwest.

Principe, Peter P. 1991. Valuing the biodiversity of medicinal plants. In: Akerele,

Olayinola; Heywood, Vernon; Synge, Hugh, eds. The conservation of medicinal

plants: Proceedings of an international consultation; 21-27 March 1988; Chiang

Mai, Thailand. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press: 79-

124.

Presents an economic analysis to value the contribution to society from medicinal

plants. Lack of comparable, high-quality data hamper analysis. Data exist for

pharmaceutical markets, production of some raw materials, and pharmaceutical

products derived from medicinal plants. The market value of medicinal plants is a

subset of their total economic benefit to society. Use of market values alone can

be misleading. Ignoring or undervaluing benefits that are not easily quantified is a

common problem. Also, the great difference between the raw material price and

the final product price is the result of high development and manufacturing costs.

Final market price is a better indicator of market value than the market price of the

raw material.

Germany, Japan, and the United States are major importers of medicinal plants

for pharmaceutical use. The author estimates total value of prescriptions, derived

from 40 species, in the United States in 1980 at US$8-9.8 billion. Plant-based

pharmaceuticals represent 12 to 15 percent of the total Japanese pharmaceutical

market, 25 percent of the U.S. market, and 35 to 40 percent of the German market.

The probability of a given plant species producing a marketable prescription drug

is set at 1:1000 to 1:10,000. At the present rate of plant extinctions worldwide, 60

species capable of producing marketable drugs will be extinct by 2050. The

methods, considerations, and assumptions to determine benefits foregone as a

result of cumulative extinctions are discussed. Another way to value current worth

of medicinal plants to society is the cost to society of a disease. Exact determination of the value of recovery of lost life, cost of treatment, and lost labor productivity

is difficult to ascertain.

Irreversibility of extinction reduces options for society. Cost of extinction is best

assessed with willingness-to-accept compensation for loss of the resource rather

than willingness-to-pay to have the resource in the future. The net economic

benefit of preservation of biological diversity to society must include a positive

option value, because biodiversity has an uncertain future supply. Concludes with
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a valuation equation that includes consuer surplus, option and existence values,

and net product revenues.

Keywords: Medicinal plants, economic value, United States, Germany, Japan,

foregone benefits, willingness-to-pay, willingness-to-accept, consumer surplus,

option value, existence value.

Raatikainen, Mikko; Raatikainen, Terttu. 1983. Mustikan sato, poiminta ja

markkinoint: Pihtiputaalla=The berry yield, picking, and marketing of Vaccinium

myrtillus in the commune of Pihtipudas. Silva Fennica. 17(2): 113-123. In Finnish

with English summary.

Reports on whortleberry (Vaccinium myrtillus) yields and berry pickers in northern

Finland in 1977. Total yield was estimated from yields obtained from 17 randomly

selected transects each 1 km long. Local crops averaged 21.9 kg/ha. Yields by

forest type also are given. Human consumption of the wild crop was estimated to

be 1.8 percent. Adult women comprised more than half the number of pickers.

Most whortleberries were picked for home use (72 percent). Average family income

from the sale of whortleberries amounted to Fimr178, with a maximum income

recorded at Fimr712.

Keywords: Berries, yield, experimental design, survey.

Raatikainen, Mikko; Rossi, Esko; Huovinen, Jarvo [and others]. 1984. The

yields of the edible wild berries in central Finland. Silva Fennica. 18(3): 199-219.

Develops regression equations for calculating yields of lingonberry (Vaccinium

vitis-idaea) and whortleberry (V. myrtillus) from data about ecological conditions of

forest sites. Lingonberry coverage depended on vegetation type, stand age class,

crown density, and the method and amount of coppice control. Best yields were on

Vaccinium and Calluna (heather) vegetation types. Fruit yield was a function of

vegetation type, amount of lingonberry cover, height of lingonberry shrubs, stand

age class, crown density, and weather conditions. From 13 to 20 1-km by 1-m

sample strips in five counties throughout central Finland, the national lingonberry

yield was estimated to be 180 million kg, 80 percent of which was accessible to

pickers.

Whortleberry cover was a function of vegetation type, stand age class, tree crown

density, the method and degree of coppice control, and weather conditions. Yield

of whortleberries was highest on Vaccinium heaths. Berry yield was a function of

vegetation type, the dominant tree species, stand age class, tree crown density,

height of whortleberry shrubs, and weather conditions. The national yield was

estimated at 150 to 200 million kg, of which 60 percent was accessible to pickers.

Average per hectare yields in the samples also are given for lingonberry

(Vaccinium vitis-idaea), whortleberry (V. myrtillus), bog blueberry (V. uliginosum),

small cranberry (V. oxycoccos), crowberry (Empetrum spp.), red raspberry (Rubus

idaeus), cloudberry (R. chamaemorus), and thornless blackberry (R. saxatilis).

Keywords: Yield estimate, berries, Finland.
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Rau, R. 1969. Absatzförderung für Waldgrün durch überbetriebliche

Zusammenarbeit =Promoting markets for decorative green through sectoral

cooperation. Forstarchiv. 40(9): 193-198. In German with English summary.

Traces the growth of the infrastructure to supply forest boughs to wholesale flower

markets in North Rhein-Westphalia. People traditionally have taken the right to

gather forest boughs for granted and have been thought to be unreceptive to

efforts to sell foliage of local conifer species. The demand for forest greenery has

grown steadily in recent years. However, the forest industry has not bothered to

diversify; people have not considered the benefits of investing in product quality

and in appropriate preparing, sorting, pricing, market research, and advertising.

The benefit-cost ratio for state forests for minor forest products (including

Christmas trees, which comprise about 23 percent of the total) in North RheinWestphalia is estimated to be 64:1. Market tests for conifer greens in 1967 indicated strong consumer demand, but individual suppliers were not initially capable

of supplying products regularly. Demand for introduced species such as American

red oak (Quercus rubra) and Austrian pine (Pinus nigra) has also grown. Imports

also are increasing because the quality of German conifer greens often is not

constant and marketing is difficult. Wholesale quantities are possible only where

landowners have started systematic large-scale plantations. Florist shops, nurseries, wholesale flower markets, and most recently, shopping centers provide

increasing outlets for greenery. Market development has been hindered by the

lack of a visible commercial center, consistent definitions of product grades, and

comparable prices. The Rhineland Decorative Greens’ Growers Association has

been formed to give greenery products a market image and assist individual

producers in supplying markets efficiently.

This article indicates that cooperative marketing strategies are extremely important

when new industry sectors involving nontimber forest products are first developing.

Keywords: Cost-benefit analysis, conifer greens, market development, barriers,

Rhineland Decorative Greens’ Growers Association, promotion, quality control,

Germany.

Rau, R. 1977. Erfahrungen beim Absatz von Waldgrün und Weihnachtsbäumen=

Experience with sales of decorative greens and Christmas trees. Allgemeine

Forstzeitung. 32(46): 1139-1142. In German.

Describes the current scope of forest greens production in North Rhein-Westphalia

and evaluates the feasibility of efforts to market forest greens in the state. The lack

of price information, details of costs of production methods and time, and data

about revenues and income make analysis difficult. Since 1968, the Rheinland

Decorative Greens Growers’ Association has sponsored research and gathered

additional information on sales of decorative greens. Average household consumption of greens in North Rhein-Westphalia amounts to 5 kg annually, and total sales

equal DM16.1 million. Maximum potential share of the total forest production by

forest greens and Christmas trees is about 10 percent; the actual share is considerably less.

The different measures and words in use to sort and grade decorative greens

cause confusion. Expanding the decorative greens industry will require uniform

terminology and measurements in the German marketplace. Care in sorting is
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essential to market product quality, and maintaining product freshness is important

to attract customers. Market structure is not well described for the industry as yet.

Economic relations among producers, wholesalers, retailers, and end consumers

are diverse and complex. Auctions, wholesalers, and producer markets distribute

decorative greens to retail outlets such as florist shops, nurseries, and garden

centers. Selling decorative greens can involve bough pruning, sorting, bunching,

storing, trimming, and arranging. Each step adds value and entails additional labor

and risk. The growers’ association centralizes members’ products for distribution to

wholesalers and retailers.

The funeral industry provides stability to the decorative greens industry because

product is demanded throughout the year. The Christmas season is crucial but

short in duration. New markets need to be developed to expand the industry.

A more comprehensive product array including flowers, fruits, and colorful leaves

of deciduous trees (in combination with conifer greens) offers opportunities for

expansion.

Keywords: Conifer greens, floral greens, value-added, marketing, seasonality,

market development, funeral industry, Germany.

Reagan, A.B. 1935. Plants used by the Hoh and Quileute Indians. Transactions of

the Kansas Academy of Science. 37: 55-70.

Describes the uses (with a focus on medicinal uses) of more than 60 species of

plants by the Hoh and Quileute Indians from observations by the author between

1905 and 1909 and in 1928.

Keywords: Ethnobotany, medicinal plants, Hoh, Quileute.

Redford, Kent H.; Padoch, Christine, eds. 1992. Conservation of neotropical

forests: working from traditional resource use. New York: Columbia University

Press. 433 p.

Brings together a series of articles describing the importance of incorporating local

resource knowledge into strategies for managing neotropical forests. This book is

one of the “classics” of the neotropical forest products literature. It provides details

on the new kinds of social institutions being created to address the issue of sustainable forest management in the neotropical forest context. This collection of essays

stems from a workshop commissioned by the U.S. Man and the Biosphere program, which sought to increase information on how traditional societies manage

forest resources. The articles address gaps in existing knowledge, an analysis of

current efforts to incorporate local people into natural resource use and conservation decisionmaking processes, and clarification of what is meant by the terms

“traditional,” “management,” and “traditional management.”

The editors note that the argument for greater involvement by local populations

in natural resource decisionmaking stems from the gap that exists between production systems oriented toward large-scale markets and production systems

oriented toward subsistence needs.
170

Subsistence production may address long-term sustainability questions better than

the former, because the survival of the resource users and their children depends

on taking a long-term perspective. The articles illustrate, however, that the validity

of this assumption depends on circumstances: traditional peoples exhibit a widerange of diversity of resource use patterns and ability to adjust to rapidly changing

socioeconomic contexts.

Key themes raised by contributors to this volume include:

1. By linking indigenous societies to the outside world, ethnobotanists have incurred an obligation to local peoples to ensure that they receive compensation for

their knowledge and the opportunity to participate in planning and implementation

of management programs. International agreements are suggested to ensure that

indigenous peoples are justly compensated for their knowledge.

2. Indigenous resource management approaches are dynamic and have had a

much greater influence on the structure of the current forest than previously

thought. Much rain forest biodiversity is a result of deliberate anthropogenic

disturbance. Maintaining biodiversity thus may depend on maintaining cultural

diversity. Several examples of recent efforts to simultaneously maintain biodiversity

and cultural diversity, including the Binational Awa Biosphere Reserve in Columbia

and Ecuador, are discussed.

3. Forest extraction strategies can provide a basis for sustainable forest management under certain conditions. On Combu Island in Brazil, for example, inhabitants

are able to engage in extraction year-round and also are able to make a fairly high

income from several complementary extractive activities. Easy access to markets

and product diversification seem to be key factors in the success of the Combu

Islanders.

4. The development of appropriate social institutions is critical to the development

of approaches that mesh both conservation and economic development objectives.

New forms of collaboration between local peoples, nongovernment organizations,

governments, multilateral and bilateral aid organizations, and business corporations can help achieve these goals. Examples cited included the Maya Biosphere

Reserve (Guatemala), the Rio Bravo Conservation and Management Area (Belize),

the Beni Biosphere Reserve (Bolivia), the Chimane Conservation Program, the

Cuyabeno Wildlife Production Reserve (Ecuador), and the Wildlands and Human

Needs Program (a multinational effort jointly funded by the U.S. Agency for International Development and the Worldwide Fund for Nature).

5. Larger economic and political forces often conflict with local resource management strategies. To address the political and economic inequities that characterize

societies in neotropical countries, political reforms that strengthen local control

over resources, such as extractive reserves, may be necessary.

6. In some cases, forest extraction provides better returns in the long-run to

peasant producers than conversion of the forest to agriculture or pasture. Current

systems of accounting tend, however, to undervalue the contribution of extractive

activities to household and national economies. Better methods for assessing the

value of extractive activities are called for.

7. Market expansion for nontimber forest products can provide incentives for local

people to refrain from clearing forests, but ensuring that local people benefit from
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market expansion, is problematic. One approach currently being tested by the

indigenous rights organization, Cultural Survival, is to have nongovernment

organizations function as knowledge and power brokers between indigenous

groups and business corporations.

Keywords: Tropical rain forest, market expansion, partnerships, land tenure,

extractive reserves, indigenous knowledge, Cultural Survival.

Redhead, S.A. 1989. A biogeographical overview of the Canadian mushroom

flora. Canadian Journal of Botany. 67: 3003-3062.

Reid, Walter V.; Laird, Sarah A.; Gámez, Rodrigo [and others]. 1993. A new

lease on life. In: Reid, Walter V.; Laird, Sarah A.; Meyer, Carrie A. [and others].

[Title unknown]. Washington, DC: World Resources Institute: 1-35. Chapter 1.

Discusses “biodiversity prospecting,” the systematic research of biological diversity

for commercially valuable genetic and biochemical resources. The authors suggest

methods for returning part of the benefits accruing to private pharmaceutical corporations to the country or region where the drug or its precursors originated as a

means to finance resource conservation. Formal legislation to govern biodiversity

prospecting does not exist at present, however, and the need for appropriate

policies and institutions is acute. New institutional arrangements including genetic

and biotic resource property rights, international agreements, and intermediary

organizations are proposed to reduce risk to landowners and provide continuing

supplies to pharmaceutical firms.

The authors suggest general principles to guide biodiversity prospecting. Developing countries will reap benefits most quickly by restricting resource access, insisting on contractual agreements with collectors and corporations, and funding local

value-added industries. The Costa Rica government agency INBio, for example,

provides services of sample identification and supplies of uniform quality to firms.

Indigenous people and traditional healers should seek protection of their knowledge through intellectual property rights legislation that guarantees equitable

compensation. Landowners should be able to charge “user fees” to biodiversity

prospectors and scientists who benefit from the ecosystems in which they work.

Developing countries and regions should establish technology policies that generate benefits directly from genetic and biochemical resources.

This article speaks from the perspective of tropical ecosystems and countries;

however, many of the issues, such as investing in biodiversity, indigenous knowledge, and studies to investigate native plant resources, pertain to management of

nontimber forest products in the Pacific Northwest. Of specific concern is how to

invest in ecosystems so that their diversity is maintained as a hedge against loss

of resources that in the future may be of immense value to humanity.

Keywords: Biodiversity prospecting, indigenous knowledge, property rights, drug

screening, rural development, InBio, Costa Rica.
172

Richards, Michael. 1993. The potential of nontimber forest products in sustainable

natural forest management in Amazonia. Commonwealth Forestry Review.

72(1): 21-27.

Explores the assumption advanced by many sustainable forest management proponents that the commercialization of nontimber forest products will promote forest

conservation. The author notes that foresters operating on this assumption have

been quick to promote market development but may not have adequately thought

out the consequences of success. The consequences of the commercialization of

five products, rubber (Hevea brasiliensis), brazil nuts (Bertholletia excelsa), babaçu

palm (Attalea spp.), varzea palm, and rosewood oil (Aniba spp.) are summarized

to illustrate some of the potential pitfalls of an uncritical use of the extractive

nontimber forest product reserve system.

In the case of rubber, the author questions the long-term economic viability of wild

rubber reserves because the demand for wild rubber has declined rapidly as cultivated stands have come into production.

In the area where Brazil nut harvesting predominates, local brazil nut barons

control access to the groves. Brazil nut tree cultivation may potentially reduce the

demand for wild nuts in the future.

The babaçu palm once was a major export crop but the market fell apart with the

introduction of synthetic detergents and the shift to less fatty oils. In the 1970s,

when the export trade was increasing steadily, babaçu harvesting and processing

tended to shift from women to men as new technology permitted whole fruit

marketing and centralized processing.

The varzea palm industry also has had a boom-and-bust history. Destructive

harvesting techniques, attributable largely to the use of piece rate labor, resulted

in the destruction of large stands of these palms.

Rosewood oil is a high-value, low-volume product amenable to local production.

Regeneration of the plant is very slow, though, and it has been essentially mined

rather than harvested for renewal.

The author notes that nontimber forest product resources are subject to depletion

when the market is booming as people seek quick profits and when the market

crashes as people seek to maintain their living standards. Some resources are

more subject to destructive harvesting and are unlikely to be sustainably harvested

by commercial interests. The faith in nontimber forest product-based forest

management as a panacea to forest degradation is likely to be misplaced. Key

obstacles include unstable demand, inconsistent supply, limited economic potential

compared to alternative income opportunities, volatile export markets, preference

among harvesters for other occupations, and the need for knowledge and land for

full-time product extraction.

The author also offers several reasons why a nontimber forest product focus can

be beneficial: in general, harvesting practices can be nondestructive, many local

people have the necessary knowledge, and extractive reserves can provide a

tenure system promoting sound social and biological values. The author also

recommends that the extractive reserve system be used in conjunction with farming and timber harvesting to ensure adequate and consistent income to rural
173

people. He further notes that unless cooperative production, marketing, and

processing systems are developed, middlemen are likely to capture the bulk of the

value of these products. Alternative marketing structures and the development of

brand names are two strategies that have been suggested for increasing local

share in product value.

The author argues that if nontimber forest product extraction is left to market forces

alone, the result will be forest destruction. The author suggests the payment of

subsidies to support sustainable extraction in the face of uncertain and volatile

markets. He maintains that for extraction to succeed as a strategy, extractor

groups will need to diversify the products that they harvest and sell.

Keywords: Tropical rain forests, extractive reserves, sustainable management,

market expansion, land tenure, rural development, conservation, Amazon, Brazil,

nuts, essential oils, resins.

Richards, Rebecca; Creasy, Max. [In press]. Cultural diversity and ecological

sustainability: wild mushrooms harvest practices, environmental attitudes and

cultural values among different ethnic gatherers on the Klamath National Forest.

Society and Natural Resources.

Characterizes the ethnic groups, their harvest experience, and cultural patterns

of harvest among American matsutake (Tricholoma magnivelare) pickers in the

Klamath region of southern Oregon and northern California. Results of picker

surveys, interviews with resource managers, and statistical analyses of permits in

the Happy Camp Ranger District, Klamath National Forest, and the Illinois Valley

Ranger District, Siskiyou National Forest, in 1992 are presented. Nearly 2,000

permits were issued by the two districts combined.

Conflicts arise because of differences between urban-based nonlocal pickers of

Southeast Asian origin and rural, local Native American pickers. Most Asian

pickers were Laotians. The intensity of commercial harvests has raised concern

for the sustainability of the resource. Although most Forest Service personnel

believed that the pickers had several years picking experience, more than half the

pickers were picking for the first season. Daily harvests amounted to less than a

pound per day. Estimates of annual per capita harvests are extrapolated. About

50,000 lb of matsutake are estimated to be picked from both Ranger Districts.

Commercial collection aiming to maximize the resource harvest may be threatening the viability of locally directed harvests at traditional family gathering sites.

The authors recommend that permits for mushroom collection be automated and

tracked, compliance with permit regulations be enforced, and additional studies

be undertaken to clarify the interactions among the permitting process, market

dynamics, and picker demand for the matsutake resource. Management should

ensure fair and equal access while attempting to preserve traditional claims.

Current Forest Service policy to downsize staff and funding based on reduced

timber sales decreases the likelihood that there will be adequate investment to

ensure a sustainable harvest.

Keywords: Cultural diversity, ecosystem management, human ecology, Klamath

bioregion, sustainability, resource conflicts, Southeast Asian, Native American,

wild edible mushrooms.
174

Rizza, Alberto. 1990. Legislazione regionale italiana in materia di raccolta e

commercializazione dei tartufi=Regional Italian legislation regarding truffle

harvesting and commercialization. In: Bencivenga, Mattia; Granetti, Bruno, eds.

Atti del II congresso internazionale sul tartufo; 24-27 November 1988; Spoleto,

Italy. Spoleto: Comunità montana dei monti Martani e del Serano: 605-609. In

Italian.

Describes developments in legislation following the 1985 law that instituted norms

for the cultivation, harvesting, and marketing of fresh and canned truffles by Italian

provinces. This law was intended to temper the conflicts between truffle collectors

and landowners. The law distinguishes for the first time between truffle areas under

cultivation and areas where truffles grow wild, which are open to the public for

truffle gathering. Provincial laws are not coordinated to specify proper foraging

tools and set fines for illicit collection. Many provinces have neglected to enact any

legislation. This article briefly describes the difficulty of enacting a coordinated

management policy for a nontimber forest resource across diverse land-use types.

Policymakers in the Pacific Northwest currently are facing similar challenges.

Keywords: Truffles, resource conflicts, regulation, Italy.

Robbins, S.R.J.; Matthews, W.S.A. 1974. The importance of minor forest products. Unasylva. 26(106): 7-14.

Outlines the overall importance of nontimber forest products in the international

literature. The definition itself is problematic, as minor forest products can include

tree products, other plant and shrub products, and even crops grown within forests.

Interestingly, the authors exclude rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) because it is of

major economic importance. Their reasoning for categorizing various products as

major or minor forest products is thus based on the product’s relative economic

contribution.

Harvesting of minor forest products in temperate forests tends to be more organized than that in tropical forests, and the value of temperate forest products tends

to be greater. In tropical forests, harvesting tends to be done by local communities

rather than outside entrepreneurs. Where high-value minor forest products are

present, agricultural conversion rates are lower. The large variation in prices and

markets for minor forest products means that each product has to be considered

separately in any plan to develop them for wider economic use. Development of

certain minor forest products is likely to be inhibited by low commodity prices and

the possibility of synthetic production of biochemicals.

The authors provide summaries of the economic importance of a variety of minor

forest products, including naval stores, oils, latexes, and spices. They conclude

that very little is known about the contribution of these products to the overall forest

economy and recommend additional research.

Keywords: Market potential, international policy, tropical forests, temperate forests,

minor forest products, naval stores, essential oils, latex, spices.
175

Robertson, R.A. 1993. Peat, horticulture and environment. Biodiversity and

Conservation. 2: 541-547.

Provides an industry view of the impact of the United Kingdom (UK) peat industry

on the UK’s peatland resources from the perspective of the UK Peat Producers

Association. The UK peat industry is aimed primarily at the horticultural sector, and

peat extraction occurs on only 5400 ha, or about 0.5 percent of the area in peatlands. The majority of peatlands are either devoted to forestry or set aside as

conservation areas. Most of the area under horticultural production has been

worked for generations, and more than 98 percent of horticultural peat holdings are

either leased or owned by members of the Peat Producers Association. Demand

for peat is high, and the industry can meet only two-thirds of the UK’s horticultural

peat needs.

Disagreement over the impact of horticultural peat production exists between

conservationists and industry. Nonetheless, the industry has recently signed voluntary agreements with the Royal Society for Nature Conservation to refrain from

harvesting on sites of special scientific interest and on previously worked areas of

high conservation value. Of the 5471 ha held by association members, less than

6 percent are of conservation value. The association currently is working with conservation groups and government agencies to develop a strategy that would allow

both development of certain peat areas and conservation of others. This effort is

modeled after similar agreements in Ireland and Finland.

At the same time, association members are seeking alternatives to peat as a growing medium. Among the alternatives are other forest products, including bark,

mushroom compost, and wood products. The author notes, however, that no other

medium currently outperforms peat for exacting uses, thus making it likely that the

demand for peat will remain high. To help address this demand, association members have joined forces with local conservation groups and government agencies

to restore cutover areas.

The author concludes that peat production is important as a generator of local

employment and helps shift the balance of payments in a positive direction for the

UK. In addition, he notes that recent efforts on the part of the association to conserve and restore peatlands illustrate that it is possible to maintain both ecological

and economic values while producing peat.

Keywords: Peat production, partnerships, rural development, conservation, United

Kingdom.

Robinson, Christina M. 1994. Multiple perspectives: rules governing special

forest product management in coastal Washington. [Seattle]: University of

Washington. M.S. thesis.

Examines the formal and informal rules that govern access to special forest products in coastal Washington. The author compares the differences and similarities

between landowners’ and harvesters’ perceptions of regulations and the reasons

for the enactment of the regulations. The authors’ analyses are based on information gathered from participant observation at a number of public and private

discussions of special forest product policy and from open-ended interviews with

28 individuals involved in special forest product harvesting or management.
176

Interviewees included tribal members, pickers, buyers, state and Federal land

managers, and large industrial timberland managers.

A chart of the rules as described by landowners indicates that considerable variation exists in terms of the costs and conditions of access to special forest products.

Rules differ not only by landowner or manager but also, for state and Federal

agencies, by administrative unit. Permits and short-term leases were the most

common means of regulating access to resources. Most leases are for specific

products and thus do not preclude others from having rights to access other

products. Gates across roads and posting of land are two additional mechanisms

used to control access to special forest products.

Conflict over rights of access to special forest products occurs among several

groups and over various issues. Tribal members noted that private landowners

frequently deprive them of their treaty rights to traditional gathering grounds. Tribal

members also noted that actions by private and public industrial timber managers,

such as logging and weed control, often have a negative effect on gathering

grounds. Another source of conflict is the relatively recent phenomenon of landowners actually enforcing their claims to these resources. Over the years, such

enforcement has been lax and informal claims have developed among long-term

pickers. The inability of landowners to enforce rules also is a source of conflict: a

number of pickers complained of competition from illegal harvesters.

Landowners’ reasons for imposing rules on special forest product harvesting fell

into five major categories: (1) to exert claims over their holding, (2) to follow

administrative rules imposed by state and Federal agencies, (3) to ensure maintenance of the resource, (4) to obtain revenues, and (5) to meet public needs.

Pickers and buyers expressed an understanding of these motivations, but noted

that in their opinion, landowners often were not really concerned about the

resource itself. In addition, the data indicated that pickers and buyers expressed

confusion as to why rules had recently been changed, and sometimes seemed to

be unfamiliar with what the “official” rules were.

Most landowners felt that the rules currently being applied would have little effect

on pickers’ ability to make a living. In contrast, many pickers felt that the trend to

ever more costly permits and leases would force many pickers out of business or

into picking illegally to avoid high upfront fees. They also noted that the practice of

putting gates across access roads to land, which has become increasingly common, has effectively shut pickers out of some of the most productive grounds.

Keywords: Resource management regimes, land tenure, tenure arrangements,

resource conflicts, Washington, policy development.

Rogers, Ken E. 1989. Shiitake mushrooms: a forest product from woods to supper

table. TFNews. 68(1): 10-13.

Discusses the potential for shiitake (Lentinus edodes) cultivation in hardwood

forests of east Texas. Notes that shiitake cultivation uses small-diameter trees,

which are common over millions of acres in eastern and central Texas. Both oak

(Quercus spp.) and pecan (Carya illinoisensis) are suitable. Shiitake has been a
177

major agricultural export from Japan for decades. About US$15 million of shiitakes

were imported from Japan in 1984. As demand has risen, shiitake production in the

United States also has gone up. Most of the U.S. crop comes from Minnesota,

Virginia, Ohio, and Pennsylvania. Growers range from small-scale to large, industrial businesses. Expansion opportunity in Texas is good owing to the long growing

season, which could enable Texas growers to fill in production gaps from the more

northerly states. Establishment costs and procedures for cultivation, including how

to inoculate logs, are described. A marketing cooperative, where production, grading, and packaging is centralized, could help expand opportunities by giving small

producers access to large grocery chains. At present, the Texas market relies on

imports from the north or Japan. Local growers could provide fresher products.

Keywords: Cultivated mushrooms, domestication, marketing cooperatives, North

America, Japan, Texas.

Romanoff, Steven. 1992. Food and debt among rubber tappers in the Bolivian

Amazon. Human Organization. 51(2): 122-135.

Describes household economic strategies of families in the Amazon rain forest of

northern Bolivia. The author notes that indebtedness, primarily for food purchases,

is extremely high among most rubber (Hevea brasilensis) tapping households.

Efforts to form cooperatives have been unsuccessful, primarily due to transportation difficulties. The author notes that conservationists’ proposals to achieve sustainable forest use through expanding forest product markets or giving local

communities usufruct rights to harvest forest products fail to account for critical

social factors. Promotion of extractive industries may serve to strengthen existing

social inequities due to the high incidence of food indebtedness between tapper

and patron. In addition, the extractive reserve system is likely to exacerbate conflicts between tappers and Native Americans, who live in the reserves. He advocates adopting a cooperation model from Brazil, where the rubber worker union

and Native Americans have joined forces to fight forest conversion to pasture.

Attempts to establish cooperatives as an alternative to the existing patron system

will require careful attention to transportation and technological diversification

issues.

The author argues that the debate about extractive reserves has been too general,

because it has not taken local context into account. He suggests the need to look

at a variety of options, including comanagement, cooperative marketing, multipleuse zones, agroforestry, and protected territories for indigenous people. Land

reform (extractive reserves) may be most viable in areas where population pressure is relatively low and transportation is relatively good. In remote areas, equity

concerns may need to be met by developing parks and reserves comanaged

by Native Americans and conservation organizations. In areas where campesinos

are well established, agroforestry may provide a better option than reserve

establishment.

Keywords: Tropical rain forests, Amazon, extractive reserves, patron-client networks, cooperatives, tenure reform.
178

Rossi, Esko; Raatikainen, Mikko; Huovinen, Jarmo [and others]. 1984.

Luonnonmarjonen poiminta ja käyttö Väli-Soumessa=The picking and use of

edible wild berries in central Finland. Silva Fennici. 18(3): 221-236.

Characterizes picking and use of edible wild berries in five counties in central

Finland from 1978 to 1981. Lingonberries (Vaccinium vitis-idaea) were picked by

86 percent of all families surveyed, and whortleberries (V. myrtillus) by 79 percent

of families. Red raspberry (Rubus idaeus) was the third most popular species.

Small quantities of eight other species were picked. Lingonberries were most

abundant in cutover areas and the average picked per person was 17.6 l; whortleberries were found in Calluna-type vegetation communities and yielded 5.6 l per

person. Most berries were for household consumption, and only a small amount

were given away to other people. This article demonstrates the kind of information

that could be generated about patterns of picking and societal preferences for

berry species in the Pacific Northwest.

Keywords: Berries, harvesters, patterns of use, societal preferences, survey,

Finland.

Russell, Kenelm. 1990. Manufacturing, marketing, and regulatory considerations:

forest fungi. Remarks presented at the Special Forest Products Workshop,

8-10 February 1990. Portland, OR. 9 p. On file with: Kenelm Russell, Washington Department of Natural Resources, Olympia, WA 98504.

Provides an overview of wild edible mushroom harvesting in Washington. Increasing commercial demand in the past decade has led to concerns about overharvesting of wild edible mushrooms. Conflicts exist between recreational and

commercial pickers. The author describes the salient features of the wild mushroom market and summarizes statistics about wild mushroom production in

Washington State for 1989, when licensed buyers and processors reported buying

US$652,247 worth of wild mushrooms. The majority of these mushrooms came

from Mason and Gray’s Harbor Counties in western Washington, and the most

commonly harvested species (by weight) was chanterelles (Cantharellus spp.). He

notes that these figures are low compared to reports from Oregon, where the morel

(Morchella spp.) harvest was valued at US$2.6 million in 1987, and British

Columbia, which exported an estimated US$9-10 million of matsutake to Japan in

1988.

The author identifies a number of areas of concern arising out of the increasing

commercialization of the wild mushroom harvest: resource depletion from overharvesting, production uncertainties, importance of mushroom harvesting as a

seasonal source of income, increasing conflicts among various user groups, the

underground nature of the wild mushroom industry, and public health concerns as

more mushrooms enter the market.

Important policy developments also are summarized. The first step toward stricter

regulation of wild mushroom harvesting occurred in 1985 when the Washington

State Public Lands Commissioner convened a task force to analyze the issues

around commercial harvest of wild mushrooms. As a result of the debates initiated

by this group, a series of bills to regulate the wild harvest were put before the state

legislature. In January 1989, the Wild Mushroom Harvesting Act was put into

effect. Its provisions required that (1) buyers and dealers obtain an annual license,
179

(2) that buyers submit to the Washington State Department of Agriculture

information about the source and quantity of products purchased, and (3) that the

Department of Agriculture publish statistics about harvest totals.

Russell ends with a discussion of issues reflecting landowner concerns over wild

mushroom regulation. Until recently, few landowners paid attention to mushroom

harvesters, but the growing commercial interest in these species has raised the

interest of landowners in exercising their property claims. The Washington

Department of Natural Resources has initiated a system of leases, where rights to

harvest wild mushrooms are sold through a bidding process. Other Washington

State agencies allow recreational picking, but proibit commercial harvesting. The

author concludes with the observation that very little is known about the ecological

and economic aspects of wild mushroom harvesting, and that research to fill this

void is necessary if the industry is to develop further.

Keywords: Wild edible mushrooms, cultivated mushrooms, leases, Washington,

regulation, management, policy.

Russell, Kenelm W. 1987. What we need to know about commercial harvesting.

McIlvainea. 8(1): 37-41.

Sets an agenda for research in the Pacific Northwest for improving knowledge

about edible wild mushrooms. The current lack of good economic and ecological

data makes management difficult and heightens the risk of unsustainable harvests.

The proposed research agenda includes baseline studies about the ecology of

commercial mushroom species, social and economic profiles of pickers, social

perceptions and opinions of concerned interest groups, accurate determination of

wild mushroom crops and actual harvests of each crop, and applied ecological

research into potential site manipulations by forest land managers. Securing

adequate and consistent funding and ensuring good organization and exchange of

research information also are essential to making native mushroom harvests a

long-term feature of the forest economy of the Pacific Northwest.

Keywords: Research, wild edible mushrooms, Pacific Northwest.

Ruth, Robert H., Jr.; Underwood, J. Clyde; Smith, Clark E.; Yang, Hoya Y.

1972. Maple syrup production from bigleaf maple. Res. Note PNW-181.

Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest

Forest and Range Experiment Station. 11 p.

Describes tests of syrup production (sap flow) and quality from bigleaf maple (Acer

macrophyllum) on the west side of the Willamette Valley during winter 1970-71.

Each tree had an annual flow of 0-17 gal of sap per tree. Tapping season began in

mid-November and ran to early March. Compared to sugar maple (A. saccharum)

syrup, bigleaf maple syrup was more acidic and had higher ash and invert sugar

content, giving it a different flavor. Selecting high-producing trees with high sugar

content in sap is crucial to making syrup tapping profitable. Best opportunities for

commercial exploitation occur in pure stands or with trees accessible from the

road. Suggestions for appropriate silviculture are given. No commercial production

is known as yet.

Keywords: Maple syrup, economic development, Willamette Valley, Oregon.
180

Saar, Maret. 1991. Fungi in Khanty folk medicine. Journal of Ethnopharmacology.

31: 175-179.

Saari, Veli. 1993. Collection products of transmission line corridors and their

utilization possibilities. Aquilo Ser. Bot. 31: 47-54.

Advocates more intensive use of powerline corridors in the landscape as sources

for nontimber forest products. Most promising plants are those which benefit from

clearing and are sufficiently abundant to establish and maintain economic markets.

Genera of common plants under consideration in Finland for management having

representatives in the Pacific Northwest are Betula, Epilobium, Juniperus, Picea,

Pinus, Rubus, Sorbus, and Vaccinium. Juniper and lingonberry (V. vitis-idaea) are

particularly well-adapted. Production of medicinals comes from juniper berries,

leaves of Vaccinium species, and shoots of native conifers. Young birch leaves

and fireweed shoots are used in salads and soups. Young conifers are available

as horticultural transplants, and numerous honey plants (fireweed and ericaceous

shrubs) can harbor bee colonies.

Commercial species of mycorrhizal mushrooms tend to grow in largest numbers

in the powerline corridors within 6 m of the forest edge. Older powerline corridors

tend to have greater species diversity and volume yield than younger corridors.

In general, the corridors produce fewer mushrooms than the surrounding forest.

The author proposes that private plant collectors in particular could contract with

power companies to manage and collect commercial plants within the corridor.

This article presents a novel use of human-created landscape elements such as

powerline corridors for economic production of nontimber forest products.

Keywords: Management practices, edible wild plants, edible wild mushrooms,

medicinal plants, powerline corridors, Finland.

Saastamoinen, O. 1977. Economics of forest uses in Finnish Lapland. Silva

Fennica. 11(3): 162-168. In Finnish with English summary.

Describes the relative economic significance of various activities in Finnish Lapland

forests. Annual harvests of wild berries and edible mushrooms together constituted

between 3 and 11 percent of the value of annual timber harvests from the region

between 1972 and 1976. Major species are cloudberry (Rubus chamaemorus),

lingonberry (Vaccinium vitis-idaea), whortleberry (V. myrtillus), and false morel

(Gyromitra esculenta). The home use of these species is poorly known. Reindeer

husbandry and recreation and tourism are other important goods and services that

forests provide.

Keywords: Economic value, household use, wild berries, wild edible mushrooms,

Finnish Lapland, Finland.

Saastamoinen, Olli. 1982. Economics of multiple-use forestry in Saariselkä forest

and fell area. Communicationes Instituti Forestalis Fenniae. 102: 1-102.

Examines combinations of land use for timber production, reindeer grazing, and

recreation use of forest lands in Finnish Lapland from an economic perspective.
181

Total value of production and value-added production are calculated to determine

the relative economic importance of forest uses. Production theory is used, which

explores the prevailing technological relations (production functions) between

inputs (factors of production) and outputs (ecosystem products) and takes into

account possibilities for substitution. Outputs consist of main products, byproducts,

and waste products. Most special forest products are considered byproducts.

Understanding the biological and economic relations in joint production systems is

essential for economic evaluations of forest management. Product transformation

curves (empirical and theoretical) between timber production and reindeer lichen

biomass under differing intensities of reindeer grazing, recreation, and timber

production are presented. The author then devises a three-commodity model to

show the interactions among the three economic sectors. In the long term, recreation measured by far the greatest economic net returns. The highest economic use

for forests was a combination of tourism and other recreation and extensive

reindeer grazing.

This volume provides an excellent intellectual framework for methodologies for

researching and managing nontimber forest products in the Pacific Northwest by

using production theory.

Keywords: Finland, grazing, joint production, lichens, multiple use, production

function, production theory, recreation.

Saastamoinen, Olli. 1984. Minor forest products in Finland. In: Policy analysis for

forestry development: Proceedings of the international conference for IUFRO

Division 4; 27-31 August 1984; Thessaloniki, Greece. Thessaloniki: Forest

Research Institute of Thessaloniki: 221-229. Vol. 2.

Reviews the role of berries, edible fungi, decorative lichens, and wild plants in

forest economies of Finland. Most products are for home use, some for national

markets, and a very few for international markets. In the last 15 to 20 years, more

information has become available about edible fungi and public interest has risen.

Average consumption of wild mushrooms does not exceed 1 kg per person, and

wild berry consumption is estimated at 5 to 6 kg per person. The most important

mushroom species are golden chanterelles (Cantharellus cibarius), boletes

(Boletus spp.), milk caps (Lactarius spp.), and false morels (Gyromitra esculenta).

Fifteen species are considered commercially significant; many others are consumed by households. Annual yields of mushrooms differ more than do yields of

berries. The annual yield of mushrooms in 1982 was Fimr15.0 million.

Decorative lichen harvesting (mostly Cladonia alpestris) is restricted to a small

area just south of the reindeer management area. Lichens are found primarily on

dry, infertile soils under pure Scotch pine (Pinus sylvestris) stands. Lichen gathering is labor intensive. Unlike berries and mushrooms, which are considered common property, decorative lichens are the property of the landowner. The best

quality lichens are exported. The total value of the 1982 lichen crop was Fimr8

million.

Commercial plant products also include roundleaf sundews (Drosera rotundifolia),

Labradortea (Ledum palustre), and birch leaves (Betula spp.). Birch sap production, common in Russia, has potential for Finnish birch forests. Beekeeping for

honey production from flowers in cutover areas is also practiced in Russia and is
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as yet little discussed in Finland. Domestic bees in forest sites may help to

increase the production of berries by increasing pollination rates.

Between 1980 and 1982, the total value of all minor forest products in Finland

amounted to 8 percent of the value of timber produced. When compared to data

from 1974-78, the economic importance of minor forest products is increasing

slightly relative to timber. Minor forest products in Finland are an integral part of

the multiple use of forests and have the potential to diversify forestry production,

generate employment in rural ecosystems, supplement income, and provide

recreational opportunities.

Keywords: Berries, wild edible mushrooms, lichens, household consumption, common property, resins and other exudates, honey, bees, Finland.

Saastamoinen, Olli. 1992. Comparative economics of multiple use in boreal and

tropical forests: cases from Finland and the Philippines. Manuscript of a paper

delivered at the IUFRO centennial meeting, 30 August–4 September 1992.

Berlin; Eberswalde, Germany. On file with: Social and Economic Values

Research Program, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Forestry Sciences

Laboratory, P.O. Box 3890, Portland, OR 97208-3890.

Reports on the effect of increasing restrictions on forest management on the status

of nontimber forest products in Finland. Data and estimates of stocks of nontimber

products are routinely incorporated into national income accounts. Medicinal

plants and birch (Betula spp.) sap are becoming, at least locally, newly important

products. Finnish nontimber products share four features: (1) most are common

resources not tied to land ownership; (2) human use of standing crops of these

resources is low (3-7 percent for whortleberries [Vaccinium myrtillus] and 1-2 percent for edible mushrooms); (3) conflicts between timber and nontimber uses have

been thus far resolvable; and (4) uses of nontimber products involve commercial,

subsistence, and recreational consumption. The relative importance of minor forest

products to total forest economic production in Finland has risen from 6 percent

between 1974 and 1978 to 10 percent in 1991. Low levels of annual timber

harvestand a downward trend in stumpage prices are the primary causes. Regional

differences in the relative importance are considerable; as much as 25 percent of

forest values come from nontimber products in Finnish Lapland.

Keywords: Economic value, management, Finland, berries, wild edible

mushrooms, medicinal plants, saps and resins.

Saastamoinen, Olli; Lohiniva, S. 1989. Picking of wild berries and edible mushrooms in the Rovaniemi region of Finnish Lappland. Silva Fennica. 23(3): 253-

258.

Reports on results from a questionnaire mailed to randomly selected households in

two communities in northern Finland concerning berry and mushroom collection in

1983 and 1985. Use of nine wild berry species and the false morel (Gyromitra

esculenta) was investigated. The response rate was 80 percent in the 1983 survey

and 84 percent in the 1985 survey. Respondents mirrored the socioeconomic

distribution of the communities at large. Four-fifths of all households picked at least

one species of berry for home use, but only one-third picked mushrooms. Cloudberry (Rubus chamaemorus) was the most lucrative species; 40 percent were sold
183

and provided 38 percent of all income from nontimber forest products in 1983.

In 1985, cloudberries accounted for 92 percent of all income from nontimber forest

products. Total amounts of berries collected in the Rovaniemi region are two to

four times greater than the national average. Nationally, picking activities differ

considerably by species, region, and year. Opportunities for expanding picking may

be available. Most collections are for home use, which has reached local saturation. Shipping to other regions is possible because picking for sale offers tax-free

income. Most berry pickers are elderly people. Training and extension advice to

pickers are seldom available.

Keywords: Survey, harvesting, berries, wild edible mushrooms, income, Finland,

Finnish Lapland.

Salafasky, Nick; Dugelby, Barbara L.; Terborgh, John W. 1993. Can extractive

reserves save the rain forest? An ecological and socioeconomic comparison of

nontimber forest product extraction systems in Peten, Guatemala[,] and West

Kalimantan, Indonesia. Conservation Biology. 7(1): 39-52.

Describes important socioeconomic factors that affect the success of extractive

reserves in tropical forests. Major factors include well-defined resource tenure

rights, physical and social infrastructure, existing markets, and alternative land

uses. Socioeconomic elements must interact positively with ecological and political

conditions to make reserves a viable part of sustainable development. Density of

the particular nontimber forest product affects the search, travel, and transport time

that a person must expend to harvest successfully. Optimal economic foraging

behavior encourages people to minimize time to acquire products and maximize

profit. Because most products have seasonal availability, a sustainable extractive

system requires a complementary mix of products throughout the year so that work

and a labor force are more likely to remain stable. Sustainability of the product

supply demands that harvesting of nontimber forest products should not reach

levels that depress the regeneration and survivorship of the crop species.

Formal and informal rules of conduct and long-term commercial and social relations can restrain negative effects of individuals on the common good and ecosystem health. An established infrastructure is needed in extractive reserves to

organize and speed delivery of nontimber products and to secure improved wages

and access to material goods. Extractive reserves may support a low level of both

employment and per capita resources in a land-poor country. Improvements in the

systemic workings of an extractive reserve could involve agroforestry systems for

enrichment planting, development of additional products, and greater local control

over marketing through cooperatives. On a broad landscape scale, extractive

reserves are best incorporated with other complementary land uses; they are not

a stand-alone panacea.

Keywords: Extractive reserves, infrastructure, optimal foraging, sustainability, land

tenure, agroforestry, cooperative.

Salo, Kauko. 1979. Mushrooms and mushroom yield on transitional peatlands in

central Finland. Annales Botanici Fennici. 16: 181-192.

Reports on experiments to calculate yields of commercial mushrooms under

several fertilizer treatments and at several successional stages after peatland

draining. Highest total yields of mushrooms in 1975-76 were on a sphagnum and
184

heather bog plot fertilized with NPK. Recently drained bog sites without fertilizer

treatments had poorest yields. Lactarius rufus, a commercial species in Finland,

was the most common fungus species; its fruiting bodies comprised nearly 54

percent of the total weight of all collected fungi. Levels of L. rufus in 1976 were

lower than in 1975, probably owing to either weather conditions or the lessening

effect of fertilization, or both. Saprophytic fungal species, with one exception

(Omphalina ericetorum), were little affected by fertilization treatments.

Forest stand management measures to improve the productivity of wild edible

mushrooms are poorly known. This article addresses the role of fertilization,

usually used to promote tree growth, on the growth and yield of both commercial

and noncommercial species of mushrooms. Comparable studies would be useful in

the Pacific Northwest to clarify the effects of forest management practices on the

distribution and abundance of economically important mycoflora.

Keywords: Bogs, draining, fertilization, growth, yield, experimental design, stand

management, wild edible mushrooms, Finland.

Salo, Kauko. 1984. Joensuun ja Seinäjoen asukkaiden luonnonmarjojen ja sienten

poiminta v 1982=The picking of wild berries and mushrooms by the inhabitants

of Joensuu and Seinäjoki in 1982. Folia Forestalia. 598: 1-21. In Finnish with

English summary.

Reports results from a survey questionnaire sent to households in Joensuu and

Seinäjoki, Finland, about wild berry and mushroom harvests. Out of 700 mailings,

533 households replied. The 1982 harvests of berries and mushrooms were lower

than average, about one-third the amount from the previous year. Well over half of

the responding households picked berries. The percentage of mushroom pickers

was very different in the two towns: 68 percent in Joensuu and 28 percent in

Seinäjoki. The typical urban resident who picks berries and mushrooms is between

30 and 50 years old. In family groups, the mother is the main picker, but fathers

are increasingly participating. Most picking occurs on weekends; 20 percent of

Joensuu residents take at least some of their summer holiday during the best

mushroom- and berry-picking season. Summer cottages are important starting

points for picking trips. With improved roads, travel to more remote spots is

possible and travel distances have increased. Distribution of households by

quantities of mushrooms and berries picked is provided.

Lingonberries (Vaccinium vitis-idaea) usually were picked in clearcuts, young

forest, and mature forest, on upland sites and on southern slopes near tops of hills.

Whortleberries (V. myrtillus) were typically picked in mature upland forests, Norway

spruce (Picea abies) swamps, and young stands thinned for poles. Whortleberry

crops were local with best yields in on hillslopes, along lakes, and on islands where

spring frost damage was reduced. Major mushroom species picked were milk caps

(Lactarius spp.), golden chanterelles (Cantharellus cibarius), boletes (Boletus

spp.), Suillus spp., Leccinum spp., Gyromitra esculenta, Russula spp., and polyps

(Albatrellus ovinus). Milk caps were located on moist and dry upland sites.

Gyromitra esculenta was found in cutover sites, especially where the ground had

been ploughed. Most species of edible mushrooms were found in spruce swamps

and young forests in dry upland areas.

Keywords: Survey, household, Finland, berries, wild edible mushrooms,

clearcutting.
185

Salo, Kauko. 1985. Luonnonmarjojen ja sienten poiminta Suomussalmella ja

eräissä Pohjois-Karjalan kunnissa=Wild berry and edible mushroom picking in

Suomussalmi and in some North Karelian communes, eastern Finland. Folia

Forestalia. 621: 1-30. In Finnish with English summary.

Reports the results from a study in Suomussalmi county on the role of wild berries

and edible mushrooms as sources of added income for rural residents. People are

leaving eastern Finland in search of better economic opportunities. The present

study was established by the Department of Peatland Forestry to determine the

amounts of wild berries and edible mushrooms picked in the region, their market

value and value relative to timber stands, the relative importance of income from

berries and mushrooms in household budgets, and whether berry and mushrooms

harvests in Suomussalmi differ from harvests in other communes.

Questionnaires were sent to a random sample of residents of Suomussalmi and

three other communes about their harvests of mushrooms and berries in 1982 and

1983. Of 900 questionnaires sent out, 583 households replied. Nonresponding

households were interviewed by telephone.

The most popular species of wild berries were lingonberry (Vaccinium vitis-idaea),

whortleberry (V. myrtillus), cloudberry (Rubus chamaemorus), red raspberry (R.

idaeus), European mountainash (Sorbus acuparia), and small cranberry

(V. oxycoccos). The most commonly picked edible mushrooms were milk caps

(Lactarius spp.), false morels (Gyromitra esculenta), boletes (Boletus spp., Suillus

spp., Leccinum spp.), and golden chanterelles (Cantharellus cibarius). Data on

average harvests in each community were calculated. Residents of Suomussalmi

significantly led residents in other communes in amounts of berries picked and

sold. In Suomussalmi and Nurmes, the proportion of value from timber compared

to the value of berries and edible mushrooms is 10:1, well above the Finnish

average of 28:1.

Clearcuts, old thinned stands, and mature pine stands were the best sites for

lingonberry gathering. The average berry-picking trip (including travel) was 5.75

hours. Average amounts of berries picked per person were tabulated. Best

whortleberry-picking sites were in old thinned stands and mature stands growing

on moist mineral soil. Scoops usually were used for gathering. Milk cap and bolete

mushrooms were found on many of the same sites as lingonberries and

whortleberries. The composition of groups of gatherers, mode of transportation,

and preferences by age and occupational groups were analyzed. Picking berries

and mushrooms provided tax-free income to households. Average added income

was Fimr347, and 5 percent of respondents earned more than Fimr5,000 annually

from berries and mushrooms.

Pickers consumed berries for their own use in a variety of ways. Most berries were

frozen; mushrooms were eaten fresh and rarely were frozen or dried. Knowledge of

local mushroom species differed considerably among the different communes.

Parents frequently taught their children about edible wild mushroom, thus ensuring

that knowledge is passed down from one generation to the next.

Keywords: Survey, household, harvest, consumption, berries, wild edible mushrooms, economic value, clearcutting, Finland.
186

Salo, Kauko. 1993. Yields of commercial edible mushrooms in mineral soil forests

in Finland, 1985-1986. Aquilo Ser. Bot. 31: 115-121.

Describes the methods used for surveying wild edible mushrooms as part of the

eighth national forest inventory in Finland. The survey relied on 3,009 circular

plots, each measuring 300 m, located systematically on survey tracts. The tracts

were 16 km apart in an east-west direction in south and central Finland, 32 km

apart in north Finland, and 24 km apart in a north-south direction throughout the

country. Within each tract, 1 to 4 plots (400 m apart in south and central Finland)

or 1 to 3 plots (600 m apart in north Finland) were designated. Four quadrats for

sampling were established within each plot.

Inventory field teams include a team leader, a biologist, and two field assistants.

The biologist describes and analyzes vegetation cover, maps forest damage, and

collects epiphytic lichens and mosses from outside plots as samples to detect air

pollution. Forests suitable for berry production are classified by vegetation cover.

Fungi are sampled only once in a survey year. Seasonal variation in the sampling

causes considerable variation in the results. Average yields of mushroooms are

calculated only for plots where commercial wild mushrooms are found. Yield is

expressed as fresh weight per hectare, with average fresh weight determined from

baseline studies in northern Karelia. The inventory also tracks the occurrence and

yield of commercial edible mushrooms in stands of different ages found on sites

with different mineral soils.

This article provides an outline of Finnish protocols to inventory nontimber forest

products, particularly mushrooms and berries, and may suggest useful applications

for inventory efforts in the Pacific Northwest.

Keywords: Wild edible mushrooms, berries, Finnish national forest inventory,

inventory methods, mineral soils, permanent sample plot, yields, Finland.

Salo, Kauko. 1995. Nontimber forest products and their utilization. In: [Editors

unknown]. Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries. [Place of publication

unknown]: Communication of the Finnish Forest Research Institute: [pages

unknown].

Discusses the role of berry, mushroom, lichen, and conifer species of economic

importance in Scandinavian countries. Many traditional forest uses in Scandinavia,

such as cattle grazing and charcoal, resin, and tar production, are no longer practiced. Berry picking remains a viable economic pursuit in many regions. Of the 30

edible berry species, 16 are picked commercially. Members of the following genera

are harvested: Arctostaphylos, Empetrum, Fragaria, Juniperus, Prunus, Rosa,

Rubus, Sorbus, and Vaccinium. Ecological habitats for major species are

described. Annual crops are highly variable, and the author provides a summary

of means and ranges of crop yields for Sweden and Finland. Natural and managerial factors affecting phenology and harvest yields are briefly discussed. Perhectare monetary value of berries and mushrooms often is greater than the tree

crops from many forests. In many instances, peatlands have been drained at

great expense to provide forest stands of low productivity and where the greater

value in berry production would justify restoration of sites to bogs. Lingonberries

(Vaccinium vitis-idaea) are the most important species in Finland, and the whortleberry (V. myrtillus) ranks first in Sweden and Norway.
187

The best edible mushrooms are Boletus edulis, Suillus luteus, and Cantharellus

cibarius. Most commercial mushrooms are mycorrhizal species found in upland

forests in the company of Scotch pine (Pinus sylvestris), Norway spruce (Picea

abies), and birch (Betula spp.) trees. Descriptions of berry and mushroom harvesters as well as estimates of the percentage of total natural production consumed by people also are provided for Sweden and Finland.

Danish forestry, comprised mostly of privately owned lands, produces large

amounts of ornamental conifer foliage, most notably from Caucasian silver fir

(Abies nordmanniana; 37 percent by cultivated area) and noble fir (A. procera;

34 percent by cultivated area). Denmark ranks first in production of greens with

7367 ha under production, yielding 27 000 tonnes of ornamental foliage, most of

which is exported. Large investments are required for high-grade stock, weedcontrol equipment, and labor, fertilization, and irrigation.

Public access rights to forest products are rooted in ancient traditions. Formal

regulations in Sweden date back to 1608. In Sweden and Finland, all citizens

have the right of free access to wild berries, mushrooms, wild plants, fallen

branches, and detached cones lying on the ground. Income from sale of wild

berries, herbs, and mushrooms is tax free in Finland, but income from lichens is

taxable. No exemptions from taxation exist in Sweden. Residents of Poland and

the Baltic States go to northern Sweden to pick berries. Picking cloudberries

(Rubus chamaemorus) in Lapland regions of Norway and Finland is locally

prohibited for nonresidents of the region. Denmark and Iceland permit picking

berries for consumption onsite, but if berries are taken offsite for consumption at

home, permission of the landowner is necessary.

Keywords: Harvesting, lichens, conifer greens, berries, wild edible mushrooms,

yield, regulation, taxation, Sweden, Norway, Finland, Denmark.

Sanojca, K.; Hendriksen, H.A. 1978. Et forsøg med plantning af nobilis-gran

(Abies procera Rehd.) på Løvenholm Skovdistrikt=An experiment with planting

a noble fir (Abies procera Rehd.) stand at the Løvenholm Forestry District.

Forstlige Forsøgsvaesen i Danmark. 36(2): 289-312. In Danish with English

summary.

Savage, Mark. 1995. Pacific Northwest special forest products: an industry in

transition. Journal of Forestry. 93(3): 6-11.

Describes new means of collecting and processing noble fir (Abies procera)

boughs in western Washington by using helicopters and refrigeration warehouses.

One plant is described that has 180 employees processing some 40,000 lb of

boughs every day from mid-October to early December. Floral greens such as

salal (Gaultheria shallon), evergreen huckleberry (Vaccinium ovatum), beargrass

(Xerophyllum tenax), and ferns also are collected, and 80 percent of harvests is

shipped abroad. Export of these greens occurs year round, mostly to wholesalers

in Germany and the Netherlands. Important medicinal plants include Pacific yew

(Taxus brevifolia), purple foxglove (Digitalis purpurea), and maidenhair fern

(Adiantum spp.).

Administering sales of multiple products is complex. Timing is critical because

products are perishable and subject to ephemeral appearance, seasonal pest
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infestations, and unpredictable weather conditions. Familiarity with demand, prices,

market criteria for product quality, market trends, and industry structure is essential. Substantial profits can be obtained from efficient harvest of boughs, floral

greens, and mushrooms because their market values are high. The author states

that high-site stands of noble fir and Pacific silver fir (A. amabilis) between 1,000

and 5,000 ft in elevation have the highest economic potential. Many young noble fir

stands are now in need of bough pruning. Attention must focus on a mix of products, developing a loyal customer base, and adequate inventory.

On public lands, long-term leases (6 to 10 years) have been awarded. Leases

often include stipulations regarding tree thinning, pruning, and road and trail

maintenance. Procedures for permitting, collecting, leasing, and compliance are

still evolving. Monitoring employer-employee relations, respect for property rights,

ethnic and other social tensions, and harvest practices for sustainability concern

managers and law enforcement officials. Research is needed to develop management regimes that combine timber production and special forest products. Fear of

insect and fungal infestation have prompted the erection of trade barriers. The

validity of these barriers may be doubtful.

Keywords: Management practices, policy formulation, barriers, leases, conifer

greens, floral greens, medicinal plants, comanagement.

Schlosser, W.; Blatner, K.; Chapman, R. 1991. Economic and marketing implications of special forest products harvest in the coastal Pacific Northwest.

Western Journal of Applied Forestry. 6(3): 67-72.

Summarizes the results of a 1989 mail survey used to sample special forest product businesses (floral and Christmas greens) west of the Cascades in Washington,

Oregon, and British Columbia. The industry was estimated to consist of about 60

businesses, mostly in Washington State, employ about 10,300 workers, and lease

about 673,000 acres for special forest products production. Sales were estimated

at US$128.5 million, consisting primarily of US$47.7 million paid for plant materials, payroll of US$23.8 million, and overhead expenses of US$48.5 million.

Information also was generated on industry market perceptions, channels of distribution, and future market opportunities. Producer expenditures by product for 19

floral and Christmas greens are presented.

Keywords: Floral greens, conifer greens, economic value, distribution, markets,

trade, Pacific Northwest.

Schlosser, W.; Blatner, K.; Zamora, B. 1992. Pacific Northwest forest lands

potential for floral greenery production. Northwest Science. 66(1): 44-55.

Estimates the occurrence of several significant floral greenery species based on

existing plant association guidelines. The ideal canopy cover characteristics for

each significant floral greenery species is discussed, followed by the production

potential and management considerations for floral green harvests in each of the

five forest zones in the Pacific Northwest. The western hemlock zone is the most

accessible and productive zone and possesses the highest potential for floral

greens production. Specific recommendations are made to ensure proper
189

management of floral greens, including use of long-term leases, broad-scale

advertising of leases, and periodic monitoring of floral greens populations.

Keywords: Floral greens, plant associations, leases, canopy cover, production,

management, Pacific Northwest.

Schlosser, William; Blatner, Keith A.; Baumgartner, David M. [n.d.]. Floral

greens and Christmas ornamentals: important special forest products. Pullman,

WA: Washington State University, Cooperative Extension Service.

Describes the significance of the floral and Christmas greens sector of the special

forest product industry in the Pacific Northwest. A 1991 study of these sectors

indicated that they generated US$128.5 million in sales at the wholesale level in

1989. In the Pacific Northwest (western Washington, western Oregon, and southeastern British Columbia), buyers purchased US$38 million in floral greens and

US$9.6 million in boughs. Together, these segments provided full- and part-time

employment for more than 10,000 people.

Significant floral greens include salal (Gaultheria shallon), evergreen huckleberry

(Vaccinium ovatum), Cascade Oregongrape (Mahonia nervosa), and western

swordfern (Polystichum munitum). Most species are harvested year-round except

in spring when plant tips are fragile and when winter snow makes harvest difficult.

In contrast, Christmas greens are harvested primarily in fall and winter and are

used during the holiday season. Commercial species include noble fir (Abies

procera), Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), western redcedar (Thuja plicata),

western white pine (Pinus monticola), subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa), lodgepole

pine (P. contorta), and western juniper (Juniperus scopulorum), all of which tend

to retain needles after harvest. Other products, such as cones, complement the

ornamentals.

Noble fir and western redcedar are the two major species harvested in terms of

total tonnage per year. Boughs are clipped from young trees (saplings or pole

timber) as the older trees do not provide the type of branches desired by the

industry. Harvests often are conducted in regenerating stands and can be done

every 2 or 3 years. Clipping of branches for boughs is beneficial for timber production and thus does not compete with logging interests.

Keywords: Floral greens, conifer greens, Pacific Northwest.

Schlosser, William E.; Blatner, Keith A. 1993. Critical aspects of the production

and marketing of special forest products. Manuscript prepared for the President’s Forest Conference Committee. 73 p. On file with: Social and Economic

Values Research Program, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Forestry

Sciences Laboratory, P.O. Box 3890, Portland, OR, 97208-3890.

Provides a descriptive overview and policy analysis of special forest products

industries in the Pacific Northwest. Five major product types are considered:

floral greens, Christmas ornamentals, wild edible mushrooms, edible and medicinal

plants, and Pacific yew (Taxus brevifolia). This paper summarizes findings of the

authors’ previous studies concerning product value and employment in the floral
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greens and Christmas ornamentals sectors. This sector generated US$128.5

million from wholesale receipts from processors in Oregon, Washington, and

British Columbia and employed 10,000 people full- or part-time in 1989. The wild

edible mushroom sector is also described, with about US$20.3 million in processor

purchases from an estimated 27,800 harvesters gathering 4.0 million lb in 1992 in

Oregon, Washington, and Idaho. No information currently is available on the value

paid to harvesters, number of persons employed, and market structure for other

edible and medicinal plants. Pacific yew collection employed 1,500 people in

Washington, Oregon, Idaho, and Montana.

The authors consider the industry structure and markets in five distinct components: landowners, product harvesters, producers and processors, wholesalers

and brokers, and retailers. The objectives of landowners and the leasing of harvest

right to harvesters or processors differ considerably. To date, no consistent system

for issuing permits or leases has been implemented for Federal forest lands in the

Pacific Northwest. Lack of consistency in management and regulation has led to

strife among different user groups and has engendered mistrust and disregard for

Federal land management and its objectives. Unregulated harvesting works only

when harvest levels are low. Management to serve the three major types of harvesters (recreational, small commercial, and large commercial) must be carefully

conceived through designating distinct harvest areas for each harvester group.

Small-scale commercial harvesters could purchase harvest lease rights for a

specific area. For larger harvesters, the agency would make available larger

parcels and multiple units subject to competitive bidding, analogous to conventional timber sales.

Vertical integration and interindustry trade are common. An estimated 28,000-

30,000 people were employed in special forest products industries in 1992, and

about 14,000 people participated in more than one of the industries. Many jobs are

part-time or seasonal. For matsutake (Tricholoma magnivelare), 1.1. million lb were

sold in 1992; it is the most valuable wild edible mushroom in the Pacific Northwest.

Most of the matsutake crop (76 percent) went to Japan in 1992.

Special forest products alone are likely not a panacea for enhancing rural employment. Most jobs are comparatively low paying, seldom with benefits and security.

Processing jobs pay higher salaries than harvesting jobs. Many jobs also are

transitory and involve an itinerant lifestyle “following the harvest.” Harvesting evergreen boughs occurs during a brief 70-day period from October through early

December, and mushroom harvests are concentrated from September through

November. Jobs connected with yew harvest are expected to disappear from the

Pacific Northwest as alternate synthetic sources become available.

The western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) zone is the most productive forest for

special forest products, but the Pacific silver fir (Abies amabilis) and mountain

hemlock (T. mertensiana) zones are important for products such as beargrass

(Xerophyllum tenax). Virtually every evergreen species except the hemlocks growing in the Pacific Northwest can be used commercially for evergreen boughs.

Noble fir (Abies procera) and subalpine fir (A. lasiocarpa) are the most valuable.

Most boughs are harvested from sapling or pole-sized trees. Bough production

generally enhances timber quality production.

Much of the edible wild mushroom harvest is sent to Japan (>25 percent) and

Europe (25 percent, most going to Germany and France). In 1992, morels
191

(Morchella spp.) constituted one-quarter of the crop, most coming from eastern

Oregon and Washington, with equal shares of the morel crop (20 percent) sold in

Japan and Europe. Slightly more chanterelles (Cantharellus spp.) were harvested

than morels, more in western Oregon and Washington (total 94 percent), with 35

percent sold in the Western United States and 44 percent sold in Europe (primarily

France, Germany, the Netherlands).

Options for joint management of forests for timber and special forest products offer

novel approaches to extracting greater and perhaps more even flow of economic

values from forests in the Pacific Northwest. For example, most species useful as

floral greens flourish in shade provided by overstory trees; for example, salal

(Gaultheria shallon), Oregongrape (Mahonia spp.), and western swordfern

(Polystichum munitum). Both even-aged and uneven-aged tree harvest systems

can be managed to improve the quantity and quality of floral greens specific to the

plant association at a site. Clearcuts and seedtree regeneration favor commercial

quality evergreen huckleberry (Vaccinium ovatum), for example.

Major areas in need of research include identification of species’ distributions, life

histories, role in ecosystem function, and susceptibility to population decline. New

ways are needed also for characterizing populations of special forest products

within existing forest inventory databases. Specific targets for effective inventorying

are given concerning plot size, cycles of remeasurement, and so forth. Community

and regional development efforts should emphasize value-added products and

identify existing and potential markets based on resource inventories. Tracking the

marketing and sales of special forest products would be useful to forecasting and

planning for potential growth. Coordination among different land owners to support

growth and yield of special forest products will be necessary to provide the commercially required quantities for profitable harvests.

Keywords: Floral greens, conifer greens, wild edible mushrooms, edible plants,

medicinal plants, economic value, industry structure, distribution, trade, employment, research agenda, policy, joint management, Pacific Northwest, President’s

Forest Conference.

Schlosser, William E.; Blatner, Keith A. 1994. Special forest products: an eastside perspective. Manuscript for the Interior Columbia Basin Ecosystem

Management Project. 53 p. On file with: Social and Economic Values Research

Program, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Forestry Sciences Laboratory,

P.O. Box 3890, Portland, OR, 97208-3890.

Emphasizes the potential products marketed from east-side forests. Principal

species of floral greens are beargrass (Xerophyllum tenax), boxleaf myrtle

(Paxistima mysinites), western swordfern (Polystichum munitum), babysbreath

gypsophila (Gypsophila paniculata), hollyleaved barberry (Mahonia aquifolium),

and Oregongrape (M. repens). Most of the floral greens businesses are located

west of the Cascades, but they market products collected as far away as 300 mi.

Range plants having floristry value include pepperweed (Lepidium spp.), black

henbane (Hyoscayamus niger), Indian ricegrass (Oryzopsis hymenoides), and

arrowleaf balsamroot (Balsamorhiza sagittata).

Among wild edible mushrooms, the most widely harvested species are morels

(Morchella spp.). Other major species are the American matsutake (Tricholoma
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magnivelare), boletus (Boletus spp.), cauliflower mushroom (Sparassis crispa),

Oregon black truffle (Picoa carthusiana), and spreading hedgehog (Dentinum

repandum). Huckleberries (Vaccinium spp.), Saskatoon serviceberries

(Amelanchier alnifolia), and elderberries (Sambucus spp.) are the principal plant

food species.

The authors present their interpretation of ecosystem management for special

forest products. More intensive management requires a formal assessment of plant

growth and regeneration to determine at what level a sustainable harvest occurs.

Identification of habitat type, successional pathways, and accompanying understory plants help define the environmental conditions that a vegetation manager

must strive for. Optimal habitats for the major commercial species of special forest

products are described as well as management and harvesting methods. A sitespecific example is provided from the grand fir-twinflower habitat type in northern

Idaho.

Special forest product industries on the east side have been actively developed in

the last 10 years. At present, the appropriate mobile and trained workforce is not

available. Jobs in these industries tend to be lower paying and even more seasonal

than timber jobs. Business costs may be lower but transportation costs to end

markets will be greater from the east side. Increasingly, the mushroom collections

east of the Cascade crest will be processed locally. Joint marketing of mushroom

and berry products might be efficient for companies interested in obtaining a stable

workforce to collect wild products. Such horizontal integration to industry structure

might solidify market presence of east-side companies.

The authors make general forecasts about the future contribution of special forest

products to the east-side economy. A community with a processing facility for floral

greens, Christmas ornamentals, or wild edible mushrooms will likely achieve

increased employment for 50 to 125 individuals and infuse between US$325,000

to US$1.5 million annually. A logging mill in 1990 producing 20 mmbf would have

added 177 people in all phases of production and contributed US$5.1 million in

wages to the local economy. Secondary employment and indirect benefits to communities are not accounted for in each estimate. Finally, institutional barriers to

economic growth of special forest products industries are discussed.

Keywords: Floral greens, conifer greens, wild edible mushrooms, eastern Oregon,

eastern Washington, employment, economic value, barriers, employment, processing, ecosystem management.

Schlosser, William E.; Blatner, Keith A. 1995. The wild edible mushroom industry of Washington, Oregon and Idaho: a 1992 survey of processors. Journal of

Forestry. 93(3): 31-36.

Provides an overview of the wild edible mushroom industry in the Pacific Northwest. Major commercial species include morels (Morchella spp.), golden

chanterelles (Cantharellus cibarius), American matsutake (Tricholoma

magnivelare), and boletes (Boletus spp.). Commercial truffle species include the

Oregon black truffle (Picoa carthusiana) and true truffles (Tuber spp.). Most wild

edible mushrooms are harvested in western Washington and Oregon, but the harvest area extends from northern California to Alaska. Harvesting occurs in both

spring and fall.
193

Data were gathered through a census of mushroom processors based in Washington, Oregon, and Idaho who purchased mushrooms in the region in 1992. The

master list was developed from information in telephone directories, lists from

agricultural departments, and personal contacts. Dilman’s total design method for

mail questionnaires was used. Nonrespondents were contacted by telephone to

see if they continued to remain involved in the industry.

The survey findings revealed that the average length in business was 9 years.

Processors employed an average of five individuals in 1992, and purchased from

an average of 112 harvesters. An average total of 54,000 lb was harvested, the

average value of purchases per processor was US$278,000. Most mushroom

processors also purchased other special forest products, and most operated

seasonally. For the industry, a total of 3.9 million lb was purchased in 1992, of

which more than half was purchased in western Washington and Oregon. Morels

had the highest volume (1.3 million lb), and Oregon produced the bulk of the

mushrooms (62 percent). Prices differed by species, place, and time of purchase.

The gross value of the industry’s production for 1992 was estimated at US$41.1

million; US$25.1 million for Oregon, US$11.9 million for Washington, and US$1.6

million for Idaho.

Most of the product was sold to international markets: 27 percent was sold in the

Western United States, 28 percent to Japan, and 25 percent to Europe (Germany

and France). The product markets differed by species: morels were sold mostly

in the United States, chanterelles were destined for Europe, and most American

matsutake were sold to Japan.

The authors conclude that special forest products are not a panacea for economic

development. Most jobs in the industry are part time or seasonal and can serve

to supplement income earned from other occupations. Harvests range widely in

quantity, however, and markets are strongly international, thus subject to intense

competition.

Keywords: Survey, wild edible mushrooms, industry structure, economic value,

employment, trade, price, Oregon, Washington, Idaho.

Schlosser, William E.; Blatner, Keith A.; Schuster, Ervin G.; Carroll,

Matthew S. 1995. Potential for expansion of the special forest products industry in the northern Rockies. Western Journal of Applied Forestry. 10(4): 138-143.

Analyzes the potential for expansion of the special forest product industry in the

northern Rockies. Examines the current status of special forest product harvests in

the region in five categories: floral greens (beargrass [Xerophyllum tenax], western

swordfern [Polystichum munitum], Oregongrape [Mahonia spp.], and babysbreath

gypsophila [Gypsophila paniculata]), boxleaf myrtle [Paxistima mysinites],

Christmas ornamentals, wild edible mushrooms, other edibles and medicinals, and

Pacific yew (Taxus brevifolia). The authors then explore the advantages and constraints the region faces in expanding the industry. They conclude that the region

has abundant special forest product resources and a suitable labor supply, transportation network, and business environment to successfully expand the special

forest product industry, although numerous social, economic, and biological issues

need to be addressed for the industry to reach its full potential.
194

Keywords: Northern Rockies, economic development, floral greens, conifer greens,

wild edible mushrooms, medicinal plants, yew.

Schlosser, William E.; Roché, Cindy Talbot; Blatner, Keith A.; Baumgartner,

David M. 1992. A guide to floral greens: special forest products. Ext. Bull. 1659.

Pullman, WA: Washington State University, Cooperative Extension Service. 10 p.

Provides an introduction to eight major plants of the floral greens industry for harvesters and small landowners. Key ecological, morphological, and management

characteristics are described, and references are provided for additional information. The guide also includes range maps, plant illustrations, and color photographs of each species.

Keywords: Floral greens, guide.

Schneider, M. 1990. Acorns as a staple food—different types and change of

exploitation through time. Bodenkultur. 41(1): 81-88.

Surveys the present and historical uses of acorns for use as food and fodder worldwide. Acorns were particularly important as a food staple to California native

peoples as early as 5000 B.C. Tanoak (Lithocarpus densiflorus) was considered

the most reliable crop species although the acorns are comparatively poor in protein. California black oak (Quercus kelloggii) and Oregon white oak (Q. garryana)

were preferred species.

 Keywords: Nuts, California, Pacific Northwest, ethnobotany.

Schnepf, Chris, ed. 1995. Dancing with an elephant: Proceedings of the business

and science of special forest products: a conference and exposition; 1994 Jan.

26-27; Hillsboro, OR. Pullman, WA: Washington State University Cooperative

Extension. 213 p.

Provides an overview of biological, social, and economic aspects of special forest

products use and management in the Pacific Northwest region of the United

States. Chapters address the following topics: size and scope of the special forest

products industry in the Pacific Northwest; private landowner and harvester

perspectives of the industry; regulations and enforcement on private, state, and

Federal lands; resource sustainability issues; updates on chanterelle, morel, and

matsutake research efforts in the Pacific Northwest; marketing and business

development strategies for special forest products; and case studies of attempts to

use special forest product industry expansion and value-added efforts to spur rural

economic development.

Keywords: Economic development, sustainable development, regulation, enforcement, wild edible mushrooms, floral greens, cultivation, monitoring, marketing,

value-added, cooperatives.
195

Schröder, Hubertus. 1977. Schmuckreisig-Gewinnung bei der Douglasie=

Decorative greens yields from Douglas-fir. Allgemeine Forstzeitung. 32(46):

1159-1161. In German.

Describes management for Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) in Germany to

increase yields of decorative greens. Douglas-fir has gained in popularity in

Germany because of its attractive appearance, good needle retention compared

to western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla), ease of handling its branches during

processing, and its forest scent. It is used for wreathes, arrangements, garlands,

and graveside memorials. The first cut for foliage on a tree occurs when the tree is

3 to 4 m tall (by age 10) and runs from the tree base up to as high as the hand can

reach. About half of the foliage mass should be left on the tree so that future

growth is not jeopardized. Branches must be less than 3 to 4 cm wide for cutting

with pruning shears. To prevent the spread of fungal infection, the stumps of

branches cut in the winter are removed in the summer. This step increases

management costs considerably. Three to four years later (by age 15), another cut

can be taken with long-handled clippers or chainsaws. At this time the live crown

must comprise at least a third of the total stem length after pruning up to 4 m.

Some branches previously pruned produce a second crop of commercial-quality

foliage. The next cut for foliage can occur at the same time as the first stand

thinning. Yields fom this cut may be near zero if the stand is closely spaced, and

thus preventing growth of spreading crowns.

Keywords: Conifer greens, management practices, Germany.

Schweitzer, Jeff; Handley, F. Gray; Edwards, James [and others]. 1991.

Summary of the workshop on drug development, biological diversity, and

economic growth. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 83 (18): 1294-1298.

Argues that pharmaceuticals derived from tropical natural products can promote

economic growth in developing countries while conserving the biological resources

providing the products. The role of intellectual property rights and the economics of

conservation of biological diversity remain challenges to useful policy formulation.

Providing market-driven monetary incentives for conservation is important. Plans

are underway to ensure that a portion of profits obtained from pharmaceutical

development are returned to appropriate institutions in the country from which

plant material originated. Drug companies have found comparatively few new

compounds from natural sources in the last 25 years. Companies often emphasize

total synthesis of natural drugs so that destructive collections from the wild are no

longer necessary. Protecting natural resources must go hand-in-hand with preserving cultural diversity and indigenous knowledge. Equal partnership, cooperation,

and fair compensation are basic principles for multinational efforts to use biodiversity and traditional knowledge for sustainable management.

Compensation mechanisms need to be developed to bridge the time gap of the 10

to 15 years from identification of a potentially useful species to production of a

derivative drug. Four areas of action are particularly needed: improving infrastructure of host countries, developing inventories of native species and indigenous

knowledge, personnel training to meet needs of host countries, and assisting with

the healthcare priorities of host countries.
196

This article underscores important issues in the development of pharmaceutical

products and provides an outline for research and research support for new

products from temperate and tropical ecosystems.

Keywords: Medicinal plants, plant-derived drugs, product development, compensation, intellectual property rights, biodiversity, conservation.

Scoones, Ian; Melnyk, Mary; Pretty, Jules N., comps. 1992. The hidden harvest: a literature review and annotated bibliography. London: International Institute for Environment and Development, the Sustainable Agriculture Programme.

256 p.

Assembles a substantial bibliography about wild foods in agricultural societies, with

primary emphasis on tropical environments. Core topics discussed are wild foods

as supplements for food security, their nutritional value to people, resource control,

local institution in management of wild food resources, the origins of differing

societal uses of wild foods, and their estimated economic value to people. Essays

on each subject preface each subject area division in the bibliography. Seasonality

typifies wild foods. Within a forest ecosystem, the human regulations regarding

ownerships may have temporal, spatial, and generic limits. Poorer people rely

more heavily on wild foods for nutrition and as a source of income. In India, in

particular, efforts in community-based joint management for forest use have

attempted to work around the network of marketing middlemen who prevent primary hunters and gatherers (who are in the greatest economic need) from acquiring all but a very small proportion of resource value. Efforts in Brazil have

emphasized custodianship and wild plant harvest in extractive reserves. The final

section lists references about wild plant harvests around the world.

Keywords: Wild foods, nutrition, resource control, economic value, equity, tropics.

Seely, Harold. 1993. An economic assessment of the special forest products

industry in southwest Washington. Seattle, WA: Pacific Lutheran University.

35 p. Unpublished thesis.

Addresses the economic potential of the special forest products industry in four

western Washington counties (Grays Harbor, Mason, Wahkiakum, and Pacific)

and evaluates the capacity of special forest product employment to adequately

substitute for timber-related jobs. Methodology includes a literature review and

interviews with representatives of land management agencies, community development agencies, forest product companies, and special forest product companies.

The author provides an overview of southwest Washington and the mushroom and

floral green industries, and then assesses the current economic contribution of

special forest products to the region. The author estimates that three sectors of the

special forest product industries (mushrooms, holiday greens, and floral greens)

contributed US$90.5 million to the region in 1991 and employed 2,189 (full-time

equivalents). Although the employment and economic contributions are significant,

the author cautions that employment is not full-time and harvest seasons of various

special forest products conflict with each other, making it difficult to earn a family

wage exclusively from special forest product harvest opportunities. Management
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challenges also are discussed, and the author proposes a special forest products

cooperative to address these challenges and form a monopoly that could create

industry stability and efficiency.

The study concludes that the special forest products industry is an important component of the southwestern Washington economy but is unlikely to yield the growth

and wage levels needed to compensate for declining timber-related employment.

The author also argues that the structure of the special forest products industry

with its low capital requirements, relatively lower wages, and smaller, cyclical

nature make it an unlikely substitute for the timber industry. The author notes, however, that the timber and special forest product industries could potentially form a

synergistic relation.

Keywords: Floral greens, conifer greens, wild edible mushrooms, economic value,

employment, southwestern Washington, cooperative.

Sendak, Paul E.; Bennick, John P. 1985. The cost of maple sugaring in Vermont.

Res. Pap. NE-565. Broomall, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,

Northeast Forest Experiment Station. 14 p.

Develops an annual maple syrup production cost series for 1972 to 1984 to

examine the effects of changing technology. The authors estimate physical inputs

of plastic vacuum tubing for 3,000 taps and an open-pan evaporator and respective

costs per gallon of syrup. Most increases in cost were the result of inflation. Sugar

content of the sap affects production costs as well. A doubling of the sugar content

(1.5 to 3 percent) results in a 40 percent decrease in production costs per gallon.

Total cost of syrup production is most sensitive to changes in wages and fuel oil

costs, and these variables have the greatest potential to reduce costs. Wood may

provide the cheapest fuel source. The ratio of maple syrup price to production

costs also is figured (1977=100). An appendix includes equipment lists and labor

and energy requirements. This paper introduces the economic considerations important to economic development of harvests of bigleaf maple (Acer macrophyllum)

and birch (Betula spp.) sap in the Pacific Northwest.

Keywords: Cost analysis, economies of scale, equipment, fuel costs, labor wages,

maple sugar production, sugar content.

Shaw, Elmer W. 1949. Minor forest products of the Pacific Northwest. Res. Note

59. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 10 p.

Is the first known Forest Service publication about minor forest products in the

Pacific Northwest. Net value from unprocessed products in 1949 from the region

is estimated to be US$4-5 million. Important decorative greens are thought to

create US$2-3 million of extra income. Major species are western swordfern

(Polystichum munitum), salal (Gaultheria shallon), evergreen huckleberry

(Vaccinium ovatum), Port-Orford-cedar (Chamaecyparis lawsoniana), and other

conifers for boughs. Markets have not yet been developed for other suitable

products. Cascara (Frangula purshiana) and purple foxglove (Digitalis purpurea)
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are the most important medicinal plants gathered. Current standards for bunching,

packing, processing, and resource protection are given as are current prices.

“Brush pickers” are extolled as forest custodians on the lookout against wildfires.

A brief description of their cultural ethos is given.

Keywords: Berries, medicinal plants, wild edible plants, conifer greens, floral

greens, cones, economic value, harvesting, processing, Pacific Northwest.

Shepard, Gill. 1990. Conservation, development, and the future of the rainforest.

Appropriate Technology. 17 (3): [pages unknown].

Suggests that two approaches for conservation of rain forests are possible: finding

values for forests that do not require that trees be cut, and cutting trees in ways

that do less damage to the forest. Whichever approach is used, managers should

remember that tropical forests are inhabited, and that local people hold more

knowledge than anyone else about how to manage those forests. Recent studies

in the Amazon indicate that indigenous people have a very complex interaction

with their environment: many trees are not just managed but cultivated.

Unfortunately, valuing such forests is not easy. Many of the local values lie outside

the cash sector, so that their value is not readily apparent in monetary terms. At

the national level, many forest products are traded internally and, thus, neither

bring in hard currency nor are attractive to governments interested in revenue

generation.

Attempts to market nontimber rain forest products thus are often beset by the

dilemma of how to retain benefits at the local level. In India, two problems have

been identified: locally processed materials are unable to meet the standards and

cost structures of larger markets, and once nontimber forest products become

profitable, processing and sale (and sometimes collection) are taken over by

capital-intensive industrial or governmental concerns. Local harvesters, processors, and traders become landless laborers rather than entrepreneurs. International distortions in product values at the local level also need to be taken into

account. The author cites the example of the gum-arabic tree (Acacia nilotica) in

the Sudan, where low international prices devalued the domestic price to the point

where it made more sense to convert the trees to charcoal. Creating international

markets for nontimber forest products is thus a two-edged sword. Controlling nontimber forest product harvest rates becomes increasingly difficult as they rise in

value, particularly if regulatory regimes lack legitimacy or authority.

The author argues that sound nontimber forest product management will require

transferring greater authority to local governance. By strengthening indigenous

rights, vulnerability to international markets is lessened as people can then make

the choice between subsistence and cash activities.

Keywords: Tropical rain forest, India, market expansion, tenure reform, market

vulnerability.
199

Shiva, M.P.; Jaffer, Rubab. 1990. Prospects by models for raising aromatic plants

in different forestry programmes for economic uplift. Indian Forester. 116(2):

168-176.

Discusses management considerations for an intensive agroforestry system based

on stands of lemonscented gum (Eucalyptus citriodora) and camphortree

(Cinnamonum camphora) underplanted with oil-yielding grasses for production of

aromatic oils and poles. An accounting of management costs, product yields, and

financial returns is included. Considerations of spatial design for tree density and

for best balance of species are key to maximizing income for rural landowners.

Although the species are very different, possible parallels exist for developing

alternative silviculture for nontimber forest products in the Pacific Northwest. Vegetation management in the Pacific Northwest and commensurate economic analysis

could be undertaken to project production and value from stands combining wood,

aromatic conifer oil, and beargrass (Xerophyllum tenax) products, for example.

Keywords: Alternative silviculture, aromatic oils, agroforestry, economic analysis,

India.

Shiva, Vandana; Sharatchandra, H.C.; Bandyopadhyay, J. 1984. Social

forestry—No solution within the market. The Ecologist. 12 (4): 158-168.

Critiques the social forestry programs begun in India in the early 1980s. The

impetus for social forestry was the growing awareness that government-run

plantation forestry contributed little to enhancing living conditions for vast numbers

of India’s rural inhabitants, and the ability of such plantations to produce adequate

supplies of forest products was highly dependent on the participation of the population in keeping grazing animals out of newly planted woodlots. Social forestry

differs from previous forestry programs in its assumption that an effective reforestation program requires participation by local communities.

The authors use evidence from social forestry programs in the district of Kolar in

Karnataka State to show how the very structure of social forestry is incapable of

delivering on its promises to meet the needs of rural people and restore India’s

forest wealth. Social forestry is structured to break down the interdependence

among community members by promoting the planting of species, such as

eucalyptus (Eucalyptus spp.), that allow wealthier farmers with access to urban

markets to become less dependent on their fellow farmers. At the same time, the

emphasis on exotic species has diminished the value of local knowledge and

increased local dependence on outside experts for plant resources and information

about how to grow them.

Social forestry thus fails to meet its social equity goals and its ecosystem health

goals. The authors conclude that as long as market demands drive the choice of

species promoted by social forestry programs, such programs will fail to meet their

objectives.

Keywords: Social forestry, exotic species, rural development, social equity, ecosystem health, market pressure, India.
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Shubat, Deborah Jo. 1983. Management of native lowbush blueberry for recreational picking in northeastern Minnesota. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota.

M.S. thesis.

Provides information on recreational berry pickers and management of wild berry

stands in the United States. The author notes that lowbush blueberries (Vaccinium

angustifolium) have historically been sought by Native Americans and incoming

Euro-American settlers. Native Americans managed berry stands through the use

of fire, but experiments with berry cultivation did not begin until the early 1900s,

when the U.S. Department of Agriculture funded experiments on highbush blueberries (V. corymbosum) and then on lowbush blueberries in the 1960s. Attempts

to breed lowbush blueberries have encountered sterility and clonal propagation

difficulties; as a result, wild stands remain the only economically viable source of

such berries.

The author describes the geographical distribution of lowbush blueberry in

Minnesota and various methods of management, including thermal and mechanical

pruning, fertilizing, mulching and herbicide use, which have been used successfully

in commercial berry patches in New Brunswick, Maine, and Minnesota. Paired

plots of burned and unburned patches were established at four sites and one unburned plot at a fifth site. Treatments tested included mechanical pruning, mulching, and fertilizer and herbicide application. Pretest and posttest data were

collected on stem density, stem length, and number of flower buds per plant and

analyzed by using analysis of variance. The results of the experiment indicated that

sawdust mulching is not effective and that mulching is contraindicated when plants

have been pruned recently. Pruning stimulated stem growth, and mechanical pruning appeared to be more effective than burning. Herbicide use had little influence

on berry yield.

Fifty-one pickers, selected nonrandomly, were interviewed during August 1981 and

11 were interviewed in August 1982. Data were gathered on how people use wild

berries, how much berry picking costs, and picker opinions of berry management.

The pickers interviewed tended to be disproportionately female adults, and the

majority picked a variety of wild fruits every year. Forty-three percent picked only

for recreation, 31 percent picked berries specifically for food, and 26 percent

picked for both purposes. Pickers traveled 93 miles round trip on average, over

half were local residents, and most noted that this was an important activity to

them. Although the majority favored more active berry management on public

lands, an unspecified percentage noted that they would favor such activity only if

they did not have to pay to pick the berries. None of the pickers claimed to pick

for commercial use.

Keywords: Berries, management, harvesting, survey, harvesters, pruning, herbicide, yield, mulching, fertilized, experimental design.

Shubin, Vladimir. 1993. Fruit body production in edible forest mushrooms in relation to weather conditions. Aquilo Ser. Bot. 31: 111-113.

Reports on a 20-year study begun in 1970 in Karelia, Russia, where plots were

examined every 3 to 7 days from June to October. Locations of fruiting bodies were

mapped, mushrooms were picked for identification, and weighed. Dry hot summers
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reduced crop amounts. Years with the largest crops of edible mushrooms (for

example, 1974 and 1981) were years when the season began early and was prolonged with humid August weather and a dry autumn. Russula aeruginea fruited

soon after summer rain, ensuring a crop even in dry years, and R. xerampelina

flourished in years with more typical greater rainfall. Boletus edulis was an example

of an early season species that, as a rule, did not achieve high production levels.

Lag effects from soil moisture and temperature may play an important part in crops

the following year. In mature forests, the ground froze later than in open sites or

younger stands, thereby extending the growing season. Nineteen percent of years

had high crops and 43 percent had low crops.

Keywords: Wild edible mushrooms, experimental design, yield, Russia.

Signorini, Daniela; Valli, Oriano. 1984. Il tartufo: habitat, ricerca, zone di

reperimento, addestramento del cane, e tecniche di coltivazione del bianco e del

nero=Truffles: habitat, research, range, dog training, and techniques for cultivating white and black truffles. Milan: Ottaviano. 239 p.

Describes the role of middlemen in the commercialization of truffles (Tuber spp.)

in Italy. To strengthen their individually weak economic positions, truffle suppliers

create consortia for a larger market share that can guarantee them a bargaining

position equal to that of local intermediary purchasers. Marketing consortia are

undermined by tacit agreements among local purchasers to divide up the

truffle growing areas into zones of influence. The purchasers refuse to buy at local

prices any truffle coming from outside their region where prices might be lower.

Thus truffle gatherers cannot obtain the best price in these imperfect markets.

A clandestine distribution network exists where truffles from central Italy (Tuscany

and Umbria) are shipped to Alba (in the north) and sold as though they were local

products for much higher prices. Some businesspeople (trattoria owners, tailors,

or barbers) who have lots of public contact collect truffles from gatherers as a side

business. They provide a service to their client wholesalers by grading and sorting

truffles and prevent interaction between the truffle gatherers and the wholesalers.

Wholesalers in general have total control for setting prices for the truffles, based

on seasonal availability. The margin of price increase from the intermediary to the

wholesaler is 15 to 25 percent. The wholesaler’s sale price is considerably higher

than the price paid to the truffle gatherer by the local purchaser. Lower grade

truffles are selected for use in pâtés, which are sold at 20 percent above the

wholesaler’s purchase price. The higher grade truffles are sold at 75 to 85 percent

of the wholesaler’s purchase price. From these margins, transportation, storage,

and cleaning costs need to be subtracted.

Centers of truffle consumptions are the larger cities (Milan, Turin, Rome), each

of which is controlled by one or a few wholesalers who sell to retailers (restaurants

and grocery stores). In France, in contrast, every large city has a store that specializes exclusively in the sale of truffles.

There is no systematic method in Italy to calculate the production volume of

truffles. Estimates are provided based on experts in the sector. Fifteen percent

of white truffle (mostly Tuber aestivum) production is exported to the United

States, Brazil, Switzerland, and Germany. Most of the black truffle (mostly T.

melonosporum) production destined for export goes to France. Average prices
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are given by grade for 1983-84. A brief description of national and regional laws

regulating the gathering and trade of truffles in Italy is provided as well.

Keywords: Truffles, industry structure, cooperatives, imperfect markets, price

setting, distribution, trade, prices, regulation, Italy.

Simpson, R.D.; Sedjo, R.A. 1992. Contracts for transferring rights to indigenous

genetic resources. Resources. Washington, DC: Resources for the Future; Fall;

109: 1-6.

Discusses compensation to countries for the use of tropical forests as genetic resources to provide a conservation incentive. Establishment of a country’s property

rights and sovereignty in its indigenous genetic resources is an essential part of

the Biodiversity Convention. Contracts calling for royalty payments contingent

on discovery are suggested as an effective mechanism for commercializing genetic

resources. Vertical integration by both buyer and the seller are recommended to

reduce contract complexity. A brief summary is provided of recent contracts with

royalty provisions, including contracts entered into by the National Cancer Institute,

Biotics, and Merck and Company.

Keywords: Genetic resources, conservation, property rights, tropical forest, Biodiversity Convention, royalty payment.

Sittenfeld, Ana; Villers, Renata. 1993. Exploring and preserving biodiversity in

the tropics: the Costa Rican case. Current Opinion in Biotechnology. 4: 280-285.

Describes the increasing interest of the pharmaceutical industry in biodiversity

prospecting, defined as the systematic search for new sources of chemical compounds, genes, proteins, microbes, and other potentially valuable products. INBio

(Instituto Nacional de Biodiversidad) was formed in 1989 to inventory Costa Rica’s

substantial biodiversity and to use this information for the promotion of biodiversity

conservation and nondamaging, sustainable economic development. In addition

to the National Biodiversity Inventory described above, INBio is collaborating with

Intergraph Corporation to create a computerized biodiversity management information system, eventually linking geographic information systems, text, photographs, and maps. INBio is helping Mexico, Indonesia, and Kenya form similar

national institutions.

Keywords: Biodiversity prospecting, conservation, sustainable development,

Instituto Nacional de Biodiversidad, geographic information system, Costa Rica.

Sittenfeld, Ana; Villers, Renata. 1994. Costa Rica’s INBio: collaborative biodiversity research agreements with the pharmaceutical industry. In: Meffe, G.K.;

Carroll, C.R., eds. Principles of conservation biology. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer

Associates Inc.

Describes the work of INBio (Instituto Nacional de Biodiversidad), a Costa Rican

nongovernmental organization, in conducting a national biodiversity inventory and

in forming collaborative research agreements with pharmaceutical companies.

In exchange for access to Costa Rica’s biological wealth for drug prospecting,
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pharmaceutical companies help to fund local prospecting, sample processing,

identification and resupply, and conservation activities. In addition, agreements

call for royalty payments to conservation programs if commercialization is successful. INBio is currently involved in a 10-year cataloging effort of Costa Rican

biodiversity. The National Biodiversity Inventory is expected to cost US$70 million,

encompass all major taxa, and describe about half a million species. INBio pioneered the concept of “parataxonomists” to carry out this inventory. Parataxonomists are local community members trained and paid to carry out collection and

initial cataloging of species. The article also describes the opportunities and challenges of biodiversity prospecting for drugs and the historic US$1 million agreement between INBio and Merck for drug prospecting and evaluation.

Given the largely untapped medicinal potential of Pacific Northwest forests, INBio

provides an excellent example of how to capture local value from biodiversity

prospecting.

Keywords: Parataxonomy, inventory, biological diversity, compensation, plantderived drugs, Costa Rica, Instituto Nacional de Biodiversidad.

Slee, RW. 1991. The potential of small woodlands in Britain for edible mushrooms

production. Scottish Forestry. 45(1): 3-12.

Considers possibilities for raising commercial crops of edible mycorrhizal and

saprophytic fungi species in small woodlands in the United Kingdom. Markets for

“natural” and nontraditional foods have grown, including those for edible mushrooms other than Agaricus spp. Commercial harvesting of wild mushrooms is still

a small-scale industry, but golden chanterelles (Cantharellus cibarius) and boletes

(Boletus spp.) from northern Scotland are shipped to southeast England and

continental Europe. The economic challenge to commercial pickers is to identify

middlemen who ensure fair prices or to establish direct links to end users.

Sufficient down wood is necessary for the continued production of fruiting bodies

of edible saprophytic species. Colonization rates of logs depend on temperature

and log moisture content. Competition from other saprophytic fungi occurs for the

same sites and may threaten economic yields. Inoculation of logs with vigorous

strains of commercial species is important.

Development of commercial crops of edible wild mushrooms requires knowledge

that does not currently exist. Information about actual and potential yields, the

range of socially permissible environmental manipulation, prospects for markets,

and legal questions concerning property rights must be researched. No data exist

in the United Kingdom for measured yields of edible wild fungi. Monitoring of yields

is made difficult when multiple pickers work on the same site. The annual variation

in yield is considerable because of multiple environmental fluctuations. Effects of

harvesting on subsequent yields is unknown.

Details for improving fungi production are not well understood. Management of

saprophytic fungi is limited to introduction of shiitake (Lentinus edodes) to production on logs under native forest. Shiitake, a nonnative species, may encourage the

reintroduction of once widespread coppice silviculture for firewood and ecological

diversity. Fungi crops are a source of supplemental income in small hardwood

forests that serve multiple social values beyond timber production.

Keywords: Cultivated mushrooms, United Kingdom, domestication, down wood,

edible wild mushrooms, monitoring, vegetation management.
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Smith, G. Warren. 1983. Arctic pharmacognosia. II: Devil’s club: Oplopanax

horridus. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 7: 313-320.

Points out the historical and present-day importance of devilsclub (Oplopanax

horridus) to medicine. Among Native American peoples, the species has use as an

emetic, purgative, and poultice, but with its hypoglycemic activity, it may have a

role in the treatment of diabetes.

Keywords: Native American plant uses, medicinal plants.

Smith, Harriet L. 1978. Camas: the plant that caused wars—an Oregon vignette.

Lake Oswego, OR: Smith, Smith, and Smith Publishing Company. 18 p.

Chronicles the role of camas (Camassia spp.) bulbs in the diet of Pacific Northwest

Indians. Extracts from the journals of Meriwether Lewis and other early EuroAmerican diarists describe the process to collect and prepare camas. Conflicts

between Native Americans and Euro-American settlers over access to camas

fields led to armed conflict involving the Bannock tribe.

Keywords: Wild edible plants, Meriwether Lewis, resource conflict, Bannock tribe.

Steiner, P.R. 1981. The forests as a source of natural adhesives. In: Oliver, J.F.,

ed. Adhesion in cellulosic and wood-based composites. New York: Plenum

Press: 67-88 .

Argues that forests are an underused source of raw materials for adhesives.

Steiner describes the chemical reactivity and structure, physical properties, and

adhesive potential of three major sources of natural adhesives from trees, including

lignin, bark, and foliage. Additional research is needed on raw material variability,

aging effects, material separation and purification, and the influence of coreactants

to more fully examine the potential of these natural adhesives.

Keywords: Product development, adhesives, lignin, bark, foliage.

Stewart, Hilary. 1987. Cedar, tree of life to the Northwest coast Indians.

Vancouver, BC: Douglas and McIntyre. 192 p.

Describes the economic botanical uses of western redcedar (Thuja plicata).

Uses of bark include material for basketry, matting, clothing, and cordage. Small

branches are used to make ropes and threads. Cedar roots are important for

basketry as well.

Keywords: Fiber, Native American uses, baskets.

Stewart, T. 1994. Land-use options to encourage forest conservation on a tribal

reservation in the Philippines. Agroforestry Systems. 18(3): 225-244.

Explores the optimal land use option for the Ati tribe of Nagpana, Iloilo, Philippines,

through economic analysis of present land uses, the potential productivity of these
205

uses, and an examination of the constraints to conservation practices. Through

household surveys, participant observation, discussions with key informants, and

analysis of published secondary data, Stewart examines the net present value of

four land use strategies, concluding that present farming systems are not sustainable and that a charcoal model with forest retention is more appropriate for

Nagpana. Stewart’s methodology for assessing the market value of nontimber

forest products gathered for subsistence use may be of interest.

Keywords: Economic analysis, land use, survey, household, net present value,

subsistence, Ati tribe, Phillippines.

St. Pierre, R.G. 1992. The development of native fruit species as horticultural

crops in Saskatchewan. Hortscience. 27(8): 866, 947.

Describes the attempts of the Native Fruit Development Program of the University

of Saskatchewan to incorporate native species in horticultural cultivation and

management. The goal of the program is to support the diversification and health

of agricultural economies by enhancing alternative production based on a mix of

farming operations and by expanding food processing industries. Growth in local,

national, and international markets (eastern Europe, Japan, Taiwan, and China) is

foreseen. A wide range of income per hectare is projected (Can$8,860 to

Can$67,500/ha), and development costs are high (Can$3600 to Can$12,000/ha).

Program activities include germ plasm collection and selection, development of

propagation protocols, the biology and culture of selected species, and information transfer to growers. Targeted native species, also found in the Pacific

Northwest, are common chokecherry (Prunus virginiana), Saskatoon serviceberry

(Amelanchier alnifolia), mooseberry viburnum (Viburnum edule), cranberry

viburnum (V. opulus), Vaccinium spp., and beaked hazelnut (Corylus cornuta).

This article contains significant information about species native to the Pacific

Northwest and about constraints, rewards, and potential support from well-planned

economic development programs.

Keywords: Native species, economic development, income, germplasm collection,

propagation, technical assistance, Saskatchewan, Canada, berries, wild edible

plants.

Stratton, Lee. 1990. Resource harvest and use in Tatitlek, Alaska. Tech. Pap.

181. Juneau, AK: Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Division of Subsistence. 163 p.

Surveys multiple subsistence uses in Tatitlek, a small Chugach village on Prince

William Sound and the oldest continuously inhabited Alaska Native village in the

region. Uses of native plants for food are greatly overshadowed by harvests of fish

and game species. Three data collection methods were employed in this study:

mapping interviews, household surveys, and interviews with key respondents in

13 households. Village residents also were hired to introduce the researcher and

her project and to conduct household surveys. Village participation in the survey

was 61 percent and 76 percent respectively, for the two survey years, 1988 and

1989.
206

Demographic and economic profiles of the village and characterization of household expenses provide the socioeconomic context for subsistence harvesting in the

village. Historical uses of native vegetation are described. A list of species known

for their historical use and not used during the study years is given. Three-quarters

of all households picked berries. Annual per capita harvests were 9.1 and 16.7 lb.

Blueberries (Vaccinium spp.), salmonberries (Rubus spectabilis), small cranberries

(V. oxycoccos), and currants (Ribes spp.) were the most frequently picked. Other

greens and mushrooms were picked by only 19 percent of households.

Keywords: Native American uses, subsistence, berries, social surveys, household,

Tatitlek, Chugach, Alaska.

Stratton, Lee. 1992. Cordova: a 1988 update on resource harvests and uses.

Tech. Pap. 204. Juneau, AK: Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Division of

Subsistence. 93 p.

Summarizes research for Cordova in south-central Alaska on noncommercial

harvests and uses of wild fish, game, and plant resources in 1988. Although fish

harvests dominated wild harvests by weight, wild plants constituted 2.4 percent

(equal to 5.6 lb) of the average per capita consumption of subsistence resources

for the year. The comparatively more urban and non-Native population of Cordova

consumed less subsistence wild foods than did smaller and more remote Alaska

Native villages elsewhere around Prince William Sound, but much higher amounts

than in similarly sized communities in south-central and southeastern Alaska.

The annual plant harvest amounted to 13,448 lb. Most of the vegetation gathered

(96.4 percent) was berries.

Methods used to gather data included a household survey that tracked harvest

amounts as well as monetary income and household expenses. Stratified random

sampling was used to divide the revised estimated permanent resident households

into three categories of wild food consumption: high (with furbearer trapping), low

(no furbearer trapping), and no consumption. Mapping of resource sources also

was carried out. Data on total household income, demography, and distribution of

occupations provide a context for the subsistence harvest. The importance of

sharing wild food resources in Cordova also is documented. Wild plants were not

as widely shared as fish and other resources. Less than one-fourth of all households gave or received wild berries. Use and harvest of berries were down from

figures obtained in 1985.

This study serves as a model for conducting similar studies about the subsistence

use of wild foods.

Keywords: Native American uses, subsistence, berries, social surveys, Alaska,

Cordova.

Suttles, Wayne. 1951. The economic life of the Coast Salish of Haro and Rosario

Straits. Seattle, WA: University of Washington. PhD. dissertation.
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Tappeiner John C.; Zasada, John C. 1993. Establishment of salmonberry, salal,

vine maple, and bigleaf maple seedlings in the coastal forests of Oregon.

Canadian Journal of Forestry Research. 23(9): 1775-1780.

Outlines the germination and survivorship of several species used for nontimber

forest products in the Pacific Northwest. The species under consideration do not

survive well in clearcut conditions and do not compete with young Douglas-fir

(Pseudotsuga menziesii) seedlings. In contrast, commercial thinning operations

favor establishment of the four species (salmonberry [Rubus spectabilis], salal

[Gaultheria shallon], vine maple [Acer circinatum], and bigleaf maple [Acer

macrophyllum]) from seed and perhaps from vegetative reproduction (clones,

layering). Managing soil substrate is important; seedling establishment for salal and

salmonberry was higher on mineral soil and in thinned stands. Salal seedling

growth was erratic and survival was low. Seed predation and browsing were considerable for both maple species. All species except salmonberry thrived best in

commercially thinned stands.

This article points to alternatives in understory management in commercially

thinned stands that could lead to production of commercial and subsistence crops

of nontimber forest products such as salal foliage, moss growing on vine maple and

bigleaf maple, and salmonberry crops. Understanding the reproductive biology and

success in early survival can provide land managers with strategies to create less

risky sources of additional income from forest stands with productive understories.

Keywords: Berries, moss, floral greens, soil disturbance, seed propagation,

seedling survival, thinning, comanagement.

Teit, James A. 1930. Ethnobotany of the Thompson Indians of British Columbia.

Washington, D.C.: U.S. Bureau of American Ethnology.

Categorizes and discusses economically important plants used by the Thompson

Indians under the following headings: medicines, foods, plants chewed, nonmedicinal drinks, kinnikinnick (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi), dyes, scents, charms,

ceremonial plants, and plants mentioned in mythology. Elsie Steedman provides

exhaustive descriptions of the uses and methods of preparations from the field

notes of Teit.

This article is a very detailed list of uses for native plants, most of which are found

in the Pacific Northwest.

Keywords: Native American uses, Thompson Indians.

Terashima, Yoshie; Tomiya, Kenzo; Takahashi, Miyoko; Iwai, Hiroju. 1993.

Distribution and characteristics of shiros of Tricholoma bakamatsutake in a

mixed forest of Pasania edulis and Castanopsis cuspidata var. sieboldii.

Transactions of the Mycological Society of Japan. 34: 229-238.

Tewari, D.N. 1993. Non-timber forest produce in poverty alleviation. Indian

Forester. 119(12): 959-969.
208

Argues that nontimber forest products in India have the potential to effect economic

improvement for people living in and around forest areas who comprise the 30

percent of the people living below the poverty line. Benefits of development include

an alternative food source in the event of famine and a source of products for the

Ayurvedic, Unani, and Sidha systems of medicine. Nontimber forest product

industries currently generate employment equal to 5 million person years, and

incomes from nontimber products in at least eight Indian States comprise 50 percent of state forest revenues and 80 percent of export earnings from forest products. To expand these industries and create wealth, extraction must be sustainable

and products must be properly valued. Greater knowledge of development and use

of products is needed, particularly for plant chemicals. Some 60 percent of products are directly consumed or bartered and thus are not accounted for in commerce statistics. Resource stewardship of nontimber products in public forests is

absent, resulting in resource degradation. Stewardship is much better on private

lands. Collecting products offers employment opportunities for entire families, but

women predominantly carry out postharvest operations, such as cleaning, sorting,

grading, drying, and packing. There is an urgent need for better storage and

preservation facilities.

The most crucial problem is marketing of nontimber forest products. Some products, such as sandal (Santalum spp.) and tendu (Diospyros melanoxylon), are

traded exclusively by state monopolies with the result that many people do not or

cannot secure the proper permits to participate in the product industry. Tribal

collectors receive very low incomes for collecting nonmonopoly products while

end-consumers often pay inflated prices; middlemen profit most. There is no

government control in these instances. Initial processing should take place in or

near the forest to improve the economic and social status of poor people. The 1988

National Forest Policy explicitly calls for increasing the productivity of nontimber

forest products per unit area per unit time and promoting site-appropriate, smallscale, forest-based enterprises to support rural development and entrepreneurship.

Simple rules and regulations are needed to encourage conservation, cultivation,

harvesting, and sale of products. A national seminar held in 1993 issued recommendations for a national strategy for nontimber forest products to carry out

national policy. Those strategies are listed in an appendix.

Keywords: Rural development, sustainability, marketing, monopoly, value-added,

policy, regulation, national strategy, India.

Thomas, Margaret. 1993. Sustainable development and special forest products.

In: IUFRO symposium on forestry and rural development in industrialized

countries: where are we going? 19-24 September 1993; Fredericton, NB:

[Place of publication unknown]: [Publisher unknown]: 132-146.

Summarizes the role of special forest product microenterprises in sustainable

development strategies. The focus of sustainable development should be on providing long-term employment and decent incomes for local people while managing

resources in ways that maintain future options. Sustainable development strategies

emphasize attracting, keeping, or encouraging development of enterprises that

operate in environmentally sound ways.
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Thomas notes that sellers can tap into specialty markets, adding value with

creative packaging and marketing, and target recreational and tourist markets.

She reviews several examples of special forest product microenterprises in the

United States, including Texarome (which extracts essential oil from Texas cedar

[Juniperus spp.]); Litehouse Dressings (which sells huckleberry [Vaccinium spp.]

products); a one-person operation in Oregon that makes animal bedding from

wood shavings; a Minnesota business selling decorative willow (Salix spp.); a

Montana business selling medicinals; and a woman in West Virginia who runs a

special forest product “dude ranch” operation. Her examples range from oneperson operations to larger businesses, such as the medicinals company in

Montana with a staff of 30 and annual sales of US$3.1 million.

Most of these businesses are run as supplemental, rather than full-time, employment operations. Special forest product-based development strategies work best

when local people have strong knowledge of forest ecology and marketable plants

and their uses, when the surrounding community supports local products, and

when landowners are willing to work through networks of harvesters, growers, and

buyers.

Forestry professionals can help rural sustainable development by becoming aware

of special forest product opportunities, acting as conduits of information among

rural economic development organizations and communities, and working closely

with community organizations and leaders. Thomas believes that there are three

basic paths to developing special forest product opportunities: policies that favor

using a greater diversity of resources, provision of technical assistance in business

development, value added and marketing, and development of stewardship contracts and agroforestry demonstration projects.

Keywords: Rural development, market expansion, policy, sustainable development,

entrepreneurs.

Tocci, Augusto; Veracini, Alberto. 1990. Tartuficultura e rimboschimento=

Truffle culture and reforestation. Economia Montana. 22(6): 24-26. In Italian.

Considers the role of truffles (Tuber spp.) in Italian reforestation efforts. With the

exodus of rural people to cities, maintenance of rural ecosystems has declined.

The reforestation efforts of the 1920s and 1950s have not been sustained. Sheep

and goat grazing, in particular, has led to site degradation. Agricultural production

has concentrated on the best sites, and marginal lands have been left largely

neglected. Reforestation of marginal land by natural processes has been very

slow. Combining truffle growing with reforestation provides an economic incentive

to restore more quickly. The impetus is the high value of truffles among increasingly affluent Italian consumers. Private benefits to the landowner from truffle

revenues are coupled with public benefits from increased hydrological efficiency,

reduction of erosion, and recuperation of ecosystem health.

Keywords: Reforestation, truffles, grazing, Italy.
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Trappe, James M. 1990. Use of truffles and false-truffles around the world.

In: Bencivenga, Mattia; Granetti, Bruno, eds. Atti del II congresso internazionale

sul tartufo; 24-27 November 1988; Spoleto, Italy. Spoleto: Comunità dei monti

Martani e del Serano: 19-30.

Provides an overview of the uses of hypogeous fungi outside Europe. Apart from

desert truffles from the Middle East, southern Africa, and Australia, other forest

species of truffles are known from Nepal and India (Tuber indicum), Japan

(Rhizopogon spp.), and Mexico (Melanogaster umbrinigleba and Rhizopogon

spp.). The Japanese species grow in the presence of Japanese red pine (Pinus

densiflora). In North America, Native American uses of hypogeous mushrooms

are not known. However, in the Pacific Northwest, a small truffle industry based

on the Oregon white truffle (Tuber gibbosum) has emerged. The species prefers

elevations less than 300 m and forests less than 100 years old. Disruptive raking

of productive sites is the prevalent method of harvest. Other species,T. levissimum

and Picoa carthusiana, also are marketable. Regulation of the industry does not

yet exist. Rational harvesting methods are needed, especially the use of dogs to

locate truffles. Where fertilization, liming, and weed control have been undertaken,

specimens of Oregon white truffle attain diameters up to 10 cm. Joint stand management for Christmas trees and truffles might be one way to increase economic

yield. Other culinary truffle species in the United States are found in the South in

association with pecan (Carya illinoisensis) trees and in Illinois oak (Quercus spp.)

forests. Introductions of T. melanosporum from Europe into hazel and oak stands

in the West requires massive liming for successful yields. Texas has sites most

similar to the soil and climate of the Périgord region of France, the center of French

truffle production.

Keywords: Truffles, market development, fertilization, joint production, United

States.

Trinity Project Management Team. 1992. The Trinity project: an economic

diversification strategy for rural, timber-dependent communities. Hayfork, CA:

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Shasta-Trinity National Forest;

final report. 13 p. [plus appendices].

Discusses the potential for realigning the rural economy of Trinity County,

California, away from single resource dependence on timber. Forty-five percent of

the population is characterized as low or very low income, and unemployment

averages 14 percent. An untapped market for natural floral, culinary, decorative,

medicinal, and pharmaceutical products exists both domestically and internationally. Herbal medicine products are particularly sought after in Europe. Growing such plants requires only small parcels of land. With growers pooling harvests,

large volumes could be amassed for sale, and eventually value-added processing

facilities could be established. A 5-year goal is to convert 480 acres to medicinal

herb production. In the third year of production, average annual revenue per acre

is estimated at US$34,600. In 1992, Trinity Alps Botanicals was formed as a

marketing association. Other important products in the area are pine (Pinus spp.)

cones, mosses, boughs of incense-cedar (Calocedrus decurrens), tanoak

(Lithocarpus densiflorus), and canyon live oak (Quercus chrysolepis). Combining

cultivation of native plants of commercial value with landscape restoration would

create enduring economic benefits for the region. These activities provide new
211

impetus to rural economic development in both the short and long term. The

Trinity Project provides technical and financial planning assistance, because

people have limited experience growing herbs and information is often scarce or

inaccessible. Extension tools in the project include a resource inventory, outreach

to farmers and foragers, and workshops. Appendices to the report include several

pro forma business plans, the Shasta-Trinity National Forest resource inventory

of vascular plants, and a grower’s guide.

Keywords: Rural economic development, Trinity Project, Shasta-Trinity National

Forest, moss, business plans, herbs, medicinal plants, marketing association,

California.

Turner, Nancy. [In press]. Traditional ecological knowledge. In: Schoonmaker,

Peter; von Hagen, Bettina; Wolf, Edward C., eds. The rainforests of home: an

exploration of people and place. Washington, DC: Island Press.

Explores the importance and validity of indigenous knowledge in the Northwest

Coast culture area. Turner describes the role of traditional ecological knowledge

among a variety of Northwest Coast cultures in shaping spirituality and enforcing

the sustainable use of resources. Strategies that helped to optimize the sustainable use of resources included the use of salmon weirs, which allowed both

capture and observation of the health of salmon runs, selective burning to

enhance berry production, and selective harvesting of bark, cedar planks, fiber,

root vegetables, and medicinal plants. For example, boards were split from standing cedar trees, leaving the tree alive. Ecological indicators were used to estimate

resource abundance and appropriate harvesting times; for example, a low incidence of twin fawns suggested to the natives that they use constraint in the

number of deer taken. Resource sustainability also was ensured through

strategies based on diversity and adaptability. Northwest Coast cultures relied on

at least 400 plant species and 100 animal species. Adaptive strategies are

reflected in social organizations such as family and kinship groups, which permit

sharing of goods and services. Finally, sustainable resource use relied on effective exchange of information among cultural groups and generations and the

development of culturally appropriate ways of teaching and learning.

Keywords: British Columbia, indigenous knowledge, Pacific Northwest, sustainability.

Turner, Nancy C.; Bell, Marcus A.M. 1971a. The ethnobotany of the Coast

Salish Indians of Vancouver Island [part 1]. Economic Botany. 25(1): 63-104.

Turner, Nancy C.; Bell, Marcus A.M. 1971b. The ethnobotany of the Coast

Salish Indians of Vancouver Island [part 2—appendix]. Economic Botany.

25(3): 335-339.

Summarizes the uses of plants in Salish culture for food, tools, furnishings,

medicines, and religious rites. Information is gleaned from early anthropological

studies and interviews with three Salish informants. The author gives details of

uses for species, mode of collection, storage, and preparation. Fungi comprised
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a very minor component of the Native diet. The plant families with the largest

numbers of species used for food are Liliaceae (important for carbohydrates),

Ericaceae, Grossulariaceae, Rosaceae (the highest proportion of fruit), and

Umbelliferae. The Rosaceae and Umbelliferae are the most significant for native

medicinals. Uses of plants among the western Washington Salish people were

very similar or identical (60 percent) to uses among the Vancouver Island Salish.

With the interior Thompson Indians, the overlap is only 20 percent. An appendix

lists all known plants used by the Salish and their respective uses.

Keywords: Ethnobotany, Salish, Thompson Indians.

Turner, N.J. 1979. Plants in British Columbia Indian technology. Handb. 38.

Victoria, BC: The British Columbia Provincial Museum. 304 p.

Turner, N.J.; Bouchard, R.; Kennedy, D.I.D. 1980. Ethnobotany of the OkanaganColville Indians of British Columbia and Washington. O. P. S. n. 21. Victoria, BC:

British Columbia Provincial Museum. 156 p.

Turner, Nancy J. 1971. Native economic plants of Totem Park. Davidsonia. 2(2):

22-28.

Turner, Nancy J. 1972. The ethnobotany of the Bella Coola Indians of British

Columbia. Syesis. 6: 193-220.

Turner, Nancy J. 1973. The ethnobotany of the southern Kwakiutl Indians of

British Columbia. Economic Botany. 27(3): 257-310.

Turner, Nancy J. 1974. Plant taxonomic systems and ethnobotany of three contemporary Indian groups of the Pacific Northwest (Haida, Bella Coola, and

Lillooet). Syesis. 7 (Supp. 1): [pages unknown].

Turner, Nancy J. 1975. Food plants of British Columbia Indians. Part 1: Coastal

peoples. Handb. 34. Victoria, BC: The British Columbia Provincial Museum.

264 p.

Turner, Nancy J. 1978. Food plants of British Columbia Indians. Part 2: Interior

peoples. Victoria, BC: The British Columbia Provincial Museum. 250 p.

Turner, Nancy J. 1981. Indian use of Shepherdia canadensis, soapberry, in

western North America. Davidsonia. 12(1): 1-14.

Characterizes the use of russet buffaloberry (Shepherdia canadensis) and its

close relative silver buffaloberry (S. argentea) in northwest North America for food

(edible fruits), sources of medicine, and weaving and rope making from the fibrous
213

bark. Saponins (natural detergents) in the berries cause foaming. Usually berries

are cooked, dried, and stored in solid cakes. Details of native trade in buffaloberries and their use in creating “Indian ice cream” also are given.

Keywords: Wild edible plants, medicinal plants, saponins, berries, North America.

Turner, Nancy J. 1982. Traditional use of devil’s club (Oplopanax horridus:

Araliaceae) by Native peoples in western North America. Journal of

Ethnobiology. 2(1): 17-38.

Characterizes medicinal applications of devilsclub (Oplopanax horridus) including

treatment for rheumatism, arthritis, digestive ailments, tuberculosis, colds, skin

diseases, and diabetes. Specific plant uses by different ethnic groups over the

natural range of the plant are detailed in a table. The plant has hypoglycemic

properties but is not well understood pharmacologically. Aside from its physical

properties for healing, devilsclub also is used in shamanistic practices to confer

protection and purification on people. Devilsclub wood is used to make fishing

lures, bark is used as a deodorant, and charcoal is used as ceremonial face paint.

Keywords: Indigenous uses, medicinal plants, ethnobotany.

Turner, Nancy J. 1991. Burning mountain sides for better crops: aboriginal

landscape burning in British Columbia. Archaeology in Montana. 32(2): 57-73.

Turner, Nancy J.; Bell, Marcus A.M. 1973. The ethnobotany of the southern

Kwakiutl Indians of British Columbia. Economic Botany. 27 (3): 257-310.

Turner, Nancy J.; Davis, Alison. 1993. When everything was scarce: the role of

plants as famine foods in northwestern North America. Journal of Ethnobiology.

13(2): 1-28.

Turner, Nancy J.; Efrat, Barbara S. 1982. Ethnobotany of the Hesquiat Indians of

Vancouver Island. Cult. Recov. Pap. 2. Victoria, BC: The British Columbia

Provincial Museum. 99 p.

Synthesizes information from taped interviews, primarily with four Hesquiat elders,

on the traditional economic botany culture of the Hesquiat people. Certain ecosystems such as acid bogs produced Sphagnum spp., Labradortea (Ledum spp.),

and small cranberries (Vaccinium oxycoccos), which were rare or absent

elsewhere. Contact with Europeans also brought many new plants to the region

that were incorporated rapidly into the corpus of plant use. European crop plants

have supplanted the use of many native species as root crops and vegetable

greens. Gathering plant foods had a distinct seasonal cycle beginning with horsetail (Equisetum spp.), common cowparsnip (Heracleum lanatum), salmonberry

(Rubus spectabilis), and thimbleberry (R. parviflorus) shoots in the spring and early

summer, followed by a rapid succession of other berries throughout the summer.

Edible “root” crops such as western brackenfern (Pteridium aquilinum), rhizomes,

cows clover (Trifolium wormskioldii), and Pacific silverweed (Argentina egedii)
214

roots, and bulbs were dug in the fall. Dried cakes of salal (Gaultheria shallon)

berries were an important item in trade among coastal village groups on Vancouver

Island. Individual ownership of plant resources, such as berry patches and western

redcedar (Thuja plicata) groves, was recognized. Western redcedar was the most

important plant for roping and basketry, and fine clothing was made from the inner

bark of Alaska yellow-cedar (Chamaecyparis nootkatensis). Barks of western

hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) and red alder (Alnus rubra) were used for dyes.

Medicinal use of plant followed practices found among other peoples in the region.

Herbalists believed that plant medicines were more effective if their composition

were kept secret. Yarrow (Achillea millefolium), licorice fern (Polypodium

glycyrrhiza), cascara (Frangula purshiana), Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis), and

western hemlock, however, were widely known for their curative effects. A list of

plants with known names in the Hesquiat language and their known ethnobotanical

uses are listed.

Keywords: Ethnobotany, Hesquiat, British Columbia, wild edible plants, basketry,

weaving, medicinal plants, dye plants.

Turner, Nancy J.; Hebda, Richard J. 1990. Contemporary use of bark for medicine by two Salishan native elders of southeast Vancouver Island, Canada.

Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 29: 59-72.

Reports on the traditional use of tree and shrub barks by Native Americans in the

Pacific Northwest. Interviews with two Native herbalists provide a compendium of

23 tree and shrub species used by Salish peoples. Grand fir (Abies grandis) was

the most widely used conifer tree. Members of the rose family figure importantly in

medicinal bark use: Saskatoon serviceberry (Amelanchier alnifolia), Oregon crabapple (Malus fusca), Indian plum (Oemleria cerasiformis), bitter cherry (Prunus

emarginata), Nootka rose (Rosa nutkana), and salmonberry (Rubus spectabilis).

Uses include treatments for respiratory and digestive ailments, diabetes, fever,

childbirth, and skin problems. Steps to prepare two bark-based recipes for medicinal use are given in full. Bark is harvested from the east side of the plant and only

in small quantities. The authors call attention to a revival in interest among residents of western Canada in traditional medicine and its potentially wider role in

public health.

Keywords: Bark medicines, medicinal plants, indigenous uses, Salish.

Turner, Nancy J.; Kuhnlein, Harriet V. 1982. Two important “root” foods of the

Northwest Coast Indians: springbank clover (Trifolium wormskioldii) and Pacific

silverweed (Potentilla anserina ssp. pacifica). Economic Botany. 36: 411-432.

Describes the historical use of two important wild plants in the diets of Northwest

Coast Indians. Rhizomes of cow clover (Trifolium wormskioldii) and roots of Pacific

silverweed (Argentina egedii) were harvested, prepared, and eaten in a similar

manner. They are often found in association along shorelines and alluvial flood

plains as the dominant herbaceous species. Harvest occurred from October to

March, and only women did the work. Average harvest was 500 g to 1 kg per hour.

Harvest of sufficient quantities for a family’s winter use would take several days.

Traditional harvest areas for the two species were marked out and passed from

one generation to the next. Actual domestication of cow clover occurred in the

1920s in British Columbia. The rhizomes and roots generally were eaten cooked,
215

often after being steamed in an underground pit. The clover resembles the taste of

cooked beansprouts; silverweed is comparable to sweet potato. The clover foliage

is also a source of greens over a long season in spring and summer.

These species may be important for their potential to furnish commercial wild crops

and eventual domestication as agricultural plants. The plants improve diversity of

available food with good nutrition. The lands where these two plants grow together

do not support any other kind of agriculture except grazing.

Keywords: Wild edible plants, Native American uses, traditional food, harvest,

domestication, land use, British Columbia, Northwest Coast Indians.

Turner, Nancy J.; Kuhnlein, Harriet V. 1983. Camas (Camassia spp.) and riceroot (Fritillaria spp.): two liliaceous root foods of the Northwest Coast Indians.

Ecology of Food and Nutrition. 13: 199-219.

Turner, Nancy J.; Thomas, John; Carlson, Barry F.; Ogilvie, Robert T. 1983.

Ethnobotany of the Nitinaht Indians of Vancouver Island. Occas. Pap. 24.

Victoria, BC: British Columbia Provincial Museum. 165 p.

Turner, Nancy J.; Thompson, Laurence C.; Thompson, M. Terry; York,

Annie Z. 1990. Thompson ethnobotany: knowledge and usage of plants by the

Thompson Indians of British Columbia. Memoire 3. Victoria, BC: Royal British

Columbia Museum. 335 p.

Ulluwishewa, Rohana. 1991. Modernization versus sustainability: disintegrating

village agroecocomplexes in the dry zone of Sri Lanka. Environmental

Conservation. 18(2): 103-109.

Urbani, Ana. 1985. Ritratto di tartufo dalle origini a oggi=Portrait of truffles from

the earliest times to the present. Milan: SugarCo Edizioni S.r.l. 271 p. In Italian.

Suggests that truffle (Tuber spp.) production is worthwhile on sites with low fertility

where forestry in combination with truffle production has the highest economic

value. An accounting of stand establishment costs and expected yields for 400

hazelnut (Corylus avellana) trees per ha with truffle inoculation is provided in the

appendix. Regional and national laws regarding the management, harvest, and

commerce of truffles are cited in appendices as well.

Keywords: Wild edible mushrooms, Italy.

Urbani, Bruno. 1990. Problematiche attinenti la legislazione nazionale, regionale e

fiscale sul tartufo come prodotto agricolo: la capacità di assorbimento del

mercato per quanto attiene i nuovi impianti tartufigeni in produzione nel prossimo

futuro=Problems regarding national, regional, and fiscal legislation of truffles as

agricultural products: capacity of the market to absorb truffle plantations soon

to be in production. In: Bencivenga, Mattia; Granetti, Bruno, eds. Atti del

II congresso internazionale sul tartufo; 24-27 November 1988; Spoleto, Italy.

Spoleto: Comunità montana dei monti Martani e del Serano: 639-644. In Italian.
216

Examines market response to increases in truffle (Tuber spp.) production from the

expansion of cultivated truffle plantations. Because Italian law states that the right

of truffle harvest is free (“res nullius”), truffles are subject to a higher rate of taxation than the rate normally applied to agricultural products. The tax status of truffles

in Italy is at variance with other European Economic Community nations, thus

creating unfair competition.

Keywords: Legislation, truffle markets, truffle plantations, Italy, European Economic

community, trade.

U.S. Department of Agriculture. 1960. Forest industry opportunities in rural

development. Washington, DC.

U.S. Department of Agriculture. 1963. Special forest products for profit: self-help

suggestions for rural areas development. Agric. Info. Bull. 278. Washington DC:

64 p.

Focuses on opportunities to augment the products and services of the 4.5 million

family-owned forest acres in the United States. Income-generating products for

rural development include decorative plant materials, horticultural plant stocks,

seed collection, wild foods (including honey), medicinal plants, aromatic oils, naval

stores, mulches, and recreational services.

Professional expertise of foresters and the personal needs of landowners can

assure a reliable plan for economic stability of rural families. Case histories of

successful business ventures for each of the product lines describe important

factors to consider in establishing new businesses. Special mention is made of the

floral greens industry in the Pacific Northwest, emphasizing the importance of

evergreen huckleberry (Vaccinium ovatum), salal (Gaultheria shallon), and western

swordfern (Polystichum munitum) and the cascara (Frangula purshiana) bark

trade.

People interested in establishing forest-based enterprises are urged to follow eight

planning steps: (1) take stock of current available products and assets, (2) become

familiar with existing businesses in an area of personal interest, (3) examine

current and potential markets and outlets, (4) investigate labor supply, (5) explore

options for financing, (6) know legal and regulatory restrictions and obligations,

(7) develop a strategy for sales promotion, and (8) draw up an explicit, long-range

business plan.

Keywords: Alternative income, business plan, cascara, medicinal plants, floral

greens, multiple use, rural development.

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. [n.d.]. Special forest products:

Region 6 update. [Place of publication unknown]: [Pacific Northwest Region].

Summarizes special forest products program and provides suggestions for future

direction. Lists fiscal year 1991 special forest product sales as derived from information request sent to each Forest in the Region in January 1992. Permits,
217

quantity sold, and value of sale are listed by Forest and by product for mushrooms,

beargrass, and Christmas trees: all other products are aggregated for the region.

Keywords: Pacific Northwest, Forest Service, sales, permits.

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. [n.d.]. The forest beyond the

trees: a browser’s guide to special forest products. Olympia, WA: Pacific

Northwest Region, Olympic National Forest.

Describes some of the special forest products found in the Olympic National Forest

and discusses their uses and whether they fall within commercial or noncommercial permit programs. Products described include saw logs, cedar, firewood, bark,

poles, transplants, rock, floral greens, berries, mushrooms, medicinal plants or

plant parts, and cones. A chart in the back lists various kinds of products, the

permits available, and certain restrictions such as allowable quantities and duration

of permits.

Keywords: Olympic National Forest, permits, wild edible mushrooms, wild edible

plants, medicinal plants, berries.

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 1989. Rural development

opportunities in special forest products. Washington, DC: Cooperative Forestry.

23 p.

Proposes that special forest products be considered tools for creating jobs and

improving the economy and quality of life for rural Americans. Twenty-six product

categories are suggested as alternatives or additions to timber-based rural

economies. Major species for each product category are given in an appendix.

The emphasis is on products requiring small initial capital investments. Development of special forest product industries raises concerns about the potential for

overharvest, conflicts among users often based on destructive competition and

cultural differences, tensions between product gatherers and buyers, occupational

safety, public health, and property rights. Crucial factors in the development of

new industries and helpful educational tools to bring greater awareness of special

forest products to forest-based communities are discussed as well.

Keywords: Rural development, United States.

U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management. 1992. Pacific

yew comprehensive management strategy. Portland, OR. 20 p. [plus appendix].

Summarizes the recommendations of a task force established by congressional

direction to provide for the sustainable management of the Pacific yew (Taxus

brevifolia). Interest in the Pacific yew grew after a National Cancer Institute

screening in 1962 revealed cytotoxic activity in yew bark extracts. Taxol (diterpene

amide) was identified as the active substance and toxicology studies followed.

In 1991, taxol advanced to clinical trials and limited treatment, demand shot up to

750,000 lb of bark, and a Collaborative Research and Development Agreement

was signed with Bristol-Myers Squibb. These events precipitated concern for yew

conservation and management and the formation of the task force.
218

The task force report reviews the history of taxol development, describes current

and planned yew programs, and identifies yew management issues. Programs

described include administrative policies, the annual agreement between BristolMyers Squibb and the Bureau of Land Management, Pacific yew inventories, the

preparation of a Pacific yew environmental impact statement, resource management plans, existing laws, regulations and policies, and Pacific yew regeneration

and research activities. Identified yew management objectives included ensuring

a sustainable yew supply to the medical community and ensuring full consideration

of ecosystem relations in Pacific yew management plans and decisions. The

background of each objective is explored and, past, current, and planned activities

to support the objective are discussed.

Keywords: Yew, medicinal plants, taxol, management, policy.

U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management Task Force.

1993. Managing special forest products in Oregon and Washington: a final

report. Portland, OR. [Irregular pagination].

Summarizes the work of a Bureau of Land Management task force in identifying

12 major issues limiting effective management of special forest products harvested

in Oregon and Washington. The 12 limiting issues are described, along with

background information, identification, and analysis of options, recommendations,

rationale, and implementation procedures for each issue. Categories of issues

include contract and permit administration, contracts, pricing, the National Environmental Protection Act process, recording timber sales, inventory, monitoring and

research needs, qualifications of special forest product personnel, public education, and road maintenance. Five major recommendations are made: (1) expand

nontimber forest product analysis in Resource Management Plans and Environmental Impact Statement documents; (2) develop an Oregon and Washington

handbook for uniform standards and guidelines for nontimber forest product management; (3) provide funds and management personnel for enhancing nontimber

forest product programs; (4) complete inventory, monitoring, and research; and

(5) conduct effective public education, extension, and outreach.

Keywords: Education, forest management, inventory, research and development.

Vales, D.J. 1986. A bibliography on salal (Gaultheria shallon Pursh). Veg. Manage

Res. Rep. VMR-1. Victoria, BC: British Columbia Ministry of Forests, Vancouver

Region Research Group.

Vales, David Joseph. 1986. Functional relationships between salal understory

and forest overstory. Vancouver, BC: University of British Columbia. M.S. thesis.

Valmonte, A.D.; Alonzo, D.S.; Lopez, F.R. 1971. Bibliography of Philippine minor

forest products. Compilation 1. Laguna, Philippines: Forest Products Research

and Industries Development Commission. 25 p. [372 refs.].
219

Vance, N.; Peterson, C.; Steinfeld, D. [and others]. 1993. Special forest products. Silvicultural Institute XV, Module 5. Unpublished manuscript. On file with:

N. Vance, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Forestry Sciences Laboratory,

3200 SW Jefferson Way, Corvallis, OR 97331.

Includes responses of silviculturists from Indian nations, the U.S. Department of

the Interior, Bureau of Land Management, and the USDA Forest Service throughout the Pacific Northwest to a questionnaire on special forest products. Survey

questions address management constraints to joint production systems, means to

integrate productions, ways to estimate economic returns for comparison with

timber revenues, and ways to manage species for which existing information is

inadequate. The authors also include a management plan for noble fir (Abies

procera) boughs, examples of financial analysis, a list of special forest products

(plants and fungi, both native and introduced) marketable in the Pacific Northwest,

and a bibliography of articles about special forest products in the Pacific Northwest.

Keywords: Survey, silviculture, management, planning, joint production, economic

returns, financial analysis, species lists, wild edible mushrooms, wild edible plants,

cultivated mushrooms, Pacific Northwest.

Vance, Nan C. 1995. Medicinal plants rediscovered. Journal of Forestry. 93(3): 8-9.

Discusses the role of medicinal plants in the development of many commercial

drugs. In the United States, many of the traditional medicines used by Native

American immigrant groups have disappeared from common usage. The resurgence of interest in holistic medicine, however, has prompted renewed efforts to

collect wild plants for medicinal purposes. Examples of North American plants and

their development as medical resources are Pacific yew (Taxus brevifolia) and

American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius). Conservation of plant populations and

conflict among user groups for resources on public lands are two emerging areas

for which policy development is needed.

Keywords: Medicinal plants, phytochemistry, conservation, resource conflicts,

policy.

Vander Kloet, S.P. 1988. The genus Vaccinium in North America. Pub. 1828.

Ottawa, ON: Agriculture Canada, Research Branch. 201 p.

Presents descriptions of all North American species of Vaccinium, detailing habitat,

range, and economic importance and use. Information also is given on cultivation,

reproduction, seed dispersal, mycorrhiza, and classification. This book offers a

good introduction to Vaccinium species found in the Pacific Northwest.

Keywords: Berries, North America, cultivation, reproduction, seed dispersal,

mycorrhiza.

VanGaasbeck, Scott. 1992. A guide to edible and useful plants of the Siskiyou

National Forest. Grants Pass, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest

Service, Siskiyou National Forest. 46 p.
220

Lists common edible berries, nuts, spices, greens, and mushrooms as well as

medicinal and fiber plants found in the Siskiyou National Forest. Each species, its

habitat, its uses, and modes of preparation are described. Requirements for

permits and limits to harvest amounts are stipulated. Guidelines for responsible

collecting are given: collect no more two-thirds of any one plant’s fruit and onetenth of its leaves, and not more than one-twentieth of an entire population when

collecting whole plants.

Keywords: Economic botany, Siskiyou National Forest, permits, preparation,

sustainability, berries, nuts, wild edible plants, wild edible mushrooms, medicinal

plants, basketry, weaving.

Vasquez, Rodolfo; Gentry, Alwyn H. 1989. Use and misuse of forest-harvested

fruits in the Iquitos area. Conservation Biology. 3 (4): 350-361.

Provides an overview of some of the fruits in the Iquitos (Peru) area that potentially

could be developed either as plantation crops or wild edibles. From data collected

in 1987, the authors note that rural people use about 139 wild fruits, of which at

least 52 species are sold in the Iquitos market. At least 28 are sold regularly, and

over half the fruit species in the Iquitos market are harvested from the wild. About

half the fruit vendors sell wild fruits. Forest diversity could become an economic

advantage if more attention were paid to fruit and less to timber. For the forest

dweller, this strategy would reduce risk and provide incentives to retain forest

cover.

Despite the economic promise of wild fruits, the authors note that it is important to

keep in mind the dangers of commercialization. Using tropical fruit marketing as a

conservation strategy requires that new markets be developed and that trees not

be destroyed during the harvesting process. The authors cite the case of the

aguaje palm (Mauritia spp.), which has a highly valued fruit. Despite increases in

price, production of aguaje seems to be falling. Other fruits have virtually disappeared despite their high value, indicating a production crisis. For aguaje, the

production crisis is due to harvesters cutting down the trees to get the fruit rather

than picking the fruit. Harvesters in one area now have to walk several days to

reach harvestable stands. To combat destructive harvesting, the Iquitos Distrito

Forestal has begun to charge a tax on extraction rights for two of the most important fruits (Mauritia and Jessenia). A portion of this tax is to be spent on reforestation. The authors note that harvesters rarely pay the tax, that no reforestation

has been done, and that no harvesting education efforts have been undertaken.

Other fruits are currently not regulated at all.

Keywords: Amazon, tropical rain forest, market expansion, wild fruit, conservation.

Villarreal, L.; Perez-Moreno, J. 1989a. Aprovechamiento y conservacion del

“matsutake americano” (Tricholoma magnivelare) en los bosques de México =

Use and conservation of the “Amercian matsutake” (Tricholoma magnivelare)

in Mexican forests. Micologia Neotropical Aplicada. 2: 131-144. In Spanish.

Reports on the development of a market for the American matsutake (Tricholoma

magnivelare) from Mexico in Japan since 1985. Annual harvest has reached

15 tonnes. Harvesting has been reported from the States of Mexico, Michoacan,
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Hidalgo, Puebla, and Veracruz. Indigenous consumption is not known. Prices

reached a high of US$17.00 per kg in 1989 in Veracruz State. Average prices are

from US$5.75-7.70 per kg. The species occurs in association with Pinus teocote

and fruits in the rainy season between July and October. More than 3000 kg were

collected in Cofre de Perote National Park, Veracruz, over 7 weeks in 1988, averaging a daily aggregate harvest of 56 kg.

Products are subject to specifications of the Japanese market and Mexican phytosanitary standards. Mushrooms must be cut by hand and cleaned, be kept fresh

and undamaged, have no maggots, and be stored at the right humidity. Shipping

occurs in storage containers kept at 8 °C from the collection point to the packing

station, and at 4 °C when shipped abroad. Japanese store prices are about

US$50.00 per lb. Harvests of the intensity experienced in the last 5 years may be

considerably reducing the viable wild populations in harvest regions to the point of

threatening their survival. In many areas, the species is now rare. Damage occurs

when basidiocarps cannot release sufficient spores to start new colonies before

they are picked. The mycelia are damaged by basidiocarp collection and soil

compaction. Conservation of the species requires retention of the forest cover and

better understanding of the biology and ecology of the matsutake. The governments of the States of Hidalgo and Veracruz signed accords in 1989 with

Japanese importers and the local collectors to ensure conservation measures. The

accord in Hidalgo was annulled because of lack of due process. Ecological and

physiological studies are needed to demonstrate the allowable harvest intensity to

guarantee future conservation of the matsutake. Efforts also are underway to train

and inform collectors about best harvesting practices.

Keywords: Wild edible mushrooms, harvesting, price, sustainability, conservation,

trade, Mexico, Japan.

Villarreal, L.; Perez-Moreno, J. 1989b. Los hongos comestibles silvestres de

México, un enfoque integral=The wild edible mushrooms of Mexico: an integrated focus. Micologia Neotropical Aplicada. 2: 77-114.

Presents an overview of existing knowledge about historical and current consumption of edible wild mushrooms in Mexico. Provides a chronological list of scientific

articles citing instances of edible mushrooms in Mexico and of species currently

found in Mexican markets. The authors refer to existing literature and their multiple

visits to 10 markets in Veracruz State. For each species, the vernacular and scientific names, the markets where found, dates, price, age and sex of the mushroom

gatherer or vendor, and the approximate volume for sale were recorded from each

visit. Women and children comprised 70 percent of the gatherers and averaged

4 to 10 kg of sales per day with incomes depending on the variable prices for different species. Golden chanterelles (Cantharellus cibarius) and king boletes

(Boletus edulis) were among the most frequently encountered species. Prices

average US$2.50-5.00 per kg. Most trade in mushrooms in Mexico involves

domestic use; limited export of mushrooms was primarily to the United States

between 1984 and 1987 and amounted to US$410,000. Mushroom imports from

the United States have less than a quarter of this export value.

A program to expand trade must consider ecological, economic, and social

issues of mushroom harvests. Very little is known about how to manage harvests

sustainably. Data about reproductive phenology and productivity are based on
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studies undertaken between 1983 and 1985 in Cofre de Perote, Veracruz. Integrated studies on edible mushrooms in Mexico are proposed, with a focus on

fungal taxonomy, ecology, and ethnomycology.

Keywords: Wild edible mushrooms, price, harvesters, social organization, markets,

trade, Mexico.

Villarreal, Luis; Guzmán, Gastón. 1986. Producción de los hongos comestibles

silvestres en los bosques de México. II.=Production of wild edible mushrooms in

the forests of Mexico. Part 2. Biotica 2(4): 271-284. In Spanish.

Reviews data on the production of edible wild mushrooms in the forests of El Cofre

de Perote, Veracruz, Mexico, in 1984. Fruiting body production is analyzed in conjunction with the abundance, phenology, growth form, substrate, mycorrhizal

features of species, and environmental factors such as temperature and rainfall.

Four plots in two forest types (pine and pine–true fir) were inventoried. The pine

forest contained more species of edible mushrooms as compared to the pine–true

fir forest and as compared to the previous year. The golden chanterelle

(Cantharellus cibarius) was found widely in both forests in 1984 and only in low

numbers in the pine–true fir forest the year before. Estimated production of commercial mushrooms per hectare per year was 860 kg in the pine forest and 454 kg

in the pine–true fir forest, both lower than values obtained in 1983. The values are

higher estimates than any previously made for forest ecosystems.

Keywords: Wild edible mushrooms, production, abundance, phenology, growth

form, substrate, environmental factors, forest type, Mexico.

von Aderkas, Patrick. 1984. Economic history of ostrich fern, Matteuccia

struthiopteris, the edible fiddlehead. Economic Botany. 38(1): 14-23.

Describes the factors that have led to a sharp increase in demand for the ostrich

fern, Matteuccia struthiopteris, which historically was consumed as a seasonal

delicacy in Maine and the Maritime Provinces of Canada. In 1984, only one company processed ferns for commercial sale, and the market for its products remains

restricted to New England and New York. Harvesting of ferns is still done mostly by

Native Americans, and prices range between US$0.22 and $0.50/lb at the buying

station. Production in Maine is estimated at 40 to 50 tons, of which 12 to 15 tons

are processed by one firm. Canned ferns have been largely replaced by frozen

ferns, which are presently produced by just one firm in New Brunswick. This firm

produces between 50 to 100 tons per season, with production depending on labor

availability and the timing and severity of frosts.

Licensing of pickers in Maine is controlled by the Passamoquoddy tribe, which

exercises rights to fern grounds within its reservation. No such regulation exists in

New Brunswick. Recently the Métis and Non-Status Indians in New Brunswick

have discussed the possibility of forming a cooperative society to assist them in

marketing the ferns. Overharvesting has been reported in the St. John River Valley

since the early 1970s. Attempts to propagate ostrich fern on a large scale have

proven unsuccessful. Currently research on the ostrich fern is being carried out

by the Department of Agriculture in New Brunswick, as well as by the Atlantic

Fiddlehead Research Organization. The author argues that the development of
223

the ostrich fern market will require the ability to propagate this species through

tissue culture on a mass scale.

Keywords: Ferns, wild edible plants, technology development, producer cooperative, domestication, Native American, Passamoquoddy, Canada, Atlantic

Fiddlehead Research Organization, North America.

von Hagen, B. 1993. A preliminary assessment of the special forest products

industry as a sustainable development vehicle for timber dependent communities in the Pacific Northwest. Paper presented at the Oregon Academy of

Sciences, 27 February 1993, McMinnville, OR. On file with: Ecotrust, 1200 NW

Front, Suite 470, Portland, OR 97209.

Analyzes the emerging special forest product industry in the Pacific Northwest

from a sustainable development perspective. Significant special forest products are

described and sales volumes, harvest history and management issues briefly

summarized. Potential markets, industry structure and trends and regulatory issues

also are reviewed. Critical questions needing to be addressed before special forest

product harvesting can be recommended as a viable sustainable development

activity are outlined.

Keywords: Sustainable development, management, policy.

Walls, J.; Freed, J.; Myer, J. [and others]. 1991. Agroforestry research project

1991. [Place of publication unknown]: Columbia-Pacific Resource Conservation

and Development Council. 74 p. [plus appendices].

Investigates the feasibility of an economic development project based on agroforestry in the four-county area of Grays Harbor, Mason, Pacific, and Wahkiakum

Counties in Washington. Feasibility was explored through a survey of 862 businesses, 3,800 large and small timberland owners, and 156 farmers, small-scale

agriculture operators, business organizations, and commodity buyers. Survey

results and economic development potential are discussed for floral greens, native

plants, mushrooms, Christmas trees, and medicinal plants. Perceptions by land

owners and managers of the development of the special forest product industry

also were explored through informal interviews with public and private foresters

and land managers. Agricultural production and marketing opportunities are

reviewed, followed by a discussion of cooperatives.

Appendices include (1) samples of permits, leases, and product specification lists

from special forest product buyers; (2) brief descriptions of commonly harvested

special forest products; (3) bibliographies for agroforestry, agriculture, and cooperatives, among other topics; (4) Washington State economic development assistance guide; and (5) a special forest products directory with over 1,000 entries,

including a guide to Paradox 3.5, the database management program used for the

directory.

Keywords: Floral greens, native plants, wild edible mushrooms, conifer greens,

medicinal plants, economic development, survey, cultivation, cooperatives,

directory, southwestern Washington, Grays Harbor County, Pacific County,

Wahkiakum County, Mason County.
224

Walter, G.R. 1978. Economics of multiple-use forestry. Journal of Environmental

Management. 5: 345-356.

Argues that a transition to forest management for multiple use is difficult to

achieve. Historical precedence of a single economic product (timber), the tradition

of free access to all other resources, difficulty in analyzing joint production, and

internalized damage costs make achieving a socially acceptable allocation of

goods and services difficult. Multiple use allocations are not easily solved because

the production possibility curves may be difficult to discern, and prices for many

forest products may not exist or be figured in economic calculations. Management

for multiple use is complicated by spatial diversity, different modes of analysis,

and historical complexity. Shifts in public opinion and political pressure make the

search for solutions dynamic and ongoing.

Keywords: Multiple use, joint production, societal preference, management, economic analysis.

Warren, D.M.; Brokensha, D.; Skikkerveer, [first name or initial unknown].

1991. Indigenous knowledge systems: the cultural dimension of development.

London: Kegan Paul International.

Washington State Department of Agriculture. 1991. Wild mushroom harvesting:

wild mushrooms harvested in Washington State during 1991. [Place of publication unknown].

Washington State Department of Agriculture; Washington Agricultural

Statistics Service. 1990. Wild mushroom harvesting in Washington State,

1989. Olympia, WA. 4 p.

Summarizes the wild mushroom harvest in Washington State in 1989, the first year

that the Wild Mushroom Harvesting Act was in force. The act mandates gathering

data regarding commercial harvest so that better decisions are made about

potential regulation and control of wild mushroom harvests. Commercial buyers

and processors must be licensed and report the quantity of mushrooms purchased.

The act also encourages recreational harvesters to report harvests voluntarily.

Harvests and shipments of wild mushrooms were low as the result of a lack of

rainfall. The value of the reported wild mushroom harvest was more than

US$652,000 with an average price per pound of US$2.53. Purchasers bought

257,000 lb. Grays Harbor and Mason Counties constituted the bulk of mushroom

harvests (95 percent). Chanterelles comprised 97 percent of the volume. Other

prominent species were king boletes (Boletus eduls) and the American matsutake

(Tricholoma magnivelare), the most valuable species at US$13.49/lb statewide.

Chanterelles were exported mostly to West Germany (9,750 lb), and processed

morels were exported to Japan (38,800 lb). Recreational harvests, reported by

mycological societies, showed that the most popular counties for recreational

picking were Chelan, King, and Snohomish.

Keywords: Wild edible mushrooms, harvests, shipments, price, volume, trade, Wild

Mushroom Harvesting Act, commercial value, recreational picking, Washington.
225

Wästerlund, Iwan. 1989. Hur påverkar skogens skötsel förekomsten av

storsvamparnas fruktkroppar?=How is the occurrence of mushroom fruitbodies

influenced by silvicultural treatments? Svensk Botanisk Tidskrift. 83: 103-112.

In Swedish with English summary.

Wästerlund, Iwan; Ingelög, Torleif. 1981. Fruit body production of larger fungi in

some young Swedish forests with special reference to logging waste. Forest

Ecology and Management. 3: 269-294.

Weber, Trutz. 1977. Schmuckgrün als forstliche Nutzung=Decorative greens as a

forest use. Allgemeine Forstzeitschrift. 32(46): 1135-1136. In German.

Points to existing beliefs and regulations that limit the potential exploitation of

decorative greens as economically viable products in public and private forest

enterprises in Germany. Designation of decorative greens as byproducts belittles

their role in forestry. Sales of forest greens are not presently allowed to exceed

DM200 to any one person per month from any single forest district. There is

currently a need to develop competence among forest managers in marketing

decorative greens. Grading standards, required use of metric measurements,

processing methods, and price schedules need to be established. Careful planning

assures continued decorative green cropping that can be profitable to the forest

owner and in demand by consumers. Training is now required. Filling new jobs in

public lands forestry at a time when there is already a dearth of personnel is hardly

likely. Development of decorative green production is most likely to occur on

private lands. Decorative greens provide a temporary source of income on otherwise fallow or unproductive agricultural land and could provide an opportunity to

avoid the sharp landscape edge between forestry and farm land. The author

proposes regional associations to promote the development of decorative greens

culture and thereby enhance forest productivity and net profitability.

This article describes obstacles to resource development that reflect issues facing

development of nontimber forest products in the Pacific Northwest.

Keywords: Conifer greens, economic development, trade associations, training,

production, Germany.

Wehmeyer, A.S. 1986. Why so little research on the noblement of indigenous

edible wild plants. Acta Horticulturae. 194: 47-53.

Questions the practicality of ignoring research into applications of edible wild

species in the local South African flora for increased food production. Universities

and research institutions have largely ignored this type of research, preferring

instead to introduce exotic crops into the South African landscape. Domestication

of indigenous species for food production began only in 1982 with research of

marula (Sclerocarya birrea) in the Anacardiaceae family. Wild populations of many

of the plant species with dietary and economic potential are scarce as the result of

a lack of conservation measures. The author encourages, in particular, university

departments of horticulture to undertake more research addressing the use of

native flora.

Keywords: Wild edible plants, domestication, conservation, South Africa.
226

Wheeler, D. 1992. The underground story—What’s going on with truffles and

trees, voles and owls? Mushroom, the Journal. Spring: 25-27.

Wheeler discusses the importance of mycorrhizal fungi to tree health and survival

rates. Truffles, which grow and fruit underground, are a particularly overlooked

component of forest health. For example, the Oregon white truffle (Tuber

gibbossum) inhibits Douglas-fir root rot, a condition cited as killing more old-growth

trees than clearcutting does. Not only do truffle-inoculated trees grow faster and

resist disease, but the truffles also have economic value. Wheeler analyzes the

commercial value of Oregon white truffles in a Christmas tree farm, arguing that

the US$10,000 per acre annual truffle yield exceeds the value of managing for

lumber, Christmas trees, or poles, making the truffle-inoculated trees worth more

alive than dead. The author suggests that a management strategy involving truffle

inoculation and selective harvesting could increase tree crop rotations and

increase production over the long-term.

Keywords: Truffles, root rot, inoculation, economic value, management, joint

production.

Wheeler, Nicholas C.; Hehnen, Mark T. 1993. Taxol: a study in technology commercialization. Journal of Forestry. 91(10): 15-18.

Depicts the process of policy formulation by a private corporation to develop production of taxol, a nontimber forest product. Development and commercialization

of new products requires a receptivity to innovation, tolerance of risk and failure,

the presence of staunch advocates, and flexible corporate processes. Management for commercialization of new products consists of scoping corporate objectives and skills in light of emerging economic and social issues, assessment of

technical and commercial feasibility of product development, development of a

business plan, market and production testing, and implementation. Multidisciplinary

teams are important for effective movement from one phase to the next and in

technology transfer and application.

The societal demand for taxol is projected to outstrip the naturally occurring supplies without the aid of domestication. Genetic selection and plantation silviculture

seem to provide a solution. The lack of knowledge of Pacific yew (Taxus brevifolia)

initially created uncertainty about the wisdom of further product development, but

changes in demand and technology have led to expanded production. Technical

areas of investigation include genetic parameters in taxol production, nongenetic

factors in taxane yields, postharvest effects on yew physiology, growth regulators,

improved assay protocols, and improved propagation and cultivation techniques.

Commercial crop trees are grown on 3- to 5-year rotations.

Keywords: Medicinal plants, taxol, production, commercialization.

Wickens, Gerald E. 1991. Management issues for development of nontimber

forest products. Unasylva. 42(165): 3-8.

Discusses main issues in directing development of nontimber forest products to a

“whole-forest” management system for sustainability. Ideally, that system retains

traditional knowledge about the forest. Unnecessary changes in land tenure away
227

from collective ownership can derail development when people transition from

subsistence economies to market economies. Impacts on nontimber forest products, particularly related to tenure issues, should be included in environmental

analyses of development projects. Impacts may be difficult to assess, however,

when the basic ecology and reproductive biology of valuable nontimber species

are not well understood. Case studies with a local focus are needed to acquire

interdisciplinary knowledge. Long-term commitment and public participation in

these studies are essential. The economic value of nontimber forest products

can be increased by plant-breeding programs and by improving critical steps in

production (harvesting, storage, transport, processing, and marketing). More

complex social integration in forest management will offer expanding opportunities

for multiproduct outputs (maximum benefit with minimum disturbance) and for

domestication of forest species for increased production.

Keywords: Economic value, holistic approach, traditional knowledge, production,

domestication, policy.

Williams, N.M.; Baines, G. 1993. Traditional ecological knowledge: wisdom for

sustainable development. Canberra: Australian National University, Centre for

Resource and Environmental Studies.

Wolf, Edward; Wortman, David. 1992. Pacific yew management on National

Forests: a biological and policy analysis. Northwest Environmental Journal.

8: 347-366.

Considers the impact of commercial harvest on the distribution and abundance of

Pacific yew (Taxus brevifolia) in the Pacific Northwest and examines the process

by which the USDA Forest Service shaped its policies on yew harvesting in 1991

and 1992. Meeting demands for large amounts of yew bark while accommodating

the societal demand for protection of old-growth forests makes forest management

complex. Yew bark suddenly became a valuable commodity when the National

Cancer Institute requested a 12-fold increase in yew bark harvest as a source for

taxol. Bristol-Myers Squibb Corporation was entrusted with supplying the harvest

from Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management lands. A lucrative black

market in stolen yew bark developed.

Guidelines for interim management specified the need to provide for adequate

regeneration of Pacific yew, maintain its genetic variability, and ensure its continued role in ecosystem function in forests. Harvested trees were left with 6- to

18-inch-high stumps to encourage stump sprouting, and seedlings were planted to

supplement existing sprouting populations. Guidelines favored vegetative rather

than natural sexual reproduction because bark stripping occurred before seedbearing arils could form. Harvesting has likely decimated the oldest age classes.

The authors estimate that 100,000 trees were harvested in 1991. Whether this

harvest represents a serious depletion of yew population stocks is not known.

Foliage, although less productive, is a source for taxol, but no foliage clipping was

undertaken initially to augment the net taxol supply. In many timber sales, no

attempt was made to salvage yew bark before sites were burned to remove slash.

Challenges to Forest Service management of Pacific yew came with a petition

to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service to list the tree species as “threatened.”

A comprehensive Environmental Impact Statement was begun in 1992, and the
228

Pacific Yew Act (H.R. 3836) was signed into law in 1992 to formalize standards,

guidelines, and schedules for inventory and management of Pacific yew by the

Forest Service.

The contractor responsible for coordinating yew collection employed 550 workers

from local communities from May through August 1991 and 1,115 workers for the

same period in 1992. Little public attention has focused on the role that Pacific yew

and other nontimber products might play in the management of National Forests.

The authors characterize Forest Service policymaking as cautious and passive.

Policy formulation for Pacific yew shows how the Forest Service allows its agenda

for management to be set by other institutions, such as the National Cancer

Institute and the U.S. Congress, to the possible detriment of ecosystem sustainability. One concern is that Pacific yew will once again become irrelevant to forest

management in the event that substitutes for yew bark become available. The

boom and bust economy of yew bark will provide no lasting solution to sustainable

employment based on ecosystem resources. The Forest Service must address the

role that economically valuable nontimber species play in Pacific Northwest

society. Genetic stocks of wild yew remain an irreplaceable stock of other chemical

compounds that may be precursors to yet other important drugs and must be

valued in any economic analysis accordingly. New management, with precedents

in tropical forest management, is needed for the Pacific Northwest. Extractive

reserves that combine conservation and economic extraction are one possible

innovation.

Keywords: Ecosystem management, medicinal plants, taxol, policy formulation,

extractive reserves.

Wood, D.A.; Smith, J.F. 1987. The cultivation of mushrooms. In: Norris, J.R.;

Pettifer, G.L., eds. Essays in agricultural and food microbiology. London: John

Wiley & Sons, Ltd.: 309-343.

Describes the economic and biotechnological significance of mushroom cultivation.

Less than 10 species are cultivated in commercial quantities worldwide. Genera of

commercial fungi with edible wild species in the Pacific Northwest are Agaricus,

Auricularia, Coprinus, Flammulina, Clitocybe, Pholiota, Pleurotus, Stropharia,

Tremella, and Volvariella. Traditions of cultivation go back 2,000 years in China.

Mushroom cultivation represents the most viable biotechnology for conversion of

plant residues from forestry and agriculture to foodstuffs for human consumption.

Understanding the microbial pathogens and competitors interacting with the mushroom crop is essential to commercial production.

Keywords: Mushrooms, cultivation, production, waste conversion.

Yudina, Valentina. 1993. The effect of collection of medicinal mire plants on the

recovery of their coenopopulations. Aquilo Ser. Bot. 31: 153-155.

Advocates monitoring the amount and frequency of plant harvesting and the rate

of recovery of biomass. The study examined three species: Andromeda polifolia

(bog rosemary; native to the Pacific Northwest), Chamaedaphne calyculata, and

Menyanthes trifoliata (common buckbean; native to the Pacific Northwest).
229

Experiments to test the effects of harvests were conducted at 60 test sites with

the following treatments: (1) annual collection of leaves; (2) collection of leaves at

2-year intervals; (3) collection of leaves at 3-year intervals; and (4) control without

collection.

The author’s results indicate that a one-time harvest allows plants to recover

their original biomass. For Menyanthes trifoliata, the number of shoots increased

but the mass of each shoot and leaf declined after six consecutive harvests.

Chamaedaphne calyculata and Andromeda polifolia both had smaller amounts of

surface cover, shoot number, and shoot phytomass. Andromeda polifolia grows

most slowly because buds are torn off with the shoot when the plant is harvested.

This article shows the kind of experiments that could be undertaken to assess

appropriate harvesting rates for medicinal plants. Two of the plants studied here

are native to the Pacific Northwest.

Keywords: Harvest effects, medicinal plants, recovery time, sustainability,

experimental design.

Zaitseva, Nina. 1993. Medicinal raw material resources of the Karelian forests and

problems concerning their protection. Aquilo Ser. Bot. 31: 147-151.

Assesses the resource potential and current management problems involving 30

of the most common of the more than 300+ medicinal plant species found in

Karelia, Russia. The most important plant families serving as sources of medicinal

plants are Rosaceae, Compositae, Scrophulariaceae, Gramineae, Labiatae, and

Leguminosae. Harvests in the 1970s averaged 10 tonnes annually but volumes

reached 80 tonnes between 1986 and 1990 as more species were harvested.

Labradortea (Ledum palustre with related species in the Pacific Northwest) is the

principal species followed by lingonberry (Vaccinium vitis-idaea). Other species of

industrial importance for medicinal use are in the genera Sorbus, Vaccinium, and

Potentilla plus kinnikinnick (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi). These species have been the

subject of research studies, and the last two have been collected so extensively

that populations have been depleted.

Stocks of medicinal plants are tabulated from stationary and transect methods.

Fixed plots are used as constant sampling areas. Transects provided data for

formulating regional reference tables. Most of the existing resource stocks of medicinal plants consist of whortleberry (V. myrtillus), lingonberry, and Ledum palustre.

Serious problems such as industrial and transportation pollution are impinging on

the quality of native raw materials for medicinal uses.

This article calls attention to problems in maintaining the stocks and product quality

of native medicinal plants available for economic harvests.

Keywords: Conservation of resources, economic exploitation, medicinal plants,

pollution effects, inventory, monitoring, fixed plots, pollution, harvest volume,

Russia.

Zimmer, Karl; Girmen, Mahir. 1987. Gärtnerischer Anbau statt Raubbau=

Horticulture instead of predatory waste. Deutscher Gartenbau. 41(16): 988-989.

In German.
230

Warns about the harmful effects on ecosystems yielding bulb and corm species

for German horticultural markets. Ninety-five percent of the imports arrive from

agricultural suppliers in the Netherlands, and an undetermined percentage of minor

species are imported directly from the wild. Turkey is the source for most of the

imports of wild bulbs and corms. Many of the species are endemic and have

restricted ranges. Demand for rare species in private gardens has risen steadily

in the past few years. About 60 percent more bulbs and corms are actually dug

than are exported from Turkey because the bulbs and corms are too small for

marketing. There is heavy competition for plants, and the start of the harvest

season is set ever earlier, often before the plants are able to set seed. Additional

pressures come from sheep and goat grazing. There is an urgent need for legislation to prevent theft of native plants and curb exports. The Turkish government

is not expected to be particularly responsive to restrictive measures.

To offset social pressures in native ecosystems, the authors suggest developing

protocols for growing endangered native bulb and corm species. A sufficient supply

of seed is needed and germination requirements must be understood. The specifications for high germination rates differ considerably, even among species in the

same genus. Commercial reproduction is not possible without this detailed knowledge, and much research is needed. Another source of plants is application of in

vitro culture techniques. One limitation for supplying in vitro material is the naturally

short amount of time when plants are green. Managing laboratory conditions to

encourage germination or bulb budding year round is crucial.

Keywords: Horticultural plants, bulbs, corms, conservation, harvesting, cultivation,

Turkey, Netherlands, Germany.

Zybachenko, Sergei. 1993. Non-woody resources in the forest zone, their use,

and problems of investigation. Aquilo Ser. Bot. 31: 5-8.

Describes the role of nonwoody resources in Karelia and Finland for food, medicinal uses, and fodder. Berry plants in the genus Vaccinium and in the Rosaceae

are the most important food plants in the taiga zone. In the former USSR, there

are 2,000 medicinal plant species, and 300 are currently used in medical research.

Sixty of the 250 species of edible wild mushrooms are traditionally used, with 20

or so species being very popular.

Management of nonwoody resources depends on the density of both the local

human population and the road network. Many investigators believe that the level

of use of available resources does not exceed 5 percent. Constraints on increasing

the amount of harvest are insufficient resource surveying, inability to plan and forecast harvesting volumes and their location, the physical demands of harvest work,

poor transportation network, shortage of labor, and lack of storage and handling

facilities.

The USSR Academy of Sciences, institutes, and universities carry out resource

assessments. These assessments include the biology and distribution of wild

plants, ecological and geographical variability in biochemical composition of plants,

yield capacity, and raw material reserves. Methods are being developed to produce

short-term forecasts and increase resource productivity. Productivity of wild forest
231

plants depends on canopy closure, species composition, and stand age. Whortleberry (V. myrtillus) yields drop by a factor of 10 in uncut forests compared to forest

clearings. Yields of lingonberry (V. vitis-idaea) and cranberry (V. oxycoccos) are

variable. Mushroom production is highest in stands between 15 and 35 years old

in the taiga zone because the upper soil is adequately warmed. Mechanisms controlling yield are not yet predictable and production is cyclical.

Scientists and managers use traditional silvicultural methods to increase productivity of wild berries, medicinal herbs, and mushrooms. These include improvement

cuttings, applications of mineral fertilization, understory burning and thinning,

removal of competing vegetation, careful harvesting, and plant conservation. All

measures combined lead to a 1.5- to-2 fold increase in productivity. Clearfelling,

the dominant timber harvest method in the former USSR, damages 20 to 60 percent of berry bushes and destroys the soil cover on a third of the area on average.

Loss of forest soil fertility causes drastic declines in cowberry and whortleberry

biomass.

In ecosystems where anthropogenic pollutants destabilize ecosystems, organized

monitoring is especially important. A consistent network of frequently sampled plots

can reveal the state of ecosystems, guide conservation, and help determine the

optimal level of resource exploitation.

Keywords: Berries, wild edible mushrooms, medicinal plants, Russia, Finland,

productivity, clearcutting, pollution, monitoring.
232

A

Abies spp. 50, 63, 95, 122

Abies amabilis 50, 140, 190

Abies fraseri 97

Abies grandis 65, 104, 114, 214

Abies lasiocarpa 140, 190

Abies nordmanniana 51, 104, 152, 187

Abies procera 33, 34, 50, 51, 64, 65, 73, 98,

99, 104, 106, 115, 121, 138, 140, 149, 152,

187, 189, 190

aboriginal burning 85

abundance 222

Acacia nilotica 150, 198

açai palm 30

access 86

Acer spp. 139, 140

Acer circinatum 140, 151, 207

Acer macrophyllum 100, 160, 179, 194, 197,

207

Acer saccharum 160, 179

Achillea millefolium 47, 77, 128, 134, 214

acorns 32

adaptive management 11, 79, 100

adhesives 204

Adiantum spp. 76, 151, 187

Africa 48

Agaricus spp. 203, 228

Agastache spp. 76

age class 108

agroforestry 7, 15, 16, 28, 29, 31, 39, 41, 54, 55,

119, 122, 183, 199

Alaska 53, 66, 128, 165, 206

Alaska-cedar 214

Albatrellus ovinus 184

alders 140

Alectoria spp. 107

Alectoria jubata 30

Allium spp. 32, 139, 154

Alnus spp. 140

Alnus rubra 35, 79, 84, 136, 138, 214

alternative income 216

Amanita spp. 32

Amaranthus retroflexus 139

Amazon 29, 41, 70, 78, 126, 136, 163, 164, 173,

177, 220

Amelanchier spp. 140, 161

Amelanchier alnifolia 127, 138, 141, 154, 192,

205, 214

American chestnut 96

American false hellebore 29, 100, 139

American ginseng 36, 45, 74, 76, 86, 120, 124,

219

American matsutake 26, 27, 61, 99, 106, 113,

125, 141, 147, 173, 190-192, 220, 224

Anaphalis margaritacea 134, 140

Andromeda polifolia 127, 228

Anemone multifida 127

Angelica spp. 128—angelicas

Aniba spp. 172

antibacterial potency 136

Appalachia 76, 126, 150

aquaje palms 220

arborvitae 64, 65

Arbutus menziesii 39, 127, 151

Arbutus unedo 39

Arctic sweet coltsfoot 139

Arctium lappa 128

Arctostaphylos spp. 134, 140

Arctostaphylos columbiana 127, 151

Arctostaphylos uva-ursi 42, 76, 91, 116,

127, 136, 139, 207, 229

Argentina egedii 118, 154, 213, 214

Arizona 102

Armillariella mellea 69

Arnica spp. 128—arnicas

aromatic plants 64, 128

aromatic oils 199

Aronia melanocarpa 17, Index of Species

arrowleaf balsamroot 136, 191

Artemisia spp. 128, 134

Artemisia ludoviciana 136

Asarum spp. 76

Asarum caudatum 71, 100, 139

Asclepias spp. 76

ashes 103, 128

Asian immigrants 137

Asia 88

Asparagus acutifolius 80

aspen 100

Aster spp. 140—asters

Ati tribe 205

Atlantic Fiddlehead Research Organization 223

Attalea spp. 172

attitudes 125

Auricularia spp. 228

Australia 39, 109

Austrian pine 168

availability 123

B

babaçu palms 172

babysbreath gypsophila 140, 191, 193

Balkans 112

Balsamorhiza sagittata 136, 191

bark 42, 84, 204

medicines 214

removal 145

stripping 145

barriers 48, 110, 151, 159, 164, 168, 188, 192

basketry and weaving 38, 57, 60, 64, 79,

84, 88, 162, 165, 204, 214, 220

basswoods 123

beach strawberry 40, 136

beaked hazelnut 40, 117, 205

beargrass 70, 91, 107, 132, 139, 140, 142,

144, 187, 190, 191, 193, 199

bed logs 145

bee pollen 140

bees 182

bee wax 140

Belize 33

bequest value 34

berries 36, 42, 43, 46, 48-50, 53, 56, 61, 67,

79, 81, 84, 85, 87, 88, 93, 95, 101-103,

106, 107, 111, 116-119, 128, 135, 138, 141-

145, 151, 158, 164, 167, 178, 180, 182-187,

198, 200, 205-207, 213, 217, 219, 220, 231

plants 49, 67, 81, 230

plant production 7, 35, 55, 67, 84, 111

Bertholletia excelsa 126, 172

Index
233

Betula spp. 49, 122, 128, 180, 181, 182, 187, 197

bigleaf maple 100, 160, 179, 197, 207

biodiversity convention 202

biodiversity prospecting 171, 202

biodiversity value 15, 70, 96

birches 49, 181, 182, 187, 197

bitter cherry 214

blackberries 40, 57, 100, 140, 180, 186

California blackberry 40

cloudberry 110, 167, 180, 182, 185, 187

Himalayan blackberry 138

red raspberry 42, 49, 67, 80, 84, 103, 110, 117,

167, 178, 185

salmonberry 79, 117, 139, 154, 206, 207, 213,

214

shrubby blackberry 23, Index of Species

thimbleberry 117, 213

thornless blackberry 107, 167

whitebark raspberry 117

black chokeberry 17, Index of Species

black crowberry 107

blackgum 140

black henbane 191

black morel 141

blackthorn 22

black truffle 44, 52, 91, 129, 147, 148, 192, 201

black walnut 7, 15, 118

Blechnum spicant 140

blewit 77

blueberry 117, 138, 206

bog blueberry 49, 107, 142, 167

dwarf blueberry 84

highbush blueberry 81, 116, 200

lowbush blueberry 48, 95, 106, 119, 200

smallflower blueberry 24

blue huckleberry 84, 103, 141-143

See also huckleberry.

blueleaved huckleberry 144

See also huckleberry.

blue skullcap 76, 139

blue spruce 129, 146

bog laurel 127

bog rosemary 127, 228

bogs 184

boletes, rough-stemmed 184, 185

Boletus spp. 32, 79, 97, 158, 181, 184,

185, 192, 203—boletes

Boletus edulis 69, 88, 120, 141, 147, 187, 201,

224—king bolete

Bolivia 170, 177

borax 144

botanical guide 165

boxleaf myrtle 63, 127, 140, 191, 193

Brazil 30, 126, 173

brazilnut 126, 172

breeding programs 32

British Columbia 30, 60, 61, 84, 85, 117, 118,

123, 128, 136, 165, 211, 214, 215

British Columbia wildginger 71, 100, 139

broadleaf arrowhead 23, Index of Species

broadleaf cattail 140

Brodiaea spp. 134, 154

buckbean 228

buckwheat 134

bugbanes 76

bulbs 230

Bulgaria 116

bulldozing 144

burning 40, 95, 119, 123, 138, 141, 142, 144,

155

business plan 211, 216

C

Calamus spp. 59, 160, 161—calamuses,

rattans

Calamus manan 25

California 102, 134, 194, 211

California blackberry 40

California black oak 194

California foothill pine 69

California laurel 117, 134, 139

Calocedrus decurrens 63, 138, 140, 210

Calochortus spp. 134, 154

camas lily 40

Camassia spp. 154, 155, 204, 215—camas

Camassia quamash 40, 115, 155

camphortree 199

Canada 36, 53, 119, 135, 166, 205, 223

Canadian horseweed 137

canned mushrooms 97

Cantharellus spp. 26, 79, 97, 102, 121, 147,

178, 191

Cantharellus cibarius 64, 88, 120, 126, 141,

147, 155, 181, 184, 185, 187, 192, 203, 222

Cantharellus lutescens 64

Cantharellus subalbidus 147

canyon live oak 210

capacity building 165

Capsicum annuum var. glabriusculum 43

carbohydrate source 155

cardamon 88

Carex obnupta 79

Carya illinoisensis 176, 210

Caryota urens 89

Cascade Oregongrape 40, 189

cascara 28, 31, 57, 71, 74, 76, 100, 123, 128,

139, 151, 166, 197, 214, 216

cash crops 59

Cassiope mertensiana 127

Castanea spp. 45, 79

Castanea dentata 96

Castanea sativa 18

Castanopsis chrysophylla 117

Caucasian silver fir 51, 104, 152, 187

cauliflower mushroom 147, 192

cayenne or chiltepin pepper 43

Ceanothus spp. 76—ceanothus

cedar oil 2, 36

certification 53

Chamaecyparis spp. 63, 65—cedars

Chamaecyparis lawsoniana 63, 71, 99, 100,

104, 114, 140, 146, 151, 159, 197

Chamaecyparis nootkatensis 214

Chamaedaphne calyculata 228

chanterelles 26, 79, 97, 102, 121, 147, 178, 191

charcoal 41, 95, 153, 154, 186, 198, 205, 213

Chehalis 90

chestnuts 45

chickweed 134

Chile 105

Chimaphila umbellata 29, 57, 71, 76, 100, 134,

139
234

China 48, 162, 163

chokecherry 205

Christmas greens 62

See also conifer greens, conifer boughs,

decorative foliage, greenery, woods.

Christmas trees 42, 85, 86, 95, 130, 146, 149

Chugach 206

Cimifuga spp. 76

Cinnamonum camphora 199

Cladonia spp. 25, 112

Cladonia alpestris 181

Cladonia stellaris 111-112

Clallam 71, 90

Claytonia perfoliata 139

clearcutting 42, 67, 119, 142, 157, 184-186, 231

cliff dwarfprimrose 127

Clitocybe spp. 228

Clitocybe nuda 77

cloudberry 110, 167, 180, 182, 185, 187

clubmosses 70, 150

clusterlilies 134, 154

collaboration 109

collection 112

Colorado 130

Columbia Plateau tribes 115

comanagement 11, 53, 164, 188, 207

commercialization 52, 226

common juniper 76, 100, 136

common lomatium 30

common property 182

common selfheal 77

communal reserve 164

communication networks 110

community organization 128

community stabilization 102

compensation 196, 203

competition 35, 149

coneflowers, purple 74

cones 57, 62, 131, 139, 146, 151, 198

conifer coral hericium 147

conifer greens 51, 57, 63-66, 71, 85-87, 95, 98,

99, 151, 168, 169, 187-189, 191-198,

223, 225

boughs 46, 101, 104, 129, 131, 133, 140, 146,

149

conservation 44, 76, 80, 89, 111, 112, 148, 152,

156, 159, 164, 173, 175, 196, 202, 219-221,

225, 229, 230

consumer surplus 130, 167

consumption 185

contingent valuation 44, 135

Conyza spp. 122

Conyza canadensis 137

cooperation 128

cooperatives 47, 54, 87, 88, 134, 140, 177, 183,

194, 197, 202, 223

Coos County 71

copperbush 127

Coprinus spp. 228

Cordova 206

cork 46

cork oak 22, Index of Species

corms 230

Cornus spp. 39

Cornus mas 39

Cornus nuttallii 127, 134, 151

Cornus unalaschkensis 136

Corylus spp. 42, 79

Corylus avellana 215

Corylus cornuta 40, 117, 205

Costa Rica 171, 202, 203

cost-benefit analysis 26, 34, 168, 197

cottonwoods 29

cous biscuitroot 115

Cowlitz 90

cowparsnip 30, 117, 213

cows clover 118, 213, 214

craft products 61

cranberry—

cranberry viburnum 84, 205

small cranberry 49, 79, 154, 167, 185, 213,

231

Crataegus spp. 32, 39, 42, 76, 81, 83, 161

Crataegus monogyna 128

Craterellus cornucopiodes 147

crowberries 167

black crowberry 107, 186

cultivated licorice 124

cultivation 84, 92, 100, 116, 128, 158, 194, 219,

223, 228, 230

cultural diversity 173

patrimony 109

protection 43

survival 136, 171

Cupressus spp. 64

currants 154, 206

redflower currant 127, 136, 151

Curry County 71

cut flowers 134

Cypripedium spp. 57—cypripediums

Cypripedium acaule 74

Cypripedium calceolus 76

Cypripedium parviflorum 19, Index of Species

Cypripedium reginae 120

Cytisus scoparius 63, 70, 140 D

decorative—

foliage 9, 63

greenery, greens 33, 51, 85, 97, 129, 132, 146,

151

woods 62, 131, 135

deer fern 140

deergrass 134

Delphinium spp. 134

demographic information 48

demography 36, 69

Denmark 51, 99, 104, 187

Dentinum spp.

Dentinum repandum 141, 147, 192

Deschutes National Forest 125

development policies 58

devilsclub 29, 79, 139, 204, 213

Digitalis purpurea 29, 32, 57, 71, 100, 128, 151,

187, 197

Diospyros melanoxylon 91, 103, 104, 208

directory 26, 157, 223

direct value 70

dispersal 131

dispersed recreation 48

distillation 36

distribution 44, 61, 62, 113, 117, 188, 191, 202
235

dogwoods 39

domestication 31, 37, 45, 52, 58, 75, 77, 84,

109, 158, 177, 203, 215, 223, 225, 227

down wood 145, 203

Douglas-fir 28, 35, 50, 65, 85, 95, 100, 104,

113, 126, 129, 138, 140, 141, 146, 156, 189,

195, 207

Douglasia spp.—

Douglasia laevigata 127

draining 184

Drosera rotundifolia 181

drug screening 171

Dryas spp., 127

dwarf blueberry 84

dwarfprimrose, cliff 127

dye plants 32, 39, 57, 73, 79, 214

E

eastern arborvitae 36

eastern Canada 95

eastern hemlock 96

eastern redcedar 36

Eastern United States 122

eastern white pine 50, 64, 146

Echinacea spp. 74

Echinacea purpurea 76, 124

ecological impacts 116

ecological sustainability 85, 92, 104, 148, 159

economic—

analysis 26, 28, 29, 56, 70, 82, 89, 92, 161,

199, 205, 224

botany 165, 220

considerations 100

development 55, 88, 128, 131, 132, 134, 139,

179, 194, 205, 223, 225

diversification 72, 102

exploitation 229

feasibility 133

history 154

policy 32, 151

productivity 104

returns 219

strategies 30

structure 121

survey 118

sustainability 92

uses 49

valuation 64, 69, 82, 83, 89, 129, 163

valuation methods 50

value 33, 34, 60, 62, 68, 71, 75, 80, 87, 97,

102, 106, 123, 125, 126, 129, 130, 137,

145, 159, 167, 180, 182, 185, 186, 188,

191-198, 226, 227

economics of scale 197

ecosystem—

health 199

management 173, 192, 228

restoration 32

edible—

fruits See wild fruit.

greens 62

mushrooms See wild edible mushrooms.

plants See wild edible plants, wild plants.

education 58, 94, 218

elderberries 39, 154, 161, 192

Elderberries (continued)—

red or scarlet 79

Elettaria cardamomum 88

Elliottia pyroliflorus 127

Empetrum spp. 167, 186

Empetrum nigrum 107

employment 27, 90, 191, 192, 193, 197

employment opportunities 57

endangered species 86

enforcement 194

Engelmann’s spruce 84

English holly 65

English ivy 128

environmental factors 222

environmental services 80, 160

Epilobium spp. 49, 57, 180

Epilobium angustifolium 30

equipment 197

Equisetum spp. 213

Equisetum arvense 128, 139

Equisetum hyemale 76

equity 108, 164, 196

Ericaceae 212

Eriogonum spp. 134—eriogonums

Erythronium spp. 154

essential oils 36, 39, 42, 61, 64, 122, 138, 143,

173, 174

Estonia 108, 164

ethnobotany 2, 16, 33, 71, 79, 84, 90, 143, 155,

165, 169, 194, 212-214

ethnography 4, 121

ethnomycology 94

ethnopharmacology 66

Eucalyptus spp. 35—eucalyptus

Eucalyptus citriodora 199

Eupatorium spp. 76

Europe 39, 46, 88, 107, 125

European chestnut 18, Index of Species

European Economic community 216

European goldenrod 77, 140

European mountainash 39, 50, 185

European Union 162

Euterpe oleracea 30

evergreen huckleberry 28, 35, 57, 63, 70, 71, 96,

127, 140, 142, 151, 187, 189, 191, 197, 216

See also huckleberry.

Evernia prunastri 112

existence values 34, 167, 50

exotic species 157, 199

experimental design 33, 108, 156, 157, 167, 184,

200, 201, 229

export markets 57

exports 81

extension 94

external affairs 135

extractive reserves 29, 33, 41, 70, 78, 126, 136,

151, 162, 171, 173, 177, 183, 228

exudates 42, 70 See also resin.

F

false morel 157, 180-185

farm forestry 31

fawnlilies 154

feasibility study 134, 135

fernleaf biscuitroot 136
236

ferns 79, 155, 223

fertilization 63, 64, 77, 99, 142, 144, 157, 184,

200, 210

fiber 204

field horsetail 128, 139

filbert 215

financial analysis 26, 160, 219

rate of return 161

Finland 77, 93, 94, 107, 111, 112, 116, 118,

157, 167, 178, 180-187, 231

Finnish Lapland 180, 183

fire 143

fireweed 30, 49, 57

firewood 73 See also fuelwood.

firs 50, 63, 95

Firtech 108

fishtail palm 89

fixed costs 160

fixed plots 229

Flammulina spp. 228

flavoring 37

flaxes 134, 154

floral—

greens 35, 39, 54, 57, 61, 62, 64, 65, 71,

79, 87, 96, 101, 131, 133, 134, 140, 151,

169, 188, 189, 191, 192, 194, 197, 198,

207, 216, 223

industry 100, 127

foliage 204

Food and Agriculture Organization 72

food coloring 37

food plants 74

foraging costs 82

strategies 154

foreign trade 65

forest—

composition 106

conservation 46

extraction 30

fires 50

management 28, 29, 218

practices 64, 65, 135

practitioner 83

revenues 90

type 222

forestry, social 199

Forest Service 217

Forest Trust 84

foxglove, purple 29, 32, 57, 71, 100, 128, 151,

187, 197

Fragaria spp. 81, 117, 166

Fragaria chiloensis 40, 136

Fragaria vesca 80

Fragaria viridus 80

France 44, 56, 61, 77, 97, 105, 112, 152, 158,

162, 163

Frangula purshiana 28, 31, 57, 71, 74, 76, 100,

123, 128, 139, 151, 166, 197, 214, 216

Fraser’s fir 97

Fraxinus spp. 128

Fritillaria spp. 154, 215

fruiting bodies 153

fuel costs 197

fuelwood 51, 62, 73, 89, 90, 101

See also firewood.

funding 80

funeral industry 169

fungal productivity 80

fungi 131, 184

furniture 60 G

Galax spp. 70—galax

gathering 53, 148

Gaultheria spp. 122

Gaultheria ovatifolia 127

Gaultheria shallon 28, 35, 40, 63, 70, 71, 79,

96, 100, 132, 140, 151, 154, 187, 189, 191,

197, 207, 214, 216, 218

genetic diversity 43

genetic resources 112, 115, 202

Gentiana spp. 128—gentians

geographic information system 202

Germany 51, 65-67, 71, 85, 86, 95, 125, 129,

146, 162, 163, 167-169, 195, 225, 230

germplasm collection 205

Geum macrophyllum 136

Ghana 68

giant hyssops 76

Gifford Pinchot National Forest 142, 144

Gingko biloba 124

ginseng, American 36, 45, 74, 76, 86, 120, 124,

219

girdling 143, 145

Gitksan 84-85

Glycyrrhiza glabra 124

golden chanterelle 88, 120, 126, 141, 147, 155,

181, 184, 185, 192, 203, 222

golden chinkapin 117

goldenrods 77,140

goldenseal 74

government policy 102, 119, 120

grading 65, 66, 149

grand fir 65, 104, 114, 214

granulated slippery jack 158

Gray’s Harbor County 54, 55, 223

grazing 144, 181, 209

greater burdock 128

greenery 33

Green River 90

green russula 201

Grossulariaceae 212

growth 184

growth rate 79

Guatemala 63, 138, 170, 183

guide 194

gum-arabic tree 150, 198

Gypsophila paniculata 140, 191, 193

Gyromitra esculenta 157, 180-185 H

habitat conservation 58

hairy manzanita 127, 151

Haisla 84

harvest 144, 149, 164, 186, 215, 224, 229

data 56, 62

price 71

reserves 164

scheduling 65

volume 62, 97, 108 229
237

harvesters 69, 126, 127, 178, 200, 222

harvesting 35, 36, 56, 66, 93, 103, 133, 146,

147, 151, 156, 183, 187, 198, 200, 221,

230

costs 30, 101

effects 65, 74, 79

methods 64, 166

practices 31

recreational 55, 116, 224

regulations 45

hawthorns 32, 39, 42

hazelnuts 42, 79

beaked hazelnut 40, 117, 205

heather 167

Hedera helix 128

hedgehog mushroom 141, 147, 192

henbit deadnettle 139

Heracleum maximum —

Heracleum lanatum 30, 117, 213

herbal medicine 125

herbicides 111, 142, 143, 145, 157, 200

herbs 54, 93, 211

Hericium abietis 147

Hesquiat 214

Heuchera cylindrica 136

Hevea brasiliensis 41, 69, 126, 172, 174, 177

highbush blueberry 81, 116, 200

See also blueberry.

Himalayan blackberry 138

See also blackberries.

historical use 42, 67

H.J. Andrews Experimental Forest 37

Hoh 169

holistic approach 227

hollyleaved barberry 37, 76, 139, 151, 191

honey 32, 39, 49, 57, 64, 140, 182

See also wild honey.

honey mushroom 69

honeysuckle, pink 151

horn of plenty 147

horsetails 213

field horsetail 128, 139

scouringrush 76

horseweeds 122

horticultural plants 26, 37, 39, 47, 61, 62, 109,

120, 121, 128, 140, 150, 151, 161, 230

horticulture 134

households 30, 44, 60, 103, 127, 184-186, 205,

206

consumption 182

strategies 68, 148

use 180

huckleberry 103, 132, 138, 142, 143, 145, 154,

161, 180, 192, 205, 207, 219, 229, 230

blueleaved huckleberry 103, 144

evergreen huckleberry 28, 35, 57, 63, 70, 71,

96, 127, 140, 142, 151, 187, 189, 191, 197,

216

ovalleaf huckleberry 24, Index of Species

red huckleberry 117, 142

velvetleaf huckleberry 48, 95, 106, 119

human ecology 173

hunting 53

Hydrastis canadensis 74

Hylocomium splendens 37

Hyoscayamus niger 191

Hypericum perforatum 77, 128

Hypnum spp. 150

I

Idaho 193

Ilex aquilfoium 65

imports 163

improvement cuttings 50

improvement thinnings 36

incense-cedar 63, 138, 140, 210

incentives 62

income 122, 183, 205

India 47, 50, 90, 91, 104, 159, 198, 199, 208

Indian plum 214

Indian ricegrass 191

indigenous—

foods 117, 123, 128, 154, 155, 165

knowledge 43, 66, 90, 109, 115, 165, 171, 211

medicines 68

people 47-48

uses 40, 57, 73, 79, 136, 155, 213, 214

indirect value 70

Indonesia 162

industrial forest owners 122

industrial restructuring 96

industry structure 191, 193, 202

infrastructure 183

inky caps 228

inoculation 40, 226

Instituto Nacional de Biodiversidad 202-203

intellectual property rights 16, 33, 43, 58, 66,

109, 113, 115, 165, 171, 196, 202

interagency collaboration 120

interest groups 27

internal rate of return 26

international—

coordination 44

policy 72, 174

survey 64

trade 105

inventory 33, 67, 81, 87, 91, 116, 203, 218, 229

methods 158, 186

investment effectiveness 161

Ireland 162

Iris spp. 128—irises

iron fern 78

Italy 35, 52, 69, 80, 128, 130, 149, 152, 174,

202, 209, 215, 216

J

Japan 88, 106, 153, 154, 165, 167, 177, 221

Japanese matsutake 99, 106, 147, 152, 153, 156

Japanese red pine 99, 106, 153, 210

Jessenia spp. 220—jessenias

joint management 191

joint production 25, 26, 111, 145, 149, 210, 219,

224, 226

joint ventures 113

Juglans nigra 7, 15, 118, 121, 128, 180, 186, 208

Juniperus spp. 100—junipers

Juniperus communis 76, 136

Juniperus occidentalis 140

Juniperus scopulorum 36, 189

Juniperus virginiana 36
238

K

Kalapuya Indians 40

Kalmia spp. 150—kalmias

Kalmia polifolia 127

Karbutilate 144

kinnikinnick 42, 76, 91, 116, 127, 136, 139,

207, 229

kinship 128

Klallam 90

Klamath bioregion 173

Klamath Indians 57

Klamath plum 57

Korea 161

Kuna 114 L

labeling 58

Laboradorteas 213

marsh Laboradortea 181, 229

labor efficiency 66

Lactarius spp. 97, 118, 181,

184, 185

Lactarius rufus 184

Lamium amplexicaule 139

land—

allocation 43

reform 78

tenure 86, 136, 151, 171, 173, 176, 177,

183, 198

use 30, 33, 205, 215

utilization areas 78

landscape management 31

landscaping products 61

largeleaf avens 136

Larix spp.—larches

Larix decidua 65

Larix occidentalis 136, 141

larkspurs 134

latex 174

Latvia

law 61, 73

law enforcement 120

laxative 166

leases 179, 188, 189

leatherleaf 228

Leccinum spp. 184, 185

Ledum spp. 213

Ledum palustre 181, 229

legislation 44, 80, 216

lemonscented gum 199

Lentinus edodes 153, 161, 164, 176, 203

Lepidium spp. 139, 191

Lepiota rhacodes 147

lesser yellow lady’s slipper 57, 76

Lewisia rediviva 154

Lewis’ mockorange 127, 151

licensing 93

lichens 25, 29, 30, 46, 57, 65, 111, 112, 121,

181, 182, 187

licorice, cultivated 124

licorice fern 151, 214

light 153

Lignin 204

Ligusticum spp. 76—ligusticums

Lilium spp.—lilies

Limonium spp. 120

lingonberry 35, 49, 67, 102, 103, 107, 110,

116, 118, 158, 163, 167, 178, 180, 184-

186, 229, 231

Linum spp. 128, 134, 154

Lithocarpus densiflorus 96, 101, 117, 194, 210

Lithuania 43

loan default 47

local knowledge 53, 58, 110

local participation 165

lodgepole pine 84, 113, 138, 140, 142, 144,

155, 156, 189

logging 123

logging damage 145

Lomatium spp. 154—lomatiums

Lomatium cous 115

Lomatium dissectum 136

Lomatium utriculatum 30

Lonicera spp. 83

Lonicera hispidula 151

Louisiana 72

Louisiana sagewort 136

lowbush blueberry 48, 95, 106, 119, 200

Lower Chinook 90

Lummi 90

Lupinus spp. 127—lupines

Lycopodium spp. 70, 150 M

Madia spp. 40

Mahonia spp. 29, 30, 57, 70, 71, 100, 138,

191, 193

Mahonia aquifolium 37, 76, 139, 151, 191

Mahonia nervosa 40, 189

Mahonia repens 191

maidenhair ferns 76, 151, 187

maidenhair tree 124

Maine 106, 120

Makah 79, 90

Malus fusca 214

mammals 131

management 1, 30, 36, 43, 44, 100, 106, 108,

116, 131, 134, 142, 144, 146, 159, 160,

164, 179, 182, 189, 200, 218, 219, 223,

224, 226

costs 77

integrated 86

practices 67, 119, 129, 180, 188, 195

recommendations 125, 131

systems 91

tools 66

manzanitas 134, 140, 186

hairy manzanitas 127, 151

maples 139, 140, 154, 160, 179, 197, 207

maple syrup 179

production 197

mapping 66

Mariposa lilies 134, 154

market—

costs 82

demand 63

development 53, 136, 138, 168, 169, 210

expansion 113, 151, 171, 173, 198, 209, 220

imperfect 202
239

Market (continued)

potential 131, 134, 135, 174

pressure 199

share 116

structure 104, 125

supply 63

value 46

vulnerability 198

marketing 47, 51, 52, 86, 132, 133, 146, 169,

194, 208

association 211

cooperatives 177

markets 56, 61, 65, 71, 188, 222

buyers 151

marsh Laboradortea 181, 229

Mason County 54, 55, 223

matsutake 41, 61

Matteuccia struthiopteris 222

Mauritia spp. 220

medicinal plants 30-33, 36, 38, 39, 44-47, 49,

57, 58, 61, 62, 64, 68-77, 84, 87, 88, 101,

113, 120, 123, 125, 128, 131, 133, 134, 136,

139, 148, 151, 159, 164-180, 182, 188, 191,

194, 196, 198, 204, 211, 213, 214, 216-s220,

223, 226, 228, 229, 231

Melanogaster umbrinigleba 210

Mentha, spp. 128

Menyanthes trifoliata 228

Menziesia ferruginea 127

Mexico 27, 28, 221, 222

Midwestern United States 122

milk caps 97, 118, 181, 184, 185

red hot milk cap 184

milkweeds 76

mineral fertilizer 36

mineral soils 186

miner’s lettuce 139

Minnesota 131

minor forest products 174

mints 128

missionbells 154, 215

mistletoes 100, 150

Pacific mistletoe 57, 139, 151

Moneses uniflora 136

monitoring 92, 107, 132, 144, 147, 156, 194,

203, 229, 231

monopoly 52, 208

mooseberry viburnum 205

Morchella spp. 97, 102, 105, 111,

Morchella conica 141

Morchella esculenta 141, 147, 178, 191, 192

Morocco 112

moss 29, 37, 65, 107, 140, 146, 150, 207, 211,

213

mountainashes 49, 186, 229

European mountainash 39, 50, 185

western mountainash 142

mountainavens 127

mountain hemlock 86, 140, 190

Mount Hood 156

Mount Hood National Forest 91, 144, 156

Mount St. Helens 103

Muhlenbergia spp. 134—muhlies

mulch 72

mulching 200

mulleins 100

multicropping 119

multiple use 160, 181, 216, 224

mushrooms 32, 45, 141, 157, 228

advisors 94

cultivated 116, 145, 154, 161-163, 165, 177,

179, 203, 219

culture 165

mycelium 153

mycorrhiza 113, 219

Myrica gale 76

N

Narcissus spp. 121—narcissi

national strategy 208

Native American uses 173, 223, 204, 206, 207,

215

native people 118

native plants 122, 223

native species 205

naval stores 42, 174

Near East 39

Netherlands 162, 163, 230

net national product 102

net present value 26, 33, 205

nettles 134, 139

networks 33

New Mexico 101

New York 78

New Zealand 92

Nisqually 90

Nitinaht 79

noble fir 33, 34, 50, 51, 64, 65, 73, 98, 99, 104,

106, 115, 138, 140, 149, 152, 187, 189, 190

nonlinear optimization 135

nontimber commodity value 135

non-use value 70

Nootka rose 214

North America 122, 161, 177, 213, 219, 223

northern red oak 50, 65, 168

northern Rockies 194

Northwest Coast Indians 215

Norway 31, 104, 111, 187

Norway spruce 50, 85, 184, 187

nurseries 26, 91, 157

nutrition 32, 117, 118, 154, 196

nutritional analysis 118

nuts 32, 39, 46, 64, 80, 117, 119, 126, 173, 194,

220

Nuxalk 117, 123

Nyssa sylvatica 140

O

oaks 31, 96, 165, 176, 210 See also Quercus.

Oemleria cerasiformis 214

Olympic National Forest 217

Olympic Peninsula 55, 71, 73, 126

Omphalina ericetorum 184

oneseed hawthorn 128

Oplopanax horridus 29, 79, 139, 204, 213

optimal foraging 183

option user value 34

option values 50, 70, 167

Opuntia spp. 139
240

Oregon 57, 62, 101, 115, 125, 133, 137, 144,

151, 156, 165, 179, 192, 193

Oregon bitterroot 154

Oregon black truffle 147, 192, 210

See black truffle and Picoa carthusiana.

Oregon crabapple 214

Oregongrapes 29, 30, 57, 70, 71, 100, 138, 191,

193

Cascade Oregongrape 40, 189

Oregon white oak 32, 40, 57, 107, 134, 155, 194

Oregon white truffle 52, 147, 129, 210, 226

See Tuber spp.

ornamental foliage 36, 187

See also decorative foliage.

ornamental plants 42

Oryzopsis hymenoides 191

osier production 38

osier willow 88

ostrich fern 222

ovalleaf huckleberry 24, Index of Species

Oxalis spp. 139

oyster mushrooms 32, 40, 158, 228

Ozarks 76

Ozette 79 P

Pacific anenome 127

Pacific County 54, 55, 223

Pacific dogwood 127, 134, 151

Pacific madrone 39, 127, 151

Pacific mistletoe 57, 139, 151

Pacific Northwest 26, 35, 38, 43, 62-64, 71,

76, 77, 87, 96, 100, 108, 126, 127, 137,

138, 141, 142, 147, 148, 166, 179, 188,

189, 191, 194, 198, 211, 217, 219

Pacific rhododendron 151, 127

Pacific silver fir 50, 140, 190

Pacific silverweed 118, 154, 213, 214

Pacific yew 26, 38, 43, 45, 76, 100, 107, 145,

157, 158, 187, 189, 193, 194, 217-19, 226,

227, 229

packing 66

Pakistan 105

palms—

açai palm 30

aquaje palms 220

babaçu palms 172

fishtail palm 89

varzea palm 172

Panax quinquefolius 36, 45, 74, 76, 86, 120,

124, 219

partnerships 151, 165, 171, 175

Pasania edulis 207

Passamoquoddy 223

patents 58, 66

patron-client networks 177

patterns of resource development 56

patterns of use 178

Paxistima mysinites 63, 127, 140, 191, 193

peat production 175

pecan 176, 210

penalties 80

Penstamon spp. 127—penstamons

Pentaphylloides floribunda

See Potentilla fruticosa.

pepperweeds 139, 191

perennial plants 37

permanent sample plot 186

permits 42, 217, 220

Peru 126, 163, 164

Petasites frigidus 139

pharmaceutical industry 68

pharmaceuticals 69

Phellinus weirii 143, 144

phenology 79, 222

Philadelphus lewisii 127, 151

Phillippines 205

Phlox spp. 127, 134—phloxes

Pholiota spp. 228—pholiotas

Phoradendron spp. 100, 150

Phoradendron villosum 57, 139, 151

Phyllodoce empetriformis 127

phytochemistry 47, 219

phytomedicines 68, 70, 88, 125

Picea spp. 50, 122, 180

Picea abies 50, 85, 184, 187

Picea glauca 84

Picea engelmannii 84

Picea pungens 129, 146

Picea sitchensis 35, 104, 129, 214

Picoa carthusiana 147, 192, 210

See also black truffle,

Oregon black truffle

pine heaths 108

pine straw 72

pink honeysuckle 151

pink lady’s slipper 74

pink mountainheath 127

Pinus spp. 32, 76, 79, 128, 180, 210—pines

Pinus albicaulis 117

Pinus contorta 84, 113, 138, 140, 142, 144,

155, 156, 189

Pinus densiflora 99, 106, 153, 210

Pinus lambertiana 69, 117, 134, 138

Pinus monticola 26, 138, 140, 157, 189

Pinus nigra 168

Pinus ponderosa 113, 138, 155

Pinus radiata 105

Pinus sabiniana 69

Pinus strobus 50, 64, 146

Pinus sylvestris 25, 35, 42, 108, 112, 181, 187

Pinus teocote 27, 221

pipsissewa, prince’s pine 29, 57, 71, 76, 100,

134, 139

planning 219

plant—

associations 189

collection 91

derived drugs 196, 203

conservation 58

Pleurocybella spp. 40

Pleurotus spp. 32, 40, 158, 228

plots 144

plywood 41

poaching 31, 120

poisonous plants 30

Poland 81, 87, 88, 163

Polemonium spp. 127—polemoniums

poles 41, 61, 184
241

policy 1, 34, 46, 48, 61, 75, 105, 111, 115, 132,

134, 154, 179, 191, 208, 209, 218, 219, 223,

227

analysis 27

development 110, 176

formulation 56, 76, 188, 228

options 27

recommendations 131

political ecology 162

pollarding 31

pollution 229, 231

polyphenols 73

Polypodium glycyrrhiza 151, 214

Polystichum munitum 28, 35, 57, 63, 70, 71, 96,

132, 139, 151, 189, 191, 193, 197, 216

ponderosa pine 105, 138

population—

dynamics 44

structure 79

Populus spp. 29, 76

Populus tremuloides 100, 134

Port-Orford-cedar 63, 71, 99, 100, 104, 114, 140,

146, 151, 159, 197

posts 41, 61

Potentilla spp. 229—

Potentilla anserina 118, 154, 213, 214—

Argentina egedii.

Potentilla fruticosa 127

powerline corridors 180

prairies 155

preparation 220

price 27, 29, 144, 193, 202, 221, 222, 224

series 56

setting 202

pricing 47

methods 82

pricklypears 139

primary user value 34

prince’s pine See pipsissewa.

private property rights 61

probit analysis 135

processing 29, 52, 101, 111, 112, 123, 130, 133,

134, 166, 192, 198

producer cooperative 54, 154, 162, 223

producers’ associations 52

product development 196, 204

product diversification 119

production 49, 51, 95, 99, 104, 138, 146, 189,

222, 225-228

figures 161

function 181

theory 181

productivity 36, 103, 106, 107, 108, 126, 141,

143, 157, 231

promotion 168

propagation 205

protein 155

Prunella vulgaris 77

pruning 146, 149, 160, 200

techniques 63

Prunus spp. 37, 76, 81, 83, 100, 161, 186

Prunus emarginata 214

Prunus spinosa 22

Prunus subcordata 57

Prunus virginiana 205

Pseudevernia furfuracea 112

Pseudotsuga menziesii 28, 35, 50, 65, 85, 95,

100, 104, 113, 126, 129, 138, 140, 141, 146,

156, 189, 195

Pteridium aquilinum 100, 134, 139, 154, 155,

213

public-private partnership 78, 120

purple coneflower, Eastern 76, 124

purple foxglove 29, 32, 57, 71, 100, 128, 151,

187, 197

Pursh’s buckthorn, cascara 28, 31, 57, 71, 74,

76, 100, 123, 128, 139, 151, 166, 197, 214,

216

Puyallup 90

Q

quaking aspen 100, 134

quality control 168

quarantines 86

Quebec 119

Quercus spp. 31, 76, 96, 128, 165, 176, 210

Quercus acutissima 145

Quercus chrysolepis 210

Quercus garryana 32, 40, 57, 107, 134, 155,

194

Quercus kelloggii 194

Quercus rubra 50, 65, 168

Quercus suber 22, Index of Species

Quileute 90, 169

Quinault 90

R

rain forest 38

ramets 164

raspberry—

red raspberry 42, 49, 67, 80, 84, 103, 110,

117, 167, 178, 185

whitebark raspberry 117

rattan 59, 60, 160-162

recovery time 229

recreation 103, 181

recreational picking 224

red alder 35, 79, 84, 136, 138, 214

red elderberry 79

redflower currant 127, 136, 151

red hot milk cap 184

red huckleberry 117, 142

See also huckleberry.

red oak, northern 50, 65, 168

redroot amaranth 139

redwood 63

regeneration 164

regression 130

regression techniques 145

regulation 29, 44, 60-62, 75, 91, 93, 102, 130,

135, 147, 150, 152, 174, 179, 187, 194, 202,

208

legal regulations 86

replacement-production valuation 44

reproduction 36, 219

research 165, 179

research agendas 75, 164, 191

research and development 69, 218

research priorities 55, 125

resins and exudates 32, 42, 70, 126, 173, 182
242

resource—

conflicts 54, 56, 64, 73, 85, 89, 100, 111, 125,

137, 147, 173, 174, 176, 204, 219

control 196

history 96

management 104, 115, 176

tenure 115

use 66

restoration 91

revegetation 91

revenue generation 95

rights 56 See also 

—

intellectual property rights,

property rights

Rhineland Decorative Greens Association 168

rhizomes 213

Rhizopogon spp. 210

Rhodendendron spp. 120, 150—

rhododendrons

Rhododendron macrophyllum 151, 127

Rhododendron occidentale 151

Rhus spp.—

Rhus glabra 76, 136, 139

Rhus hirta 88

Ribes spp. 83, 128, 154, 206

Ribes sanguineum 127, 136, 151

riceroot 215

risk 28

road construction 157

Rocky Mountain juniper 36, 189

root rot 226

Rosa spp. 39, 107, 124, 128, 186—roses

Rosa nutkana 214

Rosa woodsii 127

Rosaceae 73, 212, 229

rosewoods 172

rough-stemmed boletes 184, 185

roundleaf alumroot 136

roundleaf sundew 181

royalty payment 202

rubber 41, 69, 126, 172, 174, 177

Rubus spp. 37, 40, 57, 73, 81, 100, 140, 172,

180, 186

Rubus chamaemorus 110, 167, 180, 182, 185,

187

Rubus discolor 138

Rubus fruticosus 23, Index of Species

Rubus idaeus 42, 49, 67, 80, 84, 103, 110,

117, 167, 178, 185

Rubus leucodermis 117

Rubus parviflorus 117

Rubus saxatilis 107, 167

Rubus spectabilis 79, 117, 139, 154, 206, 207,

213, 214

Rubus ursinus 40

Rumohra adiantiformis 78

rural development 28, 52, 72, 83, 84, 89, 102,

119, 127, 133, 135, 140, 151, 152, 154, 159,

164, 171, 173, 175, 199, 208-210, 216, 217

economic rural development 211

russet buffaloberry 117, 127, 212

Russia 36, 50, 116, 201, 229, 231

Russula spp. 184—russulas

Russula aeruginea 201

Russula xerampelina 201

rusty menziesia 127

S

sagebrushes 134

Sagittaria esculenta 40

Sagittaria latifolia 23, Index of Species

salal 28, 35, 40, 63, 70, 71,79, 96, 100, 132,

140, 151, 154, 187, 189, 191, 197, 207, 214,

216, 218

salary and wages 96

sales 14

Salish 212, 214

Salix spp. 29, 38, 49, 65, 76, 84, 88, 107, 128,

139, 140, 209

salmonberry 79, 117, 139, 154, 206, 207, 213

saltpeter 157

Sambucus spp. 39, 76, 81, 128, 154, 161, 192

Sambucus racemosa 79

Samish 90

sampling methods 81-82, 92

Santalum spp. 208—sandalwoods

Santalum specalum 23—Index of Species

saponins 213

Saskatchewan 135, 205

Saskatoon serviceberry 127, 138, 141, 154, 192,

205, 214

Satureja spp. 128—saturejas

sawtooth oak 145

scale 161

Scandinavia 111

scarlet elderberry 79

Sclerocarya birrea 225

scotchbroom 63, 70, 140

Scotch pine 25, 35, 42, 108, 112, 181, 187

scouringrush horsetail 76

screw-lopping 33

Scutellaria spp. 134

Scutellaria lateriflora 76, 139

sealavenders 120

seasonality 169

secondary user value 34

seed 151

collection 91

dispersal 219

propagation 207

seedling survival 207

selfheal 77

sensitivity analysis 26

Sequoia sempervirens 63

serviceberries 140

shadow prices 82

Shaman Pharmaceuticals 113

Shasta Trinity National Forest 211

shearing 98

sheep polypore 184

Shepherdia argentea 212

Shepherdia canadensis 117, 127, 212

shifting cultivation 89

shiitake 40, 153, 161, 164, 176, 203

shipments 224

Shorea spp. 25

Shorea robusta 23, Index of Species

showy lady’s slipper 120

shrimp russula 201

shrubby blackberry 23, Index of Species

shrubby cinquefoil 127

Siberia 84
243

silver buffaloberry 212

silviculture 104, 199, 219

simulation model 59

single delight 136

Siskiyou National Forest 220

site classification 87

site draining 50

site selection 48

Sitka spruce 35, 104, 129, 214

Skagit 90

Skokomish 90

skullcaps 134

blue skullcaps 76, 139

slippery jacks 184, 185

granulated slippery jack 158

yellow slippery jack 97, 105, 187

slough sedge 79

small cranberry 49, 79, 154, 167, 185, 206, 213,

231

smallflower blueberry 24

smooth sumac 76, 136, 139

Snohomish 90

Snoqualmi 90

snowberries 122

western teaberry 127

salal 28, 35, 40, 63, 70, 71, 79, 96, 100, 132,

140, 151, 154, 187, 189, 191, 197, 207, 214,

216, 218

Snuqualmi 90

social —

analysis 85

conditions 153

conflict 121

considerations 100

disturbance 207

equity 199

forestry 199

norms 56

organization 115, 126, 127, 222

survey 89, 94, 103, 117, 119, 206

sustainability 85

societal preferences 178, 224

soil moisture 25

Solidago spp. 77, 122, 140

Solidago virgaurea 77, 140

Sorbus spp. 37, 49, 84, 128, 180, 186, 229

Sorbus acuparia 39, 50, 185

Sorbus sitchensis 142

sorting 66

South Africa 58, 59, 79, 225

southeast Asia 60, 173

southern Oregon 71

Soviet Far East 84

Spain 105, 152

Sparassis crispa 147, 192

spawn 40

specialty vegetables 54

species extinction 69

species list 219

Sphagnum spp 151, 213—

sphagnum moss

spices 89, 174

springbank clover 118

See also cows clover.

sprouting 141

spruces 50, 180

blue spruce 129, 146

Engelmann’s spruce 84

Norway spruce 50, 85, 184, 187

Sitka spruce 35, 104, 129, 214

white spruce 84

Squaxin 90

Sri Lanka 89

staghorn sumac 88

stand management 38, 51, 86, 138, 184

starworts 134

Stellaria spp. 134

stewardship contracts 140

stinging nettle 77, 79

St. Johnswort 77, 128

Stokesiella oregana 37

strawberries 80, 117, 186

beach strawberry 40, 136

woodland strawberry 80

strawberry tree 39

Strix occidentalis caurina 159

Stropharia spp. 228

subalpine fir 140, 190

subsistence 28, 66, 103, 118, 128, 205, 206

substrates 158, 222

sugar content 197

sugar maple 160, 179

sugar pine 69, 117, 134, 138

Suillus spp. 184, 185

Suillus granulatus 158

Suillus luteus 97, 105, 187

sumacs 161—

smooth sumac 76, 136, 139

staghorn sumac 88

survey 30, 122, 125, 127, 135, 164, 167, 178,

183, 184, 185, 193, 200, 205, 219, 223

methods 67

sustainability 29, 31, 74, 76, 82, 125, 126, 151,

152, 173, 183, 208, 211, 220, 221, 229

sustainable—

development 41, 43, 48, 68, 83, 84, 85, 135,

194, 202, 209, 223

harvesting 83

management 173

Sweden 64, 67, 102, 103, 111, 112, 157, 187

sweetgale 76

Swinomish 90

Switzerland 65

sword fern See western swordfern.

system dynamics 37

T

Tanacetum spp. 122—tansies

tanneries 101

tannin 32, 39, 42, 96

tanning 102

tanoak 96, 101, 117, 194, 210

Tanzania 94

tarweeds 40

Tatitlek 206

taxation 187

taxol 44, 145, 159, 218, 226, 228

taxonomy 74

parataxonomy 203
244

Taxus brevifolia 26, 38, 43, 45, 76, 100, 107,

145, 157, 158, 187, 189, 193, 194, 217-19,

226, 227

technical assistance 205

technological advances 96

technological innovation 52

technology 160, 223

temperate forests 174

tendu 90, 91, 103, 104, 208

teocote pine 27, 221

test plots 126

Texas 177

Texas cedar 209

Thailand 148

thimbleberry 117, 213

thinnings 33, 50, 149, 157, 207

Thompson Indians 207, 212

thornless blackberry 107, 167

thoroughwort 76

threatened plants 43

threshhold point 160

Thuja spp. 64, 65, 122

Thuja occidentalis 36

Thuja plicata 35, 36, 63, 79, 84, 100, 104, 137,

140, 143, 151, 189, 204, 214

Tilia spp. 123

timber harvesting 73

timber management 85

total value 49

trade 27, 111, 112, 116, 125, 134, 162, 163, 188,

191, 193, 202, 216, 221, 222, 224, 225

data 97

networks 162

patterns 68

traditional—

foods 118, 215

healers 33

uses 30, 227

training 93, 225

trampling 64

transportation costs 71

transportation routes 71

travel-cost method 130

Tremella spp. 228

Tricholoma spp. 97—tricholomas

Tricholoma magnivelare 26, 27, 61, 99, 106,

113, 125, 141, 147, 173, 190-92, 220, 224

Tricholoma matsutake 99, 106, 147, 152, 153,

156, 207

Trifolium wormskioldii 118, 213, 214

Trillium spp. 74, 76—trilliums

Trinity Project 211

Triteleia spp. 24, Index of Species—triplet lilies

tropical forests 53, 82, 160, 174, 202

rain forests 151, 171, 162, 165, 171, 173, 177,

198, 220

tropics 196

true morels 97, 102, 105, 111

black morel 141

yellow morel 147, 178, 191, 192

truffles 32, 44-46, 52, 80, 92, 105, 129, 130, 147-

149, 152, 158, 174, 192, 201, 202, 209, 210,

216, 226

See also subentries, Tuber, spp.

cultivation 80

markets 80, 216

plantations 216

Tsuga spp. 122—

Tsuga canadensis 96

Tsuga heterophylla 84, 86, 104, 113, 138, 156,

190, 195, 214

Tsuga mertensiana 86, 140, 190

Tuber spp. 32, 44, 46, 52, 80, 92, 105, 129,

130, 147-149, 152, 158, 174, 192, 201,

202, 209, 210, 215, 216, 226

See also subentries, truffles.

Tuber aestivum 44, 201

Tuber brumales 44

Tuber gibbosum 52, 147, 210, 226

Tuber indicum 210

Tuber levissimum 210

Tuber magnatum 129

Tuber melanosporum 44, 91, 129, 149, 201,

210

Tuber uncinatum 44

Turkey 230

Typha latifolia 140 U

Umbellularia californica 117, 134, 139

United Kingdom 34, 125, 162, 175, 203

Urtica spp. 134, 139

Urtica dioica 77, 79

use 62

use value 70, 164

user conflicts 53

user preferences 48

Usnea spp. 107—usneas

usufruct 73 V

Vaccinium spp. 40, 42, 57, 79, 84, 100, 117,

119, 128, 132, 138, 142, 145, 154, 161, 180,

186, 192, 205, 206, 209, 219, 229, 230—

vacciniums

Vaccinium angustifolium 48, 95, 106, 119, 200

Vaccinium ashei 116

Vaccinium cespitosum 84

Vaccinium corymbosum 81, 116, 200

Vaccinium deliciosum 144

Vaccinium macrocarpon 24, Index of Species

Vaccinium membranaceum 84, 103, 141-144

Vaccinium myrtilloides 48, 95, 106, 119

Vaccinium myrtillus 35, 42, 49, 55, 67, 81, 87,

88, 102, 103, 107, 110, 116, 118, 142, 167,

178, 180, 182, 184-186, 229, 231

Vaccinium ovalifolium

Vaccinium ovatum 28, 35, 57, 63, 70, 71, 96,

127, 140, 142, 151, 187, 189, 191, 197, 216

Vaccinium oxycoccos 49, 79, 154, 167, 185,

206, 213, 231

Vaccinium parvifolium 117, 142

Vaccinium scoparuim 142

Vaccinium uliginosum 49, 107, 142, 167

Vaccinium virgatum—smallflower blueberry 24

Vaccinium vitis-idaea 35, 49, 67, 102, 103,

107, 110, 116, 118, 158, 163, 167, 178, 180,

184-186, 229, 231

Valeriana spp. 128—valerians

valuation 44, 160

value 57, 224
245

value-added 135, 169, 194, 208

processing 47, 60

variable costs 160

varzea palm 172

vegetation control 145

vegetation management 85, 203

velvet foot 228

velvetleaf huckleberry 48, 95, 106, 119

See also huckleberry.

veneers 41

Veratrum viride 29, 100, 139

Verbascum spp. 100

Viburnum spp. 49—viburnums

Viburnum edule 205

Viburnum opulus 84, 205

vine maple 140, 151, 207

Viola spp. 139—violets

volume 224

volume projections 145

Volvariella spp. 228—volvariellas

W

wages 197

Wahkiakum 54, 55, 223

wapato 40

Washington 27, 54, 55, 62, 110, 115, 122, 125,

142, 144, 147, 149, 151, 155, 164, 165, 176,

179, 192, 193, 197, 223, 224

Washington State Wild Mushroom Harvest Act

147, 224

waste conversion 228

weighing techniques 82

western azalea 151

western brackenfern 100, 134, 139, 154, 155,

213

western cordilleran 136

western hemlock 84, 86, 104, 113, 138, 156,

190, 195, 214

western juniper 140

See also Rocky Mountain juniper.

western larch 136, 141

western moss heather 127

western mountainash 142

Western Oregon Forest Products Council 125

western pearly everlasting 134, 140

western redcedar 35, 36, 63, 79, 84, 100, 104,

137, 140, 143, 151, 189, 204, 214

western teaberry 127

western swordfern 28, 35, 57, 63, 70, 71, 96,

132, 139, 151, 189, 191, 193, 197, 216

Western United States 73

western Washington 90

western white pine 26, 138, 140, 157, 189

West Virginia 86

Wet’suwet’en 84-85

whitebark pine 117

whitebark raspberry 117

white chanterelle 147

white spruce 84

whorl-lopping 33

whortleberry 35, 42, 49, 55, 67, 81, 87, 88, 102,

107, 110, 116, 118, 142, 167, 178, 180, 182,

184-186, 229, 231

whortleberry, grouse 142

wicker cane 63

wild edible food 30, 196

wild edible mushrooms 27, 32, 40, 42, 46, 49,

55, 60-62, 64, 65, 69, 77, 80, 87, 88, 93,

94, 97, 99, 100-108, 111, 113, 116, 118, 121,

125, 126, 133, 135, 137, 141, 146, 147,

153, 154, 156, 158, 173, 179, 187, 191-194,

197, 201, 203, 215, 217, 219-224, 231

wild edible plants 37, 42, 43, 49, 53, 57, 61, 62,

64, 75, 79-81, 84-88, 93, 100, 101, 115, 118,

123, 128, 139, 148, 154, 155, 161, 165, 180,

191, 195, 196, 198, 204, 205, 213-215, 217,

219, 220, 223, 225

wildflower industry 59

wildflowers 59

wild fruit 39, 81, 220

wildgingers 76

British Columbia wildginger 71, 100, 139

wild herbs 93 See also herbs.

wild honey 46, 47. See also honey.

wild onions 32, 139, 154

wild plants 48

wild rice 52-53

Willamette Valley 40, 179

willows 29, 38, 49, 65, 76, 84, 88, 107, 139, 140,

209

willowweeds 49, 57, 180 See also fireweed.

windthrow damage 145

Winema National Forest 125

witch’s butter 228

wood ears 228

wood gas 41

woodland strawberry 80

wood sorrels 139

Woods’ rose 127

worker productivity 146

working conditions 96

X

Xerophyllum tenax 70, 91, 107, 132, 139, 142,

144, 187, 190, 191, 193, 199

Y

yarrow 47, 77, 128, 134, 214

yellow lady’s slipper, lesser 57, 76

yellow morel 147, 178, 191, 192

yellow slippery jack 97, 105, 187

yields 27, 32, 36, 118, 144, 153, 158, 167, 184,

186, 187, 200, 201

estimates 98, 167

estimation methods 158

potential 87

predictions 81

Yugoslavia 113

Z

Zimbabwe 44

Zizania spp. 52-53
246

When you know: Multiply by: To find:

Acres 0.40 Hectares

Centimeters (cm) 0.39 Inches

Cubic meters (m3) 35.32 Cubic feet

Degrees Celsius (0C) 9(0C)/5 + 32 Fahrenheit

Degrees Fahrenheit (0F) (0F - 32) /1.8 Celsius

Feet (ft) 0.305 Meters

Gallons (gal) 3.8 Liters

Gallons per acre (gal/acre) 9.5 Liters/hectare

Grams (g) 0.035 Ounces

Hectares (ha) 2.47 Acres

Inches (in) 2.54 Centimeters

Kilograms (kg) 2.21 Pounds

Kilograms per hectare (kg/ha) 0.892 Pounds per acre

Kilometers (km) 1.609 Miles

Liters (l) 0.26 Gallons

Meters (m) 3.28 Feet

Miles (mi) 1.61 Kilometers

Milliliters (ml) 0.06 Tablespoons

Pounds (lb) 0.45 Kilograms

Pounds per acre (lb/acre) 1.12 Kilograms per hectare

Square feet (ft2) 0.09 Square meters

Square meters (m2) 1.20 Square yards

Thousand board feet (Mbf, log scale) 0.2 Cubic feet

Tons 0.91 Tonnes

Tonnes 1.10 Ton

Units of Measure