United States 

Department of 

Agriculture 

Forest Service 

Pacific Northwest 

Research Station 

General Technical 

Report 

PNW-GTR-520 

June 2001 

Sustainable 

Production of Forest 

Products 2000 

Proceedings of IUFRO Division 5 

Research Group 5.12, Kuala 

Lumpur, Malaysia, August 2000 

Forests and Society: The Role of Research 
Cover: Design and Layout by Brian L. Scruggs 

Technical Coordinators: 

R. James Barbour, is a USDA Forest Service Research Forest Products Technologist, Pacific Northwest Research 

Station, P.O. Box 3890, Portland, OR, USA 97208-3890 

Andrew H.H. Wong, is a Forest Research Institute Malaysian Research Scientist, Kepong, Selangor, 52109 Kuala 

Lumpur, Malaysia 

Papers were provided for printing by the authors, who are therefore responsible for the content and accuracy. Opinions 

expressed may not necessarily reflect the position of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. 

The use of trade firm names is for information only, and does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Department of 

Agriculture of any product or service. 

Editing and Layout: 

R. James Barbour, and Brian L. Scruggs, USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region 
 I 

SECOND PROCEEDINGS OF IUFRO 

DIVISION 5 RESEARCH GROUP 5.12 

SUSTAINABLE PRODUCTION OF 

FOREST PRODUCTS 2000 

R. James Barbour and Andrew H.H. Wong, 

Technical Coordinators 

IUFRO XXI World Congress 

August 7 – 12, 2000 

Published by: 

U.S. Department of Agriculture 

Forest Service 

Pacific Northwest Research Station 

Portland, OR 

General Technical Report PNW-GTR-520 

May 2000 

In Cooperation with: 

FRIM 

Forest Research Institute of Malaysia 
 II 

Barbour, R. James; Wong, Andrew H.H. Technical Coordinators, Second 

Proceedings of IUFRO Division Five research group 5.12 Sustainable 

production of forest products 2000. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 60p. 

Abstract 

The concept of sustainability in the context of 

forest management holds a different meaning to 

almost every group that espouses it. Many of 

these differences arise because of the varying 

goals and objectives of those who promote the 

idea of sustainable forest management. When 

discussing this topic, the question of 

“sustainability of what” must be answered before 

reaching a common understanding of goals and 

objectives. In general, a sustainable approach to 

forest management uses innovative strategies to 

conserve biodiversity, improve the balance 

among alternative forest values, and maintain 

healthy ecosystems. It is often also expected to 

retain the aesthetic, historical, spiritual, and other 

qualities of the land. Various silvicultural 

techniques may be used to alter the 

developmental trajectory of existing forests to 

provide this range of values. In some cases, 

management strategies include removing wood 

as a primary goal. In other cases, wood is 

removed as a secondary objective during 

treatments to improve forest health, restore 

wildlife habitat, create recreational opportunities, 

mitigate impacts of forest insects and diseases, or 

alter the vegetative mix for increased 

biodiversity. Forest management strategies that 

aim to produce wood on a sustainable basis take 

many different approaches. A common model is 

one where tenets of conservation biology are 

implemented on parts of the managed landscape, 

often employing networks of reserves, or near 

reserves, on the areas considered most 

biologically sensitive, and management for wood 

occurs on adjacent, less sensitive, and often less 

productive lands. Another less common 

approach is to attempt to mix production of 

wood and other resource values on the same 

piece of ground in an attempt to manage 

ecosystem processes. In these cases, forest 

managers must either have the trust and 

confidence of members of the public who 

advocate sustainable forest management or have 

sufficient autonomy to work counter to public 

opinion. These, and two types of sustainable 

forest management strategies are usually planned 

for large landscapes and judged by using broad 

indicators of success. They are; however, 

implemented using a series of small projects, 

often at the stand or watershed level. It is 

important to be able to link activities at varying 

scales and through time in order to understand 

the implications of how activities at each scale 

affect outcomes at other scales, and ultimately 

how such practices collectively influence 

sustainable wood production. 

The Sustainable Production of Forest Products 

Research Group (5.12) of IUFRO Division 5 was 

chartered in response to interest demonstrated by 

delegates at the 1997 all Division 5 Congress in 

Pullman Washington, USA. The group’s charter 

emphasizes research on local, regional, and 

global issues regarding sustainably produced 

forest products. The purpose of the Research 

Group is to provide a forum for researchers who 

study the sustainable production of wood and 

other forest products. The group is intended to 

increase the awareness of Division 5 members in 

issues concerning sustainable forestry and to 

foster interactions between Division 5 members 

and other IUFRO Divisions or other 

organizations with an interest in sustainable 

forestry. The scope of topics addressed by this 

group will include but not be limited to questions 

regarding certification of production, life cycle 

analysis, characteristics and quality of wood 

products from sustainably managed forests and 

the economic contribution of wood products to 

sustainable forestry. 

Keywords: Sustainable Forest Management, 

Wood Products, Forest Certification, Ecosystem 

Management. 
 III 

Table of Contents

SUSTAINABLE FORESTRY AND WOOD PRODUCTION: COMMON GROUND AND 

CONFLICTS--THE MISSION OF IUFRO RESEARCH GROUP 5.12 ................................................. 1

ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................................... 1

THE CHARTER ............................................................................................................................................. 1

OBJECTIVES ................................................................................................................................................. 1

CURRENT ACTIVITIES .................................................................................................................................. 1

THE FUTURE................................................................................................................................................ 1

OVERVIEW OF THIS PROCEEDINGS .............................................................................................................. 2

ORAL PRESENTATIONS ................................................................................................................................ 2

POSTERS ...................................................................................................................................................... 3

SUMMARY ................................................................................................................................................... 4

REFERENCES................................................................................................................................................ 4

SUSTAINABLE PRODUCTION OF FOREST PRODUCTS IN SOUTHEAST ASIA: WHAT 

PRODUCTS AND PRODUCTION SYSTEMS? ....................................................................................... 6

ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................................... 6

A CONJOINT ANALYSIS OF NEW ZEALAND CONSUMER PREFERENCE FOR 

ENVIRONMENTALLY CERTIFIED FOREST PRODUCTS................................................................ 7

ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................................... 7

INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................ 7

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY......................................................................................................................... 8

SAMPLE DESIGN .......................................................................................................................................... 9

NONRESPONSE BIAS .................................................................................................................................... 9

DATA ANALYSIS........................................................................................................................................ 10

RESULTS .................................................................................................................................................... 10

CONCLUSIONS ........................................................................................................................................... 14

REFERENCES.............................................................................................................................................. 14

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ................................................................................................................................ 15

WOOD PRODUCTS RESEARCH FOR THE 21ST CENTURY IN CHINA ........................................ 16

ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................................. 16

INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................................... 16

TRENDS IN WOOD PRODUCT CONSUMPTION AND PRODUCTION ................................................................ 16

CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES ........................................................................................................... 17

FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF ....................................................................................................................... 17

WOOD INDUSTRY IN THE WORLD .............................................................................................................. 17

ESTABLISHING OF TIMBER PLANTATIONS................................................................................................... 17

MAJOR TRENDS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE WORLD WOOD INDUSTRY:................................................. 17

RESTRUCTURING FOR VALUE- ADDED PROCESSING ................................................................................... 18

CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES............................................................................................................ 18

FOR WOOD INDUSTRY IN CHINA ................................................................................................................. 18

WOOD RESEARCH PRIORITIES ................................................................................................................... 19

CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................................. 20

REFERENCES.............................................................................................................................................. 20

SUSTAINABLE PRODUCTION OF FOREST PRODUCTS IN AUSTRALIA .................................. 21

ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................................. 21

INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................................... 21

AUSTRALIA’S FORESTS AND....................................................................................................................... 22

FOREST PRODUCTS ..................................................................................................................................... 22

A BRIEF HISTORY OF AUSTRALIA’S FORESTS AND FOREST PRODUCTION.................................................... 22

AUSTRALIA’S REGIONAL FOREST.............................................................................................................. 23
 IV 

AGREEMENT PROCESS................................................................................................................................ 23

CONCLUSIONS ........................................................................................................................................... 25

REFERENCES.............................................................................................................................................. 25

PROCEDURE FOR EVALUATING AND MONITORING THE SUSTAINABILITY OF A 

LUMBER PRODUCTION FOREST........................................................................................................ 27

INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................................... 27

MATERIALS AND METHODS....................................................................................................................... 28

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ........................................................................................................................ 29

CONCLUSIONS ........................................................................................................................................... 30

REFERENCES:............................................................................................................................................. 30

MADE TO COMPETE: A HYBRID PRODUCT FOR FOREST PRODUCTS INDUSTRY............ 31

ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................................. 31

INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................................... 31

IS WOOD A DURABLE ENGINEERING MATERIAL?...................................................................................... 31

MATERIALS SHIFT ..................................................................................................................................... 31

ENGINEERING COMPOSITE MATERIALS ..................................................................................................... 32

CONCLUDING REMARKS ............................................................................................................................ 33

GENERAL REFERENCES.............................................................................................................................. 33

IMPLEMENTATION OF SUSTAINABLE FOREST MANAGEMENT :........................................... 34

ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................................. 34

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF RUBBERWOOD IN CHINA ................................................. 35

ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................................. 35

INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................................... 35

RESOURCE AND SUPPLY ............................................................................................................................ 35

TIMBER SUPPLY SHIFT............................................................................................................................... 35

FUTURE R & D ACTIVITIES ....................................................................................................................... 35

PLANTATION FOR BOTH ............................................................................................................................. 35

LATEX AND TIMBER .................................................................................................................................. 35

DEVELOPMENT OF PROCESSING CONTROL ................................................................................................ 35

TREATMENT WITH ENVIRONMENTALLY-FRIENDLY CHEMICALS ............................................................... 36

MORE APPLICATIONS OF RUBBERWOOD.................................................................................................... 36

MARKET RESEARCH AND MARKETING...................................................................................................... 36

CONCLUSIONS ........................................................................................................................................... 37

REFERENCES.............................................................................................................................................. 37

PELLETED MUNICIPAL SLUDGE - A KEY ELEMENT IN FUTURE RESOURCE CYCLING 

AND SUSTAINABLE FOREST MANAGEMENT................................................................................. 38

INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................................... 38

MATERIALS AND METHODS........................................................................................................................ 38

RESULTS .................................................................................................................................................... 38

DISCUSSION............................................................................................................................................... 41

REFERENCES.............................................................................................................................................. 41

ALTERNATIVES TO CLEARCUTTING IN THE OLD-GROWTH FORESTS OF SOUTHEAST 

ALASKA...................................................................................................................................................... 42

ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................................. 42

SECOND-GROWTH WESTERN HEMLOCK PRODUCT YIELDS AND ATTRIBUTES 

RELATED TO STAND DENSITY ........................................................................................................... 43

ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................................. 43

INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................................... 43

METHODS .................................................................................................................................................. 43
 V 

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ........................................................................................................................ 44

LOG AND LUMBER GRADES ....................................................................................................................... 44

LUMBER STRUCTURAL PROPERTIES........................................................................................................... 44

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SMALL CLEARS .......................................................................................... 46

JUVENILE WOOD AND BRANCHES ............................................................................................................. 46

TREATABILITY........................................................................................................................................... 46

MACHINING PROPERTIES ........................................................................................................................... 46

VENEER AND LVL..................................................................................................................................... 46

PULP PROPERTIES AND YIELDS.................................................................................................................. 46

CONCLUSIONS ........................................................................................................................................... 46

REFERENCES.............................................................................................................................................. 47

SAVING THE WOODEN RHINO IN KENYA THROUGH RESPONSIBLE SOURCING AND 

SUSTAINABLE USE. ................................................................................................................................ 48

ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................................. 48

INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................................... 48

MATERIALS AND METHODS....................................................................................................................... 49

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION. ....................................................................................................................... 49

CONCLUSIONS ........................................................................................................................................... 50

REFERENCES.............................................................................................................................................. 50

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .............................................................................................................................. 51

BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION, NON-TIMBER FOREST PRODUCTS MANAGEMENT, 

RURAL LIVELIHOODS AND SUSTAINABLE FOREST MANAGEMENT LINKAGES - ............ 52

ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................................. 52

THINNING WESTERN LARCH STANDS IMPROVES SUSTAINABLILITY OF A VALUABLE 

RESOURCE ................................................................................................................................................ 53

ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................................. 53

ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT OF FORESTS IN RUSSIA: .............................................................. 54

ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................................. 54

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND........................................................................................................................ 54

WHY MANDATORY FOREST CERTIFICATION IN RUSSIA?............................................................................. 55

OBJECTS OF MANDATORY FOREST CERTIFICATION..................................................................................... 56

WHY TO USE NORMS IN THE MANDATORY FOREST CERTIFICATION? .......................................................... 57

CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................................. 58

REFERENCES (LITERATURE CITED) ............................................................................................................ 59
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 1 

Sustainable Forestry and Wood Production: Common 

Ground and Conflicts--the Mission of IUFRO Research 

Group 5.12 

R. James Barbour, USDA Forest Service, PNW Research Station, 1221 SW Yamhill, 

Portland, Oregon, USA 97202 

Andrew H. H. Wong, Forest Research Institute Malaysian, Kepong, Selangor, 52109 

Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 

Abstract 

The International Union of Forest Research 

Organizations (IUFRO) Division 5 Research 

Group 5.12 Sustainable Production of Forest 

Products was created in 1998 to (1) promote 

research on the sustainable production of wood 

products and (2) encourage communication 

between IUFRO Division 5, other IUFRO 

divisions, and other organizations and 

individuals interested in sustainable forestry. 

This paper describes the history and objectives of 

this research group, provides some thoughts on 

future directions, and summarizes the technical 

and poster sessions held at the IUFRO 2000 

congress in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. 

. 

Keywords: sustainable forestry, forest products, 

silviculture, wood 

The Charter 

 “The Research Group on Sustainable Production 

of Forest Products focuses on local, regional, and 

global issues regarding sustainably produced 

forest products. It provides a forum for 

researchers who study the production of wood 

and other forest products in a sustainable 

manner. Among other things, it examines 

questions regarding certification of production, 

life cycle analysis, characteristics and quality of 

wood products from sustainably managed forests 

and the economic contribution of wood products 

to sustainable forestry.” 

Objectives 

1. Promote research on sustainable production 

of wood products. 

2. Encourage communication among IUFRO 

Division 5, other IUFRO divisions, and other 

organizations or individuals interested in 

sustainable forestry.

Current Activities 

This proceedings reports on the second 

symposium of the research group, featuring 

papers and extended summaries of the 5 invited 

oral presentations and 12 offered posters. An 

additional paper by Appanah, Krishnapillay, and 

Dahlan is included because it was originally part 

of the 5.12 program but was selected by the 

IUFRO 2000 Conference Scientific Committee 

for inclusion in a subplenary session. The 

authors of these papers come from various parts 

of the world and cover issues related to 

sustainable forestry in many of the world’s major 

forest types. They address contentious and 

technically complex issues facing those 

interested in managing forests in ways that 

maintain or restore ecological function while 

providing the goods and services people desire 

from the forest. These goods and services 

include wood products, the research group’s 

primary area of work, but also other things 

society expects and in many cases is beginning 

to demand. Some of these things are: sources of 

safe fresh water and clean air; biological 

reservoirs to conserve biodiversity of plants, 

animals, insects, fungi, and other living things; a 

sense of place, solitude, and spiritual renewal; 

opportunities for recreation; A source of food; 

etc. 

The Future 

Our desire is that the Research Group on 

Sustainable Production of Forest Products will 

provide a forum for those interested in 

examining the role of forest products in 

sustainable forestry. We are interested in 

fostering the early stages of the research cycle 

where creativity is at its height. We want to 

provide a platform where new ideas are 

presented in an atmosphere of discovery, a place 

where researchers, young and old, established 

and fledgling, feel free to air their views. 
 2 

We want the research group to be accessible to 

researchers from all countries. We intend to 

provide opportunities for scientists from 

countries with limited research budgets, and 

toward this end we have opened this proceedings 

to scientists who were unable to attend the 

IUFRO World Congress but had a relevant 

message to present. We want to foster the 

sharing of ideas among researchers, 

policymakers, resource managers, wood products 

manufacturers, and others interested in ways to 

sustainably produce forest products. We have in 

the past and will continue into the future to 

address this goal by inviting representatives of 

those groups to make presentations at our 

symposia, and where possible, to develop a 

format that encourages interaction among 

individuals with different interests, backgrounds, 

opinions, and expertise. 

Some of the topics that we hope members of the 

research group will address in this and other 

upcoming symposia include: 

1. Definitions of sustainable forest 

management and how wood and other forest 

products fit into these definitions. 

2. Effects of third party certification on forest 

management and products such as: 

a. Ways in which certification will 

alter the characteristics and 

availability of forest products. 

b. Importance of certification in 

maintaining and expanding 

markets for forest products. 

3. Ways that adoption of criteria and indicators 

of sustainability (such as those agreed to in 

the Montreal Accords [USDA 1998]) 

influence the types and quantity of forest 

products at the national, regional, and global 

scale. 

4. Life cycle (or similar) analysis: 

a. To compare wood with alternative 

materials. 

b. To compare different forest 

management strategies. 

5. Role of carbon credits in sustainable 

forestry and its implications for production 

of forest products. 

6. The role of wood preservation and other 

wood-processing activities as a forest 

resource management strategy. 

7. Substitution of species in the manufacture 

of similar products. 

These are all important topics of today. Over 

time, we expect this list to change, and we hope 

that the Research Group on Sustainable 

Production of Forest Products will become one 

of the places where those “hot” topics are 

initially recognized and discussed. 

Overview of This Proceedings 

The papers and summaries presented in this 

proceedings provide a cross section of some of 

the major issues currently being addressed in the 

area of sustainable production of forest 

resources. They cover topics ranging from how 

governments use scientific findings to develop 

forest management policies to how local 

populations are finding ways to support 

themselves by processing wood or nonwood 

products from forests managed for sustainability. 

Oral Presentations 

Appanah,Kishnapillay, and Dahlan: 

Present a review of the state of forest 

management in Southeast Asia, particularly 

Indonesia and Malaysia. They describe the 

balance that these countries are trying to find 

among the timber revenues, the forest resource, 

and the biological diversity these forests provide. 

Awang and Bhumibhamon: 

Examine the conflicts between human needs and 

the conservation of biodiversity in forested and 

previously forested lands in Southeast Asia. 

They discuss the roles of mining, agriculture, 

and the forest products industry in altering the 

forested landscape, as well as the needs of rural 

populations to secure basic necessities such as 

energy, shelter, food, medicines, and water from 

forests. These uses have altered many of the 

natural forests in Southeast Asia, and attempts 

are being made to manage the remaining natural 

forests on a sustainable basis. Plantation forestry 

plays a role in this strategy, but biodiversity in 

plantations is much lower than in natural forests. 

Improvements in technology and better 

utilization of the wood that is harvested, 

community forestry, agroforestry, and use of 

alternative cellulosic materials are providing 

renewable alternatives to solid wood products. 

Ozanne, Bigsby, and Gan: 

Examine consumer preferences for wood from 

certified forests used to make outdoor furniture 

in New Zealand. They used conjoint analysis to 

evaluate several factors that consumers might 

find important including price, warranty, 
 3 

environmental certification, forest type, and 

country of origin. Their results suggest that New 

Zealand consumers are most concerned with 

environmental certification but also prefer 

materials that come from New Zealand 

plantations over foreign sources or wood from 

New Zealand’s natural forests. 

Chen: 

Presents information on the production of wood 

in various parts of the world and trends in 

manufacturing technology. The relation of these 

to the current Chinese wood supply and technical 

capabilities of the Chinese forest products 

industry is used to identify fruitful areas for 

future research is reported. 

Johnson, Salwasser, and Bollenbacher: 

Provide an overview of the potential role of 

Federal lands in the United States in achieving 

sustainable forest management goals. They 

discuss U.S. population trends and wood use 

history, and then conclude that at today’s use 

rates, the United States currently has the 

potential to supply its own annual consumption 

but will lose this capability by 2050. They 

describe three major forest types found on U.S. 

National Forests: low-elevation warm and dry 

forest types, mid-elevation warm and moist 

forest types, and upper elevation cool and moist 

forest types. They discuss management systems 

that could provide some wood while improving 

ecosystem health, conserving biodiversity, and 

meeting other societal goals for each of these 

forest types. 

Kanowski: 

Discusses the history of forest management in 

Australia and the progression of forest 

management techniques over the past 50,000 

years. He highlights how changing perceptions 

of forest management over the past century have 

altered management practices and perceptions of 

the contributions forestry should make to 

Australian society. This evolution of public 

attitude has led to a more complex understanding 

of the concept of sustainability embodied in the 

principles stated in the Montreal Process of 

Criteria and Indicators. 

Posters 

Garcia and de Lima: 

Describe a procedure to evaluate and monitor the 

sustainability of lumber production. This system 

uses empirical methods to develop relations 

between tree volume and lumber yield. This is 

an important step in developing a sustainable 

management program for Eucalyptus grandis W. 

Hill ex Maid. plantations in Brazil. 

Hon: 

Summarizes research to develop wood-plastic 

composite materials that will extend the supply 

of wood fiber while providing advanced 

composite materials. These materials have both 

the high strength and stiffness needed in 

engineering applications. By combining wood 

and plastics in composite products, new 

materials are developed with properties that have 

the best properties of both materials and reduce 

demands on natural resources. 

Kim: 

Describes the adoption of sustainable forestry 

practices in Korea. Korea has actively 

participated in the Montreal Process and others 

including Intergovernmental Panel on Forests 

under the United Nations Commission On 

Sustainable Development (UNCSD), which is 

leading to a greater understanding and 

acceptance of sustainable forestry practices. 

Li: 

Evaluates the possibility of using trees from 

rubber plantations to partially supply China’s 

wood needs. China has the 4th largest 

rubberwood resource in the world, and 

developing uses for trees from these plantations 

is important in the strategy to find domestic 

sources of timber for the Chinese market. 

Magnusson and Hånell: 

Tested a new method for spraying municipal 

sludge pellets on forests stands as a fertilizer. 

The method was effective and the production of 

commercially valuable mushrooms increased. 

Two years after treatments, the heavy metal 

concentrations in edible fruits and mushrooms 

were no different than those on the control plots, 

thereby suggesting that this is an effective 

method for disposing of municipal sludge that 

may have beneficial effects on commercially 

valuable forest vegetation. 

McClellan and Deal: 

Report on the progress of a large manipulative 

study in southeastern Alaska in the United 

States. This study examines alternatives to 

clearcutting in one of the world’s largest oldgrowth temperate rain forests. Even and unevenage silvicultural systems are being assessed for 
 4 

their effects on forest health, stand dynamics, 

understory plant communities, wildlife habitat, 

stream ecology, slope stability, hydrology, 

economics, visual quality, and social 

acceptability. 

Middleton, Munro, Dai, Morris, Lum, 

Watson, Gee, Johal, Reath, Yeun, and 

Hussein: 

Present information on a large cooperative study 

that examines the wood properties of secondgrowth western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla

(Raf.) Sarg.) from British Columbia, Canada. In 

this study, trees from fast-grown stands were 

examined to determine their basic wood 

properties, and to evaluate their suitability for a 

wide range of wood products including 

mechanically graded lumber, veneer, machined 

wood products, preservative treated wood 

products, and kraft and theromechanical pulp. 

The authors concluded that the growth rate of 

young trees was the best predictor of solid wood 

properties and that maintenance of relatively 

high initial stand densities on the best sites may 

be needed to produce trees with characteristics 

required for certain product applications, but 

pulp characteristics were generally similar to 

those from older stands. 

Muga, Githiomi, and Chikamai: 

Reported on the use of Neem (Azadirachta 

indica Adr. Juss.) to substitute for species that 

have become overexploited as raw materials for 

the woodcarving industry in Kenya. 

Woodcarving is an important source of income 

in rural areas, and without adequate supplies of 

acceptable substitute wood, rural economies will 

suffer. To a tourist, the macroscopic properties 

of Neem are indistinguishable from the 

traditional wood materials used for 

woodcarvings. The authors suggest product 

labeling and certification to promote use of this 

alternative species and inform purchasers of the 

environmental benefits of its use. 

Pascutti: 

Outlines a process for manufacturing edible 

products from the wood of Jacaratiá spinosa. 

This is a unique process that provides the

potential for development of a new industry in an 

area of Argentina with limited employment 

opportunities, and where ecological concerns 

about traditional forestry are growing. 

Ravindran and Swaminath: 

Present information on the Western Ghats 

forestry project in India. They explore the link 

between nontimber forest products and rural 

livelihoods. This study is being conducted 

collaboratively with others who explore 

biodiversity and its relation to sustainable forest 

management. 

Sauter, Gonzales, Gordon, Schmidt, and 

Jaquish: 

Discuss the wood properties of western larch 

(Larix occindentalis Nutt.) trees from stands that 

developed after wildfires and had received 

precommercial thinning treatments. They found 

that despite large differences in diameter growth, 

no significant differences in average wood 

density occurred among the various spacings, 

and that branch size in the lower stem did not 

exceed 20 mm. 

Strakhov: 

Reports on the progress of establishing the 

Manditory Certification System by the Russian 

Ministry of Natural Resources. This certification 

system will work at the local level to improve 

the ecological management of forests. 

Zhu, Lei, Zang, Zhang, Zhang, and Wang: 

Discuss the development of criteria and 

indicators for sustainable forest management at 

scales below the national level in China. They 

describe a case study with the objective of 

evaluating criteria and indicators at the national, 

provincial, and forest management unit. 

Summary 

The mission of the IUFRO Research Group 

S5.12 is to facilitate active participation and to 

provide a forum where the role of forest 

resources in sustainable forest management can 

be debated. The research group also will 

recognize that common ground and conflicts 

prevail in attempts to harmonize the relation 

between sustainable forestry and wood 

production. 

References 

Barbour, R.J. and Skog, K.E. Role of wood 

production in ecosystem management. 

Proceedings of the Sustainable Forestry Working 

Group at the IUFRO all Division 5 Conference, 

Pullman, Washington, July 1997. Gen. Tech. 

Rep. FPL-GTR-100. Madison, WI, USA, United 
 5 

States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, 

Forest Products Laboratory. 98p. 

USDA Forest Service. 1998. Montreal process 

criteria and indicators. USDA Forest Service 

Report to Facilitate Discussion of Indicators of 

Sustainable Forest Management. 

http://www.fs.fed.us/land/sustain_dev/sd/welco

me.htm. 
 6 

Sustainable Production of Forest Products in Southeast 

Asia: What Products and Production Systems? 

Kamis Awang, Faculty of Forestry, Universiti Putra Malaysia 

Suree Bhumibhamon, Faculty of Forestry, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand 

Abstract 

Forest lands and their associated resources have 

played significant roles in the socio-economic 

development of most of the Southeast Asian 

countries. Much of these forests have either 

been converted into other land-uses such as 

agriculture, mining and settlement or disturbed 

due to harvesting of wood and various other 

products in support of the forest product 

industries. Apart from these industries, large 

proportions of the rural populations of these 

countries are dependent on the forest resources 

for their livelihood. The forests supply the basic 

needs in terms of energy, shelter, food, 

medicines and water of these rural dwellers. 

There are varying degrees of advances in 

technologies, utilization and market development 

in these different countries. Sustainable 

management of these resources will therefore 

have to take into consideration these different 

stages of development, and the ecological, 

economic and social dimensions of the 

production and other uses. It must adopt a 

holistic approach and research must be strategic 

in nature. 

Past supplies of forest products have come 

mainly from the harvesting of the natural forests. 

Today much of these forests have been exploited 

or converted into other uses. They are fast 

diminishing or degraded. However, attempts are 

being made to put the remaining forests under an 

appropriate management system with sustainable 

objectives. Other strategies are also being 

adopted to meet the expected shortage of 

supplies due to increased demand following 

population increases. 

The increasing reliance on other production 

systems is emerging in many of these countries. 

For example interest in plantations, both on a 

small or industrial scale, has grown in recent 

years. However, the number of species used is 

limited to a few, mainly those with fast growth 

rates. Likewise, increasingly more products are 

being produced from community forests or on 

small farms of individual farmers. Various 

models of agroforestry practices are in use. 

Other nontraditional sources of cellulosic 

materials such as oil palm fibers, bagasse and 

Hevea wood are also fast becoming important 

particularly in composite industries. 

Similarly, the utilization pattern has evolved 

from the selective harvesting of a few limited 

species of only large dimension to a wide range 

of species including those of small dimension. 

Improvements in processing technologies and 

market development have produced new 

products and opened more opportunities. Solid 

wood utilization is giving way to composite 

products. More uses are finding their way for 

each species. Besides wood, other parts of trees 

are being more intensively researched for 

complete utilization. Multipurpose species are 

becoming increasing popular. The products 

obtained can be used for subsistence or cash 

income, hence growing trees on farm is 

becoming more attractive. 

Keywords: Sustainable production; Forest 

products; Production systems; Southeast Asia 
 7 

A Conjoint Analysis of New Zealand Consumer Preference 

for Environmentally Certified Forest Products 

Lucie Ozanne, Hugh Bigsby, and Christopher Gan, Commerce Division, 

Lincoln University, PO Box 84, Canterbury, New Zealand

Abstract 

The study examines the relative importance to 

New Zealand consumers of environmental 

certification compared to other wood product 

attributes using conjoint analysis. A survey of 

preferences for product attributes for wooden 

outdoor furniture using different product bundles 

based on price and warranty for the furniture, 

and environmental certification, type of forest, 

and country of origin of the wood. Conjoint 

results indicate that environmental certification is 

just one of a number of important attributes. 

Other important attributes include the country of 

origin, with New Zealand sources being 

preferred, and forest type, with plantation grown 

preferred over wood from natural forests. 

Cluster analysis of the data indicates that six 

market segments with unique furniture attribute 

preferences exist in New Zealand, although the 

standard demographic variables, such as age, 

sex, and education, collected in the survey did 

not provide a basis for profiling these segments. 

Keywords: Environmental certification, conjoint 

analysis, cluster analysis, forest products, 

marketing 

Introduction 

Environmental certification of forest 

management and harvesting practices is a global 

issue, impacting forest landowners, wood 

product manufacturers, distribution 

intermediaries and consumers. Environmental 

certification is a market-based approach, or 

works through market incentives to improve 

forest management. It is also a voluntary 

approach. The inherent aim of environmental 

certification is to promote sustainable forest 

management. The approach is based on the 

assumption that consumer interest in the forestry 

dilemma is strong, and this interest may cause 

consumers to discriminate in favor of 

environmentally certified forest products (Upton 

and Bass 1996). Certification programs assume 

that consumers want to be assured by a neutral 

third party that a forest products company is 

employing sound practices that will ensure a 

sustainable timber output, and sustain other 

benefits from the forest, such as erosion control, 

biodiversity, and watershed protection. It is 

believed that those companies who can prove 

themselves environmentally responsible by being 

certified will benefit by differentiating their 

products and thus increasing their share of the 

marketplace. 

Currently in New Zealand, there are no 

environmentally certified wood products offered 

in the market. However, there are many claims 

by manufacturers and perceptions by consumers 

of the environmental friendliness of the wood 

products sold in New Zealand. In addition, a 

number of companies have seen the benefits of 

certification and have had their operations 

certified under either the ISO 14000 system or 

the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) approach 

(McLean 1998). For instance, since Craigpine 

Timber Ltd. secured FSC certification, they have 

been able to supply markets in Europe that were 

previously not accessible to them (McLean 

1998). In addition, the New Zealand Forest 

Industries Council (NZFIC) and the Forest 

Owners Association (NZFOA) are developing a 

New Zealand based forest product certification 

system, the Verification of Environmental 

Performance (VEP). The NZFIC says that the 

system is being designed to provide a cost 

effective, credible environmental performance 

verification and communication tool for use by 

New Zealand forest industry companies 

(Griffiths 1999). 

Thus, although Western European consumers are 

widely held to be the most sophisticated in their 

demands for green and environmentally certified 

products, New Zealand has been active in 

promoting environmental aspects of its 

production. What has been overlooked though 
 8 

are specific forestry issues which may be of 

concern to New Zealand consumers, and which 

would influence purchases of domestic timber. 

One key issue is to determine whether 

environmental considerations influence the 

timber choices of consumers, and which 

particular environmental issues will be 

considered as being important. One prevalent 

assumption of the forest sector is that current 

plantation practices are sustainable and that this 

is widely understood by consumers. This 

assumption is extended to a belief that 

consumers consider plantation-grown trees to be 

environmentally superior to other timbers and 

likely a preferred choice. This belief is not 

substantiated, and there is little understanding of 

which factors consumers would include as part 

of an environmentally friendly timber product. 

Questions about environmental certification 

would also include indigenous forestry. It is 

important to know whether environmental 

certification would convince consumers that 

there is sustainable management of indigenous 

forests, or whether this would influence 

preferences between 'recycled' and 'new' 

indigenous timber. 

There has been some research into New Zealand 

consumers' attitudes towards environmental 

certification. This research has shown that New 

Zealand consumers are predisposed to 

environmentally friendly and certified products, 

would be most trusting of environmental groups 

as certifiers, and would pay a premium for 

environmentally certified wood products 

(Ozanne, Bigsby and Vlosky 1999). However, it 

has not been determined what the relative 

importance of environmental certification is 

compared to other important wood product 

attributes, such as price, quality level, New 

Zealand sourced, or plantation grown. Thus, the 

objective of this research is to determine the 

relative importance to New Zealand consumers 

of environmental certification as compared to 

other important wood product attributes. 

The purpose of this paper is to present and 

discuss the results of a survey of New Zealand 

consumers, which used a conjoint analysis (CJA) 

research methodology. CJA was selected 

because it allows a measurement of the relative 

importance of attributes considered by 

respondents conjointly. In addition, CJA can 

determine the contribution of each attribute level 

to a respondent's overall preference. 

Research Methodology 

Data on the importance of wood product 

attributes was collected using a mail survey sent 

to New Zealand consumers. Survey 

development and implementation for this study 

was based on methods recommend by Dillman 

and described as the Total Design Method 

(TDM) (Dillman 1978). Data were collected in 

late 1998 and early 1999. In adherence to the 

TDM survey guidelines, an initial survey 

mailing, post-survey reminder and a second 

mailing were conducted in order to maximize 

response rates. 

The survey instrument contained a number of 

sections. First, respondents were asked to 

indicate whether they had shopped for or 

purchased household furniture within the past 12 

months. In this section, they were also asked to 

indicate whether they had seen products 

displaying environmental information on 

packaging or products that had been 

environmentally certified. These questions were 

asked to determine the relevance of the conjoint 

purchase scenario to the respondents. 

The second section of the questionnaire 

contained the conjoint procedure. Respondents 

were asked to approach this section as if they 

were intending to buy a wooden outdoor table 

and four chairs, with a drawing of the furniture 

being provided for them, along with 12 product 

labels. Furniture was selected because it was 

assumed that most consumers would have 

shopped for furniture at some point in the past, 

and outdoor furniture was appropriate because 

data were collected during the summer months. 

Next, respondents were asked to treat the 12 

labels as if they were the labels they would find 

attached to furniture in a shop (See Figure 1). 

Respondents were asked to rate each of the 

twelve labels by circling the most appropriate 

number, where one equals a completely 

unsatisfactory product and ten equals an ideal 

product. Each label contained a combination of 

product attributes including, price and extent of 

warranty for the furniture, and country of origin, 

forest type, and environmental certification of 

the wood used (See Table 1). One of two 

possible attribute levels was provided on each 

label (Refer to Figure 1). Price and warranty 

were selected as attributes because in a review of 

retailer. 
 9 

 

Figure 1-Product Label 

Outd oor Table Se t

Comp letely Un sat isfactory Ideal Product

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

• M ade from imp orted timber

• Ti mber prod uced f rom pl an tat ion fore sts tha t

ha ve b een en vir onme nta lly certified

• 2-y ear wa rr an ty

• Pri ce - $12 50

advertisements and point of purchase 

information relating to outdoor furniture, these 

were consistently discussed. Country of origin, 

forest type and environmental certification were 

selected because they are attributes that may be 

of particular relevance to New Zealand 

consumers. 

Table 1-Product Attributes and Levels 

Attributes Level 1 Level 2 

Price $1000 $1250 

Warranty 2-year 5-year 

Origin Importe

d 

New Zealand 

Forest Type Natural Plantation 

Certification None Certified 

Respondents were also asked to read all the 

labels before answering the section and were 

advised that they could assign the same rating to 

more than one label. To help clarify a somewhat 

complicated task, respondents were given 

definitions for, natural forests, plantation forests, 

and environmental certification. 

The final section of the questionnaire contained a 

series of demographic and socioeconomic 

questions. The research instrument was 

pretested twice to check for biased, misleading 

or confusing questions, to verify the quality and 

comprehensiveness of information received, and 

to test the effectiveness of the conjoint 

procedure. 

Sample Design 

A mailing list for consumers was generated by 

randomly selecting names from the 1998 New 

Zealand Electoral Roll. Selecting the sample 

from the Electoral Roll ensured that respondents 

would be over the age of 18 and thus more likely 

to be in the potential target market for outdoor 

furniture. A total of 500 surveys were mailed. 

After adjusting the sample size for nondeliverable surveys and incomplete or otherwise 

unusable surveys, the adjusted response rate was 

238 or 52.3%. 

Nonresponse Bias 

Nonresponse bias is a common concern in 

survey research. Bias due to nonresponse can be 

evaluated by comparing those who respond to 

the initial mailing to those who respond as a 

result of subsequent mailings and other followup efforts (Armstrong and Overton 1977). From 

this procedure, nonresponse bias was found to be 

statistically insignificant (α = .05). 
 10 

Data Analysis 

Simple frequencies and mean responses were 

used to report the data on the demographic 

profile of the sample, furniture purchases, and 

purchases of environmentally marketed products. 

Conjoint analysis (CJA) and cluster analysis 

techniques were used to determine the 

importance of environmental certification as 

compared to other forest product attributes, and 

to segment the respondents. Analysis of 

variance techniques were used to look for 

demographic differences in the clusters. 

Conjoint analysis is a recent development in 

mathematical psychology that has been applied 

extensively in the marketing field. It has been 

recognised in marketing that consumer decision 

processes are inherently multidimensional. The 

basic idea in CJA is that by providing consumer 

with a range of stimuli from which to choose, we 

can make inferences about their value systems 

based upon their behaviour. The word 

“conjoint” has to do with the fact that researchers 

can measure relative values of things considered 

jointly which might be unmeasurable taken one 

at a time. CJA is therefore concerned with 

measuring the joint effect of two or more 

independent variables on the ordering of a 

dependent variable. In the area of market 

analysis, it relates the buyer’s preferences to a set 

of pre-specified brand attributes. In addition, 

CJA determines the contribution of each attribute 

level to a buyer’s preferences. 

In this study, CJA allows an examination of 

respondents’ decision-making processes for 

outdoor furniture purchases by presenting them 

with a number of combinations of product 

attributes. Through this analysis, it is possible to 

discern the relative importance of price, 

warranty, timber source, forest type and 

certification, and the relative importance of each 

of the levels for each attribute. This makes it 

possible to determine the relative importance of 

environmental certification compared to the 

other furniture attributes presented to 

respondents. 

Cluster analysis is a term applied to a group of 

empirical techniques used for classification of 

objects without prior assumptions about the 

population (Punj and Stewart 1983). Cluster 

analysis attempts to identify and classify objects 

or variables so that each object is very similar to 

others in the cluster and very different from 

those outside the cluster (Hair, Anderson, 

Tatham and Black 1992). In this study, cluster 

analysis is used to group respondents based on 

the importance they assigned to the different 

product attributes. In other words, cluster 

analysis can indicate whether all respondents 

value furniture attributes in a similar fashion or 

whether there were segments of respondents with 

different preferences. Cluster analysis is also 

able to determine the size of any segment and 

assists in providing a demographic profile of 

each segments. 

Unlike theoretical statistics, cluster analysis does 

not provide precise rules for choosing a cluster 

solution (Dess and Davis 1984). Hair et al. 

(1992) suggest that it is probably best to compute 

solutions for several different numbers of 

clusters and then to decide among the alternative 

solutions based upon a priori criteria, practical 

judgment, common sense, or theoretical 

foundations. In this study, utility values were 

clustered or classified using the cluster analysis 

technique, and three, four, five, six and seven 

cluster solutions were all consider. A 6-cluster 

solution was chosen because this number of 

clusters was the smallest that adequately 

differentiated the utility values. 

Results 

Respondents represented a broad cross-section of 

New Zealand society. There was a higher 

number of female respondents (61.4%) than male 

respondents (38.6%), and the majority of 

respondents were aged between 26 and 65 years 

old (72.3%). In terms of income, 28.8% of 

respondents had an annual income under 

$20,000, 58.5% between $20,000 and $59,999, 

and the remaining 12.7% had incomes over 

$60,000. Only 9.1% of respondents indicated 

they were a member of an organisation whose 

primary mission was to protect the environment. 

Finally, 21.8% of respondents indicated having a 

primary or secondary education level, 25.5% had 

finished high school, 33.2% completed some 

form of non-university tertiary education, and 

19.5% had a university degree. 

Along with profiling respondents on 

demographic characteristics, respondents were 

profiled on two additional characteristics. In 

terms of determining how relevant this purchase 
 11 

scenario was to respondents, they were asked to 

indicate whether they had been or would be in 

the market for furniture. Figure 2 presents the 

average response for furniture purchases. 44% 

of respondents indicated they had bought 

household furniture in the last 12 months. 

Approximately, 34% indicated that they intended 

to purchase household furniture in the next 12 

months, and 24.8% indicated that they intended 

to purchase outdoor furniture during that same 

time period. 

In addition to furniture purchases, respondents 

were asked whether they had been exposed to 

environmental information on packaging and 

whether they had purchased such products. 

Figure 3 presents respondents purchases of 

environmentally marketed products. 

Approximately, 55% of respondents indicated 

they had seen some type of product (e.g. 

detergents, organic foods, and paper products) 

that had environmental information on the 

packaging. Almost 50% of respondents 

indicated that they had purchased such products 

in the last 12 months. However, a much smaller 

proportion of the respondents indicated they had 

seen any type of environmentally certified 

product (34.9%) or had actually purchased 

environmentally certified products (35.4%). 

Figure 4 presents the averaged importance values 

of the various furniture attributes provided by the 

conjoint analysis. Overall, country of origin 

(importance score of 23.82) and environmental 

certification (23.53) are rated as the most 

important furniture attributes, closely followed in 

importance by forest type (22.10). Warranty 

(15.57) and price (14.98) are rated as less 

important furniture attributes. The Pearson's R 

(.98, .000) and Kendall's tau (.94, .000) statistics 

indicate how well the model fit the data. These 

statistics are correlations between the observed 

and estimated utilities and, as such, these 

coefficients should always be very high. The 

correlations between the observed and estimated 

scores for the holdout profiles (Kendall's tau = 

1.00, .059) give a better indication of the fit of 

the model since these profiles were not used to 

estimate the scores. This statistic indicates that 

the model provides a good fit. 

Although useful, these aggregate results provide 

an incomplete picture. CJA used in conjunction 

with cluster analysis can indicate whether all 

respondents value product attributes in a similar 

fashion. Table 2 provides the results for the sixcluster solution from the cluster analysis 

procedure. Included are the relative utility 

values for each of the six clusters on each 

attribute, the most valued level of that attribute 

and the sample size for each cluster. The relative 

utility value of an attribute is computed by taking 

the attribute utility value divided by the sum of 

the utility values for all the attributes. 

Cluster 1 (14.8% of the sample), rates price as 

the most important attribute, and would prefer 

the lower price of $1000. Cluster 2 (3.3% of the 

sample) rates certification as the most important 

attribute, preferring environmentally certified 

over uncertified outdoor furniture. Cluster 2 is 

also somewhat price sensitive and shows a 

preference for plantation-grown wood. Cluster 3 

(16.3% of the sample) rates country of origin as 

the most important attribute and preferring wood 

sourced from New Zealand over imported wood. 

Cluster 4 (18.2% of the sample) also rates 

certification as the most important attribute, 

preferring certified over uncertified products, but 

unlike Cluster 2 shows no other clear 

preferences. Cluster 5 (12.4%) rates 

forest type as the most important attribute, 

preferring wood from a plantation. Cluster 6 ( 

34.9% of the sample) also rates certification as 

the most important furniture attribute, but in 

addition, also prefers the wood to be sourced 

from New Zealand and a longer warranty. A 

Scheffe one-way analysis of variance technique 

was used to test the hypothesis of no difference 

between the utility values across the six clusters. 

All of the attributes proved to be statistically 

significant (at α = .05) across the six clusters. 

In order to develop a demographic profile of the 

six clusters, they were compared using a Scheffe 

one-way analysis of variance technique. Table 3 

presents the mean value of each cluster for a 

number of demographic variables, along with the 

F-statistic of the Scheffe test. None of the 

demographic variables were statistically 

significant, and it was not possible to draw a 

profile of the segments using these demographic 

variables. 
 12 

Figure 2-Furniture Purchases 

















0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50%

Bought household

furniture in the last 12

months

Intend to purchase

household furniture in

the next 12 months

Intend to purchase

outdoor furniture in the

next 12 months

Percent of Respondents

Figure 3-Purchases of Environmentally Marketed Products 

In the past 12 months have you... 

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60%

Seen any products that had 

information on the 

Purchased any products that 

environmental information on the 

Seen any products you believed 

environmentally 

Purchased any products you believed 

environmentally 

Yes No Uncertai % of 
 13 

 

Figure 4-Importance of Furniture Attributes 

22.10

23.82

15.57

23.53

14.98

0.00

5.00

10.00

15.00

20.00

25.00

30.00

Forest 

Type

Country of

Origin

Warranty Environmental

Certification

Price

Averaged Importance 

Table 2-Relative Utility Values for the 6 Clusters 

Attribute Cluster 1 

n=31 

Cluster 2 

n= 7 

Cluster 3 

n=34 

Cluster 4 

n=38 

Cluster 5 

n=26 

Cluster 6 

n=73 

Forest Type 6.1% 23.8% 2.9% 16.5% 58.2% 

Plantation 

2.5% 

Country of 

Origin 

18.6% 2.5% 65.7% 

New 

Zealand 

13.7% 14.3% 24.5% 

Warranty 12.2% 10.5% 7.3% 9.9% 6.9% 22.2% 

Environmental 

Certification 

5.1% 35.6% 

Certified 

11.2% 43.5% 

Certified 

6.0% 44.6% 

Certified 
 14 

Price 57.9% 

$1000 

27.5% 12.9% 16.5% 14.5 6.2% 

Table 3-Clusters Compared on Demographic Characteristics

Characteristic Cluster 1 

n=31 

Cluster 2 

n= 7 

Cluster 3 

n=34 

Cluster 4 

n=38 

Cluster 5 

n=26 

Cluster 6 

n=73 

F 

Statistic 

Age Group 2.33 2.57 2.67 2.51 2.27 2.39 .93 

Gender (% female) 48.3% 71.4% 67.7% 66.7% 80.0% 50.7% 2.10 

Education 

Level 

2.66 2.00 2.28 2.72 2.48 2.63 1.13 

Env. Group 

Membership 

12.5% 11.4% 14.8% 5.2% 4.8% 11.8% 2.07 

Income Level 1.92 2.00 1.67 1.91 1.74 1.88 .81 

Area of 

Residence 

1.83 1.71 1.59 1.62 1.85 1.68 1.64 

Conclusions 

The objective of this research was to determine 

the relative importance of environmental 

certification compared to other furniture 

attributes. Given that the results indicate that a 

large percentage of respondents have purchased 

both household furniture (44%) and outdoor 

furniture (25%), and intend to purchase furniture 

in the next 12 months (34%), assessing the 

importance of various furniture attributes is 

potentially important to outdoor wooden 

furniture manufacturers. In addition, results 

indicate that respondents are being exposed to 

environmental information on packaging (55%) 

and are also purchasing environmentally 

marketed products (50%), indicating that this 

hypothetical purchase scenario containing and 

environmentally certifies products is not 

irrelevant to them. 

For wooden outdoor furniture in New Zealand, 

conjoint results indicate that there are several 

important attributes. Respondents are interested 

in the country of origin of the wood, whether the 

wood has been environmentally certified, and in 

the type of forest the wood has been grown in. 

The extent of the warranty and the price of the 

furniture are generally less important attributes. 

Cluster analysis indicates that there are six 

unique market segments for outdoor furniture in 

New Zealand. Three segments, comprising 

56.4% of the sample, view environmental 

certification as the most important attribute and 

would prefer certified over uncertified furniture. 

One segment, comprising 16.3% of the sample, 

indicated that they were most concerned with the 

country from where the wood was sourced, 

preferring wood sourced from New Zealand. 

Another segment, comprising 14.8% of the 

sample, was price sensitive. The last segment, 

comprising 12.4% of the sample, indicated that 

forest type is the most important furniture 

attribute, preferring wood harvested from 

plantation forests over natural forests. 

In terms of profiling these segments, results 

indicate that demographic variables do not 

provide a basis of identification or description. 

This finding confirms earlier research (Ozanne, 

Bigsby and Vlosky 1999), that found that 

environmental awareness and concern is very 

broad based in New Zealand. In addition, this 

finding suggests the need for additional research 

to more clearly define these groups of 

consumers. 

References 
 15 

Armstrong, J.S. and T.S. Overton. 1977. 

Estimating nonresponse bias in mail surveys. 

Journal of Marketing Research. 14(3):396-402. 

Dess, G.G. and P.S. Davis. 1984. Porter's generic 

strategies as determinants of strategic group 

membership and organizational performance. 

Academy of Management Journal. 27(3): 467-

487. 

Dillman, D. 1978. Mail and Telephone Surveys: 

The Total Design Method. New York, NY: John 

Wiley & Sons. 

Griffiths, J.V. 1999. Personal Communication to 

NZ Stakeholders. New Zealand Forest Industries 

Council. September 24. 

Hair, J.F., R.E. Anderson, R.L. Tatham, and 

W.C. Black. 1992. Multivariate Data Analysis. 

3rd Edition. New York, NY: MacMillian 

Publishing Co. 

McLean, V. 1998. Certified green. New Zealand 

Forest Industries Magazine. February: 64-67. 

Ozanne, L.K., H. Bigsby, and R.P. Vlosky. 1999. 

Certification of forest management practices: the 

New Zealand customer perspective. NZ Journal 

of Forestry. 43(4): 17-23. 

Punj. F. and D.W. Stewart. 1983. Cluster 

analysis in marketing research: review and 

suggestions for application. Journal of Marketing 

Research. 29(5):131-148. 

Upton, C. and S. Bass. 1996 The Forest 

Certification Handbook. Delray Beach, FL: St. 

Lucie Press. 

Acknowledgments 

We wish to thank David Cohen and Charley 

Lamb for providing valuable insight on the 

analysis of the conjoint data. 
 16

Wood Products Research for the 21st Century in China 

Prof. Chen Xuhe, Div. of International Cooperation, Chinese Academy of Forestry

Abstract 

Wood is versatile and, perhaps like water, 

represents one of the most widely used raw 

material in the world. It is renewable, 

environmentally friendly, aesthetic, of high 

strength-weight ratio, and consumes low energy 

in wood processing. Furthermore, studies show 

that wood production and utilization serves the 

purpose of decreasing CO2 emissions. With 

sustained economic and population growth, the 

world demand for wood and wood products in 

the future will certainly increase. The future of 

China’s wood industry largely depends on the 

stable supply of wood resources from managed 

forests, with considerable opportunities to supply 

these sustainable wood resources because of its 

favourable climate conditions in parts of the 

country, vast areas and abundant manpower. 

Further research is therefore required in the 

proposed wood research priority areas to help 

support sustainable development of wood 

industry in China in the 21st century. 

Keywords: wood products research, wood 

utilization, China, sustainable wood production. 

Introduction 

Wood is a wonderful, perhaps the most important 

and widely used raw material except water. It is 

renewable, environmental friendly, nice looking, 

of high strength-weight ratio, and easy to process 

with low energy consumption. As economic and 

population growth increases, the demand for 

wood and wood products in the future will 

likewise continue to increase. Indeed wood plays 

an important role in economic and 

social development, and relied upon by humans 

as a fundamental material for our sustenance. 

The annual consumption of timber in China 

reaches 250 million m3 , equaling to the sum of 

that of steel, aluminum and plastic. In the United 

States the consumption of timber reaches 

200million tons, equaling the sum of that of steel, 

cement, plastic and aluminum. The annual 

turnover of the forest industry in Sweden and 

Finland accounts for 14% of their GDP, and the 

export value of the wood industry in Indonesia 

has reached USD$5 billion in recent years, which 

is 25% of its total export value. Furthermore, it 

has been found that the system of wood 

production and wood utilization serves the 

purpose of decreasing CO2 emissions. 

Trends in Wood Product 

Consumption and Production 

The world demand for forest products increases 

with economic development and population 

growth. The world annual consumption of timber 

increased by 36% between 1970-1994 to 3.4 

billion m3

. The major change in the past 20 years 

is the decreased consumption of sawn timber 

while the consumption of wood based panels 

increased. The consumption of wood based 

panels only accounted for 17% of that of sawn 

timber, and this ratio increased to 30% in 1994. 

The annual consumption of wood based panels in 

the world in 1994 was 126 million m3

 and that in 

2000 will reach 154 million m3

. The annual 

consumption of plywood in 1994 was 50 million 

m3

, accounting for 40% of the total consumption 

of panel products (a decrease of 8% compared to 

that in 1970’s), and is expected to decrease to 

31% in the year 2000. 

The particleboard consumption is 46million m3

 in 

1999, and is expected to account for 37% of total 

wood based panels consumption in 2000 as a 

dominant form of panel product. The annual 

consumption of oriented strand board (OSB) in 

1999 is about 10 million m3

, and will expectedly 

account for 12% of the total panel products in the 

year 2000. 

According to FAO sources, the world wood 

based panel production in 1997 reached 

155,634,000 m3

, up 5% from the previous year. 

Such has indeed been continuously upward trend 

for the past five years. Particularly noteworthy 

was China’s continuing surge with additional 

production capacity in many product categories. 

The US led with 38,502,000 m3

 trailed by China, 

Canada, Germany and Indonesia (Table 1). The 

US was the largest panel consumer with 

44,121,000 m3

. However, Singapore, with its 

building boom, was the biggest per capital panel 

user, with 232 m3

 per 1,000 inhabitants. 

MDF has been growing very fast, the annual 

growth rate reaching 13% in the past 15 years 

and the world production capacity in 1999 

peaked at 25.7 million m3

/year. It is expected that 

by the year 2000, the world consumption of 

MDF will account for 14% of wood based panels 

produced. 
 17

Table 1. World panel production by country 1997 (, 000m3

) 

No Total production Hardboard MDF Particleboard Plywood 

USA 38502 China 1597 USA 240

2 

USA 16263 USA 15897 

China 14540 USA 1328 China 106

0 

Germany 9190 Indonesia 9600 

Canada 11339 Brazil 637 Korea R. 728 Canada 7954 China 8094 

Germany 10874 Russian 

Fed. 

617 Germany 710 China 3683 Malaysia 4100 

Indonesia 10163 Japan 528 Malaysia 600 France 3289 Japan 3830 

Malaysia 7000 Canada 342 Italy 600 Bel/Lux 3087 Brazil 1900 

Japan 6435 Poland 306 Turkey 530 Italy 2750 Canada 1828 

France 4588 Germany 140 Spain 490 UK 2175 Korea R. 1014 

Italy 4364 Estonia 134 UK 460 Poland 2041 Finland 987 

Brazil 3558 France 126 Australia 434 Spain 1970 Russian 

Fed. 

968 

Challenges and Opportunities 

for the Development of 

Wood Industry in the World 

The total world forest area in 1995 was 3.45 billion ha. 

The forest area decreased 56.3million ha in 1980-1990, 

especially tropical forests in Asia, Africa and Central 

South America. The quantity and quality of conifer 

timbers from former USSR and North America are 

declining. 

More public concerns are given to ecological & 

environmental effects of natural forests since 

the1980’s. Environmental pressure to the industry 

concerns: 

• Protection of natural forests; 

• Pollution control; 

• Timber (product) certification, e.g. tropical 

timber products should be from sustainably 

managed forests; and eco-labeling. 

Sustainable forest management has gradually become a 

common principle of forestry development in the world 

in recent years. The major objective of forestry has 

shifted from traditionally supplying timber products to 

offering multiple uses including ecological, 

environmental, social benefits and supplying timber 

and timber products in a sustainable way. 

Establishment of industrial plantations has been the 

emphasis to satisfy the needs for timbers and timber 

products, while wood resources for industrial purposes 

are shifting from the natural forests to timber 

plantations. 

Table 2. Functions of timber plantations 

Country % of total forest 

area in the country 

% of total 

industrial 

timber 

production 

Argentina 2.2 60 

Brazil 1.2 60 

Chile 17.1 95 

New Zealand 16.1 93 

Establishing of timber plantations New Zealand has a success story of timber plantations, 

being managed for 140 years. Today 95% of timber 

supplied in the country comes from plantations. Each 

year it increases 70,000~100,000ha of timber 

plantations, and the forestry sector has become the 3rd 

industry in NZ after wool and meat. 

Major trends in the development of 

the world wood industry: 

• Establishing of timber plantations; 

• Developing of environmental friendly 

technologies and products; 

• Restructuring for value added processing. 

• Developing of environmental friendly technology 

and products. 

This includes: 

• Improving efficiency and diversification of 

raw materials, including using non-wood raw 

materials, agricultural residues such as 

bagasse, flax, cotton stalk, wheat stalk and 

bamboo for panel products; 

• Developing technology for processing small 

size logs from plantations, including nonveneer structural panels, composite lumber 

products, including Laminated Veneer 

Lumber (LVL), OSB, etc.; 

• Pollution control technologies. 
 18

Restructuring for value- added 

processing 

Much timber producing countries have restricted or 

decreased their exports of logs or sawn timber, and 

developed down stream value-added wood processing.

Malaysia is a good example of a highly effective use of 

wood based resources. Being enrich in forest resources, 

Malaysia has natural forests of 19million ha and 

plantations of 4 million ha. This represents natural 

forest coverage of 60%, and plantation coverage of 

12%, while the planned plantation coverage by 

government will reach 68% in future. With government 

policy of restructuring for down stream value-added 

processing, the export value of logs decreased from 

50% of total timber exported in 1990 to 15% in 1997, 

while export value of down stream processed products 

including furniture, joinery increased to 25% from 8% 

in the same period.

It can be concluded that the future of wood industry 

largely depends on the stable supply of wood resources 

from sustainable managed forests. Under the guidance 

of the sustainable development principle, developments 

in the cultivation and utilization of industrial 

plantations, environmentally compatible technologies 

and products that meet the needs of the markets and to 

improve the competitive capabilities, are the 

development strategies of forestry and wood industry 

in the 21st Century. 

When nearing the end of 20th century, we should also 

re-consider our present life style, which depends 

heavily upon fossil fuels and metal resources, and the 

accompanying environmental degradation and resource 

depletion, which are occurring at an alarming rate. In 

considering aspects of energy conservation and 

pollution abatement in resource processing and 

utilization, and the sustenance of resource for 

biological diversity, we must propagate the benefits of 

biological resources, especially wood, to maintaining 

the quality of human life in the next century. Studies 

have shown that the system of wood production and 

wood utilization serves the purpose of decreasing CO2

emissions and that wood provides a comfortable living 

environment. We bear these issues in mind as we 

confront the new millennium, with expected emphasis 

on production of wood-based materials and wood 

industrial developments. 

Challenges and opportunities 

for wood industry in China 

The present annual consumption of wood in China 

reaches 250 million m3 including annual import of 

timber products valued USD$3 billion. To prevent 

further environmental degradation from wood 

production, the Chinese government has decided from 

1998 to set 60% of the state owned forests for ecoforests with a ban on logging, and cutting of logs in 

state owned forests be reduced to 13 million m3 in the 

year 2000 from 23 million m3

 in 1999. Under the 

constraints of a large population and limited forest 

resources, against the implementation of natural forest 

protection program since 1998, the dilemma between 

demand and supply of wood products in China will 

become more serious. It is estimated that the shortfall 

in timber supply may reach 60 million m3

 in the year 

2000-2010. Particularly, shortage of those high quality 

timbers of valuable species and traditional industrial 

species such as Korea pine, Chinese Northeast ash, 

basswood, Yunnan Pine, and larch may be severe. 

To meet growing demands for wood products in China, 

remarkable progress has been made in recent years 

especially in the field of wood based panels industry in 

the country. In 1997, the production of wood based 

panels reached 16.48 million m3

, comprising 

7.58million m3

 of plywood, 2.76million m3 of 

fiberboard (including 1.06 million m3

 of MDF), and 

3.6million m3

 of particleboard. The capacity of MDF 

production reached 2.95 million m3

, ranking 2nd in the 

world. The quality and variety of wood based panels 

products and production efficiency have greatly 

improved. The total turnover of the Chinese furniture 

industry in 1998 was 87 billion yuan RMB with an 

export value of USD$1.5 billion. 

China has a big possibility to supply the sustainable 

wood resources because of her favourable growth 

climate in parts of the country, vast areas and the 

abundance of manpower. Great efforts have been made 

to extend the forest areas. The area of timber 

plantations established between 1980 and 1987 was 

28.92 million ha accounting for 33.5% of the total 

plantation area established since 1949. From this, 3.83 

million ha were fast growing and high yield timber 

plantations accounting for 13.2% of the total area of 

timber plantation between 1980 and 1987. Between 

1988 and 1992, 16.17 million ha of timber plantations 

were established of which 2.5 million hectares were 

fast growing and high yield timber plantations making 

up 15% of the total timber plantations in this period. In 

recent years, the area of fast growing and high yield 

timber plantations in China has increased by 0.5 

million ha per year. In 1994 the actual area of 

established timber plantations was 34.5 million ha with 

a growing stock of 45.819 million m3

 and an annual 

growth of 10.17 million m3

. Among the wood species, 

conifers dominate China's fast growing and high yield 

timber plantations accounting for 76%, of which 

Cunninghamia lanceolata makes up 46% and pine 

species 30% (Table 3). Further efforts are neededto 

improve cultivation practice to raise the productivity, 

quality and variety of industrial plantations. 
 19

Table 3. Major species being used for timber plantations in China 

Region Climate zone Average 

temperature C o Annual rain 

fall (mm) Major species 

Northeast 

(Heilongjian

g, Jilin and 

Liaoning) 

Temperate/c

ool 

temperate 

North -4 -6 

South 46 400-600 

Larix , Pinus sylvestris var mongolica, 

P. Koraiensis, Populus and Fraxinus 

mandshurica; 

Central 

North 

(Shandong , 

Hebei and 

Henan) 

Warm 

temperate 10-15 500-950 Populus, Paulownia , Ulmus Pumila L 

South 

(Guangdong

, Guangxi, 

Hainan, 

Fujian, 

Jiangxi, 

Hunan, 

Hubei, 

Guizhou, 

Yunnan and 

Sichuan) 

Subtropical 

Tropical 

14-21 

20-26 

800-2000 

1200-2000 

Cunninghamia lanceolata, Pinus 

massoniana, P. elliottii , P. Taeda, 

Acacia and Eucalyptus 

Wood Research Priorities 

As the wood resources in China for industrial purposes 

shift from the natural forests to timber plantations, the 

industry needs technical support from research 

institutions in developing technologies for establishing 

and utilizing fast growing and high quality timber 

plantations, and to provide effective and value-added 

processing of environmental friendly products. 

Therefore further R&D will be needed in China with 

the proposed priorities as follows: 

Wood Properties 

Effect of various silvicultural treatments on wood 

quality; Suitability of wood for various utilization 

purposes; Use of enzymes for biologically based 

pulping and bleaching; Use of wood chemicals in the 

development of new wood adhesives. 

Wood Drying 

Modeling the wood drying process, including stress 

development, relaxation and fracture; Emission of 

volatile organic compounds during wood drying; New 

drying process, including radio-frequency/vacuum, and 

super–heated steam/vacuum. 

Wood and Environment 

Methods of cultivating forests and use of wood 

products with better environmental effects, including 

mitigating effects on the build-up of greenhouse gases 

in the atmosphere; 

Sustainable development and conservation of forest 

resources; 

Methods of recycling wood-based products and paper; 

Methods of life cycle analysis to develop an objective 

process that can track the environmental burdens 

associated with a product ,process, or activity; 

Biological methods of wood preservation and use of 

less toxic preservative chemicals to allow easier 

disposal with positive impact to the environment; 

Improved processing of wood to conserve and extend 

the timber supply; 

Harvesting and processing methods for short-rotation 

of wood of superior quality. 

Wood Preservation 

Waterborne copper systems for pressure treatment; 

Safe and environmentally sound anti-sapstain systems 

as alternatives to pentachlorophenates. 

Wood Composite 

Durable and value-added wood-plastic composites for 

special uses; 

Use of agricultural fibers, recycled wood, and an 

incredible variety of fibers from post-consumer wastes; 

Emissions of volatile organic compounds from panel 

products; 

Accelerated curing of PF resins. 

Pulp and Paper 

Silvicultural techniques for hardwood plantations to 

produce wood with short and soft fibers. 

Economics and Policy 

Cost and price effect of changes in forest management 

practices and forest sector policies; 

Analyzing factors affecting middle and long term 

outlook for timber demand and supply; 

Analyzing trends in trade and investment and their 

effects on wood industry. 
 20

Conclusion 

From the viewpoint of energy conservation and low 

pollution generation in resources utilization and 

sustenance of biological production, we must elevate 

the roles of wood to maintain the level of human life in 

the next century. We are facing a new age of woodbased materials, and development of wood industry is 

strongly expected. 

 

Under the sustainable development principle, the wood 

products research effort in China should stress the 

cultivation and utilization of industrial plantations, and 

environmentally compatible technologies and products 

that meet the needs of the markets and to improve the 

competitive capabilities of the forestry and wood 

industry. These are among the strategies for the wood 

industry in China to make useful contributions to 

society in the 21st Century. 

References 

Chen Xuhe.1999. The sustainable development of 

wood industry for the 21st century, China Forest 

Products Industry. 26(1): 6-8, 13(2) 3-5, 9. 

Norm Kutscha. 1999. Trends in wood research and 

utilization. Forest Products Journal. 49(7/8)12-17. 

Motoaki Okuma.1998.Evaluation of the system of 

wood utilization from the standpoint of carbon stock 

and CO2 balance.Forestry towards the 21st century—

Proceedings of the Workshop for the 40th Anniversary 

of Chinese Academy of Forestry: 536-539. 

Zhang Shougong, Chen Xuhe, Li Weichang. 1999. 

Outlook of Plantations in China. Chinese Academy of 

Forestry. 30 p. 

Bill Keil.1999. On a continuous upward curve. Wood 

Based Panels International. 19(3) 60-61,63. 
 21

Sustainable production of forest products in Australia

Peter J Kanowski, Department of Forestry, Australian National University 

Abstract 

The sustainability of production from Australia’s 

forests – especially but not exclusively its native 

forests – has been a strongly contested issue for the 

past three decades. Australia’s first National Forest 

Policy Statement in 1992 committed Australia to the 

goal of sustainable forest management in the context of 

a broader commitment to ecologically sustainable 

development. It is being translated from policy to 

practice by – for the first time in Australia’s history – a 

suite of nationally-coordinated processes consistent 

with international initiatives. Although progress 

towards sustainability in forest management far 

exceeds that in other Australian natural resource 

sectors, the sustainability of production from 

Australia’s forests remains both contested and 

challenging. 

Keywords: Sustainable Forestry, Australia, Montreal 

Process, Regional Forest Agreement 

Introduction 

Over the perhaps 50000 years of their settlement, the 

land management practices of Australia’s aboriginal 

people - principally their extensive use of fire - altered 

the distribution of Australia’s forests, ecosystem 

structure, and the forest fauna. The European settlers’

displacement of aboriginal people, and their conversion 

and use of forests, both had profound impacts. The 

fragmentation and conversion of forests to other uses, 

and European farming practices have adversely 

affected for the sustainability of Australian agriculture 

and its rural landscapes, including their forest and 

woodland remnants. These impacts have generally 

been most severe in the widespread broad-acre 

cropping and grazing regions; it is not yet clear 

whether production from these ecologically-degraded 

landscapes can be sustained. 

The historical focus, and continuing emphasis, of 

Australian native forest management has been on the 

closed forests; their discontinuous continental 

distribution coincides with the distribution of the 

majority of Australia’s population near the southern 

and eastern coasts. With the exception of forest-rich 

Tasmania, the majority of these forests are in public 

ownership; their principal products and services are 

biodiversity, recreation, a diversity of wood and nonwood products, and water. Whilst the economic 

importance of wood production from these forests 

remains significant, the relative value accorded it by 

the majority of the Australian population has been 

progressively diminishing. Continuing community 

conflict over the management of these forests led, in 

1995, the Australian governments to institute a 

Regional Forest Agreement process, first mooted in the 

National Forest Policy Statement. 

Australia’s Regional Forest Agreement process is the 

first nationally-coordinated attempt to assess the 

diversity of Australian forest values – economic, 

environmental and social – and agree forest allocation 

and management based on this information. Regional 

Forest Agreements are being negotiated between the 

Commonwealth and respective State governments for 

each commercially-important native forest region. The 

goals of the process are expressed in terms of greater 

certainty: for biodiversity conservation, based around 

establishment of a national reserve system with a target 

of incorporating 15% of the pre-European extent of 

each forest ecosystem, and around the development of 

ecologically sustainable forest management regimes in 

forests outside reserves; for the forest-based industries, 

based around secure access to resources outside the 

reserve system; and for indigenous and European 

heritage, based on explicit recognition of those values 

in forest allocation and management decisions. 

Concomitantly, Australia’s wood production has been 

shifting progressively from native to plantation forests. 

Most existing plantations were established on sites 

converted from forest; almost all new planting is 

established on farmland, much in partnership with 

farmers. This expansion poses both challenges and 

opportunities for enhancing the sustainability of 

production. 

The Montreal Process is providing the framework for 

the development of criteria and indicators of 

sustainable forest management for all Australian 

forests. The formulation and testing of criteria and 

indicators are paralleled by the development of Codes 

of Forest Practice and by institutional reform in which 

State regulatory and management roles are separated. 

These measures are relatively well-developed for State 

forests, but are – with the exception of Tasmania – as 

yet poorly developed for the increasingly important 

private forest sector, including its extensive woodlands. 
 22

Substantial research and implementation challenges 

remain in improving, monitoring and communicating 

the sustainability of production from all Australia’s 

forests. 

Australia’s forests and 

forest products1

Australia’s forests2 are extensive, diverse and globally 

unique. These forests presently cover some 157 million 

ha: the majority, some 112 million ha, are defined as 

woodland3

, and there are about 1 million ha of 

plantation forest; however, in total, Australia’s forests 

occupy only 20% of the land area of the world’s driest 

continent. The Australian biota have high levels of 

endemism, and the country is ranked among the top 

dozen globally in terms of the significance of its 

biological diversity. The genera Eucalyptus dominate 

Australia’s forest ecosytems; rainforests and 

mangroves, and forests dominated by the genera 

Acacia, Callitris, Casuarina and Melaleuca, are also 

significant. Plantation forests are principally (80%) of 

exotic taxa, mostly Pinus radiata (65% of total); Pinus 

elliottii, Pinus caribaea and their hybrid comprise 

around 10%; 75% of the native species plantations are 

of a few eucalypt species, and 25% are of Araucaria 

cunninghamii.

Nationally, around 70% of native forests are publicly 

owned, but around 40% of this area is held and 

managed under lease by the private sector, principally 

for grazing. Conservation reserves, forests managed for 

production and other values, and public forests held 

under other tenures4

 each represent around 10% of the 

native forest area. Around 70% of plantation forests are 

publicly owned. The distribution of these tenures varies 

widely geographically and across ecosystems. 

The majority of the forests managed for production in 

continental Australia lie within a few hundred 

kilometres of the east and south-east coasts, and of the 

south-west corner; those in Tasmania are principally in 

the east and north. Wood is the major commercial 

product, and apiary the principal commercial nonwood product. Many important products, such as water 

and biological diversity, are not currently valued 

commercially. The wood-based forest industries 

account for around 1% of national Gross Domestic 

Product. The majority of wood is now harvested from 

plantation forests. Almost all local production of 

sawnwood, panels and paper is consumed 

 

1

 this section draws extensively on BRS (1998). 

2

 used here to also include woodlands, unless where 

otherwise stated. The definition of forest used by 

Australia’s National Forest Inventory is for “an area ...

dominated by trees ... [with a] mature stand height 

exceeding 2m and ... crown cover of overstorey strata 

about equal to or greater than 20%” (BRS 1998). 3

 between 20-50% crown cover (BRS 1988). 

4

 these tenures commonly preclude industrial wood 

production. 

domestically; most (66% by volume, 48% by value) 

exports are of unprocessed eucalypt woodchips, 

principally harvested from native forests. Australia is a 

net importer of forest products, in both volume and 

value terms. 

A brief history of Australia’s forests 

and forest production 

Over the perhaps 50000 years of their presence, 

Australia’s aboriginal people managed the forests 

principally through their extensive use of fire, largely 

to facilitate access and hunting. Their impact on 

Australia’s now-extinct megafauna remains a matter of 

debate, but it is widely accepted that their practices 

alterered the distribution of Australia’s forests –

particularly the rainforest/ eucalypt forest boundary –

and the structure of many forested ecosystems. The 

impact of European settlers over the past 210 years has 

been much greater, with more than a third of forests 

converted to agriculture across the nation; in the southeastern states of New South Wales, Victoria and South 

Australia, the loss has been over 50% (NFI 1998). 

Forest ecosystems in some parts of Australia, notably 

in the state of Queensland, are still being converted to 

agriculture at a rate of some hundreds of thousands of 

hectares annually. 

Many of the most productive forests were largely 

cleared in these successive waves of European 

settlement; many lowland coastal forest ecosystems, 

and those on the inland slopes of the coastal 

watersheds, now exist only as remnant fragments. 

Strong public reaction against the apparently wanton 

destruction of forest resources in the late 1800s led, 

after many political battles, to the establishment of 

forestry agencies and the reservation of forests for 

wood production and for catchment and landscape 

values (Carron 1985, Dargavel 1995). The focus of 

these agencies, through to the 1980s, was principally 

on managing the state forests for wood production 

without prejudicing other values. For most of this 

period, they were also at the forefront of forest 

conservation and reservation from production. 

However, state governments, which retained 

responsibility for resource management after federation 

in 1901, saw and used forest resources primarily as the 

basis for regional economic development, and 

established resource allocation and industry regulation 

regimes to foster this development. The forest agencies 

also began to develop Australia’s softwood plantations, 

recognising the relative lack of native softwoods and 

the evidently poor performance of most eucalypts in 

plantation culture. Rates of production from native 

forests peaked in the 1960s, and the rates of conversion 

of native forest to plantation peaked in the 1970s. 

Subsequently, wood production has come increasingly 

from plantation forests, and plantation forests have 

been established increasingly – now almost exclusively 

- on previously-cleared farmland. It is also increasingly 

shifting from the public to the private sector, although 
 23

the former remains dominant, albeit in a corporatised 

form (see Ferguson 1998). 

Although the forest agencies and their staff had been, 

and were seen to be, at the forefront of forest 

conservation until the 1960s, public perceptions and 

expectations had changed by the 1970s. The 

overharvesting of native forests to support the postsecond war economic expansion, the subsequent 

conversion of hundreds of thousand of hectares of 

native forest for higher yielding pine plantations, and 

the large-scale intensive harvesting of native forests for 

woodchips, all reflected contemporary interpretations 

of the contributions forestry should make to Australian 

society. As Australian society changed, and its 

perception of sustainability evolved, these earlier 

interpretations of sustainable production came to be 

seen as too narrow, notwithstanding their foundations 

in the concepts of sustained yield and multiple use. 

Australian society is now having to confront similar - 

and generally more challenging - issues of 

sustainability in agricultural production (PMSEIC 

1999) 

These broader societal and professional views of 

sustainable production are now reflected in Australia's 

explicit focus on sustainability in the wider terms 

exemplified by the Principles, Criteria and Indicators 

of the Montreal Process, with their recognition of 

sustianability’s economic, environmental and social 

dimensions (Commonwealth of Australia 1998). 

Sustainability in the broad sense was the focus of 

Australia's recent Regional Forest Agreement process 

(Box 1). It is similarly mirrored in the expansion of 

tree planting on farms - in its various manifestations 

for production, conservation and restoration - and in 

the beginnings of debate about how we might harness 

the emerging markets for environmental services to 

support reforestation and forest management. These 

opportunities and constraints, and the associated 

financial and environmental imperatives, set the 

context for the more sustainable production of forest 

products and services in Australia. 

Australia’s Regional Forest 

Agreement process 

Australia’s Regional Forest Agreement process 

(Commonwealth of Australia 2000) is one of the 

principal mechanisms for implementing the goals 

agreed in Australia’s National Forest Policy Statement 

of 1992. The process is the first nationally-coordinated 

attempt to assess the diversity of Australian forest 

values and agree forest allocation and management 

based on this information. Regional Forest Agreements 

are to be negotiated between the Commonwealth and 

respective State governments for each commerciallyimportant native forest region. Although each of the 

Agreements is negotiated under a common framework, 

the processes vary markedly between States, reflecting 

their different characteristics. 

The basis for negotiation of each Regional Forest 

Agreement is a Comprehensive Regional Assessment 

of each of the environment, heritage, economic and 

social values of forests. Data from the assessments are 

used as the basis of negotiation of each Agreement, 

which has a life of 20 years. The principal goals of 

each Agreement are: 

• a protected area system which seeks to 

incorporate 15% of the distribution of each 

forest ecosystem that existed prior to 

Europeans arriving in Australia, at least 60% 

of existing old growth forest, and at least 90% 

of high quality wilderness; 

• the protection of indigenous and European 

heritage, based on explicit recognition of 

those values in forest allocation and 

management; 

• certainty of resource supply for forest 

industries and regional communities, enabling 

the development of internationally 

competitive and ecologically sustainable 

industries; 

• sustainable management of the whole forest 

estate, both on and off reserves. 

The Regional Forest Agreement process has relied 

heavily on the use of bioregional conservation planning 

processes and tools (Kanowski et al 1999). The process 

has demanded a substantial commitment of resources 

from governments, and revealed many gaps in data. It 

has involved a variety of forms of community 

consultation and stakeholder involvement, and 

demonstrated both their potential and limitations 

(Dargavel et al 1999). 

More sustainable forestry5

As the preceding discussion illustrates for the case of 

Australia, and has been much more explicitly argued in 

discussions of the role of forestry internationally (eg

Westoby 1987), the purpose of forestry has long been 

to contribute to economic and social development 

without prejudicing environmental values, ie to 

promote sustainable development. The means by which 

this complex, challenging and dynamic goal might be 

translated into practice in particular Australian contexts 

has recently been explored by a number of leaders in 

Australian forestry, eg in the Tasmanian and West 

Australian cases (Rolley 1999, Shea 1999). These 

proposals are set in the broader context of the 

environmental, economic and social challenges facing 

rural and regional Australia, and of those generated by 

the expectations of urban Australians. 

It is widely accepted (eg Regional Australia Summit 

1999) that rural and regional Australia are struggling to 

 

5

 this section draws on Kanowski (2000). 
 24

adapt to a suite of disparate but powerful economic, 

social and environmental forces: for example, the 

globalisation of markets, increased exposure to market 

forces and market-based policy, declining farm and 

regional community incomes and public services, the 

rising environmental and economic costs associated 

with many traditional farming systems, and the 

increasing urbanisation of Australia’s population. It is 

also clear that many rural and regional communities are 

finding ways to respond to these challenges, and that –

in regions where there is a critical mass of forest 

resource – the forest industries are a key part of that 

response (Stayner 1999). Forestry has also to judge 

how it can best address urban Australians' expectations 

of sustainability, a task which poses some different 

challenges. These contexts suggest some key themes 

which more sustainable forestry should address in 

Australia, in native, plantation and farm forests: 

Economic contributions at the national, 

regional and farm levels. 

The aggregate national contributions of forestry to the 

Australian economy are well documented (BRS 1998), 

and further enhancing them is an explicit national 

policy goal (Commonwealth of Australia 1992, 1995). 

However, it is at the regional and local levels that the 

economic contributions of forestry are most directly 

felt. Awareness of the significance of forestry and the 

forest-based industries to regional economies has been 

greatly enhanced by the Regional Forest Agreement 

process, which has focused on industries based on 

native forests (Commonwealth of Australia 2000), and 

by other region-specific studies such as that for 

plantation-based industries of NSW’s Oberon region 

(Dywer-Leslie and Powell 1995). 

It is clear that, whatever the forest resource base, 

regional economic contributions are maximised when 

value-adding takes place within a region. Stayner 

(1999) points out that - whilst there are exceptions to 

this generality (eg the case of fresh food marketing), 

and whilst the benefits of value adding generally 

accrue to processors rather than producers –

“clustering” of enterprises can generate significant 

added-value regionally, and cites a number of forest 

industry examples in support of his case. He notes 

some of the complications associated with sustaining 

value-adding – eg the possibility of concentrating 

rather than diversifying a region’s economic base – but 

his and associated analyses suggest a number of policy 

directions to encourage sustainable value-adding. 

The most appropriate contributions at the farm 

enterprise level will be as diverse as farmers and farm 

businesses themselves, and include both direct and 

indirect benefits. All research suggests that farm 

forestry solutions need to be tailored to individual 

farmers’ needs, reflecting their various economic 

circumstances and personal preferences (eg Guijt and 

Race 1998). 

Environmental contributions at different 

scales and in different places. 

There is now a broad awareness of the most pressing 

environmental imperatives in the Australian 

agricultural landscape: principally, water and land 

salinisation, soil and ecosystem degradation, and 

biodiversity loss (eg Commonwealth of Australia 1996, 

PMSIEC 1999). Reforestation, and the improved 

management of remnant forests and woodlands in the 

agricultural landscape, are two of the central responses 

– transforming islands of remnant vegetation into 

networks, and enhancing the sustainability of our land 

use systems at landscape and farm scales (eg Williams 

1999). Such landscape-scale transformations, which 

can only be built through some level of coordination of 

actions at the individual farm level, are necessary not 

only to arrest the degradation we are currently 

witnessing, but to sustain the new forest-rich 

agricultural production systems we shall have to create. 

In the forests managed for conservation and for 

production, management regimes which recognise the 

complex dimensions of sustainability will be necessary 

to sustain Australian society’s expectations of our 

forests. Whilst elements remain contested, the progress 

that has been made towards the goal of ecologically 

sustainable forest management under the RFA and 

Montreal Processes offers a good foundation for the 

adaptive management regimes (eg Kanowski 1997, 

Margules and Lindenmayer 1996) that will be 

necessary - on all tenures - to deliver outcomes 

acceptable to the (primarily urban) Australian 

community, and which will therefore be sustainable in 

social terms. The development of Codes of Forest 

Practice, and of progressive systems for their 

implementation across all forest types and tenures (eg

Wilkinson 1999), provides the means for translating 

these higher-level commitments into operational 

practice. 

Social contributions to Australian 

communities. 

Some of the social contributions to Australian rural, 

regional and urban communities have been outlined 

above. One that has not yet been addressed adequately 

in government and industry policy, notwithstanding 

some notable exceptions in practice (eg Robins et al

1996), has been that of the integration of reforestation 

with other agricultural activity. Instead, we are still 

seeing more of a transfer, at a property scale, from 

agriculture to plantation forestry, and the resurgence of 

a backlash against that transformation and its landscape 

and social consequences (eg ABC 1999). It is clear 

that, in some cases at least, different policy settings and 

partnership incentive mechanisms could better promote 

commercial farm forestry, and attendant environmental 

benefits, as part of – rather than instead of – the farm 

enterprise. Finding appropriate incentive and 

resourcing mechanisms are a critical part of generating 

options for more integrated, and sustainable, 

approaches; the emergence of carbon and salinity 
 25

credits, and novel proposals for community-wide 

environmental levies (Community Salinity Summit 

2000), suggest the beginnings of such mechanisms. 

Conclusions 

As elsewhere, concepts and expectation of sustainable 

forestry have evolved in Australia, from a focus on 

sustained yield to recognition of the broader 

dimensions of sustainability. The high standard of 

living enjoyed by most Australians reflects the 

transformation of much of Australian natural capital, 

including Australia’s forests, into the social and 

financial capital. However, Australians are now 

appreciating that much of that transformation of natural 

capital has been unsustainable, and that forestry has –

as well as its part in that history - a substantial role as 

part of the re-creation of sustainable environments and 

economies. The sustainability of Australian society 

depends on how we conceive and manage this recreation. 

References 

ABC (Australian Broadcasting Commission). 1999. 

Plantation forestry. Report on Country Breakfast, 3 

April 1999. 

http://www.abc.net.au/rural/breakfast/stories/s21033.ht

m. 

BRS (Bureau of Rural Sciences). 1998. Australia’s 

state of the forests report 1998. BRS, Canberra. 189 p. 

Commonwealth of Australia. 1992. National Forest 

Policy Statement. AGPS. 51 p. 

Commonwealth of Australia. 1995. Wood and Paper 

Industry Strategy. 

http://www.isr.gov.au/industry/forestproducts/html/init

iatives.html 

Commonwealth of Australia. 1996. State of the 

environment. Australia 1996. Environment Australia, 

Canberra. 

http://www.environment.gov.au/soe/index.html 

Commonwealth of Australia. 1998. A framework of 

regional (sub-national) level criteria and indicators of 

sustainable forest management in Australia. 

http://www.affa.gov.au/ffid/sir/criteria/index.html 

Commonwealth of Australia. 2000. Regional Forest 

Agreements. http://www.rfa.gov.au/ 

Community Salinity Summit. Press report on meeting, 

Wagga Wagga, 4 February 2000. The Weekend 

Australian, 5-6 February 2000. 10. 

Dargavel, J, I Guijt, P Kanowski, D Race and W 

Proctor. 1999. Australia: settlements, conflicts and 

agreements. Paper for IIED, London, Policy that works

series. 35 p. 

Dwyer-Leslie Pty Ltd and Powell, RA. 1995. Oberon: 

rural community development study. Final Report. 

State Forests NSW, Sydney. 

Ferguson, IS. 1996. Australian forest services: 

institutions of change or changing institutions? 

Commonwealth Forestry Review 75: 136-141. 

Guijt, I and D Race. 1998. Growing successfully. 

Greening Australia and DPIE. 42 p. 

Kanowski, PJ. 1997. Regional Forest Agreements and 

future forest management. In: Outlook 1997. ABARE, 

Canberra. 225-235. 

Kanowski, PJ. 2000. Forestry’s role in a sustainable 

Australian society. Paper to Austimber 2000, Albury 

NSW, 15 March 2000. 5p. 

Kanowski, PJ, DA Gilmour, CR Margules and S 1999. 

International forest conservation: protected areas and 

beyond. Discussion Paper for IFF. Environment 

Australia. 52 p. http://www.environment.gov.au/ 

library/pubs/pdf/forests.pdf 

Margules, CR and DB Lindenmayer. 1996. Landscape 

level concepts and indicators for the conservation of 

forest biodiversity and sustainable forest management. 

In Proc. UBC-UPM Conference Ecological, Social and 

Political Issues of the Certification of Forest 

Management. May 1996. Putrajaya, Selangor, 

Malaysia. Faculty of Forestry, University of British 

Columbia, Vancouver. 65-83. 

PMSEIC (Prime Minister’s Science, Engineering and 

Innovation Council). 1999. Dryland salinity and its 

impacts on rural industries and the landscape. 

http;//www.dist.gov.au/science/pmseic/ 

Regional Australia Summit 1999. 

http://www.dotrs.gov.au/regional/summit/ 

Robins, L, McIntyre, K and Woodhill, J. 1996. Farm 

forestry in Australia. Greening Australia. 54p. 

Rolley, E. 1999. Max Jacobs Oration, 18th Biennial 

Conference, Institute of Foresters of Australia. Hobart, 

3-8 October 1999. IFA, Canberra. 

Shea, S. 1999. The potential of tree crops to contribute 

to the restoration of the ecological and economic 

balance of agricultural land. Paper to Fenner 

Conference, Visions of future landscapes. Canberra, 2-

5 May 1999. 

Stayner, R. 1999. Value-adding to regional 

communities and farming industries. Background paper 

for Regional Australia Summit, 27-29 October 1999. 

http://www.dotrs.gov.au/regional/summit/background/i

ndex.htm 
 26

Westoby, J. 1987. The purpose of forests. Blackwell. 

343 p. 

Wilkinson, G. 1999. Codes of forest practice as 

regulatory tools for sustainable forest management. In: 

RC Ellis and PJ Smethurst (eds). Practising forestry 

today. Proc. 18th Biennial Conference, Institute of 

Foresters of Australia. Hobart, 3-8 October 1999. 

43-60. 

Williams, J. 1999. Farming without harming: can we 

do it? Background paper for Regional Australia 

Summit, 27-29 October 1999. 
 27

Procedure for evaluating and monitoring the 

sustainability of a lumber production forest*

José Nivaldo Garcia, University of São Paulo, ESALQ-LCF, PO Box 9, 13418-900 

Piracicaba/SP, Brazil. jngarcia@carpa.ciagri.usp.br

Israel Luiz de Lima, Graduate Student of the Wood Science and Technology Program.

 

*

 The investigation reported in this paper was supported by the Eucatex Florestal S.A. 

A reliable estimate of the standing volume of sawn 

wood enables a strategy to be formulated for the 

sustainable management of production forests. This 

study proposes a method for estimating the sawn-wood 

volume stocked in any standing plantations. Only a few 

variables are required to make such prediction and each 

of them is very easy to be obtained for a particular 

forest, either planted or natural one. 

 

The accuracy of the proposed theory was verified in an 

Eucalyptus grandis experimental plantation which was 

being grown and managed according to the Correlated 

Curve Trend (CCT) method. 

The paper shows that stem shape and round wood 

volume can be predicted very well by a studied 

function which is based on the DBH and the height of 

the tree only. This function permits to obtain the 

diameters of all logs that are intended to be obtained 

from that stem. 

Another function was obtained from logs processing in 

an industrial sawmill for predicting the recovery rate 

which is expressed by the relationship between sawn 

wood volume and its early round wood volume. This 

function is based on the smaller diameter of the log 

only. 

The combination of those functions permits to obtain 

the sawn wood volume stocked in each DBH class of a 

standing population. Also provides a good estimate of 

the total round wood volume and sawn wood volume 

available in the entire forest. 

It was important to note that round and sawn wood 

prediction curves get closer each other as DBH 

becomes larger. This means that at some extent smaller 

trees do not contribute effectively with an optimized 

lumber production. In the case of natural forest, smaller 

trees can be saved for contributing with the 

regeneration process, without introducing great impact 

on lumber productivity of the whole forest. 

It is important for the sustainable management of 

forests that companies obtain an accurate assessment of 

end-product volume. They must know how large their 

forests have to be in order not to have either problems 

concerning to raw material supply or to explore above 

of the forest capacity. 

It is possible from this study to calculate either the 

exact area needed to supply a specific sawmill or the 

exact size of a sawmill that will operate, at optimum, 

based on a specific forest area. 

The proposed methodology estimates the potential of a 

forest lumber production and arrives to an indicator 

that brings together all people who work consciously 

exploring and protecting the environment. It may be 

considered as an interesting tool, which increases the 

capability for monitoring the maintenance of the 

lumber productivity. 

Introduction 

Long term businesses have been understanding the 

strong concept of sustainable management of 

production forests. Most of the time the forest 

sustainability has been meaning the profit continuity. 

So it will not be difficult to find industries that act for 

preserving both the forest and the profit. In this 

particular case they have been looking for the best 

tools for understanding the interaction between forest 

and industry. 

The objective of this work is to evaluate a method for 

the estimation of the sawn-wood volume stocked in a 

Eucalyptus grandis Hill ex-Maiden plantation. It also 

proposes the use of this method in natural forests as 

useful tool for monitoring the maintenance of the 

lumber production. 
28 

Materials and Methods 

Equation (1) adapted from (Ormerod,1973) was used to predict the stem shape of Eucalyptus grandis of a Correlated 

Curve Trend (C.C.T.) experiment which was set up according to the methodology described by Hyley (1959). Three 

trees were sampled from a plot which had approximately 17% of standing trees only which means 360 stems per hectare 

from an initial stocking of 2220 stems per hectare. 

Where: d = diameter at the specified height h; DBH = diameter at breast height; and H = total height of the tree. 

Three logs of each tree were taken and processed in an industrial sawmill for measuring the current recovery rate that 

will be useful to predict the sawn wood volume stocked in standing forests. The sawn wood recovery rate (SWR) was 

quite well explained by equation (2) which was obtained from that industrial procedure. 

Where: d = minimum log diameter obtained by equation (1) which depends of the log length. 

The total volume of sawn wood was then estimated from the DBH distribution of the stand using equation (3). 

Where: 

DL = log diameter measured at a distance of 2.5 m from the top of the log; f((DBH)i) = frequency of DBH belonging to 

 the class i; k = number of logs available in a tree; and n = number of classes in the E. grandis population. 

corrects the SWR when the new logs are longer or shorter than those used to build up the equation (2) which were 2.5 m 

long. 

 (R 0.85; F 29478**) (1) 1.3

2

0.6057

= = 



 





−

− = ⋅ H

H h d DBH

( ) ( ) (3) 8

/

1 1

2 2

2 2 2 2 j

n

ji

k

ij

L ij ij f DBH

d D

d D

SWV ha d D SWR ⋅

















+

+ = ∑∑ + ⋅ ⋅

= =

π

is the factor which 2 2

2 2

 d and D minimumand maximumlog diameters both estimated by equation (1); 





















+

+ =

d D

L d D

 (R 0.72 F 18.44**) (2) 2

37.0257 5.18764

= = =

−

d SWR e
29 

Results and Discussion 

Fig. 1 shows that stem volume can be predicted very well from equation (1) output diameters. The prediction do not 

lose accuracy even for great changing in the marketable height of the tree. This is very important because it provides a 

good estimate of the exact logs they have. Afterwards we may know the solid wood volume of any individual log. 

Fig. 1. Trees seen as a combination of component logs. 

Fig. 2 shows the observed and estimated sawn wood 

volume of three logs obtained of the sampled trees. 

Log 1 is related to the tree basis. Log 3 was taken from 

the highest marketable height. Log 2 came from the 

middle height of the tree. The sawn wood volume 

(SWV) was calculated by equation (2) which provided 

very good prediction and can be considered as having 

quite good accuracy.

Fig. 2. Sawn wood volume (SWV) obtained from the tree bottom (LOG 1), 

middle height (LOG 2) and top (LOG 3). 

0,15

1,30

2,45

3,60

4,75

5,90

7,05

8,20

9,35

10,50

11,65

12,80

13,95

15,10

16,25

17,40

18,55

19,70

20,85

22,00

23,15

24,30

-20 -10 0 10 20

diameter (cm)

height (m)

-20 -10 0 10 20

diameter (cm)

Estimated data

Observed data 

-20 -10 0 10 20

diameter (cm)

0,00

0,02

0,04

0,06

0,08

0,10

0,12

LOG 1 LOG 2 LOG 3

SWV (m 3)

Observed data

Estimated data
30 

Fig. 3 shows the round wood volume and sawn wood 

volume that were estimated for each class of the 

standing population using the equation (3). The total 

volumes calculated were 532 m3

/ha for round wood 

and 218 m3

/ha for sawn wood. 

It’s important to note that round and sawn wood 

volumes go getting closer as DBH goes becoming 

larger. This means that smaller trees of a natural forest, 

for example, can be saved without introduce great 

impact on the whole productivity. 

Afterwards it is possible to calculate either the exact 

area needed to supply a specific sawmill or the exact 

size of a sawmill which will operate based on a 

specified forest area.

Fig. 3. Forest productivity related to its DBH distribution. 

Conclusions 

It is important for the sustainable management of forest 

that companies obtain an accurate assessment of the 

wood volumes. 

The company must know how large its forest has to be 

in order not to have problems concerning to raw 

material supply. The proposed methodology estimates 

potential lumber productivity in standing forests giving 

to the forester the necessary basis for making the 

proper management. Further studies are needed in 

order to increase the accuracy on the productivity 

maintenance. Some researches have been carried out 

on the Amazonian Rain Forest in which it was possible 

to see the usefulness of an indicator that brings 

together all people who work consciously exploring 

and protecting the environment. It was concluded that 

50% of the harvested tree will be saved if the minimum 

DBH required for harvesting increases from 40 to 50 

cm. The impact on the whole productivity will be less 

than 20% of the current sawn wood volume produced. 

However this percentage can be by far compensated by 

an increasing of the recovery rate during the wood 

processing inside the sawmill. 

References: 

HILEY, W. E. 1959. Conifers: African Methods of 

Cultivation. London, Faber and Faber. 123 p. 

ORMEROD, D.W. 1973. A simple bole model. 

Forestry chronicle, Quebec, 41:136-8. 

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

19,5 24,5 29,5 34,5 39,5

DBH (cm)

Frequency/ha

0

50

100

150

200

250

Volume (m3/ha)

frequency of

DBH

round wood

sawn wood
31 

Made to Compete: A Hybrid Product for Forest Products 

Industry

David N.S. Hon, Clemson University, U.S.A. 

Abstract 

Wood has long been considered as an engineering 

material. Recent survey showed that many builders do 

not consider wood as a suitable material for 

construction use. They see wood as the least durable

material. In order to improve wood’s competitive 

position, forest products industry is facing many 

challenges. One of the attractive and practical 

approaches is to produce a hybrid product from wood 

and plastic materials. The potential of producing a 

high wood fiber, low plastic characteristic wood fiberthermoplastic composite is discussed. Current upward 

trend in cooperation between the forest products and 

plastics industries is exhilarating. 

Keywords: Reliability, durability, strength, material 

shift, forest products industry, plastics industry, 

composite materials. 

Introduction 

We are living in a dynamic world. Science and 

technology are changing with it. Three 

megatechnologies will dominate in the early years of 

new millennium: information technology, 

biotechnology, and new materials. In terms of new 

materials, they must be functional, high performance 

engineering materials. Even though metal and nonmetal materials have their places in the science and 

technology world, only those products with high 

reliability and durability will prevail. Wood is a 

versatile material. Can it be compete with other 

engineering materials as we stride into the new 

millennium? 

Is Wood a Durable Engineering 

Material? 

The development of civilization over the past 10,000 

years, and especially the expansion and intensification 

of human activities over the past two centuries, has 

brought great changes in materials utilization. Wood 

has been ingrained in human culture since the 

beginning of history. It is the working substance of our 

civilization. It has been used as fuel, in domestic 

utensils, tools, weapons, as a building material, and in 

transportation. In the past three decades, wood has 

encountered growing competition from nonrenewable 

raw materials such as steel, reinforced concrete, 

prepressed concrete, aluminum and plastics. In order 

to make wood more competitive with these non-wood 

materials, new wood products, namely, plywood, 

particleboard, waferboard, oriented strand board, fiber 

board, and glued laminated timber, have been 

developed. There is little doubt that wood is easily 

worked, has great strength in relation to weight and 

beauty, and has great ability to absorb shocks from 

impact-type loads. In addition, wood does not corrode, 

is comparatively light in weight, and is adaptable to a 

countless variety of uses. The production of wood and 

the manufacture of wood products contribute about 

US$400 billion to the world market economy (about 

2% of GDP). Recent projections of future 

consumption of industrial wood to the year 2050 

suggest an increase from the current level of about 1.7 

billion cubit meters per year to somewhere between 2 

and 3 billion cubit meters per year. Nonetheless, wood 

is an organic, biological material which is more 

susceptible to deterioration than other inorganic 

materials such as steel or concrete or even organic 

materials such as plastics. In comparison to other 

engineering materials, wood suffers the following 

disadvantages: biodegradation, dimensional instable, 

flammable, sensitive to chemicals, moisture and 

sunlight. In order to improve the serviceability of 

wood, it is necessary to overcome these disadvantages. 

In many industrial applications, including building and 

repairing of infrastructure, wood products industry 

should play an important role in this activity. 

Unfortunately, people who decide which materials to 

use in infrastructure projects often don’t see wood as 

their best choice. In terms of performance, wood was 

rated lowest among the engineering materials. When 

choosing materials for infrastructure projects, officials 

use six factors. In order of importance, they are 

durability, maintenance, cost, environmental impact, 

ease of design and innovation. Their perception of 

wood was not very high. Among the materials in 

question, they see wood as the least durable, yet 

durability is their most important criterion. Thus, 

wood products industry is facing many challenges. 

Simply put, as we enter the new millennium, the 

challenges to wood industry have never been greater. 

Materials Shift 

At the beginning of the 20th century, the United States 

obtained about 75% of its material from renewable 

resources. The remaining 25% was met by minerals. 

This pattern of use held relatively constant until the 

Second World War when the oil and plastics industry 

started to emerge. 
32 

Wood products industry is a mature industry and wood 

is an old engineering material. More than 5,000 items 

can be produced from wood. Wood technologists are 

still making new engineering products out of old ones. 

On the other hand, plastics industry is a young 

industry. It produces more than 10,000 different 

materials for use in products as diverse as the mind can 

imagine. In little more than 60 years, plastics have 

become a primary engine of economic growth. We 

surely today live in the Plastic Age. Plastics have 

become important materials in our society because they 

exhibit a variety of physical properties. Scientists have 

also developed plastic materials cheaper and stronger. 

Engineering plastics exhibit high degrees of 

mechanical strength, thermal stability, chemical 

stability, and dielectric properties. It has been 

recognized that plastics have been and will continue to 

displace traditional materials, like wood and metal in 

building and construction applications. They grow at a 

compound annual rate of 5 to 6% worldwide. In the 

construction field, in some instances, replacing 

previously used wood products by plastics has been 

particularly strong and is continuing to increase. The 

use of plastics or non-wood materials is stimulated by 

the escalating prices of wood construction products 

which have roughly doubled in the past four years after 

remaining essentially constant since the late 1970s. 

The expansive use of plastics, however, creates a 

serious disposal problem. A high quantity of this 

durable material ends up in the landfill and is nonbiodegradable. The plastics industry searches 

desperately for ways to solve the disposal problems 

with aggressive involvement in recycling business. 

Under these circumstances, it is imperative that durable 

wood products be developed in order for them to be 

competitive. One of the attractive and practical areas is 

to produce a hybrid product from wood and plastic 

materials. Durable wood fiber-thermoset composites, 

using phenol-formaldehyde as the binder, have been 

successfully demonstrated in the 1950s. However, the 

use of wood fiber with thermoplastics is a more recent 

innovation. Even though the wood products industry 

has been involved in innovative wood composite 

production for a long time, the development of wood 

fiber- thermoplastic composites can be described as the 

introduction of a new product to the industry. 

Engineering Composite Materials 

The properties of simple homogeneous polymers are 

sufficient for many applications. On the other hand, 

materials scientists are noting with increasing 

frequency and urgency that heterogeneous dispersion 

of a second phase in the polymer, on a submicroscopic 

or microscopic scale, can often produce tremendous 

improvement in properties and versatility for a greater 

variety of more demanding applications. Thus, they 

have been creating new composite materials by 

blending and alloying. Composites represent one of 

the fastest growing commodities in the world market. 

Perhaps one of the most important concepts that 

composite materials are useful is because of their 

complexity. Blends and composites are toughened 

because many modes of resistance to failure are 

available. 

One of the biggest new areas of research in this fields 

is in combining wood fiber with thermoplastics. As a 

matter of fact, wood fiber - thermoplastic composites 

have been prepared in the 1950's. The difficulty of 

quickly processing them into solid composite materials 

because of their inherently high melt temperature has 

limited interest in commercializing them until recently. 

Success in utilizing wood fibers as a reinforcing agent 

for plastic composites, coupled with the realization that 

huge volumes of a valuable resource, namely plastics 

and lignocellulosic materials in the municipal solid 

waste are being wasted prompted renewed interest. 

Since 1990, enormous commercial and scientific 

attention has been focused on developing composites 

from recycled wood and plastics. A considerable 

amount of work has revolved around improving the 

interfacial bond between the hydrophobic 

thermoplastic and the hydrophilic lignocellulose. The 

beneficial effect on mechanical properties of wood 

fiber-plastic composites treated with coupling agents or 

oxidizing agents has been demonstrated. 

In general, two types of wood fiber- thermoplastic 

composites can be prepared. Namely, composites with 

high and low thermoplastic contents. In the former, 

wood fiber serves as a reinforcing agent or filler in a 

continuous thermoplastic matrix. On the contrary, in 

the latter, thermoplastic serves as a binder to wood 

fiber. The composites with high thermoplastic content 

appear and perform like thermoplastics with the 

exception that they have better strength properties due 

to the stiffness of wood fiber. On the other hand, the 

composites with low thermoplastic content appear like 

wood composites with the exception that the surface 

looks like having laminated or coated with 

thermoplastics. Regardless of the thermoplastic 

content in the composites, the well-prepared 

composites exhibit good dimensional stability, insect 

resistance and water-repellent property, and provide 

good strength properties. Currently, most of the 

research and commercial products are based on high 

thermoplastic content. This class of products probably 

serves well for the plastics industry. For the purpose of 

effective utilization of wood fiber, the preparation of 

composites with high wood fiber content and low 

thermoplastic components suits well for the forest 

products industry. 

Composites with low thermoplastic content can be 

made in different ways. In principle, the plastic acts 

like a binder or adhesive to the wood fiber. Hence, 

wood fiber can be dry-blended with thermoplastic 

granules, flakes or films at ambient temperature and 

put into a hot press; or hot air is injected through the 

mixture to melt the plastic. The fiber with molten 

plastic is then pressed into a mat. The mat is 

transferred to a cold press to consolidate and cool the 

mat. In this process, it is very similar to the 
33 

conventional wood fiber composites; no extrusion 

equipment is needed. And in the process, more than 

seventy percent of wood fiber may be used. 

The composites of high wood fiber, low thermoplastic 

content are a new field for forest products industry. In 

order to produce such composites with excellent 

chemical, physical and mechanical properties, there is 

much work to be done. In addition to understanding 

wood properties, including species, density, geometry 

of fiber or chip, it also requires understanding plastic 

properties, including density, viscosity, melting and 

softening temperatures and glass transition points. 

Moreover, blending techniques and mat-forming 

parameters have to be studied thoroughly. Since it is a 

relatively new field to the forest products industry, 

there are inevitably many obstacles to overcome before 

these materials become common in mass-market 

products, but these problems are mostly engineering 

rather than chemistry problems, and solutions will be 

found. The high wood fiber and low plastic 

composites are here to stay. Interestingly, cooperation 

between the forest products and plastics industries is 

showing an upward trend. More and more wood fiberplastic composites are expected to appear in the 

marketplace in the very near future.. 

Concluding Remarks 

As we enter the 21st century, advanced composites will 

be the fastest growing materials of all. The world of 

advanced composites is a highly competitive 

commercial arena. Natural wood products are used 

and synthetic plastics are made mainly because of their 

outstanding mechanical properties. All their industrial 

importance as construction and engineering materials is 

ultimately based on strength, stiffness and high 

modulus. Both of these unique materials have their 

strengths and weaknesses. In view of the important 

relationships between the traditional wood products 

and plastics industries, it is quite certain that 

cooperation and competition between the two 

industries will be intensified in the years to come, and 

that more companies will be engaged in activities 

involving both industries. Naturally, the combination 

of both materials can augment their strengths and 

meliorate their weaknesses. 

Wood fiber-plastic composite is emerging as a 

coherent doctrine or technical field with deep 

intellectual roots, which promises new contributions, 

on a practical time scale, to the nation’s prosperity, 

security, and quality of life. The coming years should 

be a heady time for the wood products industry, but 

clouds are on the horizon. To meet the growth 

projections, wood products manufacturers must work 

cooperatively with plastics manufacturers; they will 

have to increase the amount of applied research they 

conduct and provide better performance, durability for 

their consumers. The challenge of meeting these 

increased demands will help foster a high level of 

versatility and innovation with wood products industry 

aggressively exploring new and more efficient way of 

doing business. 

General References 

Youngquist, J. A. 1999. Wood-Based Composites and 

Panel Products. In: Wood Handbook. .FPL-GTR-113. 

Madison, WI: USDA Forest Service, Forest Products 

Laboratory. 

Youngquist, J. A.;Myers, G. E.; Muehl, J. M. 1993. 

Composites from recycled wood and plastics. Final 

Rep., U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Project 

IAG DWI12934608-2. Madison, WI: USDA Forest 

Service, Forest Products Laboratory. 

English, B.; Chow, P.; Bajwa, D. S. 1997. Processing 

into composites. In: Rowell, R. M.; Young, R. A.; 

Rowell, J. K., eds. Paper and Composites from AgroBased Resources. Boca Raton: CRC Lewis Publishers 

Co.: 269-299. 
34 

Implementation of Sustainable Forest Management : 

Application of Criteria and Indicators in Korea 

Joong Myung Kim, Forestry Research Institute Seoul, Korea

Abstract 

Since the UNCED in 1992, sustainable forest 

management has been the major theme of 

conservation, management, and development of 

forest resources around the world. While 

addressing the promotion of efficient utilization and 

assessment to recover the full valuation of the 

goods and services provided by forests, forest lands 

and woodlands at UNCED, governments agreed to 

pursue, in cooperation with special interest groups 

and international organizations, the formulation of 

scientifically sound criteria and guidelines for the 

management, conservation and sustainable 

development of all types of forests (Chapter 11 of 

Agenda 21, Programme Area C, Section 11.23[b]). 

Also governments recognized that sustainable 

management and use should be carried out in 

accordance with national development policies and 

priorities and on the basis of environmentally sound 

management guidelines; and that, in the 

formulation of such guidelines, account should be 

taken, as appropriate and if applicable, of relevant 

internationally agreed methodologies and 

criteria(paragraph 8(d) of the Forest Principles). 

To promote sustainable forest management in 

Korea, many actions have been taken in close 

cooperation with international and regional 

initiatives about forest resources. In particular, 

Korea has actively participated in the Montreal 

Process and others including Intergovernmental 

Panel on Forests under the UNCSD. Based on the 

major criteria and indicators for sustainable forest 

management, the current forest management 

conditions were evaluated in Korea. The average 

applicability of criteria and indicators for 

sustainable forest management in Korea was 

estimated at about 70% among major criteria, 

except for legal, economic, and institutional 

framework. In each criterion, the current status 

were discussed and future activities were suggested 

to achieve the sustainable forest management in 

Korea. In particular, the general conditions of 

forest management based on criteria in Korea was 

briefly described and major programmes towards 

sustainable forest management were explained in 

context with the long-term Forest Plan, started in 

1998. 
35 

Sustainable Development of Rubberwood in China 

Li Yudong, Research Scientist, Research Institute of Wood Industry (CRIWI), Chinese Academy of 

Forestry, Beijing 100091, People’s Republic of China 

Abstract 

The situation of rubberwood resource and supply , 

as well as the timber demand and timber supply 

shift in China is discussed. For the sustainable 

development of rubberwood industry and rubber 

plantation, more research on rubber wood 

utilization including regeneration, management, 

processing, marketing, are proposed. 

Key Words: rubberwood, sustainable development, 

research 

Introduction 

As the 4th largest rubberwood resource in the world, 

rubberwood plantation area in China occupy 

618,500 hectares of which 374,000 hectares are on 

Hainan Island, 156,500 hectares are in Yannan 

Province and 88,000 hectares are in Guangdong 

Province. 

China has had an active rubberwood research 

program since 1980’s when the rubberwood 

industry was established. Research has included 

sawing, prevention of attack by mould and blue 

stain fungal or insect, preservative treatment, 

drying etc., but the main focus is on primary 

processing. This research provided the basic 

technical information needed by rubberwood 

industry at that time. 

With the emergence of environmental protection as 

a critical issue in industry development, and the 

consideration sustainable management of forest in 

national development, many new problems has 

arisen in the rubberwood industry which needs to 

be resolved. 

Resource and Supply 

The rubberwood industry on Hainan Island is more 

developed than in other areas of China. The 

General Bureau of Hainan State Farms (GBHSF) 

owns 66.5% of the 374,000 hectares of rubberwood 

plantation on Hainan Island. The regeneration data 

of rubber tree implemented by GBHSF is listed in 

Table 1. 

Table 1. Regeneration Area of Rubberwood 

Tree Plantations in Hainan State Farms 

YEAR AREA (hectare) 

1981 917.5 

1982 804.9 

1983 1,781.9 

1984 2,326.1 

1985 2,391.5 

1986 1,830.3 

1987 2,512.9 

1988 2,741.4 

1989 2,926.8 

1990 2,885.9 

1991 3,558.5 

1992 4,547.0 

1993 4,522.2 

1994 3,823.6 

1995 3,268.0 

1996 2,473.2 

1997 2,560.5 

Industrial utlilization of rubberwood began around 

1985-1987. The annual wood production capacity 

was 400,000 m3

 of sawn timber, 20,000 m3 of 

plywood, and 39,000 m3 of MDF as at 1998. Other 

rubberwood products were flooring, blockboard, 

moulding board, laminate, and handicrafts. The 

average annual output of rubberwood products was 

around 350,000m3

 from 1988 to 1997. The 

production volume of the main rubberwood the 

production volume of rubberwood sawn timber and 

furniture products is listed in Table 2 . It can be 

seen that has dramatically increased over the past 

10 years, whereas the volume of plywood has 

heavily decreased since 1995 due to the depleting 

supply of quality veneer. 
 35

Table 2. Production Volume of the Main Rubberwood Products 

 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 

Sawn Timber (m3) 33,856 45,970 55,740 62,185 87,575 75,197 69,820 

Plywood (m3) 8,111 19,304 22,104 23,151 9,598 4,887 4,547 

Particleboard (m3

) 9,843 30,312 25,174 28,003 26,197 26,305 27,759 

Furniture (1,000 Set) 214.4 714.4 836.0 1,081.0 890.0 940.0 970.0 

 (1,000 RMB) 11,260 -- 59,530 -- 111,070 144,550 162,700 

Timber Supply Shift 

The severe deforestation of natural forest was one 

of the most important causes for the heavy flooding 

in both the southern and northern regions of China 

in 1998. This was one of the reasons that led China 

to implement the Natural Forest Protection 

Program. By executing of the logging ban on 

natural forests, China faces a big problem in 

supplying raw materials to the forest industry as 

over 50% of timber supply in China were once 

from these natural forests. 

The reduced timber production in connection with 

the logging ban would have a severe impact on the 

local forest industry. Therefore, China should find 

appropriate ways to overcome this situation. The 

importation would ease the timber shortage, but it 

can not meet the demand, as the shortage is too 

big—59.9 million m3 in 2000, and increasing after 

2000. If the supply relies only upon the 

importation, it would also cause a severe impact on 

the world timber market. 

It was predicted that the total timber demand in 

2000 would be 101.9 million m3

 (excluding 

fuelwood), and the supply would be only 63.9 

million m3

 without the logging ban. As 21.9 million 

cubic meters of the timber reduction (logging ban) 

was planned for 2000 in the Natural Forest 

Protection Program, the timber shortage would be 

59.9 million cubic meters in 2000. 

One of the ways to resolve the shortage of raw 

materials in the forest industry is to facilitate the 

utilization of plantation timber or fast growing 

species. In order to fulfil the need for the 

conservation of natural forest and the sustainable 

management of plantation forest, appropriate fast 

growing tree species should be selected that thrive 

under the climatic and growing conditions in China 

while still producing timber with satisfactory 

characteristics. Rubberwood is such a species. It fits 

the sub-tropical climate region of China and has 

acceptable wood properties. This can provide a 

considerable potential to provide raw materials to 

forest industry by substituting a large number of 

currently used species in China. 

Future R & D Activities 

The timber supply shift would provide oportunities 

for the development of rubberwood as a viable 

plantation timber resource. 

Regeneration of 2.5-3.0% rubber s each year is 

planned in Hainan. This means that the annual 

supply of rubberwood would be 418,000 m3

 of log 

and 188,000 m3

 of branches. Due to the s at the 

local economic level, there are still 33,000 hectares 

of old (over 30 years) standing rubber trees which 

form part of the supply potential once regeneration 

activities commence. 

For promoting the sustainable use of rubberwood, 

research and development work on rubberwood 

products should emphasize improvements in 

efficiency and competitiveness of the Chinese 

rubberwood industry. Some important topics to 

address in this R & D effort include: 

Plantation for both 

Latex and Timber 

All rubberwood supplies now come from rubber 

plantations originally established for latex in China. 

The rubberwood timber is a secondary or byproduct of rubber plantations. Therefore the quality 

of rubberwood timber/log is not very good for 

making wood products. 

The regeneration of existing rubber areas with 

vigorous clones which can provide high wood 

volume with good quality at harvest and the 

sustainable management of rubber forest plantation 

are ways to enhance rubberwood production. 

Planting rubber tree for both latex and timber 

would benefit both the latex industry and 

rubberwood processing industry in China. In view 

of the attractive returns that can be obtained from 

both latex and rubberwood, the owner of rubber 

farm should be encouraged to adopt rubber tree 

planting for latex and eventually timber.. 

Development of Processing Control 

The time lapse between the felling of rubberwood 

trees and the kiln drying is very critical as this is the 

time when most fungal and insect attack will take 

place, no matter what sort of chemical and 
 36

treatment process is used. The shorter the time, the 

less the risk of fungal and insect attack. 

The long time lapse between log cutting and kiln 

drying was one of the main reasons that prompted 

the use of sodium pentachlorophenate (NaPCP) to 

protect rubberwood from stain, mold and insect 

attack. In fact, if the sawing, treatment and drying 

can be done without delay, it would not be 

necessary to use NaPCP. So the key factor for the 

management of rubberwood processing is "no 

delay": freshly felled rubberwood should quickly be 

sawn, treated, and kiln-dried. Synchronizing 

capacities of sawing, treatment and kiln drying is 

important, and would reduce delay. Specifications 

for input of raw materials at each stage of 

production right to the end products are also 

needed. 

Treatment with EnvironmentallyFriendly Chemicals 

Rubberwood is susceptible to fungal and insect 

attack. Hence it must be properly treated to prevent 

the deterioration of wood which would result in 

wastage of useful material and financial loss. The 

preservative used for treating rubberwood in China 

was a mixture of borax, boric acid and NaPCP. The 

mixture is called BBP. In which NaPCP contains 

contaminants of dioxins and is highly toxic to both 

human being and environment. As dioxins in 

NaPCP can cause a number of hazard, it has been 

strictly restricted or prohibited in many countries, 

such as Sweden, Germany, Spain, Chile, Denmark, 

Switzerland, Italy, Greece, Malaysia, Indonesia, 

Japan, New Zealand, Australia and USA (restricted 

used). BBP is highly corrosive to the inner surface 

of the impregnating tank as well as the components 

of seasoning kilns. Furthermore, BBP also discolors 

the wood, thus lowering the acceptability and value 

of treated rubberwood. 

To reach the international quality of rubberwood 

products, not only the effectiveness of the 

preservative but also the environmental impact of 

the preservative, have to be considered. Therefore it 

is necessary to replace NaPCP with environmentalfriendly chemicals. Pentachlorophenol-free 

preservative for rubberwood will minimize many of 

the problems encountered at present. 

More Applications of Rubberwood 

Rubberwood sawn timber can be used for 

manufacturing many timber products such as 

furniture, flooring, doors, doorframe, and laminate. 

In view of the huge population and fast economic 

growth, China has a very large market for timber 

products. Hainan Island and Yunnan Province are 

rich in rubberwood timber resources and have great 

potential to further develop and expand the 

rubberwood industry in China. 

Rubberwood as a source of raw material for the 

wood-based industry in Malaysia and Thailand has 

indeed determined and accelerated the development 

of the downstream timber industry in these 

countries with respect to furniture manufacturing 

and panel production, especially MDF. Here 

rubberwood is also used for the production of other 

products such as laminated veneers lumber (LVL) 

and laminated boards. The growth in this kind of 

panel products not only improves the application of 

rubberwood for furniture manufacturing, parquet 

flooring and craft production etc., but also opens a 

new market for rubberwood residues. This new 

kind of rubberwood board products and more 

added-value high quality products increase the 

competitiveness of the rubberwood industry in 

China. 

Market Research and Marketing 

Rubberwood products are well accepted in the 

international market, especially in the United States 

of America, Japan and Europe. During the last 

decade, the market for rubberwood products has 

been growing very fast and is probably in excess of 

US$500 million, but its potential as a utility timber 

is immense and still largely untapped in China. 

The demand for rubberwood was not considerable 

in the domestic market although China has long 

been short of local timber. The reasons for the low 

demand included: 

The advantages of rubberwood as one of the 

plantation timbers which can be sustainablly used 

has not been appreciated; 

The production of durable rubberwood through 

suitable treatment has not been accepted; 

The quality of local rubberwood did not meet the 

requirement of specification, color, and durability; 

Insufficient marketing knowledge and measures in 

the rubberwood industry. 

Despite having a large area of rubber tree 

plantations, the annual output value of rubberwood 

products in China is relatiavely minor in 

proportion. Current status of rubberwood utilization 

is still at very low level because of low market 

acceptance and lack of marketing expertise. 

With the shift from planning economy to market 

economy in China, market forces would prevail to 

influence the direction of the wood industry. The 

market and marketing research is becoming 

increasingly important, and should be strengthen, to 

help promote the development of a sustainable 

rubberwood industry in China. 
 37

Conclusions 

Timber research has yielded the basic technology of 

rubberwood processing and utilization for the 

establishment of rubberwood industry in China. To 

promote the sustainable development of the 

rubberwood industry and the rubber plantation in 

China, both technological and marketing research 

are needed. This would also support the strategic 

timber shift from natural forest to plantation 

forestry in China. 

References 

1, Lin, Zechuan. 1998. The development, utilization 

and future of rubberwood in Hainan Island. Pp5-10 

in Proceedings of the rubberwood processing and 

utilization seminar. 2-3 December 1998. Haikou, 

China. 

2, Shi, Feng, Yang, Zhen and Tian, Zhiwei. 1997. 

Some considerations on the implementation of the 

protection of natural forest resource and the 

development of wood industry in China. In 

proceedings of Chinese Society of Wood Industry. 

October 1997. Zhengding, Hebei Province, China. 
 38

Pelleted Municipal Sludge - A Key Element in Future 

Resource Cycling and Sustainable Forest Management. 

Tord Magnusson, Björn Hånell, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, 

Faculty of Forestry, Umea, Sweden 

Introduction 

Field experiments have been established in northern 

and southern Sweden on the basis of the vision that 

forests may become important links in the cycling 

of waste by-products, such as e.g. municipal sludge 

and wood ash, and that cycling of environmentally 

safe sludge pellets could be an important element in 

sustainable forest management. 

New technology, including spraying of newly 

formed sludge pellets with lime or wood ash, which 

prevents these from sticking together, allows for 

producing dry and hygienic (non-infectious) pellets 

that are easily stored and transported. This method 

eliminates severe problems that are associated with 

the handling of wet or moist sludge, i.e. high water 

content, pathogenic bacteria and bad smell (Hånell 

et al., 1996). Partly due to these problems and 

credibility gaps between the general public and 

public agencies regarding the fate of waste water 

products, amendments of municipal sludge to 

agricultural or forest soils have not been generally 

accepted and become common practise - in spite of 

the fact that the quality of sludge has constantly 

improved with respect to e.g. the content of toxic 

trace metals. Our study was restricted to 

testing a method of spreading sludge pellets in 

forest stands, the pellet fertilization effects on the 

rate of nitrification and nitrogen turnover, the heavy 

metal content in berries, mushrooms and field 

vegetation in fertilized and unfertilized plots, and 

number of mushroom species and changes in their 

relative abundance following various amounts of 

pellet amendments. 

Materials and methods 

In order to test the value of a forest application 

program with respect to environmental and 

ecological effects, including single tree and stand 

growth, dried and hygienic sludge pellets were 

amended in dozes of 0, 4, 8, and 16 tonnes ha-1 in 

Scots pine and Norway spruce dominated forest 

stands. The pellets contained approximately 32 % 

C, 2.9 % N, 1.8 % P, 0.2 % K, 0.3 % Mg, 7.2 % Ca 

and 0.4 % S. Each treatment were replicated three 

times. Nitrate reductase activity (NRA) in 

vegetation was measured according to Högberg et 

al. (1986). 

Results 

The results show that 

(i) an ordinary farm tractor equipped with the most 

common type of centrifugal spreader designed for 

commercial fertilizers, can be used for spreading 

sludge pellets as well. These were evenly 

distributed after spreading in perpendicular 

direction from strip roads 10-12 m apart. 

 (ii) the nitrate reductase (NR) activity in leaves of 

Deschampsia flexuosa (L.) Trin. was moderately 

(but statistically significant) increased 6-8 weeks 

after pellet amendments of 4-16 tonnes ha-1 (fig. 1). 

In another set of experimental plots NR activity 

was still somewhat raised two years after 

application of 4 tonnes ha-1. 

(iii) two years after treatment, the heavy metal 

concentrations in edible lingonberries (Vaccinium 

vitis idaea L.), blueberries (Vaccinium myrtillus L.) 

and fruitbodies of mycorrhizal fungi, did not differ 

between untreated control plots and plots recieving 

4 tonnes ha-1 (Table 1). 

(iv) inventories of fungal fruitbodies 6-8 weeks 

after pellet amendments of 4-16 tonnes ha-1, 

showed that the number of species remained 

unchaged, while species composition changed 

significantly. The very large and important genus of 

Cortinaried in relation to other groups (Fig. 2). 
39































































0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

1.2

1.4

I II III

 Treatments:

Enzyme activity,

 umol NO2/g, hr

Control

4 t/ha

8 t/ha

16 t/ha

 Max-NRA

 

______________________________________________________________________________ 

 Cd_____ Cu_____ Ni_____ Pb_____ Zn_____

 C SP C SP C SP C SP C SP 

______________________________________________________________________________ 

Blueberry/Lingonberry 

(n = 12) 0.04 0.05 6 6 2 2 0.2 0.2 32 43 

Blueberry leaves (n = 6) 0.07 0.06 11 7 7 3 0.6 0.5 62 30 

Cortinarius leucophanes 

(n = 3) 5.00 5.67 18 19 1 1 0.3 0.6 136 121 

Mixed mycorrhizal fungi 

(n = 16) 1.94 1.87 18 18 1 1 0.4 0.5 90 89 

______________________________________________________________________________ 

Table 1. Heavy metals (mg/kg d.w.) in plants/fungal fruitbodies two years after addition of 4 tonnes of 

sludge pellets per hectare. (C = Control; SP = Sludge pellets)

0

2 0

4 0

6 0

8 0

S lu d g e p e lle ts , t/h a

Percentage of Cortinarius sp.

0 4 8 16

Figure 2. Example of changes in species composition of fungi after sludge pellet amendments (decrease of 

the Cortinarius genus). 

Figure 1. Nitrate reductase activity (NRA) in Deschampsia flexuosa leaves 6-8 weeks after 

sludge pellet amendments in a three block (I-III) experiment.
40

Discussion

Despite constantly improved quality of municipal 

sludge in Sweden since the 1970 ́s, pellet 

concentrations of most heavy metals are higher than 

in the organic matter of surface soils in the Swedish 

forests. Possible biological enrichment in microbes, 

plants and further up in food chains have to be 

checked. In this investigation no such enrichments 

were indicated. 

The results encourage further efforts to find out 

whether or not cycling of pellets from municipal 

sludge into silvicultural systems for intensive and 

extensive production rates can be justified. 

Provided environmentally sound, relatively large 

amendments 

of pellets could be made in areas selected for 

intensive forest production (pulpwood, fuel) 

whereas smaller pellet dozes could favour timber 

assortments in forest stands which are reaching the 

end of the rotation period. 

References

Hånell, B., Magnusson, T. & Modig, T. 1996. 

Pelleting of sludge - innovation strengthens the role 

of forests in cycling. Swedish Univ. Agr. Sciences. 

Fakta Skog, nr 11. 4 pp. (In Swedish). 

Högberg, P., Granström. A., Johansson, T, 

Lundmark-Thelin, A. & Näsholm, T. 1986. Plant 

nitrate reductase activity as an indicator of 

availability of nitrate in forest soils. Can. J. For. 

Res. 16:1165-1169. 

Högbom, L. & Högberg, P. 1991. Nitrate nutrition 

of Deschampsia flexuosa (L.) Trin. In relation to 

nitrogen deposition in Sweden. Oecologia 87, 488-

494. 
41

Alternatives to Clearcutting in the Old-Growth Forests of 

Southeast Alaska. 

Michael H. McClellan and Robert L. Deal, USDA Forest Service, PNW 

Research Station, Juneau, AK 

Abstract 

Clearcut logging of old-growth temperate rain 

forests is one of the most visible and contentious 

forest management issues in southeast Alaska. 

This issue touches the cornerstones of southeast 

Alaska’s economic and social well being: the 

timber industry, fisheries, tourism, and 

subsistence. Broader concerns for biological 

diversity, threatened or endangered species, and 

the value of wild and remote places have focused 

national attention on this issue. Observations 

suggest that southeast Alaskan forests and the 

associated animal taxa are well adapted to the 

widespread small-to-medium-sized disturbances 

caused by wind, disease, and landslides. The use 

of silvicultural systems other than even-aged 

management with clearcutting could take 

advantage of this adaptation to provide a 

sustainable supply of timber—along with a host 

of other important values. 

The alternatives to clearcutting (ATC) study uses 

experimental and retrospective approaches to 

evaluate several silvicultural systems for 

managing old-growth western hemlock-Sitka 

spruce (Tsuga heterophyla-Picea sitchensis) 

forests—including even and uneven-aged 

management—and their biological, physical, and 

socioeconomic effects. The ATC study 

integrates research on stand dynamics, forest 

health, understory plant communities, wildlife 

habitat, stream ecology, slope stability, 

hydrology, economics, visual quality, and social 

acceptability. 

Three factors and their interactions are tested in 

the experimental study: the stand density 

retained after timber harvest, the spatial pattern 

of the retained trees (uniform vs. patchy), and the 

size of patches (gaps or uncut reserve areas). 

The matrix-patch design includes both ‘hard’ and 

‘soft’ edges. Post-treatment stand densities 

range from 0 to 100% of the initial stand basal 

area (clearcut and uncut control, respectively), 

with three intermediate densities. Nine 

treatments are replicated in three blocks located 

across the Tongass National Forest, and each 

experimental unit is 18 ha, on average. 

The purchase of two major ATC timber sales and 

the successful harvest of one demonstrated that 

ATC systems are viable in the current timber 

marketplace and that the treatments are feasible 

from technical and safety points of view. In 

general, residual trees at the first harvested block 

showed higher levels of harvest related damage 

in 25% retention prescriptions (top breakage in 

5.2-10.2%, bole wounds in 4.0 to 26.8%) than in 

75% retention prescriptions (top breakage in 3.4-

4.5%, bole wounds in 3.4-6.4%). Group 

selection employing gaps with diameters of 200-

300 feet was operationally efficient, but 100-foot 

gaps created severe difficulties during falling and 

yarding operations. 

Keywords: sustainable forestry, clearcut, 

landscape ecology. 
42

Second-Growth Western Hemlock Product Yields and 

Attributes Related to Stand Density 

Gerald Middleton, David Munro, Chunping Dai, Paul Morris, Conroy Lum, 

and Derek Williams, Forintek Canada Corp. Western Laboratory, 2665 East 

Mall, Vancouver, B.C. Canada, V6T 1W5 

Paul Watson, Wai Gee, Surjit Johal, Sandy Reath, Bernard Yuen, and Ashif 

Hussein, Pulp and Paper Research Institute of Canada, 570 Boul. St-Jean, 

Pointe-Claire, QC Canada H9R 3J9 

Abstract 

The effect of stand density on 90-year old 

western hemlock tree and wood characteristics 

was determined to assist foresters with stand 

density management. Trees were selected from 

three Vancouver Island stands. Stand densities 

were 580 and 930 stems per hectare (sph) at two 

northern locations, and 930 sph at a stand 500 

km south. Mean breast-height wood densities 

were .42, .45 and .47 respectively. The 580 sph 

stand trees had fastest early growth rate, were 

taller, larger in diameter, had largest branches, 

and highest taper. The southern 930 sph stand 

had the slowest early rate-of growth. Tested in 

bending, lumber mean modulus-of-elasticity 

(MOE) and mean modulus-of-rupture (MOR) 

differed significantly by stand density, and 

average early growth rate. The 580 sph stand had 

the lowest proportions of high grade structural 

lumber and the lowest MOE and MOR values. 

Structural properties of veneer, LVL, and small 

clears were consistent by stand with those of 

lumber. Lumber machined as well, and treated 

more easily than old growth hemlock. Kraft and 

TMP pulp properties did not differ significantly 

by stand. Kraft pulp yields were 1 to 3 percent 

higher than those published for western hemlock. 

 

Keywords: Second-growth, western hemlock, 

Tsuga heterophylla, stand density, growth rate, 

juvenile wood, lumber, veneer, LVL, pulp, 

machining, treated wood, mechanical properties. 

Introduction 

In British Columbia second-growth western 

hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla (Raf.) Sarg) 

remains a small proportion of harvested volume, 

but represents an increasing area of young stands 

that are subject to silvicultural treatment. 

Foresters need information quantifying the effect 

of stand density management on important tree 

characteristics and wood attributes. 

 

Methods 

Two hundred 90-year-old western hemlock trees 

were selected from three natural stands on 

western Vancouver Island. Two stands (PH580 

and PH930) located near Port Hardy at latitude 

50° 36′; longitude 127° 30′ had stand densities of 

580 and 930 stems per hectare (sph) and site 

index at 50 years of 39 and 32 respectively. The 

third (PR930) located at Port Renfrew, at latitude 

48° 35′; longitude 124° 21′ had stand density of 

930 sph and site index 30. 

Tree samples were selected systematically by 

diameter-at-breast height (d.b.h.). Tree 

dimensions, quality and pathological indicators 

were recorded. Sample trees were felled, stems 

were scaled and graded, and knots and knot 

indicators were measured and recorded. Stems 

were cut to 4 m lengths and the first 15 and 30 

annual rings from the pith were marked on log 

ends to represent two measures of juvenile wood. 

Logs equal to or greater than 25 cm small-end 

diameter were sawn to Japanese lumber sizes, 

primarily 105x105 mm squares. The lumber was 

kiln dried, planed and graded to both Japanese 
43

(JAS) and North American (NLGA) rules for 

structural lumber. Lumber was also graded to 

both rules based on consideration of knots only. 

All structural grade lumber was tested in bending 

to determine modulus of rupture (MOR) and 

modulus of elasticity (MOE). Depending on 

dimension, bending tests were done in 

accordance with ASTM D4761 or ASTM D198. 

Data were related to individual trees for analysis 

of stand and tree growth effects. 

Sub samples of lumber were selected from the 

PH580 and PH930 stands by juvenile wood 

content and tested for treatability with a waterborne preservative, chromated copper arsenate 

(CCA) and a solvent-borne preservative, 

acypetacs copper (Cuprinol). Additional lumber 

samples were selected by stand and juvenile 

wood proportion and tested for machining 

(planing, sanding, shaping, boring and 

mortising) and fastener (nail and screw) 

withdrawal properties. 

Three additional trees (small, medium and large) 

from each stand were obtained to test properties 

and yields of kraft and TMP pulps, veneer yields 

and Laminated Veneer Lumber (LVL) potential, 

and mechanical properties of small clears. 

Results and Discussion 

For PH580, PH930 and PR930 respectively, 

mean breast-height diameters were 42.7, 32.8 

and 32.5 cm. Mean heights were 43.8, 37.3, and 

34.9 m. Mean percent basal areas of first 30 

years growth were 46.4, 44.9 and 25.7%. Mean 

breast-height wood densities were .42, .45 and 

.47 respectively, equal to, or higher than the 

species average of .42. Measured on logs, mean 

knot diameters were 1.50, 1.16 and 1.20 cm. The 

PH580 trees had the fastest early growth rate, 

were taller, larger in diameter, had the largest 

branches, and the highest taper. PH930 was 

distinguished from PR930 by faster early rate-ofgrowth. Figure 1 shows average ring widths by 

cambial age compared by stand. 

Log and Lumber Grades 

Relatively higher proportions of PH580 log 

volume were assigned to high value log grades 

on the basis of larger log diameter. Lumber 

recovery was higher from PH580 larger diameter 

logs, but the proportion of premium NLGA and 

JAS grades obtained declined significantly as 

tree d.b.h. increased. Lumber from the PH580 

stand yielded the lowest proportions of JAS No. 

1 and NLGA Select Structural grades. 

Lumber Structural Properties 

Lumber from the PH580 stand had significantly 

lower mean MOE and MOR values compared to 

lumber from the two more dense stands, and fell 

below code values. Mean MOE and MOR values 

for lumber from the two 930 sph stands were 

also significantly different. 

Figure 2 shows that mean MOE values for Select 

Structural 105 x 105 mm lumber obtained from 

the two 930 sph stands essentially met or 

exceeded existing code values for Hem-Fir. It 

also shows that mean MOE values for the slow 

grown PR930 stand exceeded a value published 

for old growth hemlock (Littleford and Rovner, 

1968) to MOE for Select Structural Old-Growth 

Western Hemlock 

 
44

Figure 1Comparison of Average Annual Ring 

Width by Cambial Age 

Figure 2MOE for Select Structural 105 mm 

Squares Compared to Hem-Fir Code Values and 
 45

Mechanical Properties of Small 

Clears 

Strength and stiffness values for small clears 

were consistent with those for tests of full sized 

lumber, but differences between material from 

the two 930 sph stands were not significant 

Juvenile Wood And Branches 

Juvenile wood zones 15 and 30 annual rings 

from the pith provided poor predictions of 

lumber strength and stiffness, but there were 

significant differences in mean MOE and MOR 

values between discrete 20 percent classes of 

juvenile wood. Increased proportions of juvenile 

wood were associated with significant reductions 

in MOE and MOR. 

Various measures of knot size (measured on the 

logs) provided relatively poor estimates of 

percentage yields of premium NLGA and JAS 

lumber grades. Average knot size was generally 

the best measure of knot effects on lumber grade 

but easier to obtain knot indices proved to be 

nearly as effective. Predictions of mean MOE 

and MOR based on tree d.b.h. and breast-height 

wood density were improved only slightly by the 

inclusion of knot size. 

Treatability 

In terms of retention, fast grown western 

hemlock from PH580 was more treatable than 

hemlock from PH930. Juvenile wood, defined as 

the first 15 annual rings, was less treatable than 

16-to-30 ring juvenile wood with both CCA and 

Acypetacs Copper. Full cell treatment of 16-to30 ring juvenile wood with CCA achieved the 

requirement for decking lumber in CSA 080.32. 

There was no significant difference in treatability 

with Acypetacs Copper between PH580 and 

PH930. Double vacuum treatment of secondgrowth hemlock with Acypetacs Copper 

achieved the target penetration for protection of 

joinery grade lumber. Second-growth western 

hemlock was much more treatable with CCA 

than old growth. 

Machining Properties 

Machining tests showed no significant 

differences by stand. Second-growth western 

hemlock machined as well as old growth. 

Veneer and LVL 

Structural properties of veneer and LVL were 

consistent by stand with those of lumber. Logs 

from PH930 and PR930 produced high yields of 

structural veneer suitable for LVL. For all bolts 

tested, 82.5 percent of the veneer obtained was 

suitable for making structural LVL. The larger, 

lower density logs from PH580 had higher 

recovery suitable for the production of plywood. 

Pulp Properties and Yields 

There were no significant differences in pulp 

properties between the stands, but in 

thermomechanical pulping, mature wood 

obtained from PH580 exhibited poorer tensile 

strength compared to that from the other two 

stands. Second-growth western hemlock kraft 

pulp yields at kappa 30 exceeded published 

values by 1 to 3 percent. 

Conclusions 

Consistent results were obtained for solid wood 

properties. Trees from the lower stand density 

and higher site index stand, PH580, were 

characterized by comparatively rapid early 

growth rate, lower average wood density and 

larger branch size. These characteristics in turn 

resulted in lower structural properties observed 

for lumber, veneer and small clear wood 

specimens. Early rate-of-growth proved to be a 

more effective measure than stand density at 90 

years for discriminating stands on the basis of 

wood attributes. Early growth rate at PH930 

exceeded that at PR930, and was associated with 

significantly lower breast-height average wood 

density and, for the most prevalent lumber 

dimension, significantly lower lumber strength 

and stiffness properties. 

Second-growth western hemlock in general 

treated more readily than old-growth western 

hemlock and could find value in markets for 

treated wood products. It machines as well as old 

growth. Kraft pulp yields from second-growth 

western hemlock exceeded published values 

which should significantly improve digester 

productivity. 

Foresters responsible for stand density 

management can expect that second-growth 

western hemlock from stands similar to PH930 

and PR930 will have structural properties that 

meet or exceed code standards for Hem-Fir. 

However, given the lower structural properties of 

lumber from PH580, they must consider 

maintaining relatively high initial stand densities 

on high sites if they wish to produce trees with 
 46

structural attributes comparable to old growth 

western hemlock. 

References 

ASTM. 1999. Standard test methods of static 

tests of lumber in structural sizes, D 198-98. In: 

1999 Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 

04.10 Philadelphia, PA. 676p. 

ASTM. 1999. Standard test methods for 

mechanical properties of lumber and wood-base 

structural material, D 4761-96. In: 1999 Annual 

Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 04.10 

Philadelphia, PA. 676p. 

Canadian Standards Association. 080.32-97. 

Preservative treatment of decking lumber with 

waterborne preservatives. CSA, Rexdale, ON 2p. 

Littleford, T.W. and B. Rovner, 1968. Modulus 

of elasticity of western hemlock, white spruce 

and lodgepole pine dimension lumber. Inf. Rep. 

VP-X-32. For. Prod. Lab. Vancouver, BC. 16p.
47

Saving the Wooden Rhino in Kenya through Responsible 

Sourcing and Sustainable Use. 

Muga M.O., Githiomi, J.K. and Chikamai, B. N., Kenya Forestry Research Institute 

 

Abstract 

Wood carving industry in Kenya is a rural 

development success facing uncertain future due to 

its dependence on declining stocks of over 

exploited, slow-growing hardwoods. The four 

major and overexploited species are Dalbergia 

melanoxylon (Mpingo), Brachylaena huillensis

(Muhugu), Olea europaea (Mutamaiyu) and 

Combretum schumanii (Mugurure). To sustain the 

supply of raw materials for this industry, there is 

need to promote utilization of fast growing 

alternative species. The most viable alternative 

species is Azadirachta indica (Neem). This paper 

compares Neem with the four traditionally used 

wood carving species in terms of wood properties. 

A comparison with Muhugu on cost of wood and 

quality of carved products is done. Azadirachta 

indica wood has lower density, hardness and 

durability than the four. It has interlocked (as 

compared to straight) grains, coarser wood texture 

and thinner fibre walls. However, the salient 

macrcroscopic features are similar. In terms of 

cost of logs, carvers pay as much or a higher price 

for Neem wood as compared to Muhugu, producing 

carvings indistinguishable to tourists. Neem has 

properties that make it a suitable alternative for the 

major species. To promote conservation of the 

overexploited species, product labelling and 

certification are recommended. 

Keywords: Kenya, Wood carving, Wood properties, 

Responsible sourcing, Sustainable use, Azadirachta 

indica (Neem). 

Introduction 

This paper is based on a study undertaken by 

KEFRI in collaboration with WWF/UNESCO/Kew 

People and Plants Initiative on anatomical and 

related properties of wood carving species from 

Kenya. 

 

Wood carving industry in Kenya provides a means 

of livelihood to over 350,000 people and generates 

about US$ 4.4 million in terms of foreign exchange 

(Economic Survey, 1998). Like any other wood 

based industry in Kenya, it relies on raw materials 

from fast diminishing forests and woodlands. 

Most of the woodcarving materials are sourced 

from some pockets of indigenous upland dry forests 

of Central Kenya, lowland dry forests of Coast and 

woodland and hills of Eastern Province. 

Currently, there is wide spread awareness and 

concern amongst wood carvers, conservation 

organisations and some wood carving exporters that 

the two major sources of wood Dalbergia 

melanoxylon (Mpingo) and Brachylaena huillensis 

(Muhugu) have been overexploited. Large trees of 

the two other popular species Olea europaea 

subspecies africana (Mutamaiyu) and combretum 

schumanii (Mugurure) are increasingly difficult to 

obtain (Cunningham, 1997). The preferential 

demand for these few popular species coupled with 

a high rate of expansion on wood carving industry, 

inefficient and wasteful techniques, declining forest 

land, low regeneration capacities and slow growth 

rates has resulted in acute scarcity of wood carving 

materials. Wood carvers have resorted to use 

immature wood from these species or substitutes 

(Obunga, 1995). Most of the substitutes are 

indigenous hardwood species, currently available in 

small quantities. The carvers have also been 

experimenting with some exotic species e.g. 

Azadiracht indica (Neem), Grevillea robusta 

(Grevillea), Jacaranda mimosifolia (Jacaranda) and

Mangifera indica (Mango). Among the alternative 

species Azadirachta indica is the most viable 

substitute (Cunningham, 1997). It has reached a 

considerable market share, particularly at the coast. 

This paper compares Azadirachta indica with the 

traditionally used wood carving species in terms of 

wood properties, cost of logs and quality of carved 

products and recommends strategies for sustainable 

supply and responsible sourcing of wood for carving. 
48

Materials and Methods 

Wood samples were obtained from Coast, Eastern 

and Nairobi Provinces of Kenya. A total of 52 

species were sampled from the field. The samples 

were prepared and analysed at KEFRI Forest 

Products Laboratories using standard procedures. 

The macroscopic and physical features used in the 

description of the wood specimen were mainly 

density, hardness, durability, colour of heartwood 

and sapwood, odour, pore size, ray size, growth 

rings, wood grains and texture. In description of 

microscopic structures, IAWA list of microscopic 

features for hardwood identification was used 

(Wheeler E.A., et al., 1989). 

Results and Discussion. 

The 52 wood carving species were classified into 3 

main categories i.e. major, minor and alternative. 

The major ones were: Mpingo (Dalbergia 

melanoxylon), African brown olive (Olea 

europaea), Muhugu (Brachylaena huillensis) and 

Mugurure (Combretum schumanii). The minor 

ones (those occasionally used as alternatives to the 

major ones) were: Mwangati (terminalia spinosa), 

Muhutu (Terminalia brownii), Mbambaro 

(Terminalia kilimandscharica), Mutula (Terminalia 

prunoides), Mjafari (Zanthoxylum chalybeum), 

Muthea (Cordia sinensis), (Mutanga) Spirostachys 

africana, and Mukau (Melia volkensii). The rest 

were classified as alternative species (those not 

widely used for carving but have potential). 

Among these Neem (Azadirachta indica) was 

considered the most ideal alternative species due to 

its properties, fast growth, provision of other wide 

range of uses and current market share. 

 

The criteria for preferences for a particular species 

are based on multiple attributes including; 

durability, workability, aesthetic values derived 

from texture and colour (Obunga, 1995). These 

factors dictate the price of the product. 

Some of the salient macroscopic and microscopic 

features for the four major wood carving species 

are: heartwood distinctively darker than sapwood, 

thick walled fibres, minute pores (partly solitary 

and partly in radial multiples of 2 or more), minute 

and homogenous rays (1-3 cells wide), straight 

grain, fine to medium wood texture, distinct growth 

rings, vessels with simple perforations and a few 

parenchyma cells (Muga et al. 1998). 

Azadirachta indica (Neem) has similar features (see 

Table 1) except for the interlocked grains, coarser 

(medium) wood texture, predominantly 

heterogeneous and multiseriate rays and thinner 

fibre walls. The medium wood texture implies a 

lower density. 

The four major wood carving species have very 

high density ranging from 0.93 g/cm3 to 1.23g/cm3

, 

very high Janka hardness from 10.0 KN to 19.7 

KN and are very durable (Table 1). Azadirachta 

indica has a moderately high density of 0.70 g/cm3

 , 

moderate Janka hardness (6.2 KN) and is 

moderately durable. The lower density and 

hardness of Azadirachta indica, probably due to its 

fast growth rate, makes it easier to work on as 

compared to the other species. 

 

Of all trees harvested for wood carving in Kenya, 

approximately 50 % are Muhugu (Cunningham et 

al. 1999). Currently wood carvers are paying as 

much for logs from faster growing Neem (3800-

5800 Ksh./m3

) as compared with slower growing 

Muhugu (4600-7700 Ksh./m3

 ), producing carvings 

indistinguishable to tourists (Bond et al., 1997). 

The price of a log of Neem bought from a farmer in 

Malindi (Coast) is almost the same as that of 

Muhugu cut in Aberdare forest and transported 700 

Km to Malindi (Cunningham et. al, 1999). This 

indicates that Neem is popular and carvings from it 

are of similar quality to those from Muhugu. 
49

 

Table 1: Wood density, Hardness, Durability and some Macroscopic Features of 5 Wood Carving Species 

from Kenya. 

SPECIES FAMILY COLOUR 

OF HW/SW 

GRAINS TEXTURE HARDNESS 

KN 

DENSITY 

g/cm 3

DURABILITY 

Brachylaena 

huillensis

(Muhugu 

[Kik]) 

Compositae Grey/ 

Yellowish 

brown 

Straight Fine 10.0 1.15 Durable 

Combretum 

schumanii 

(Mgurure[S

wa]) 

Combretaceae Purplish 

brown/Whitish 

yellow 

Straight Medium 19.7 0.93 Very 

Durable 

Dalbergia 

melanoxylon 

(Mpingo 

[Swa]) 

Papilionaceae Purple to 

Brownish 

black/Yellow 

to White 

Straight Fine 18.0 1.23 Very 

Durable 

Olea 

europaea 

(Mutamaiyu 

[Kik]) 

Oleaceae Medium to 

dark 

brown/Pale 

yellow 

Straight Fine 12.3 0.99 Very 

Durable 

Azadirachta 

Indica 

(Mwarubaini 

[Swa]) 

Anacardiaceae Pinkish 

brown/Light 

yellow 

Interlocked Medium 6.2 0. 70 Moderately 

Durable 

Key

Swa-Swahili; Kik-Kikuyu; Hw-Heartwood; Sw-Sapwood 

Conclusions

Azadirachta indica wood has properties that make 

it a good substitute for the traditionally used wood 

carving species. Its use will enable recovery of 

wild stocks of the overexploited indigenous wood 

carving species, leading to environmental 

conservation. To ensure a sustainable supply of 

wood, assessment on stock levels, natural 

regeneration potential and growth dynamics trials 

of Neem and other potential alternative species 

should be carried out. Certification of good forest 

management and labelling for woodcarvings 

produced from sustainable sources also need to be 

emphasised in Kenya. 

References 

Bond , I., Cunningham, T., Standa-Gunda, W., & 

Sigu, G. 1997. The economic values of wood 

carving timber in Kenya. A Project proposal for a 

study by KEFRI funded through the 

WWF/UNESCO/Kew “People and Plants 

Initiative.”

Bryce, J. M. 1967. The commercial timbers of 

Tanzania. Tanzania Forest Division, Utilisation 

Section. Tanzania Litho Printers Ltd., Moshi. 

Cunningham, T. , Hoft, R., & Maingi, D. 1999. 

Wood carving, certification, and ‘good wood’

product labelling – Searching for practical systems. 

A report on a regional course and discussions 

organised by the WWF/UNESCO/Kew “People and 

Plants Initiative”, held in Nairobi and Malindi: 15-

20, March, 1999. 

Cunningham,T. 1997. Kenya wood carving: Steps 

towards sustainable sourcing. WWF/UNESO/Kew 

“People and Plants Initiative” workshop report, 

held at the Trisan Hotel, Nairobi on December, 8, 

1997. 

Government of Kenya. 1998. Economic survey. 

Government printers, Nairobi. 

Muga, M. O., Githiomi, J. K. & Chikamai, B. N. 

1998. Anatomical and related properties of wood 

carving species in Kenya. A study undertaken for 

the WWF/UNESCO/Kew “People and Plants 

Initiative.” 

Obunga , R. 1995. Sustainable development of the 

wood carving industry in Kenya. A study 

undertaken for the WWF/UNESCO/Kew “People 

and Plants Initiative”. 
50

Wheeler, E. A., Baas, P., and Gasson, P.E. (eds). 

1989. IAWA list of microscopic features for 

hardwood identification. IAWA bulletin n. s 10(3): 

219-332. 

Acknowledgements 

We would wish to acknowledge the 

WWF/UNESCO/KEW People and Plants Initiative 

for sponsoring the study. 
51

Biodiversity conservation, Non-Timber Forest Products 

management, rural livelihoods and sustainable forest 

management linkages - 

Insights from Western Ghats, India.

 

Dr.D.S.Ravindran and Dr.M.H.Swaminath, Western Ghats Forestry Project, 

Bangalore, India 

Abstract 

With the shrinkage of forest resources, the issues of 

sustainable management of forests (SFM) and 

conservation of bio-diversity are gaining 

importance. The likely positive impact of managing 

the forests for non-timber benefits on sustainable 

management of forests, is receiving increasing 

attention. However there is need for greater clarity 

on the linkages between bio-diversity conservation, 

NTFP management and rural livelihoods with the 

sustainable forest management, to develop 

appropriate policy initiatives for better management 

of forests. 

The western Ghats forestry project has attempted to 

address the issue of SFM of the mega-bio-diversity 

area of Western ghats through approaches 

combining conservation and collaborative forest 

management. The present study specifically 

explores the linkages between the forest 

management, use and the livelihoods in western 

ghats. Through a survey of the forest use by the 

communities in the Western Ghats the study maps 

the dependencies of communities on NTFPs for 

their livelihoods. These studies are inter linked with 

the studies on the bio-diversity status of the forests 

to provide insights into bio-diversity conservation, 

livelihoods and SFM linkages. 

 

Key words: Biodiversity, Western Ghats, 

Livelihoods, Sustainable Forest Management, 

India.
52

Thinning Western Larch Stands Improves Sustainablility of 

a Valuable Resource 

U.H. Sauter, J.S. Gonzales, J.R. Gordon, W. Schmidt, B.C. Jaquish, 

Forintek Canada Corp. Western Laboratory, Vancouver B.C. Canada 

Abstract 

Western larch (Larix occindentalis Nutt.) is one of 

three native Larix species in North America, 

besides subalpine larch (Larix lyallii Parl.) and 

tamarack (Larix laricina(Du Roi) K. Koch). 

Western Larch occurs mainly throughout the Upper 

Columbia River basin of southeastern British 

Columbia, northwestern Montana and northern 

Idaho. It easily reaches 50 m in total height. High 

wood density and strength usually characterize its 

wood. Throughout most of western larch’s natural 

range, existing stands originated from natural 

regeneration following wildfires, and are often 

overstocked. Therefore, early reductions of stand 

densities by precommercial thinning became an 

important management tool to establish stabilized 

stands and to concentrate stand growth potential on 

fewer vigorous, well-formed trees. This process of 

maximizing total stand value rather than 

maximizing yield can be completed by later 

commercial thinning and artificial pruning. The 

intent of this study, carried out by Forintek Canada 

Corp., was to provide basic information on the 

relationship between tree spacing and the two major 

wood quality parameters wood density and branch 

size to support stand management decisions. From 

young western larch experimental stands in 

northwest Montana, 618 sample trees were chosen 

representing different stocking levels ranging form 

270 to 4300 trees per hectare. 

From two pith-to-bark cores, taken at breast height 

for each tree, density profiles were obtained using 

Forintek’s x-ray densitometer. We also measured 

the largest branch diameters below 4 m stem height. 

The sample trees showed a strong relationship 

between width of spacing and tree height and 

diameter breast height. As expected, trees in the 

widest spaced plots grew the fastest. Despite large 

differences in diameter growth, no significant 

differences in average wood density occurred 

between spacings. A second moderate thinning on 

the best sites clearly showed that enhancing the 

wood density of western larch is possible. For the 

most valuable part of the tree, the branch sizes do 

not exceed 20 mm even when a wide spacing as 4.6 

by 4.6 m is applied. High wood density levels and 

reasonable knot size confirm that western larch 

from sustained managed stands remains a valuable 

tree species in future markets. 

Keywords: western larch, Larix occindentalis, 

specific gravity, stand density, x-ray densitometry 
53

Ecosystem management of forests in Russia: 

Place of the forest certification 

Valentin V. Strakhov, All-Russian Research & Information Centre for Forest 

Resources (ARICFR) Moscow, Russia 

Abstract 

In contradistinction to international systems, the 

Russian Mandatory certification system (MFC) 

provides for a mandatory certification of stumpage 

sale timber and secondary forest resources on 

conformity to the existing Forest legislation, the 

executive acts of which, with their ecological 

requirements, have been widely discussed and are 

agreed with the Russian Ministry of natural 

resources and the State Committee on environment 

protection. 

The MFC system includes a Central board of forest 

certification (CBFC) and accredited MFC centres. 

Such centres would be organisations independent 

from forest management units, forest users and 

consumers, and possessing experience in the forest 

management running and use (scientific, inventory 

and planning establishments). Thus, the created 

MFC system allows to estimate conformity of the 

forest management and use to the clauses of legal 

acts, and thus to provide the local level of forest 

management with an effective tool of ecosystemminded forest management. 

Historical background 

The National System of Mandatory Forest 

Certification of standing sale timber and secondary 

forest resources is being developed in Russia since 

1997. Its legal basis is: the Law of the Russian 

Federation “On certification of goods and services”

from June 10, 1993, No. 5151-1, as amended and 

completed by the Federal Laws from December 27, 

1995 No. 211, March 02, 1998 No. 30, from July 

31, 1998 No. 211, as well as the Forest Code of 

Russian Federation issued on January 29, 1997 

(No.22) with its Article 71 “Mandatory 

Certification of Forest Resources”. The formulation 

of this Article shows the principal features of the 

forest certification in Russia: “Standing sale timber 

and secondary forest resources are subject to 

mandatory certification. Mandatory certification of 

the aforesaid forest resources shall be organised and 

carried out by the Federal body of forest 

administration in accordance with the order 

established by the Government of the Russian 

Federation” [Forest Code 1997]. 

The appropriate Ordinance of the Government of 

the Russian Federation from February 02, 1998, 

No.131 "On mandatory certification of standing 

sale timber and secondary forest resources" has 

ruled that the Federal Forest Service of Russia 

performs organisation and carrying out of such 

work in accordance with the order determined in 

the Law “On certification of goods and services”, 

with participation of the State Committee of the 

Russian Federation for Standards, Metrology and 

Certification, the Ministry of Economics of the 

Russian Federation and other interested Federal 

bodies of the executive power. The aforesaid 

Ordinance entrusts the Federal Forest Service of 

Russia: to create a system of the mandatory 

certification of standing sale timber and secondary 

forest resources (hereinafter referred to as forest 

certification) enforcing the Article 71 of the Forest 

Code of the Russian Federation; to develop and 

approve by duly procedure the legal norms needed 

for forest certification, including the list of items 

subject to mandatory certification [Ordinance 

1998]. 

The legal act worked out by end-1998 has the 

working title “Temporary Regulations of carrying 

out mandatory certification of standing sale timber 

and secondary forest resources in forests of the 

Russian Federation”. It was developed in 

accordance with the Procedures of carrying out 

certification of products in the Russian Federation 

approved by the order of the State Committee for 

Standards of Russia from February 16, 1994, No. 3, 

and registered in the Ministry of Justice on March 

21, 1994, No. 521 [Certification 1997]. All the 

interested ministries and agencies, as well as 

ecological NGOs have positive replies of the draft 

document, except the Ministry of Economics. 

Nevertheless, the draft was examined and approved 

at a joint session of the Council for Science and 

Technology of the Federal Forest Service of Russia 

and the Section of timber, pulp and paper and 

woodworking industry of the Council for Science 

and Technology of the Ministry of Economics. The 

opinion in dissent of the Ministry of Economics 

was exposed in the letter of Mr. B.P. Masliy, viceminister, to Mr. V.A. Shubin, Chief of the Council 

for Science and Technology of the Federal Forest 

Service. 
54

In 1999 in order to proceed to an enforcement of 

this basic document and to create a legal norms’

basis of the forest certification system, a package of 

legal instruments was developed, allowing a real 

application of mandatory forest certification in 

Russia. This package includes: Statute of the Sign 

of conformity to the System of mandatory 

certification of standing sale timber and secondary 

forest resources; Tariffs and Procedure of payment 

for the certification work; Requirements to be met 

by experts in the mandatory certification of 

standing sale timber and secondary forest resources 

and Procedure of their attestation; Guidelines and 

Procedure of accreditation of the Centres of 

mandatory certification of standing sale timber and 

secondary forest resources; and a number of other 

documents. 

At present one proceeds to test the above Rules 

with the purpose of a practical assess of their 

acceptability, as well as omissions and weak points. 

The mandatory forest certification in Russia is 

based on reaffirming the compliance with the forest 

legislation’s provisions aimed at ensuring a sound 

and non-exhaustive forest use, protection, 

preservation and regeneration, following the 

principles of sustainable forest management and 

forest ecosystems’ biodiversity conservation. The 

testing is performed in several members of the 

Russian Federation, on the free will of their 

administrations and supported by timber industry 

enterprises and local communities. First and 

foremost regions include: Arkhangelsk, Novgorod 

and Leningrad Regions, Republic of Karelia and 

Primorye Territory. 

In the said regions were created the Regional 

Centres of mandatory forest certification attached 

to State inventory and planning enterprises 

(Sevzaplesproyekt, Karellesproyekt, Sevlesproyekt, 

Dallesproyekt). The Chief of the Federal Forest 

Service of Russia has signed the Order appointing 

the Central State inventory and planning enterprise 

(in Moscow) the Central body of forest 

certification. 

In view of the Ministry of Economics dissent, the 

final approval of the Temporary Regulations of 

carrying out mandatory certification of standing 

sale timber and secondary forest resources in 

forests of the Russian Federation is postponed up to 

the finishing of the period of its testing. In 

accordance with the Federal legislation, the System 

of forest certification can be deemed established 

only after its State registration duly in line with 

“Procedures of carrying out the State registration of 

certification systems and signs of conformity in 

force in the Russian Federation” in the State 

Committee for Standards and the Ministry of 

Justice. The above Temporary Regulations are the 

basic document of the System of mandatory forest 

certification. 

Why mandatory forest certification 

in Russia? 

In accordance with the Article 7 of the Russian 

Federation’s Law “On certification of goods and 

services”, the mandatory certification shall be 

carried out in cases stipulated by the legislative acts 

of the Russian Federation” [Certification 1997]. 

The said Article entrusts the State Committee for 

Standards to organise and carry out the necessary 

work in general, but - in cases stipulated by Russian 

Federation’s legislative acts for separate kinds of 

goods – these functions may be entrusted to other 

State power bodies. The mandatory certification of 

standing sale timber and secondary forest resources 

is prescribed by the Article 71 of the Forest Code of 

the Russian Federation. All these clauses of Laws 

were fully taken into consideration when issuing 

the Governmental Ordinance “On mandatory 

certification of standing sale timber and secondary 

forest resources”. 

The dissent of the Ministry of Economics that has 

braked the realisation of the Article 71 of the Forest 

Code and the fulfilment of the above Governmental 

Ordinance is explained by a different interpretation 

of the forest certification object. The position of the 

Ministry is based on their experts’ assumption that 

the ‘standing sale timber” is merely growing trees 

(alive wood) to be certified by quality parameters. 

The Federal Forest Service of Russia proceeded 

from other reasons when drafting the System. First, 

there is a principal difference of professional terms 

“timber” or “wood” and “standing sale timber”. 

The Law states: is subject of certification not 

merely “timber” or “wood”, but “standing sale 

timber”. The standing sale timber, as well as 

secondary forest resources may be certified only for 

the compliance of their delivery with the 

requirements of legal acts regulating the forest 

management and forest use in the forests of the 

Russian Federation. It was just the reason to include 

appropriate Article in the Forest Code. Such 

treatment of the Article does not contradict to the 

Law “On certification of goods and services” the 

preamble of which explains: this Law “establishes 

the legal norms of mandatory and voluntary 

certification of goods, services and other items 

(hereinafter “goods”) in the Russian Federation”. It 

means that “goods” in this Law has a broad 

interpretation and, in particular, in other legal tools 

exposed as goods, work, services. 

Certification of compliance with requirements of 

forest legislation is on the meeting-point of 
55

certification of goods and of quality systems, but 

cannot be considered as a quality system. The 

international standards of quality systems, series 

ISO 9000, are complementary, but not alternative 

as regards technical requirements to be met by 

goods, and intended to provide for a certification 

control of production quality in the enterprise that 

markets its goods, to provide for compliance of 

such goods to established requirements. The 

contents of the standards ISO 9000 indicates that 

the goods’ certification systems may include 

selected elements of Quality Systems’ standards 

[ISO 1995]. 

The main legal act (with further executive 

governmental act) for creating the System of 

mandatory certification of standing sale timber and 

secondary forest resources is the Federal Law “On 

certification of goods and services”. The 

Temporary Regulations of carrying out mandatory 

certification of standing sale timber and secondary 

forest resources in forests of the Russian Federation 

were developed to follow up this Law. It is to note 

that, in accordance with the Article 15 of the said 

Law, the State Committee of Standards, other 

specially authorised State administrative bodies - 

within their jurisdictional limits - should carry out 

the State control and surveillance of respecting 

rules of mandatory certification and goods to be 

certified under the procedures and conditions 

established by the Law of the Russian Federation 

“On standardisation”. The Russian legislation has a 

legal tool more: the Annex to the Instructions of the 

State Tax Service from June 3, 1993, No. 4-04/84 

contains “Procedures of delivering orders and 

imposing fines by the bodies of the State 

Committee for Standards of Russia in the events of 

breaching requirements relative to security and 

rules of certification of goods (work, services)”

developed and approved by the Order of this State 

Committee from February 24, 1993, No. 50 

[Certification 1997]. Breaches entailing a fine 

under the item 3.2.2 of the above Procedures are: 

selling goods, doing work and services subject to 

mandatory certification without certificate. This 

document lists a number of possible finable 

infringements against rules of certification of goods 

(work, services) subject to mandatory certification. 

Objects of mandatory forest 

certification 

All the legal instruments that have served to create 

the System of mandatory forest certification name 

objects to be certified the standing sale timber and 

secondary forest resources. Regulations of timber 

sale consider the procedure of “timber sale” as a 

sequence of actions that takes a certain time. 

The term “standing sale timber” is of exclusively 

Russian origin and used only in the Russian 

forestry practice. For an adequate understanding of 

the text of the Article 71 of the Forest Code of the 

Russian Federation it is necessary to give a special 

explanation of this term from the standpoints of its 

historical provenance and contents. 

Historically, as the Common Law, Civil and Forest 

legislation developed, forests were classified as a 

real estate, as land plots and everything inseparable 

from them. So, all the legal rights and norms 

established for the real estate covered forests and 

other features closely related to the land. Being 

linked to land where it grows, forest became 

integral part of the land plot, as well as of property 

and other economic relations when using forests. 

When the land owner changed, the forest growing 

on this land (as the unique natural feature) passed to 

a new owner. The forests were measured by 

hectares (desyatinas) equally as land plots. The 

running of the forest management was directed not 

only to care the trees, but also to treat land (soil) 

allowing a successful forest restoration after felling. 

The timber (wood) was considered as movable 

property only after cutting that produced a 

commercial good - wood that was apprised by other 

parameters and qualities. The handling of this 

product does not enter the sphere of forest relations 

covered by the Russian forest legislation. The 

Russian forest law system before the Revolution 

was based just on such clauses. And it was just the 

reason why the word “forest” in the Russian forest 

deal was always used for its main product - timber, 

or wood. As timber is purchased in forests, the 

everyday wording employs forest purchasing, 

hauling, floating, removal, working. It was 

reflected in explanatory dictionaries of the Russian 

language. 

Since the beginning of the 19th century some 

limitations of forest use were introduced, and this 

has engendered the notion of “forest (timber) sale”

[Century 1898]. At that time the timber sale was 

already operated following special regulation rules. 

For the first time the procedure of timber sale and 

the immediate link of this procedure with the 

principle of a continuous and non-exhaustive forest 

use were clearly and in details presented in the 

work of the eminent Russian scientist Prof. M.M. 

Orloff “Forest governing as implementation of 

forest inventory and planning” [Orloff 1930]. In 

this monograph the author subdivides the procedure 

on two main elements: “allotment for sale” and 

“implementation of timber sale”. He has indicated 

that the Forest Code of 1923 and the Instruction of 

the RSFSR People’s Commissariat for Agriculture 

for the sale of timber from the State forests from 
56

May 6, 1926, put as the initial (reference) point of 

annual timber sale regulation the calculated amount 

of timber (AAC in today’s wording) that should not 

exceed the annual increment. This position 

confirms that the Law recognises the obligatory 

respecting of the principle of a continuous and nonexhaustive forest use for our forest management 

practice. The amount of annual remove and logging 

parcels were determined for every forest district 

(lesnichestvo). The amount of timber sale was 

accounted by cutover area and stumps. Later on, 

one year before cutting, one proceeded to allot onground the parcel to cut, to nick trees, to evaluate 

the stand, etc. One performed a stumpage appraisal 

of the parcel to cut. Lists of timber designated for 

cutting as a summary report of forest districts' data, 

information on area size and evaluation were sent 

to the forest management administrative bodies. 

The issue of implementation of timber sale was the 

addressed. M.M. Orloff suggested that “at any form 

of annual timber removal from forest districts, it 

needs to work out normal conditions of using the 

parcels to cut, getting agreement of harvesting 

requirements with those of forest regeneration and 

conservation. The crucial clauses of such conditions 

should be the terms of operation and methods of 

slash removal”. 

In 1929 the major timber purchasers were exempted 

from payments for standing timber sale, the 

payments were remained only for local people and 

kolkhozes (collective farms) [Orloff 1930]. The 

time of industrialisation and large-scale 

clearcutting, that came soon after these decisions, 

marked a transition to a quite different type of 

management and refusal of the principle of a 

continuous forest use at the forest management. 

Instead of scientific substantiation of management, 

methods of administrative orders became 

prevailing, based on the priority of political 

directives instead of economic calculations. 

In 1949 new stumpage fees were developed and 

enforced: “Fees for wood of major forest-forming 

tree species to sale”, price-list No. 07-01 [Bugayev 

1982]. Important remark: in this document the 

notion of “standing sale timber” was substituted by 

“timber outturn”. This substitution has both 

positive, and negative consequences. The positive 

was a closer (at a certain extent) definition of forest 

use object as opposed to a more broad 

understanding of forest (as an aggregate of forest 

vegetation, soils and other components of the 

natural environment). The negative - in that the 

natural resource and ecosystem essence of the 

object to sale was hidden at some extent. For 

majority of people the term “timber outturn” was 

now associated, first of all, with economic and 

market characteristics (stumpage price, auction 

unit, receipts, payment assignments, advance 

deposits, etc.). Though in its essence the “timber 

outturn”, timber to sale is growing trees - a main 

component of forest (forest ecosystem) that is 

assigned to cut. From the economic standpoint, it is 

a certain amount of forest resources on a parcel of 

the Forest Fund assigned for felling by forest user. 

It is just the reason why the trees assigned for 

felling are measured not only in volume units (m3

), 

but also in land area units (hectares). 

The timber purchasing was and remains the main 

kind of forest use, carried out at final harvesting, 

intermediate felling and other cuts. Regardless of 

felling kinds, the sale of standing timber on parcels 

of the Forest Fund to cut is proceeded following the 

established procedure. The procedure of parcel 

allotment for forest use was established by the 

Russian forest legislation. In accordance with 

Article 116 of the Forest Code of the Russian 

Federation “Organisation and Order of Wood 

Harvesting in the Course of Felling”, the order of 

making cutting areas available, their allocation to 

forest users, wood harvesting in the course of 

cutting, as well as the amount of penalties for 

violating the forest management requirements are 

established by the “Rules for selling standing 

timber in the forests of the Russian Federation”. 

Under the norms of this document (approved by the 

Ordinance of the Government of the Russian 

Federation from June 1, 1998, No. 551) and in full 

compliance with the principle of a continuous, nonexhaustive and sound forest use the timber removal 

on the parcel of Forest Fund should be done 

providing for further forest restoration on this 

parcel. Thus, the notion of “standing sale timber” is 

a very capacious one, reflecting the key feature of 

the forest use - removal of the main forest product 

that is standing timber. 

According to “Rules for selling standing timber in 

the forests of the Russian Federation” the legal 

procedure of this operation lasts up to two years 

and imposes a determined sequence of actions, 

bearing in mind felling kind, forest category, and 

respective rules of cutting. Participants of this 

operation are both leskhoz (forest management 

unit) that offers a part of forest area for wood 

purchasing and duly prepares it for forest user, and 

the forest user who - according to the above Rules - 

obtains rights to purchase the timber and uses these 

rights respecting all existent rules and procedures 

established by the Russian Federation. 

Why to use norms in the mandatory 

forest certification? 

Under the Article 9 of the Law “On certification of 

goods and services” the State Committee for 

Standards and other State administrative bodies - 
57

within their jurisdictional limits - should choose 

how to confirm if the products meet the 

requirements of legal norm documents. “Procedures 

of carrying out certification of products in the 

Russian Federation” approved by the Order of the 

State Committee for Standards on February 16, 

1994, indicate that legal documents concerning the 

mandatory certification are: Laws of the Russian 

Federation, State standards (including interstate and 

international standards approved in the Russian 

Federation), sanitary norms and rules, safety norms, 

as well as other documents that - under the Russian 

Federation’s legislation - impose the compulsory 

requirements to be met by products. Following the 

clauses of norms established by the State 

Committee for Standards, the requirements to be 

met by objects of forest certification in the 

“Temporary Regulations of carrying out mandatory 

certification of standing sale timber and secondary 

forest resources in forests of the Russian 

Federation” were developed in accordance with the 

norms established by forest legislation. 

In the said Temporary Regulations the mandatory 

certification is an activity towards confirming that 

the standing sale timber meets the requirements 

established in legal norms’ acts concerning the 

forest management and use: Rules for selling 

standing timber, regional rules (guidelines) of 

cutting, forest restoration, sanitary rules, fire 

prevention, and other acts of the Russian Federation 

and Federation’s members in the field of forest 

management. The certificate delivered for standing 

sale timber confirms the compliance with the 

requirements established in the System of 

mandatory certification of forest resources. 

The para 2.4. of the “Procedures of carrying out 

certification of products in the Russian Federation”

indicates that “In order to provide for recognising 

abroad the certificates and signs of conformity, 

these procedures and recommendations for 

certification are built in conformity with existing 

international norms and procedures described in the 

guidebooks of the International Organisation for 

Standardisation (ISO) and International 

Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), international 

standards of ISO 9000 and 10000, European 

standards series 45000 and 29000, in documents of 

other international and regional organisations 

working in the field of certification”. The para 2.5 

of these Procedures states that “The recognition of 

the accreditation of foreign bodies for certification 

and testing laboratories, as well as certificate and 

signs of conformity in Russia (and respectively of 

Russian ones abroad) is to be carried out according 

to multilateral and bilateral agreements of which 

the Russian Federation is the Party”. Thus, the 

recognition of mandatory certification of goods 

made in Russia (including the standing sale timber 

and secondary forest resources) by foreign 

countries may be achieved using legal instruments 

in accordance with existing international norms for 

recognition of certificates and signs of conformity. 

Conclusion 

The challenge of sustainable forest management is 

not only the UNCED decision. The importance of 

sustainable forest management for all countries, but 

especially for those who has an amount of forests, 

has an independent roots, but, of course, the 

acceleration of new approach is closely related to 

UNCED and follow up international negotiations 

about future of National and Global Forests. In this 

context the SFM can be achieved only involving 

the interests of various population groups, 

industries, forest management bodies and 

ecological NGO. 

As the SFM should be related to the conservation 

and exploitation of forest resources within a 

specific territory, the goals of SFM should be 

understandable at the local level. So, the SFM 

means not only management of the wood and nonwood forest resources, but their processing and 

creation of appropriate economical structures, by 

ensuring employment for all population groups, and 

without any damage to ecological features or forest 

biodiversity. In this context the maintenance of 

biodiversity probably is the main goals of the SFM. 

The maintenance of biodiversity infers the 

conservation and protection in the forest area of the 

historically formed landscapes, habitats and 

ecological niches that together determine the 

organisation of living organisms at the genetic, 

population, species and ecosystem levels. The 

mosaic of habitats formed in the course of 

evolution and history determines the biodiversity of 

the forest ecosystems, populations and genetic 

diversity of the species. 

For achieving the goals of the SFM at the national, 

sub-national and local levels it is necessary to 

clarify new tools and decision-making mechanisms 

for the policy of accommodating land use, as well 

as for the evaluation, amendment and establishment 

of a structure of private ownership of land and 

settlement rights, including the traditional ties of 

the aboriginal human populations with the forests. 

Between new tools for SFM we recognise for 

national and sub-national levels of Russia the 

Criteria and Indicators (C&I). And at the local level 

– the mandatory forest certification system. 

Therefore, now it needs to develop in different 

groups of peoples a common understanding of new 

tools and mechanisms relevant to SFM at the local 

level (Forest Management Unit - FMU). We 
58

suggest that Mandatory Forest Certification system 

could be continuously linked with the Criteria and 

Indicators (C&I) of the SFM at the FMU level, but 

we understand that C&I and Forest certification 

have a different methodological approaches. 

The mandatory forest certification system will 

comprise the assigned Central Forest Certification 

Body (CFCB) and accredited forest certification 

centres. CFCB will establish the Certification 

System’s Council and the Committee of Appeal. 

The Certification System’s Council should employ 

experts in forestry and forest industries, scientists 

engaged in environment protection problems, and 

representatives of non-governmental ecological 

organisations. The CFCB should accredit the 

regional Centres on mandatory certification of 

standing sale timber and secondary forest resources 

(Centre of forest certification - CFC), they are 

constituting integral part of the System of forest 

certification. Accredited CFC will be independent 

from forest management units, forest users and 

customers, and having a good knowledge of how to 

exercise controls of forest management and forest 

use. 

Functions of CFCs may be performed by various 

institutions irrespective of the pattern of ownership, 

if they are not forest users, wood consumers, and 

State bodies of forest management and if they are 

experienced in the work of controlling the running 

of forest management and use. Affiliated to the 

CBFC are Council of the System and Appeal 

Commission, the statute of which is to be approved 

by the CBFC. The practical work on forest 

certification should include some steps that give an 

opportunity for collaboration of the governmental 

and non-governmental bodies and independent 

experts: 

1. Forest user submits to the Centre of forest 

certification an application accompanied 

by copies of documents confirming his 

right of using parcels of the Forest Fund 

for standing sale timber or secondary 

forest resources: the protocol of forest 

auction and felling permit or lease 

agreement registered in due procedure. 

2. The Centre on forest certification proceeds 

to consider the application not later then 

15 days after its submission. 

3. One selects a scheme of certification, 

determines the appropriate legal acts for 

the certification, procedure of a direct 

inspection. The applicant has a right to 

participate in choosing the scheme by the 

CFC. 

4. Decision making as concerns the 

application. 

5. Drafting and signing the contract between 

the applicant and the CFC. 

6. The CFC establishes its Committee for 

forest certification. The order of 

establishing the Committee is issued by 

the chief of the CFC. The commission 

includes employees of the CFC, (possibly) 

representatives of research institutions, 

public and other organisations. The forest 

management unit where the forest 

certification work is to be carried out 

presents for acquainting by the Committee 

necessary technical documents on forest 

use and management 

The programme of activity is to be worked out and 

includes: 

1. Documentary analysis of all materials 

confirming lawful forest use and meeting 

requirements of the normative legal acts; 

2. Selective inspection on the ground of 

parcels of the Forest Fund planned to cut, 

or parcels where timber or secondary 

forest resources were allotted, the 

estimation of their conformity to the fixed 

requirements; 

3. Analysis of productive facilities of forest 

user (if it is stipulated by the certification 

scheme) to identify his ability ensure a 

stable (sustainable) forest use. In such a 

way one states available legal support, 

technical and material means, qualified 

man-power and managing staff. 

 

The programme should be approved by the chief of 

the CFC. Implementation of the work according to 

the programme and drawing up protocols on the 

documentary analysis and inspection on the ground 

should be done with participation of an ecological 

NGO. At forest certification a direct inspection is 

performed by the Centre of forest certification 

during all the validity term of the certificate and the 

licence for using the Sign of conformity. Such 

inspection could be operated together with 

ecological NGO in the form of periodic and offschedule check-up, including documentary checkup and selective inspection on the ground of parcels 

of the Forest Fund where timber was cut or 

secondary forest resources purchased. 

 

References (Literature cited) 

Bugayev V.A. 1982. Fundamentals of inventory 

and planning. Manual. - Voronezh: Publishing 

House of the University82. - 232 p. 

Century of the Forest Department (1798-1898) 

1898. - St. Petersbourg. - 252 p. 
59

Certification of goods and services in the Russian 

Federation. 1997. 2nd Edition - Moscow: Osi-89. - 

160 p. 

Forest Code of the Russian Federation. 1997 

(English text published by ARICFR in 1997) 

International Standard ISO 9000-1. 1995. 

Guidelines for quality management and quality 

standards. - Moscow: VNIIS. - 50 p. 

Ordinance of the Government of the Russian 

Federation “On mandatory certification of standing 

sale timber and secondary forest resources” from 

February 2, 1998, No. 131. - In: “Forest legislation 

of the Russian Federation. Collection of norms and 

legal acts. - Moscow: PAIMS, 1998. - 576 p. 

Orloff M.M. 1930. “Forest governing as 

implementation of forest inventory and planning” - 

Leningrad. - 491 p. 
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