United States

Department of

Agriculture

Forest Service

Pacific Northwest

Research Station

General Technical

Report

PNW-GTR-569

February 2003

Green Fescue Rangelands:

Changes Over Time in the

Wallowa Mountains

Charles G. Johnson, Jr.
Author

Charles G. Johnson, Jr. is the area plant ecologist, Malheur, Umatilla, and Wallowa-Whitman National Forests. His office is located at the Wallowa-Whitman National Forest Supervisor’s Office, 1550 Dewey Avenue,

Baker City, OR 97814.

Cover Photo

Leaving Tenderfoot Basin following 60th-year revisitation of Reid’s study sites. Photo by David Jensen.

Unless otherwise noted, all photographs were taken by the author.
Abstract

Johnson, Charles G., Jr. 2003. Green fescue rangelands: changes over time in the Wallowa Mountains. Gen.

Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-569. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest

Research Station. 41 p.

This publication documents over 90 years of plant succession on green fescue grasslands in the subalpine ecological zone of the Wallowa Mountains in northeast Oregon. It also ties together the work of four scientists over a

60-year period. Arthur Sampson initiated his study of deteriorated rangeland in 1907. Elbert H. Reid began his

studies of overgrazing in 1938. Both of these individuals utilized high-elevation green fescue grasslands in different locations in the Wallowa Mountains for their study areas. Then in 1956, Gerald Strickler returned to the sites

previously studied by Sampson and Reid to establish the first permanent monitoring points when he located and

staked camera points they had used. He also established line transects where he photographed and sampled the

vegetation to benchmark the condition of the sites. In 1998, on the 60th anniversary of the Reid camera points in

Tenderfoot Basin, the author returned to document the changes in the vegetation on the Sampson and Reid sites

establishing photographic comparisons and resampling the transects Strickler had established. When Sampson

and Reid conducted their initial studies, domestic sheep had overgrazed the vegetation leading to severely

eroded soils and weakened native vegetation. In recent years, the presence of domestic sheep had declined

dramatically. As a result, vegetation trends were generally found to be static or upward on most of the sampled

sites. The recent drought period (1985-92) and the high population of elk in the 1980s and 1990s contributed to

the downward trend on some permanent monitoring sites. The use of repeat photography from permanent camera points and the use of permanent line transects for vegetation data acquisition provide the basis on which this

comparative study and publication of findings was made possible.

Keywords: Green fescue, Wallowa Mountains, Arthur Sampson, Elbert Reid, Gerald Strickler.
Green fescue slopes with Sentinel Peak in the distance.
1

Introduction

The subalpine grasslands of the Wallowa Mountains provided forage to bighorn sheep and mountain goats, domestic sheep of ranchers, and domestic horses of the Nez Perce Indians through the beginning of the 20th century.

Then in 1907, America’s “Father of Range Management,” Arthur W. Sampson, initiated one of the first rangeland

research projects on national forest lands and used green fescue rangelands for his studies. His work was followed

by that of Elbert H. Reid and G.D. Pickford in 1938 with their studies of utilization and plant community succession

following severe overuse by domestic sheep. Gerald S. Strickler followed Reid’s efforts with his 1956-57 baseline

monitoring of green fescue sites in Tenderfoot Basin and Sampson’s green fescue sites on the Standley and Sturgill

ranges.

Wade B. Hall, long-time range staff officer of the Wallowa-Whitman National Forest, was instrumental in getting

Reid — after his retirement — to return to Tenderfoot Basin. In 1956, 18 years after Reid had photographed the

study sites in Tenderfoot Basin, Reid and Strickler were able to relocate 36 of 57 camera points. Hall was instrumental in initiating a revisitation every 10 years by Reid to rephotograph and note changes in the vegetation from

the previous visit. Starting in 1968, Reid returned to northeast Oregon and, accompanied by Hall and Strickler,

made August pilgrimages back to Tenderfoot Basin that year and again in 1978. Reid and Hall revisited the basin

for one last time in 1988, marking the 50th year since the initial study and photography had been taken. Reid and

Hall led the author to the camera points where photography was then retaken, locations remonumented and

mapped, and ecological information recorded. That information was published in Reid and others (1991).

This publication documents the changes in green fescue communities over a 60-year period in Tenderfoot Basin. In

1998, the author documented changes and rephotographed camera points on the sites established by Reid in

1938, as well as those at Standley Spring and Sturgill Basin on sites first visited by Sampson in 1907. The author

also provided findings of a comparative analysis on Strickler’s vegetation transects of 1956 at Tenderfoot Basin,

Standley Spring, and Sturgill Basin. Common at all sites is green fescue and the successional relation of the plant

communities following ungulate disturbances and curtailment of severe grazing pressure over a long period.
2

Pioneering Ecologists

Sampson (fig. 1) conducted some of the first studies to test principles of range and livestock management in the

United States on the Wallowa National Forest from 1907 to 1911. At this time, livestock use was at an all-time

high on federal lands. Many rangelands were rapidly deteriorating with accelerated erosion resulting from

overgrazing. Administrators of the “new” national forests needed sound management information to guide their

management of the rangelands.

In 1907, Sampson and James T. Jardine were selected to study the rangelands in the mountains of northeast

Oregon. Sampson, with a background in ecology and botany, was well trained for this research undertaking.

His studies provided information on how to use forage without negatively affecting the growth requirements of the

plants. These studies led to the understanding of successional relations between plants of the native vegetation,

the season for grazing without deteriorating the sites, and the early concepts of deferred and rotating grazing

systems. He also studied the restoration practices of seeding nonnative forage plants on degraded highelevation rangelands (Parker and others 1967).

Because of his pioneering studies, subsequent research, prolific writings, and fundamental teachings during the

infancy of rangeland management in America, Sampson is known today as the “Father of Range Management.”

In the 1930s, Reid (fig. 2) was an instructor at the School of Forestry at the University of California in Berkeley

when he met Sampson. He became a student in the infancy of the science of range management. In 1937, he

became a range ecologist at the newly formed range research branch in Portland, Oregon, at the Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station (now the PNW Research Station). During his 11 years with the

Station, he conducted research and authorized many publications on the proper use of rangeland plants, judging

range condition, competition between livestock and elk, and methods for conducting rangeland surveys. It was

during this period that he chose the green fescue rangelands of the Tenderfoot Basin in the subalpine zone of the

Wallowa Mountains to conduct his studies of plant succession following overgrazing by domestic sheep. As a

result, the 1938 baseline data were established by using his camera points to enable future revisits and documentation of changes attributed to climatic factors. Reid would return to Tenderfoot Basin in 1956, 1968, 1978,

and 1988 to revisit the 1938 plot location and continue his ongoing effort to document successional changes.

Strickler (fig. 3) was highly recognized as an authority on the ecology of forests and grasslands of northeast

Oregon. He served as the research plant ecologist with the Forest and Range Experiment Station (Pacific

Northwest Region) in La Grande, Oregon, throughout his 25-year career (1956 to 1981). He was an excellent

botanist and was widely respected for his knowledge of inland Pacific Northwest flora. One of his passions as a

professional was the successional stories waiting to be told about green fescue in the Wallowa Mountains. He

was cognizant of the sites at Standley Spring and Sturgill Basin (Standley-Sturgill) where Sampson had conducted his research. He also maintained a close professional relation with Reid and was instrumental in the

initial revisitation by Reid to Tenderfoot Basin in 1956. As a result, Strickler coauthored three key publications

that serve as references for the studies at Tenderfoot Basin (Reid and others 1980, Strickler 1961) and StandleySturgill (Strickler and Hall 1980).
3

Figure 1—Arthur W. Sampson (1884-1967), scholar, scientist, and educator.

Figure 3—Gerald “Gerry” Strickler (1928-

1982), pioneering plant ecologist.

Figure 2—Elbert H. “Bert” Reid (1912-

1992), scholar, scientist, and educator.
4

1 See appendixes 1 through 3 for common and scientific names of species.

The Study Areas

Because green fescue grasslands supported most of the sheep on the Wallowa National Forest during summer,

Sampson searched for depleted green fescue sites in the Wallowa Mountains for his intensive studies. He

selected the area surrounding Standley Spring (fig. 4), at the head of Cougar Ridge, and Sturgill Basin (fig. 5),

south of Bald Mountain on Washboard Ridge, in the northern Wallowa Mountains. These areas had been heavily

grazed by sheep and cattle prior to the establishment of the Wallowa National Forest in 1905. The practice of

grazing all available herbage from snowbanks in early summer to “snowfall” in early fall produced the depleted

rangelands Sampson studied.

Both areas are on broad subalpine ridgetops at 7,400 feet elevation. The green fescue-dominated grasslands are

surrounded by lodgepole pine,1 subalpine fir, and Engelmann spruce forests. Precipitation is principally in winter

when snows pile up to an average depth of 8 feet. The summer is dry with surface soils desiccating from lack of

moisture and warm winds. Soils are deep, fine textured, and contain loess and ash. These attributes provide a

high water-holding capacity enabling the fescue to dominate in late-seral stands. When overgrazing had reduced

or eliminated the fescue plants, the soil surface dried. Western needlegrass became the plant best adapted to

the resultant warmer and drier sites. Also increasing in abundance as a result of overuse and depletion of green

fescue grasslands were Ross’ sedge, fleabane, yarrow, alpine fleeceflower, pussytoes, and prickly sandwort.
5

Figure 5—Sturgill Basin.

Figure 4—Standley Spring.
6

Tenderfoot Basin (fig. 6) is the head of the North Fork Imnaha River. The study area is approximately 690 acres of

mostly gentle ridgetop, benchland, and basin bottom southeast of Pete’s Point and northeast of Sentinel Peak.

Study location elevations range from 7,800 to 8,000 feet. The landscape is characterized by a dominance of

grasslands with interspersed stands of whitebark pine occupying rockier sites, and subalpine fir and Engelmann

spruce occurring on deep soils with ash as a component.

The 1938 study centered on Tenderfoot Basin of the North Fork Imnaha River. It was selected because of its

varying sites with degraded green fescue communities. This enabled the investigators to establish plots on sites

having a variety of vegetation and soils representative of the successional stages resulting from overgrazing by

sheep.

An area at the head of Lick Creek on Nebo Lookout Ridge (fig. 7) also was selected to represent the climax

conditions (late-seral stage) of green fescue. There were no signs of accelerated erosions, green fescue was

abundant and vigorous, and grazing had been light. Here the fescue stood 12 inches tall (Pickford and Reid 1942).
7

Figure 6—Tenderfoot Basin.

Figure 7—Nebo Lookout Ridge.
8

The Natural Setting

The Wallowa Mountains are in the extreme northeast corner of Oregon. The elevational base of the uplift is

approximately 4,000 feet in the Wallowa Valley on the north side and approximately 3,000 feet in Pine Valley

on the south side. The highest peaks rise to about 10,000 feet with 10 summits over 9,500 feet. There are

many diverse plant communities covering this montane landscape. The elevational gradient, varied soil

depths, and geologic formations, along with the major aspects of the uplift, all influence the flora and plant

communities of the Wallowa Mountains.

Vegetation is dominated by forests where elevations and aspects dictate the plant associations that predominate. At the lowest elevations (4,000 feet), Douglas-fir plant associations are found on loessal and basaltic

colluvium. These forested communities give way to vegetation where moister growing conditions prevail.

Grand fir plant associations occupy the midelevations on the cool, moist and warm, moist environments. The

subalpine zone begins at approximately 6,000 feet in elevation and continues to 9,500 feet. Here, two tree

species—subalpine fir and whitebark pine—are capable of persisting in cold, moist and cold, dry environments.

The nonforest vegetation of the subalpine zone is dominated by green fescue on deep, moist soils and by

Idaho fescue on shallow, moist soils. Shrublands that are prominent on mountain ridges are mountain

snowberry, mountain big sagebrush, and mountain-mahogany.

Figure 8—Green fescue grasslands.

The two predominant fescues found in the Wallowa Mountains are Idaho fescue and green fescue. Idaho

fescue has the widest ecological amplitude, occurring in deep canyon northerly aspects to subalpine

ridgetops. The more restricted green fescue is most widespread in the subalpine area of the Wallowa

Mountains. The cool, moist climate coupled with fine-textured soils that average 30 inches in depth (and up

to 50 inches deep) provide a highly productive vegetation. Herbage production ranges from 500 to 1,300

pounds per acre (Johnson and Simon 1987). The availability of green, nutritious grasses late into the summer

grazing season brought domestic sheep into the Wallowa Mountains beginning in the mid-1800s.

Green fescue vegetation (fig. 8) has been differentiated by microenvironmental factors into plant associations

in the Wallowa Mountains. These are green fescue/spurred lupine occurring on deep, moist soils and green

fescue/Parry’s rush, which is found on stonier, drier sites (Johnson, n.d.).
9

Standley Allotment

At the turn of the century, and prior to establishment of the Wallowa National Forest, approximately 10,000 sheep

grazed for almost 4 months on the allotment. Sheep numbers began a steady decline after World War II. There

was a continued decline to about 2,000 sheep grazing for a 3-month period by 1980. In 1986, sheep grazing was

terminated on the Standley allotment.

Deer and elk use also has been a factor in the successional trends of the two sample areas. There were high

populations of deer in the 1930s. Elk numbers were relatively small in the 1930s but escalated in the 1980s.

Tenderfoot Basin

Tenderfoot Basin historically received heavy grazing pressure annually, which reduced standing biomass to low

levels and resulted in a reduced litter layer to protect the soil surface. Tucker (n.d.) wrote “There was also prevalent, during those times, an idea among many Forest Officers that the vegetation should be grazed heavily each

year as a means of fire protection on the Forests.” The 18,702 cattle and horses and 251,830 sheep reported by

Tucker for 1906 indicated the dominance by domestic sheep and the density of grazing animals using the Wallowa

Reserve (Wallowa National Forest). Prior to 1916, the Tenderfoot Basin allotment received approximately 14,400

sheep months of use over about 3 months (Strickler 1957). In 1938 when Pickford and Reid worked on their study,

approximately 1,200 sheep months of grazing fully utilized the allotment (fig. 9). From their height and weight

measurements of almost 700 green fescue plants, they determined a maximum use for properly grazed subalpine

rangeland to be where 50 percent or less of herbage had been used. This equated to a range where two-thirds of

the plants were grazed to a 3-inch stubble height, and 15 percent of the plants remained ungrazed. These conditions would permit seed production and stand vigor to be maintained (Pickford and Reid 1942). After the results of

the 1938 study, Forest Service managers gradually reduced the number of sheep months of use to allow the range

to recover from its depleted condition. By 1948 (10 years later), about 1,000 ewes with lambs used the allotment

for only 35 days (Strickler 1957). In the early to mid 1950s, use in the basin averaged about 300 sheep months as

managers further reduced permitted numbers and began deferring use until late August or early September to

enhance fescue seed production and dissemination (Reid and others 1980).

Figure 9—Grazing history: sheep in Tenderfoot Basin (1938).

Photo by E.H. Reid.
10

From 1949 through 1978, the upper Tenderfoot Basin averaged 0.17 sheep months per acre. This was 60

percent less than in 1938 when use of the allotment averaged 0.44 sheep months per acre (Reid and others

1980). In the 1980s, the area was lightly grazed (use varied from 5 to 38 percent) and was ungrazed by

domestic sheep during three grazing seasons (Reid and others 1991).

Light grazing by sheep continued through the 1990s (1,000 head for 7 days from 1990 to 1993). From 1994 to

1997, use by domestic sheep was deferred in Tenderfoot Basin. Records indicate an average of 0.07 sheep

months per acre for the period 1989-98. Domestic sheep use was terminated on the allotment in 2000. Elk use

has historically occurred in mid to late summer by the Imnaha herd. The herd numbers have ranged from 900 in

1988 to 1,700 in 1998. Increases were estimated at 1,200 in 1989, 1,100 in 1993, and 1,200 in 1995 (ODFW

2001).

History of Successional Change—Standley Spring Area

In 1907, Sampson fenced a 20-acre area to protect it from livestock. Within this area was a smaller protective

enclosure, which contained weather instruments. At that time, Sampson noted that total vegetation cover was

nearly 15 percent, of which green fescue constituted only 5 percent (Strickler and Hall 1980). Sampson acquired

no subsequent data about the vegetation and use following the 1910-11 period.

The next sampling effort was performed by Bob Harris. In 1955, he installed a single 100-foot line transect within

Sampson’s instrument enclosure and took one hundred 3⁄4-inch loop readings for plant composition. The line

transect was resampled by Harris, Strickler, and Hall in 1962. In 1993, the author relocated the transect and

resampled it in 1998. Soil depth was 40 inches with a very fine silt loam occupying the top 25 inches (figs.

10 through 12).

The consistent decline by green fescue and the increases by deep-rooted perennial forbs represents a downward

trend to a lower seral stage. There was a high density of elk beds, pellet groups, and utilization of the plants by

Figure 10—1955. Green fescue dominated (50 percent) with needlegrasses strongly associated (23 percent).

Forbs were only 17 percent of the community. Erosion pavement occupied 16 percent of the site, and bare soil

contributed 23 percent of the surface cover.

Photo by Bob Harris
11

Figure 11—1962. Fescue had declined (41 percent) with needlegrasses making a slight increase (27 percent).

Sedges now contributed 13 percent to the cover while forbs were near static at 19 percent. However, the

bare soil had doubled on the site since the 1955 survey and now constituted over half of the surface cover

(53 percent).

Figure 12—1998. Green fescue had declined again; it was now only 22 percent of the community. Forbs had

dramatically increased to 47 percent cover on the deeper soils. On the areas with erosion pavement between

fescue hummocks, the pioneering plants commonly found on the deflection depressions (Parry’s rush and alpine

pussytoes) had dramatically increased to 23 percent cover. Ross’ sedge had declined to only 5 percent. Even the

needlegrasses were strongly in decline (almost absent at 2 percent). Bare soil cover was now only 10 percent;

down from the 53 percent of 1962. Bare soil had probably been colonized by leafy aster and Wallowa penstemon.

Photo by G. Strickler Photo by Bob Harris.
12

elk at the time of the 1998 sampling. Elk made noticeable use of green fescue as well as the leafage of penstemon and aster. As a result, herbage was sampled at only 850 pounds per acre. The heavy use of this site by

elk coupled with the drought conditions in the decade preceding the 1998 sampling are likely contributing factors

to the declines of the grasses and sedges and resultant increases in aster and penstemon.

Sturgill Basin Area

After Sampson concluded his studies in 1910, Sturgill Basin was heavily grazed by sheep for many years

afterward (Strickler and Hall 1980). Sturgill Spring provided the attraction for herders, campers, and hunters for

encampments. The proximity of the spring to the fescue forage available on the adjacent slopes provided for

heavy use by livestock. It continued to be overgrazed until closure to sheep use in 1941. The Minam elk herd

experienced increases beginning in the mid-1970s, peaked in 1993 at an estimated 2,900 animals, and has

declined to 1,700 today (ODFW 2001). Interestingly, an ecological classification plot was installed in August

1993 during the period of heightened use by elk. At the time of installation of the plot, a large herd was present

making noticeable use of the site. Ross’ sedge was especially relished by the elk at that time.

The transect summary and comparison over the three sampling periods shows an upward trend. Although green

fescue (61 percent) and western needlegrass (24 percent) are static over the 46-year period, since 1952, indicators of progressive succession are provided by the increases in Ross’ sedge and a concurrent decline by

pussytoes. Bare ground (12 percent) and rock plus erosion pavement surface cover (13 percent) are in decline

with a concurrent increase by litter (31 percent) and moss (9 percent). Overall, the trend in plant cover is upward

(figs. 13 through 24).

Table 1—Line transect at Standley instrument enclosure site

Species and ground condition 1955 1962 1998 Trenda

Percentage of coverb

Green fescue 50 41 22 ↓↓

Needlegrass 23 27 2 ↓↓

Fleabanes 9 0 0 →

Veronicas 8 12 8 ↓

Sedges 4 13 5 ↓

Asters 0 7 30 ↑↑

Wallowa penstemon 0 0 9 ↑

Parry’s rush 0 0 11 ↑

Alpine pussytoes 0 0 12 ↑

Bare soil 23 53 10 ↓↓

Pavement 16 — 0 →

Rock 3 — 2 →

Moss 0 — 8 ↑

Litter 26 21 44 ↑↑

— = no data.

a Trend arrows (1962-98):

↑↑ = significant upward trend.

↑ = upward trend.

→ = static.

↓ = downward trend.

↓↓ = significant downward trend. b Total plant and ground cover may exceed 100 percent due to overlapping plant canopies.
13

Table 2—Species coverage over time and recent trends for Standley (Sturgill

Basin)

Species and stand condition 1952 1962 1998 Trenda

Percentage of coverb

Green fescue 61 48 61 →

Western needlegrass 22 22 24 →

Phlox 4 0 0 →

Ross’ sedge 0 1 6 ↑

Pussytoes 0 11 6 ↓

Parry’s rush 0 0 1 →

Pussypaws 0 0 2 →

Bare soil 18 31 12 ↓

Pavement 30 21 0 ↓

Rock 5 2 13 ↓

Moss t t 9 ↑

Litter 23 23 31 ↑

t = trace (less than 1 percent).

a Trend arrows (1962-98):

↑ = upward trend.

↓ = downward trend.

→ = static. b

 Total plant and ground cover may exceed 100 percent due to overlapping plant canopies.
14

Figure 13—In 1907, Sampson enclosed and reseeded a 5-acre bed ground above Sturgill Spring in the basin.

The area was almost devoid of native vegetation except for relict green fescue, tufts of yarrow, sedge, and

needlegrasses (Strickler and Hall 1980).

Figure 14—In 1955, the seeded timothy was totally replaced by western needlegrass, sedges, pussytoes,

Parry’s rush, Douglas knotweed, and spike trisetum. Grass covered 48 percent of the area. By 1973, green

fescue, needlegrasses, and sedges had reestablished to cover 39 percent of the area. Parry’s rush and

pussytoes accounted for about 3 percent cover.

Photo by A. Sampson Photo by Bob Harris
15

Figure 15—In 1993, the site had continued to improve with over 70 percent of the area now covered by green

fescue, Ross’ sedge, western needlegrass, and pussytoes. Green fescue had increased dramatically over 20

years to 60 percent coverage. Bare ground, gravel, and erosion pavement totaled 28 percent coverage.
16

Figure 16—In 1952, Hall installed three line transects on the site of Sampson’s reseeding.

The transects traversed the area photographed by Sampson (1909), Strickler (1966), and

the author (1998) as shown. In 1909, timothy dominated from the reseeding.

Photo by A. Sampson
17

Figure 17—By 1966, timothy was absent. Approximately 60 percent of the ground cover consisted of green

fescue, western needlegrass, and pussytoes.

Figure 18—In 1998, green fescue and western needlegrass covered 85 percent of the site. Pussytoes had

declined with Ross’ sedge and mosses increasing over past levels.

Photo by G. Strickler
18

Figure 20—Sturgill Basin, 1952. Erosion pavement, bare soil, and rock occupied 43 percent of the site.

Figure 19—Sturgill Basin, 1952. Wade Hall established vegetation monitoring transects in 1952. Green fescue

dominated the sites. Western needlegrass was associated. Together both grasses constituted 83 percent

coverage.

Photo by W.B. Hall Photo by W.B. Hall
19

Figure 21—Sturgill Basin, 1962. Ten years after the 1952 samples, Bob Harris and Wade Hall resampled the sites.

Green fescue had declined from 61 to 48 percent over the 10-year period. The foliar cover was about the same

with pussytoes pioneering erosion pavement sites.

Figure 22—Sturgill Basin, 1962. The trend was downward owing to a decline in green fescue and an increase

from 43 to 54 percent by erosion pavement, bare soil, and rock.

Photo by W.B. Hall Photo by W.B. Hall
20

Figure 24—Sturgill Basin, 1998. Strengthening the upward trend of the site were declines in erosion pavement,

rock, and bare soil (54 to 25 percent) along with a dramatic increase by moss (to 9 percent).

Figure 23—Sturgill Basin, 1998. The passage of 36 years with reduced ungulate use helped green fescue cover

to rebound to 61 percent. The community became richer with the increase by Ross’ sedge and forbs.
21

Tenderfoot Basin Area

Prior to 1938—The Tenderfoot allotment had a history of use by four bands of sheep for a 3-month period each

year before 1916. The resultant change to the plant communities by 14,400 sheep months of use each year was a

loss of vegetation and litter cover to the soil surface resulting in severe uncontrolled soil erosion. Management

responded by reducing sheep numbers, reducing the grazing period, and deferring use as a result of this degeneration (Strickler 1961).

Pickford and Reid (1942) (fig. 25) determined that 73 percent of the land surface on the study area was eroded with

20 percent of the surface covered by gravelly erosion pavement. Gullies remained from accelerated soil erosion.

But the most dramatic landforms were hummocks left as “islands” from the soil erosion. These were surrounded by

deflation depressions containing an erosion pavement. The hummocks were as high as 20 inches above the

eroded surface. The green fescue plants growing on the hummocks were either of low vigor or were dead.

Sheep continued to use Tenderfoot Basin—albeit in much reduced numbers. Strickler studied the area in 1956 and

1957 (Strickler 1957) (fig. 26). He noted that the soil hummocks were still intact and now supported a vigorous

growth of vegetation. Plants were now colonizing the erosion pavement of the deflation depressions between the

hummocks. The primary pioneers were pussytoes, needlegrasses, sedges, and annual forbs (see apps. 1-3 for

species listed by common and scientific names).

On the deeper soils, especially on hummocky slopes, alpine fleeceflower, linanthastrum, penstemon, and

buckwheats were strongly associated with the relict green fescue plants.

The overall aspect was of a grass-forb mixture on the hummocky landscape. The deflation depressions now

contained dense vegetation dominated by grasses and sedges. The principal species were needlegrass, ovalhead

sedge, and green fescue. There was no sign of further accelerated erosion. Some of the hummocks had begun to

slough with a smoothing of slopes from the steepened terracettes of the pre-1938 era (Reid and others 1980)

 (fig. 27).

Reid noted on his 1978 visit that after 40 years, green fescue had increased by outcompeting needlegrasses,

sedges, and perennial forbs (fig. 28). Where needlegrasses had dominated in the pioneering stage of early succession, they were now being replaced by vigorous, young, green fescue plants. However, some forbs were persistent

with fleeceflower, linanthastrum, penstemon, and buckwheats continuing to occupy niches in the grassland community. The hummocks were still there but were less conspicuous owing to the masking by the vegetation. On

slopes, the terracettes had sloughed and were much less abrupt. Litter now covered the interstitial areas between

the grasses (Reid and others 1980).

Reid’s visit in 1988 was during a drought (fig. 29). He noted unusually dry soils and ungrazed green fescue with

leaf lengths of only 3 to 5 inches (normally 6 to 8 inches). He noticed little compositional change for the first time.

Soil surfaces and hummocks appeared the same as 10 years previously (Reid and others 1981).

In 1998, the author along with photographer David Jensen visited the area (fig. 30). The 21 camera points revisited

by Reid and the author in 1988 were again photographed. Large format photos were taken with black and white

print film to conform to the original 1938 images. Notes were taken at the camera points of vegetation composition,

density, and surface conditions.

In 1996, prior to the anniversary revisit, the transects installed by Strickler were resampled. These transects had

been installed on key sites adjacent to some of Reid’s camera points by Strickler in 1956. The Parker 3-Step

Condition and Trend system had recently been devised by Ken Parker and was beginning to be installed throughout

the Western rangelands administered by the Forest Service. Strickler used the 3⁄4-inch loop to sample 100 points

along the 100-foot transect. For comparison, the author resampled the same transects by using the 3⁄4-inch loop.

This was the only resample since the installation of 1956. Seven sites were resampled.
22

Figure 27—1968, 30 years after the 1938 study.

Figure 26—1956, 18 years after the Pickford and Reid study.

Figure 25—The basin in 1938.

Photo by E.H. Reid Photo by E.H. Reid Photo by G. Strickler
23

Figure 28—1978; Tenderfoot Basin 40 years after the 1938 study.

Figure 29—1988; Tenderfoot Basin 50 years after the 1983 study.

Figure 30—1998; Tenderfoot Basin 60 years after the 1938 study.

Photo by E.H. Reid Photo by David Jensen
24

Comparative Analysis (1956 and 1996)—40 Years of Change

Strickler established 100-foot line transects on seven sites in Tenderfoot Basin in 1956. Green fescue was a

component of all seven communities at these sites. All the sites were associated with one of Reid’s 1938 study

sites.

Four plant community types are represented as follows: mountain big sagebrush/green fescue (mid-seral stage);

green fescue/western needlegrass (early- and mid-seral stages); green fescue/globe penstemon (early-seral

stages); and green fescue/Hood’s sedge (early-seral stage). Collectively (excluding the mountain big sagebrush/

green fescue site), the green fescue sites have exhibited no major changes over the 40-year period. The following

are notable exceptions:

• Western needlegrass has declined in cover from 34 to 16 percent.

• Ballhead sedges (small-winged sedge; Liddon’s sedge) increased from 4 to 12 percent.

The increase in green fescue from 31 to 33 percent and the increase in bare ground from 20 to 23 percent are

relatively static trends. These data tend to support Reid’s 1988 observations of static trend at the same locations.

Four of the seven sites are highlighted in the pages that follow in the photographic images taken in 1938, key

subsequent years, and the most recent 1998 image. Captions are included of observations made by Reid prior to

1998 and my notes for the 60th year (1998).

Green fescue/western needlegrass (FEVI-STOC)

Mid-seral stage

Strickler (area 5), Reid (CP9), Johnson (ecoplot 6081)

The site is located at 7,980 feet elevation on a southwest aspect with the slope averaging 30 percent. The soils

are deep silt loams (greater than 60 inches deep with 24 inches of ash/loess), which overlie limestone. In 1996,

when transects were resampled, the factors contributing to the downward trend appeared to be a combination of

prior domestic use, elk use, and drought. Elk droppings were uniformly scattered across the site, domestic sheep

had continued to use the area, and the drought period of 1985 to 1992 had probably weakened the fescue plants.

Burrowing animals (especially pocket gophers) had caused upwellings in the interstitial areas resulting in

Figure 31—1938. Green fescue dominant and vigorous with other grasses, sedges, and forbs subordinate to

occasional (late-seral successional stage).

Photo by E.H. Reid
25

bareground coverage of 16 percent. The vigor of the fescue plants was low (leaf length only 3 to 4 inches). As a

result, the productivity (clipped) was only 940 pounds per acre. In 1938, production of all plants at this site was

1,600 pounds per acre. In 1956, production was 2,400 pounds per acre (figs. 31 through 36).

Figure 32—1978. Green fescue dominant (90 percent cover) with forbs, sedges, and grasses

subordinate (late-seral successional stage).

Figure 33—1998. Green fescue dominant (47 percent cover) with increases in the forb composition owing to

elk use and drought (mid-seral successional stage).

Photo by E.H. Reid Photo by David Jensen
26

Figure 35—1956. The area was used as a bed ground for 2 years after 1978. As a result, green fescue

declined in cover (to 62 percent), western needlegrass increased (to 18 percent), and fleabane invaded (15

percent).

Figure 34—1938. Late-seral community dominated by green fescue: (85 percent green fescue, 5 percent

western needlegrass,5 percent sedge, 5 percent yarrow).

Photo by E.H. Reid Photo by E.H. Reid
27

Figure 36—1998. Because of increases in levels of disturbance, green fescue had declined further to a

coverage of 47 percent, and western needlegrass had declined to 14 percent. Capitalizing on the increased

bare ground (10 to 16 percent) were increases by yarrow (4 to 9 percent) and invasion by Cusick’s bluegrass (5 percent), and thick-stemmed aster (0 to 19 percent). The fleabane of 1956 was not encountered.

Photo by David Jensen
28

Green fescue/globe penstemon (FEVI-PEGL4)

Early-seral stage

Strickler (area 7), Reid (CP8), Johnson (ecoplot 6267)

The site is located at 7,960 feet elevation on a south aspect. The slope is gentle at 20 percent. Soils

are moderately deep overlying limestone. The apparent upward trend from 1938 to 1993 is based on

the capability of the soils to retain moisture favoring germination and establishment of green fescue to

the detriment of needlegrasses and linanthastrum. Ross’ sedge occupied the pedestal sides where

enough soil moisture allowed it to persist. It could not compete with the fescue on pedestaled tops

nor the drier interpedestal sites where needlegrasses, linanthastrums, and penstemon dominated.

Vigor of the fescue plants was good (6 to 8 inches in stature). Productivity was 620 pounds per acre.

This was roughly equivalent to the 1938 productivity (672 pounds per acre). The 1956 productivity of

3,380 pounds per acre was strongly influenced by linanthastrum plants (2,600 pounds per acre) (figs.

37 through 39).

Figure 37—1938. A deteriorated green fescue site where green fescue cover was only 6 percent and

linanthastrum constituted 78 percent of the cover. Western needlegrass cover was 6 percent; Hood’s sedge

cover was 5 percent.

Photo by E.H. Reic
29

Figure 38—1956. The site improved in ecologic condition. Green fescue now covered 41 percent and linanthastrum

decreased to 33 percent. The sedges increased to 16 percent. Western needlegrass was static at 6 percent.

Figure 39—1998. The major change has been the decline in linanthastrum from 41 to 19 percent with a

replacement in the community by globe penstemon (21 percent cover). Green fescue, western needlegrass,

and sedges remained at 1956 levels.

Photo by E.H. Reic Photo by David Jensen
30

Green fescue/globe penstemon (FEVI/PEGL4)

Early-seral stage

Strickler (area 10), Reid (CP 10), Johnson (ecoplot 6268)

The site is located at 7,790 feet elevation on a steep 42 percent slope facing southwesterly. This community

has remained forb-rich over 40 years. It continues to receive disturbance from elk and burrowing rodents (figs. 40

through 42).

Figure 40—1938. A degenerated green fescue site dominated by forbs and needlegrasses. Alpine fleeceflower, or

pokeweed, was prominent.

Photo by E.H. Reid
31

Figure 41—1956. The fleeceflower, cinquefoil, and penstemon are still present with the same plants or colonies

visible. Green fescue, sedges, and lupine are now growing on the 1938 fescue-deteriorated remnant sites

noted in 1938.

Figure 42—1998. Fleeceflower, ballhead sedges, and green fescue remain at the same coverage. Western

needlegrass declined markedly (16 to only 1 percent) as did globe penstemon (32 to 17 percent). Increasing

were cinquefoil and mountain brome.

Photo by E.H. Reid

Photo by David Jensen
32

Green fescue/Hood’s sedge (FEVI-CAHO)

Mid-seral stage

Strickler (area 3), Reid (CP 3, 4), Johnson (ecoplot 6084)

The site is on a west-facing slope (25 percent) at 7,860 feet elevation. Soils are 35 inches deep with 9 inches of

ash/loess over a limestone parent material. This site has shown the greatest upward successional movement of

all sampled green fescue sites in Tenderfoot Basin. It is dominated by grasses (62 percent) and sedges (36

percent) with only trace amounts of forbs. Use by domestic sheep and elk has been as high as on other basin

fescue sites. The difference here is the favorable slope position with adequate vernal moisture retained by the

deep soils (figs. 43 through 45).

Figure 43—1938. This site is near Twin Springs where livestock trailing and bedding use resulted in terracettes

and high pedestals (hummocks). The result was a high loss of topsoil and mortality to green fescue clumps.

Relict fescue plants were low in vigor. Erosion pavement formed in the depressions.

Photo by E.H. Reid
33

Figure 44—1956. Needlegrasses have stabilized the soil between the hummocks. Some recolonization by green

fescue was noted in the depressions because of the stabilization afforded by the needlegrasses coupled with the

cessation of active erosion.

Figure 45—1998. The needlegrasses have declined significantly (66 to 17 percent) since 1956. This is related

to the reestablishment of green fescue in the depressions. Green fescue has increased since 1956 from 28 to

44 percent. Sedges have increased owing to added moisture retention on the site (7 percent in 1956 to 36

percent in 1996). This may be the result of increased organic buildup owing to increased litter. Litter increased

from 5 to 31 percent between 1981 and 1996.

Photo by E.H. Reid Photo by David Jensen
34

Figure 46—Nebo transect 3 (1959).

Nebo Lookout Ridge Area

Subsequent to the 1938 study year, grazing became more prominent on Nebo Lookout Ridge. By 1953,

according to data from a Parker Condition and Trend cluster of transects, features attributed to accelerated

erosion were now present. The green fescue was pedestalled with deflation depressions overlain by an erosion

pavement. In 1938, the composition of the sampled site showed green fescue at 68 percent. The only other

plant species present was hoary velvet lupine at 32 percent coverage. By 1953, the lupine was gone, green

fescue had declined to 53 percent, and western needlegrass had invaded. Western needlegrass cover was 46

percent. Samples at the Nebo Lookout transects in 1959 provided data which, when compared to 1953 data,

showed the site to be static, or unchanged. Forty years later in 1999, the site was resampled. The data

showed that a significant change had occurred. Green fescue had surpassed the 1938 coverage of 68 percent

and was now covering 82 percent of the site. Western needlegrass had declined sharply from 43 to 18 percent

in the 40-year period. The only other plant present was Ross’ sedge in trace amounts. Bare ground and erosion

pavement had declined from 32 percent in 1959 to 17 percent in 1999.

Photo by G. Strickler
35

Figure 47—Nebo transect 3 (1999).

Table 3—Species coverage over time and trends for Nebo

Species and ground condition 1938 1953 1959 1999 Trenda

 Percentage of coverb

Green fescue 68 53 56 82 ↑

Western needlegrass 0 46 43 18 ↓

Ross’ sedge 0 0 0 1 →

Bare ground — 17 24 10 ↓

Erosion pavement — 9 8 7 →

— = no data.

a Trend arrows (1959-99):

↑ = upward trend.

↓ = downward trend.

→ = static. b

 Total plant and ground cover may exceed 100 percent owing to overlapping.
36

Conclusions

The current green fescue landscape has changed dramatically from that of the early 1900s. No longer are

grazing animals allowed to overuse vegetation to promote increases in forbs or invasion by aliens, or to provide

for accelerated erosion. The grasslands of Tenderfoot Basin, Nebo Lookout Ridge, Standley Spring, and Sturgill

Basin have had a total cessation of annual grazing by permitted domestic livestock. The use is currently light

from recreational stock. The period where natural successional processes can effect a change has essentially

been ongoing since the 1950s. Trends in the resampled sites were static or upward on five of the seven areas.

Only two sites, one in Tenderfoot Basin and the other at Standley Spring, showed strong evidence of a downward

successional trend. In those two cases, elk use coupled with droughty climatic conditions probably contributed

strongly to the declines in cover of green fescue and concurrent increases in perennial forbs. Elk populations in

the Minam herd increased during the decade 1988-98. Elk numbers were growing steadily from 1,800 in 1998,

peaked at 2,900 in 1993, and decreased to 1,950 animals in 1998. During the same period, the estimated deer

population declined from 4,750 in 1988 to 3,250 estimated in 1998 (ODFW 2001).

With another 50 years, and with natural disturbances operating at a low level, the green fescue grasslands

should continue to succeed progressively toward late-seral stages.

Sampson, Reid, Hall, and Strickler each left a wonderful legacy. The subalpine grasslands of the Wallowa

Mountains, once so vigorous and dense with herbage on deep loessal soils, had been desecrated by years of

extreme overgrazing. It was the notoriety of the degraded subalpine that brought first Sampson and then

Pickford and Reid to initiate their studies of succession and restoration. It was then Hall who recognized the

importance of repeat photography and periodic resampling of site-specific areas to assist in the evaluation of the

impacts being made from management activities. Wade was instrumental in the installation of steel stakes for

line transects and the performance of the first three-step method as devised by Parker (1951). Strickler next

entered the study areas and provided the first scientific reassessment since the initial work by Sampson at

Standley-Sturgill. He joined with Reid to reevaluate the Tenderfoot sites. The combined visions of Reid, Hall, and

Strickler initiated the 10-year cycle of resampling and retake photography at Tenderfoot Basin. The author is

continuing this work of retaking the photographic images, resampling the line transects, and doing comparative

data analysis. This is the fifth technical publication following 60 years of change in Tenderfoot Basin and the

second technical publication following Sampson’s work at Standley-Sturgill.

Since the beginning of the 21st century, these subalpine grasslands have been devoid of domestic livestock under

permit. Recreational horse and mule use is sporadic and light. The impacts by elk and deer ebb and flow as

population numbers change. Elk are currently in decline after high populations in the mid-1980s. Deer populations continue to decline in the Snake River and Minam Units while the Imnaha Unit has exhibited a slight

increase (ODFW 2001). The management emphasis has now shifted from utilization of the subalpine grasslands

for commodities to restoration of the ecosystem with natural processes dictating the successional trend of the

vegetation. The continuation of cyclic monitoring (i.e., sampling and photography) by rangeland scientists and

specialists will enable future generations of land managers to learn from the long-term scientific undertakings and

findings for continued best decisions regarding the vigor and vitality of the green fescue grassland communities.

Metric Equivalents

When you know: Multiply by: To get:

Inches 2.54 Centimeters

Feet .305 Meters

Acres .40 Hectares

Pounds .453 Kilograms
37

References

Hitchcock, C.L.; Cronquist, A.; Ownbey, M. [and others]. 1977. Vascular plants of the Pacific Northwest.

Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press. 2978 p. Vols. 1-5.

Johnson, C.G., Jr. [N.d.]. Subalpine and alpine vegetation of the Wallowa, Seven Devils, and Blue Mountains.

Manuscript in preparation. On file with: Charles G. Johnson, Jr., Wallowa-Whitman National Forest, P.O. Box

907, Baker City, OR 97814.

Johnson, C.G., Jr.; Simon, S.A. 1987. Plant associations of the Wallowa-Snake province. R6-ECOL-TP-225A-86.

Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region. 399 p.

Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife (ODFW). 2001. Herd counts on file. Enterprise, OR: Enterprise District

Office.

Parker, K.W. 1951. A method of measuring trend in range conditions on national forest ranges. Washington, DC:

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 26 p.

Parker, K.W.; Chapline, W.R.; Swift, L.W. [and others]. 1967. Arthur W. Sampson—pioneer range scientist.

Journal of Range Management. 20(6): 346-347.

Pickford, G.D.; Reid, E.H. 1942. Basis for judging subalpine grassland ranges of Oregon and Washington. Circular

655. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture. 38 p.

Reid, E.H.; Strickler, G.S.; Hall, W.B. 1980. Green fescue grassland: 40 years of secondary succession. Res.

Pap. PNW-274. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and

Range Experiment Station. 39 p.

Reid, E.H.; Johnson, C.G., Jr.; Hall, W.B. 1991. Green fescue grassland: 50 years of secondary succession

under sheep grazing. R6-F16-SO-0591. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific

Northwest Region, Wallowa-Whitman National Forest. 37 p.

Strickler, G.S. 1957. Vegetation and soil condition changes in Tenderfoot Basin (1938-1957). Unpublished report.

On file with: USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, 1401 Gekeler Lane, La Grande, OR

97850-3368.

Strickler, G.S. 1961. Vegetation and soil condition changes on a subalpine grassland in eastern Oregon. Res.

Pap. 40. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range

Experiment Station. 46 p.

Strickler, G.S.; Hall, W.B. 1980. The Standley allotment: a history of range recovery. Res. Pap. PNW-278.

Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment

Station. 35 p.

Tucker, G.J. [N.d.]. Historical sketches of the Wallowa National Forest. Unpublished document. On file with: U.S.

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Supervisor’s Office, Wallowa-Whitman National Forest, Baker City,

OR 97814.
38

Appendix 1: Common and Scientific Names1 of plants

Scientific name Common name

Trees:

Douglas-fir Pseudotsuga menziesii (Beissn.) Franco

Engelmann spruce Picea engelmannii Parry

Grand fir Abies grandis (Dougl.) Forbes

Lodgepole pine Pinus contorta Dougl.

Subalpine fir Abies lasiocarpa (Hook.) Nutt.

Whitebark pine Pinus albicaulis Engelm.

Grasses:

Green fescue Festuca viridula Vasey

Idaho fescue Festuca idahoensis Elmer

Little western needlegrass Stipa occidentalis var. minor (Vasey) Hitchc.

Mountain brome Bromus carinatus H. & A.

Needlegrass Stipa spp.

Spike trisetum Trisetum spicatum Richter

Timothy Phleum pratense L.

Western needlegrass Stipa occidentalis Thurb.

Sedges and rushes:

Hood’s sedge Carex hoodii Boott

Liddon’s sedge Carex petasata Dewey

Parry’s rush Juncus parryi Engelm.

Ross’ sedge Carex rossii Boott

Sedge Carex spp.

Small-winged sedge Carex microptera Mack.

Thick-headed sedge Carex pachystachya Cham.

Forbs:

Alpine fleeceflower Polygonum phytolaccaefolium Meisn.

Alpine pussytoes Antennaria alpina Gaertn.

Buckwheat Eriogonum spp.

Cinquefoil Potentilla spp.

Douglas’ knotweed Polygonum douglasii Greene

Fleabane Erigeron spp.

Globe penstemon Penstemon globosus Pennell & Keck

Hoary velvet lupine Lupinus leucophyllus var. canescens Dougl.

Leafy aster Aster foliaceous Lindl.

Linanthastrum Linanthastrum spp.

Lupine Lupinus spp.

Penstemon Penstemon spp.

Phlox Phlox spp.
39

Pokeweed Polygonum phytolaccaefolium Meisn.

Prickly sandwort Arenaria aculeata Wats.

Pussypaws Spraguea umbellata Torr.

Pussytoes Antennaria spp.

Veronica Veronica spp.

Wallowa penstemon Penstemon spatulatus Pennell

Yarrow Achillea millefolium L.

1 Scientific names are from Hitchcock and others 1977.
40

Appendix 2: Plant Species Alphabetically by Common Name

Scientific name Common name

Alpine fleeceflower Polygonum phytolaccaefolium Meisn.

Alpine pussytoes Antennaria alpina Gaertn.

Buckwheat Eriogonum spp.

Cinquefoil Potentilla spp.

Douglas’ knotweed Polygonum douglasii Greene

Douglas-fir Pseudotsuga menziesii (Beissn.) Franco

Engelmann spruce Picea engelmannii Parry

Fleabane Erigeron spp.

Globe penstemon Penstemon globosus Pennell & Keck

Grand fir Abies grandis (Dougl.) Forbes

Green fescue Festuca viridula Vasey

Hoary velvet lupine Lupinus leucophyllus var. canescens Dougl.

Hood’s sedge Carex hoodii Boott

Idaho fescue Festuca idahoensis Elmer

Leafy aster Aster foliaceous Lindl.

Liddon’s sedge Carex petasata Dewey

Linanthastrum Linanthastrum spp.

Little western needlegrass Stipa occidentalis var. minor (Vasey) Hitchc.

Lodgepole pine Pinus contorta Dougl.

Lupine Lupinus spp.

Mountain brome Bromus carinatus H.& A.

Needlegrass Stipa spp.

Parry’s rush Juncus parryi Engelm.

Penstemon Penstemon spp.

Phlox Phlox spp.

Pokeweed Polygonum phytolaccaefolium Meisn.

Prickly sandwort Arenaria aculeata Wats.

Pussypaws Spraguea umbellata Torr.

Pussytoes Antennaria spp.

Ross’ sedge Carex rossii Boott

Sedge Carex spp.

Small-winged sedge Carex microptera Mack.

Spike trisetum Trisetum spicatum Richter

Subalpine fir Abies lasiocarpa (Hook.) Nutt.

Thick-headed sedge Carex pachystachya Cham.

Timothy Phleum pratense L.

Veronica Veronica spp.

Wallowa penstemon Penstemon spatulatus Pennell

Western needlegrass Stipa occidentalis Thurb.

Whitebark pine Pinus albicaulis Engelm.

Whitebark pine Pinus albicaulis Engelm.

Yarrow Achillea millefolium L.

1 Scientific names are from Hitchcock and others 1977.
41

Appendix 3: Plant Species Alphabetically by Scientific Name

Scientific name Common name

Abies grandis (Dougl.) Forbes Grand fir

Abies lasiocarpa (Hook.) Nutt. Subalpine fir

Achillea millefolium L. Yarrow

Antennaria alpina Gaertn. Alpine pussytoes

Antennaria spp. Pussytoes

Arenaria aculeata Wats. Prickly sandwort

Aster foliaceous Lindl. Leafy aster

Bromus carinatus H. & A. Mountain brome

Carex hoodii Boott Hood’s sedge

Carex microptera Mack. Small-winged sedge

Carex pachystachya Cham. Thick-headed sedge

Carex petasata Dewey Liddon’s sedge

Carex rossii Boott Ross’ sedge

Carex spp. Sedge

Erigeron spp. Fleabane

Eriogonum spp. Buckwheat

Festuca idahoensis Elmer Idaho fescue

Festuca viridula Vasey Green fescue

Juncus parryi Engelm. Parry’s rush

Linanthastrum spp. Linanthastrum

Lupinus leucophyllus var. canescens Dougl. Hoary velvet lupine

Lupinus spp. Lupine

Penstemon globosus Pennell & Keck Globe penstemon

Penstemon spatulatus Pennell Wallowa penstemon

Penstemon spp. Penstemon

Phleum pratense L. Timothy

Phlox spp. Phlox

Picea engelmannii Parry Engelmann spruce

Pinus albicaulis Engelm. Whitebark pine

Pinus contorta Dougl. Lodgepole pine

Polygonum douglasii Greene Douglas’ knotweed

Polygonum phytolaccaefolium Meisn. Pokeweed

Polygonum phytolaccaefolium Meisn. Alpine fleeceflower

Potentilla spp. Cinquefoil

Pseudotsuga menziesii (Beissn.) Franco Douglas-fir

Spraguea umbellata Torr. Pussypaws

Stipa occidentalis Thurb. Western needlegrass

Stipa occidentalis var. minor (Vasey) Hitchc. Little western needlegrass

Stipa spp. Needlegrass

Trisetum spicatum Richter Spike trisetum

Veronica spp. Veronica

1 Scientific names are from Hitchcock and others 1977.
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