Ill A ■■

US Army Corps

of Engineers

Construction Engineering

Research Laboratories

19990920 004

CERL Technical Report 99/58

June 1999

Concepts for Reuse and Recycling of

Construction and Demolition Waste

by

Patrick J. Dolan, Richard G. Lampo, and Jacqueline C. Dearborn

Wood-framed

barracks in

process of

deconstruction.

The U.S. Army engages in a great number of

construction, renovation, and demolition projects

across the nation. A significant amount of debris

resulting from these activities is currently disposed

of in landfills. Landfilling this debris results in a large

burden on the world's natural resources and an

increasingly expensive problem for solid waste

management. Throughout the United States,

construction and demolition (C&D) waste accounts

for an estimated 35 to 40 percent of the municipal

solid waste (MSW) stream.

This research project: (1) identified the primary

opportunities, constraints, and means to divert C&D

debris from the solid waste stream, (2) evaluated

C&D material recycling technologies and materials,

Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.

(3) identified construction materials from existing

facilities that may be directly salvaged or reused

without substantial alteration or reprocessing, and

(4) developed guidelines that project managers can

use to organize a construction project recycling

program.

This report presents an innovative approach to

construction and demolition waste management.

The current level of construction and demolition in

the Army, and also any programs, regulations, or

policies that may affect the level of construction in

the future are addressed and provide the justification

for increasing the level of recycling C&D waste on

military installations.
The contents of this report are not to be used for advertising, publication,

or promotional purposes. Citation of trade names does not constitute an

official endorsement or approval of the use of such commercial products.

The findings of this report are not to be construed as an official

Department ofthe Army position, unless so designated by other authorized

documents.

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1. AGENCY USE ONLY (Leave Blank) REPORT DATE

June 1999

REPORT TYPE AND DATES COVERED

Final

4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE

Concepts for Reuse and Recycling of Construction and Demolition Waste

6. AUTHOR(S)

Patrick J. Dolan, Richard G. Lampo, and Jacqueline C. Dearborn

5. FUNDING NUMBERS

4A162784

AT41

FL-C07

7. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES)

U.S. Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratories (USACERL)

P.O. Box 9005

Champaign, IL 61826-9005

8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION

REPORT NUMBER

TR 99/58

9. SPONSORING / MONITORING AGENCY NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES)

Headquarters, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (HQUSACE)

ATTN: CEMP-ET

20 Massachusetts Ave., NW.

Washington, DC 20314-1000

10. SPONSORING / MONITORING

AGENCY REPORT NUMBER

11. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

Copies are available from the National Technical Information Service, 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, VA 22161.

12a. DISTRIBUTION / AVAILABILITY STATEMENT

Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.

12b. DISTRIBUTION CODE

13. ABSTRACT (Maximum 200 words)

The U.S. Army engages in a great number of construction, renovation, and demolition projects across the nation. A

significant amount of debris resulting from these activities is currently disposed ofin landfills. Landfilling this debris

results in a large burden on the world's natural resources and an increasingly expensive problem for solid waste

management. Throughout the United States, construction and demolition (C&D) waste accounts for an estimated 35 to 40

percent ofthe municipal solid waste (MSW) stream.

This research project: (1) identified the primary opportunities, constraints, and means to divert C&D debris from the solid

waste stream, (2) evaluated C&D material recycling technologies and materials, (3) identified construction materials from

existing facilities that may be directly salvaged or reused without substantial alteration or reprocessing, and (4) developed

guidelines that project managers can use to organize a construction project recycling program.

This report presents an innovative approach to construction and demolition waste management. The current level of

construction and demolition in the Army, and also any programs, regulations, or policies that may affect the level of

construction in the future are addressed and provide the justification for increasing the level ofrecycling C&D waste on

military installations.

14. SUBJECT TERMS

recycling

demolition

construction and demolition (C&D) waste

municipal solid waste (MSW)

15. NUMBER OF PAGES

132

16. PRICE CODE

17. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION

OF REPORT

Unclassified

18. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION

OF THIS PAGE

Unclassified

19. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION

OF ABSTRACT

Unclassified

20. LIMITATION OF

ABSTRACT

SAR

NSN 7540-01-280-5500

WIC QUALITY INSPECTED 4

Standard Form 298 (Rev. 2-89)

Prescribed by ANSI Std 239-18

298-102
CERL TR-99/58

Foreword

This study was conducted for Headquarters, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

(HQUSACE) under Project 4A162784AT41, "Military Facilities Engineering

Technology"; Work Unit FL-C07, "Construction and Demolition Waste." The

technical monitors were Daniel Chen, CEMP-ET, and Malcolm McLeod, CECPWES.

The work was performed by the Materials and Structures Branch (CF-M), of the

Facilities Division (CF), Construction Engineering Research Laboratory (CERL).

The CERL Principal Investigator was Richard G. Lampo. Special appreciation is

owed to Stephen Cosper, CECER-CN-E, and Art Davey, Fort McCoy Directorate of

Public Works for technical input into this project and report. Patrick Dolan was a

student contractor, and Charles Lozar was a commercial contractor asociated with

this project. Ilker R. Adiguzel is Chief, CECER-CF-M and L. Michael Golish is

Chief, CECER-CF. The technical editor was William J. Wolfe, Information

Technology Laboratory.

The Director of CERL is Dr. Michael J. O'Connor.
CERL TR-99/58

Contents

SF 298 1

Foreword 2

List of Figures and Tables 5

1 Introduction 7

Background 7

Objective 8

Approach 9

Scope 10

Mode of Technology Transfer 11

Metric Conversion Factors 11

2 Construction and Demolition Waste 12

Definitions 13

Waste Characterization 13

Current Waste Stream 19

Regulatory Environment 22

3 Recycling Issues in Building Materials 25

Definition 25

Recycling Initiatives in DOD, and Nationwide 26

Barriers to Recycling 27

Benefits of Recycling C&D Waste 31

Managing Construction/Demolition Site Recycling Operations 32

Incentives To Recycle 35

Recycling Economics 35

Market Analysis 37

4 Salvaged Building Materials and Systems 40

Fort McCoy Case Study 41

Project Planning for Salvage Operations 45

5 Demolition Techniques 47

Recycling Considerations in Demolition 47

Criteria for System Selection and Evaluation 49
CERL TR-99/58

6 Debris Handling 50

Project Planning for Debris Handling 50

Collection Area Layout 51

Debris Collection 52

Contract Issues 53

Material Preparation 53

Handling Hazardous Waste 55

7 Debris Processing 62

Quality Control 62

Processing Techniques 62

Criteria for Choosing Processing Equipment 65

8 Project Evaluation 66

Economics of Recovery 66

Environmental Matrix 68

Fort Ord Pilot Project 70

9 Conclusions and Recommendations 72

Conclusions 72

Recommendations 73

References 75

Bibliography 79

Appendix: Catalog of Recyclable Building Materials 82

Glossary 125

Abbreviations and Acronyms 128

Distribution
CERLTR-99/58

List of Figures and Tables

Figures

1 Heavy equipment being used to smash and compact building material 7

2 Development of a recycling plan 9

3 Use of materials and C&D waste generation in the life cycle of buildings 12

4 C&D waste recycling action plan 34

5 Worksheet for determining waste sales economic analysis (adapted from

Department of the Army Technical Manual 5-634) 38

6 Wood-framed barracks in process of deconstruction 43

7 Wood-framed mess hall in process of deconstruction 43

8 Equipment used to grind building foundation materials for future use on the

installation 44

9 Steps in manual wrecking 48

10 Flow chart for determining status of lead paint waste 57

11 Flow chart for asbestos demolition/renovation 60

12 Demolition debris being loaded into debris compactor 63

A1 Representative recycling asphalt paving processing plant 90

A2 Representative concrete processing plant 103

A3 Flow of drywall waste through a representative gypsum processing plant 110

A4 Process for mechanical recycling of plastics 119

A5 Flow of materials through a representative wood waste processing plant 122
CERL TR-99/58

Tables

1 Common components of construction and demolition activities 13

2 C&D waste material categories and sources 16

3 Volume-weight conversions 18

4 Typical densities for construction material 20

5 Cost savings with Fort McCoy WWII salvage program 44

6 Mechanical demolition techniques and equipment 48

7 Possible hazardous contaminants in C&D waste 61

8 Costs and benefits of disposal and recovery 67

9 Evaluation matrix 69

10 Scores for reuse, recycling, and price 69

A1 Installed building equipment 94

A2 Movable equipment 94

A3 Proportionate quantity of concrete in various floor systems 100

A4 Steel joist weights 112
CERL TR-99/58

1 Introduction

Background

The U.S. Army engages in a great number of construction, renovation, and

demolition projects across the nation. A significant amount of debris resulting from

these activities, including concrete, wood, and metals is currently disposed of in

landfills. Landfilling this debris results in a large burden on the world's natural

resources and an increasingly expensive problem for solid waste management. The

problem is widespread throughout the United States, with construction and

demolition (C&D) waste accounting for an estimated 35 to 40 percent of the

municipal solid waste (MSW) stream (Brickner 1997). Figure 1 shows a typical

"smash and trash" operation for demolition. This research project explored

alternatives to the outright disposal of C&D waste in landfills.

The most important issue that forms the basis of this project is that the amount of

construction and demolition waste on Department ofthe Army (DA) installations is

expected to increase in the near future. The Army's efforts to reduce unnecessary

infrastructure began with the Defense Secretary's Commission on Base RealignFigure 1. Heavy equipment being used to smash and compact building material.
CERL TR-99/58

ments and Closures (BRAC) in 1988. Construction, renovation, and demolition

activities will significantly increase during the continued BRAC program. The 1995

BRAC program, coupled with the previously approved closures, will reduce the

domestic base structure by about 21 percent. The DA's Facilities Reduction Program

alone had the goal to reduce Army facilities 27 percent by Fiscal Year 1996.

Installations continue to maintain excess and/or obsolete structures due to lack of

funds to dispose ofthem. Disposal/demolition of these structures will cut costs and

improve safety. Approximately 80 million excess square feet, including more than

8,000 specific structures, have been identified as excess and/or obsolete structures.

Under Defense Reform Initiative Directive (DRID) #36 - Disposal IDemolition of

Excess Structures (1998), military departments, beginning in 1998, are directed to

meet the following disposal/demolition targets (in millions offeet) by the end of the

year indicated:

Year MSF

Army FY03 53.2

Navy FY02 9.9

Air Force FY03 14.9

Marine FY00 2.1

Besides the facility reduction programs, other important issues include: the

increased replacement ofinfrastructure on military installations; the occurrence of

catastrophic natural disasters, such as Hurricane Andrew and the recent flooding

ofthe Mississippi River valley; the increasing cost of conventional disposal of C&D

waste; and stricter Federal and State C&D landfill regulations.

There are several barriers to recycling construction and demolition waste. The most

significant barrier is the potential inability on the part ofproject managers and solid

waste authorities to identify markets for the debris. Another barrier is the difficulty

in accurately characterizing C&D waste. Construction and demolition waste is

highly variable in both content and quantity. This variability is due to the nature

of the waste, the dispersion of C&D activities, inconsistent waste management

regulations, range of disposal options, and the variance in cost of disposal options.

Objective

The objective ofthis study was to develop concepts for the reutilization of construction materials, including waste debris, by means ofrecycling into other components
CERLTR-99/58

that are useful in construction. This study: (1) identified the primary opportunities,

constraints, and means to divert C&D debris from the solid waste stream, (2)

evaluated C&D material recycling technologies and materials, (3) identified

construction materials from existing facilities that may be directly salvaged or

reused without substantial alteration or reprocessing, and (4) developed guidelines

that project managers can use to organize a construction project recycling program.

Approach

This research project was based primarily on a review ofliterature, including Army

regulations and policies, popular and technical journals, reports, solid waste

industry reports, and interviews. The complexity ofthis type of project, as well as

the growing awareness ofthe significance ofthe C&D waste problem warranted a

comprehensive and systematic study of the entire spectrum of issues concerning

recycling of construction and demolition debris on military installations.

This report presents an innovative approach to construction and demolition waste

management. The current level of construction and demolition in the Army, and

also any programs, regulations, or policies that may affect the level of construction

in the future are addressed and provide the justification for increasing the level of

recycling C&D waste on military installations.

PROJECT TEAM

ORGANIZATION

WASTE

CHARACTERIZATION

IDENTIFY PROJECT

CONSTRAINTS

PROJECT

ANALYSES

PROJECT

ADMINISTRATION

Permit

Requirements

Project

Quantify Planning

Waste

Market

Analysis

Assemble

Recycling

Team

Contract

Policy Administration

Classify

Waste

Economic

Analysis Health and

Safety

Project

Execution

Figure 2. Development of a recycling plan.
10 CERL TR-99/58

Scope

The organization of the research was based around the eventual development of

guidelines for developing a C&D waste recycling project on the construction site.

The various aspects of construction recycling projects to be addressed by this project

include:

• quantifying the waste

• classifying the material, including salvage and recycling potential

• developing a Recycling Action Plan (Figure 2), including:

identification of possible markets

planning site storage and handling

identification of possible hazardous waste and permitting

requirements.

• assessing recyclability of material class, including:

existing markets

potential markets

constraints, including:

- institutional

- scheduling

- economic

- environmental

- safety and health.

Included is a review and analysis of existing data on the quantity of waste per

building structural type, leading to the development of a baseline waste generation

rate for each of the following categories per building structural type:

• asphalt • gypsum/plaster • steel

• building equipment • masonry • other metals

• concrete • packaging materials • wood

• glass • soil.

Since increased recycling on the part of the contractor is new and may not have

perceived benefits for the contractor, the project manager must also consider how

to best structure the project (contract, etc.) to maximize recycling. Construction

contracting issues that must be addressed are: (1) contract specifications, and

(2) operation supervision.

For most Army facilities, an extensive C&D waste recycling operation will entail an

investment of both time and financing capital. The project will investigate the five
CERLTR-99/58 11

factors that will affect the financial and methodological feasibility ofthe recycling

project:

• material costs

• energy costs

• capital investment costs

• expected condition ofthe recycled material

• scheduling.

Mode of Technology Transfer

It is anticipated that the information from this study will be used to draft a

Handbook for Managing Construction and Demolition Wastes for use by engineers

and managers involved with construction and demolition activities on Army

installations. This handbook could be published as a Technical Instructions (TI)

document. Other information in this report may be used to help formulate new or

to revise existing Army/Corps Policy regarding C&D waste issues. Note that, as this

report was going to print, funding was received to initiate the above referenced

Handbook for Managing Demolition Wastes.

Metric Conversion Factors

The following metric conversion factors are provided for standard units ofmeasure

used throughout this report:

1 in. = 25.4 mm

1ft = 0.305 m

1 sqft = 0.093 m

2

1 cuft = 0.028 m

3

1 cuyd = 0.7645 m

3

11b = 0.453 kg

1 gal = 3.78 L

1 psi = 6.89 kPa

1 ton = 0.907 metric ton
12 CERLTR-99/58

2 Construction and Demolition Waste

Waste is produced in different types and quantities throughout the life-cycle of a

building with the bulk of the waste (not including wastes generated by building

occupants as part of operations) being produced during the construction and

demolition phases. Figure 3 schematically represents the life-cycle of a building and

indicates the use of materials and the waste generated during this life-cycle. The

challenge is to reduce or eliminate the wastes that follow the various paths leading

to the landfill. The overall problem exists due to factors such as the use of materials

and processes that create disposal problems, the use of materials that have no

potential for future reuse or recycling, the use ofinefficient materials, and the use

of designs and details that result in excessive waste when executed at the job site.

This report focuses on ways to reduce the burden on landfills by focusing on the

various points of C&D waste generation and the paths that lead to the landfill.

Post

Virgin Recycled

\ Content

\ /

Energy Materials

Operating

Waste

f -\

1 . 1 i

L

1 r

Design Construct Operation ^ Demolition ». Landfill

i

1

'

i i k i i L i i

Construction

Waste

Energy Materials Energy

/ \

Virgin Recycled

Content

Figure 3. Use of materials and C&D waste generation in the life cycle of buildings.
CERLTR-99/58 13

Definitions

The terms "construction" and "demolition" are used to describe a wide variety of

activities involving the fabrication, installation, renovation, and removal of Army

facilities. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) defines C&D waste

as: "The waste building materials, packaging, and rubble resulting from construction, remodeling, repair, and demolition operations on pavements, houses,

commercial buildings, and other structures" (40 CFR 243.101).

Most contractors consider the waste produced during construction or demolition as

a homogenous by-product of the construction process. All cut-off material,

packaging, and spent containers are placed into the same refuse container even

though the nature of the waste may vary across each type of activity. Major

renovation projects, for example, create significantly more amounts of C&D waste

than new construction projects, particularly if the renovation involves substantial

demolition of the existing structures. A survey of the DA activities that produce

C&D waste includes:

• road work

• demolition

• site work

• construction

excavation

renovation.

Table 1 describes the most commonly found components of each class of activity.

Waste Characterization

There are two components to the characterization of construction and demolition

waste: (1) composition and (2) quantity. The composition ofthe waste is defined by

the type ofincluded constituent components. The quantity ofC&D waste is based

either on the volume or weight of the debris depending on the requirement of the

hauler/processor.

Table 1. Common components of construction and demolition activities.

Road work Asphalt; concrete; soil; reinforcing metal.

Site work Soil; wood, including trees and brush; organic matter; sand; stone; concrete;

pipe.

Demolition Mixed rubble, including wood, concrete, masonry, and steel; fixtures;

mechanical equipment, etc.

Construction Scrap wood; roofing; wall board; insulation; flooring; ducts; pipe; packaging;

fasteners; concrete; steel.

Renovation Scrap wood; roofing; wall board; insulation; flooring; ducts; pipe; fixtures;

mechanical equipment; packaging; fasteners; concrete; steel.
14 CERLTR-99/58

One objective of this report is to add two additional components within this

description: recyclability and salvageability. The recyclability of a material is

defined as its potential for reuse after some form of substantial processing.

Processing may take the form ofreduction ofthe debris to its constituent materials.

The salvageability of materials is defined as the potential to reuse them in their

current state. Chapter 3 discusses the recycling issues in building materials and

Chapter 4 studies salvaged building materials and systems.

Composition of Waste

Construction waste does not typically have the same characteristics as demolition

waste. Building material inputs are principally needed during construction and

operation. A builder will typically order excess sizes or quantities of materials to

ensure that there will be enough materials on hand to construct the building. One

economic objective in the construction of a building is to produce a facility in the

most cost-effective manner possible. For a contractor, this may involve procuring

standardized building products to take advantage of the economies of scale. A

contractor purchases rolls of insulation, sheets of gypsum wall board, etc., rather

than single pieces. To accommodate the specific situation of a particular system or

configuration, these standard units must be trimmed to fit.

By weight or by volume, wood, drywall and cardboard combined make up between

60 and 80 percent ofjobsite waste in construction projects (Yost and Lund 1997)

Even prefabricated assemblies, such as doors and windows, which are packaged in

large quantities of cardboard, metal or plastic strapping, and wood tend to produce

a significant amount ofwast at construction sites. Concrete is also one ofthe largest

and most visible components of construction waste. In new construction, partial

truckloads of concrete have long been a disposal problem. To avoid creating waste,

ready mix plants have come up with many innovative solutions. Unused portions

are returned to produce concrete retaining wall blocks or highway dividers, or the

unset concrete is washed to recover the coarse aggregate for reuse.

Construction waste will also vary according to the type of project. For example, the

construction of an interior partition will generally involve discarding lumber cutoffs, scrap pieces of gypsum wall board, and excess insulation. The framing ofwood

buildings typically produces, by percent to square foot of area, the most waste.

However, an efficient design and framing plan cannot only reduce the required

amount ofmaterial but can also decrease disposal costs by keeping excess 2x wood

cutoffs to a minimum.
CERLTR-99/58 15

Demolition produces a significantly different waste than construction or renovation.

Demolition debris is more likely to contribute materials contaminated by undesirable components and/or potentially toxic substances such as lead paints, stains, and

adhesives. In some cases, the physical and chemical makeup of the individual

constituent material has been changed by the use of finishes or maintenance

techniques. Wood flooring, for instance, when finished with a sealer, such as

varnish, has an altered chemical composition.

In terms ofsolid waste management, the biggest problem with demolition debris is

that the various types of debris are mixed together during the course of the

demolition. Even with careful manual disassembly ofthe structure (deconstruction),

different types of materials mixed together are still possible. For example, the

removal of exterior walls in a load-bearing masonry system will result in a

combination ofmasonry units, such as concrete block or brick, mild steel reinforcing

metal, metal ties, and grout. In this case, further processing beyond typical

deconstruction practices would be required to separate all of the dissimilar

materials.

As mentioned above, the composition of C&D waste varies according to the type of

project and the method of construction and demolition. In terms ofthe individual

components, there are sixteen categories ofmaterials that make up C&D waste in

general. Table 2 lists these categories and their sources. Each class of materials

consists of several different types ofmaterials. This information is a survey of all

individual components that may or may not be found in a building (see the Appendix

to this report). Several ofthese classes ofmaterials, such as concrete, masonry, and

ceramics are considered inert by solid waste authorities—because they will not

degrade by bacterial activity once landfilled. There are, however, many components

ofC&D waste that are not inert in nature and, therefore, are putrescible. Wood is

the best example of a material the will putrefy under the right conditions in a

landfill. There are also several types ofmaterials that can be considered chemicallyreactive, such as paint, paint thinner, etc., and must be handled in a special manner.

Quantifying Waste

The amount of C&D waste produced in the United States depends on several

variables. Donovan (1991) suggests that the amount ofC&D waste generated at the

national level depends on:
16 CERLTR-99/58

the extent ofgrowth and overall economic development that drives the level of

construction, renovation, and demolition

periodic special projects, such as urban renewal, road construction and bridge

repair, and unplanned events, such as natural disasters

availability and cost of hauling and disposal options

local, State and Federal regulations concerning separation, reuse, and

recycling ofC&D waste

availability of recycling facilities and the extent of end-use markets.

There are few comprehensive estimates of C&D waste generation rates at the

national level. It has been either historically aggregated into the municipal solid

waste data, or not accounted for since there are so many nonregulated disposal

options. Brickner (1997) estimates that the quantity of C&D debris generated is

over 100 million tons per year. This equates to almost 35 to 40 percent ofthe total

amount of municipal solid waste.

Table 2. C&D waste material categories and sources.

Waste Material Demolition Source Construction Source

Asphalt Roads, bridges, parking lots, roofing materials, flooring

materials

Same

Brick Masonry building equipment white goods, appliances

installed equipment

Same

Ceramics/clay Plumbing fixtures, tile Same

Concrete Foundation, reinforced concrete frame, sidewalks, parking

lots, driveways

Same

Contaminants Lead-based paint, asbestos insulation, fiberglass, fuel

tanks

Paints, finishes

Fiber-based Ceiling systems materials, insulation Same

Glass Windows, doors N/A

Gypsum/plaster Wall board, interior partitions Same

Metals, ferrous Structural steel, pipes roofing, flashing, iron, stainless

steel

Same

Metals, nonferrous Aluminum, copper, brass, lead Same

Paper/cardboard N/A Corrugated cardboard,

packaging

Plastics Vinyl siding, doors, windows, signage, plumbing Same, packaging

Soil Site clearance Same

Wood, treated Plywood: pressure- or creosote-treated, laminates Same

Wood, untreated Framing, scraps, stumps, tops, limbs Same, packaging
CERLTR-99/58 17

At the local level, the difficulty in quantifying the amount of waste being landfilled

is due to the difficulty of measuring specific quantity of the waste. C&D debris is

handled by a myriad ofindividual contractors, waste haulers, and landfill operators.

The amount of materials handled by each one of these handlers would have to be

measured to accurately determine generation rates. Many studies have found that

landfill operators' either keep no records, or keep records that are inadequate to

determine waste generation rates of the original producer. Another difficulty in

quantifying the waste is its highly variable and heterogenous nature. The amount

of waste produced by one contractor may differ significantly that produced by

another, due primarily to the level of expertise or training of employees. Finally,

estimating C&D waste by State may not be very accurate because many States allow

inter-state disposal ofthis waste.

There have been several attempts to quantify C&D waste according to generalizable

variables, such as per capita. The Solid Waste Association of North America

(SWANA) suggests a method to determine the C&D waste generation data for a

community, which includes the following steps:

1. Contact the State regulatory officials for a list of licensed sanitary landfills

and/or C&D waste landfills in the study area.

2. Identify the types of businesses and industries, by Standard Industrial Code

(SIC), that have the potential to generate C&D waste.

3. Determine the specific materials that are to be included in the C&D waste

stream estimate (based on type and quantity of materials estimated to be

generated).

4. Interview major generators of C&D waste (including general buildings

contractors, demolition contractors, land clearing contractors, etc.) to obtain

estimates ofC&D waste materials generated, recycled, and disposed.

5. Interview local landfill operators and inspect weight records, if available.

6. Interview State and local Department of Transportation (DOT) officials for

planned road and bridge related activities.

7. Interview local municipal planners to discuss any major upcoming construction

or demolition quantities.

8. Develop estimates for each ofthe "major components" ofthe C&D waste stream

(SWANA 1993).

Another method to determine municipal waste generation rates for specific classes

ofmaterials was suggested by Yost and Halstead (1996). Yost and Halstead related

the dollar value of construction collected by the Census Bureau and per square

footage of building waste generation rates, with the square footage of construction
18 CERL TR-99/58

(obtained from building permit records) of a

large geographic study area, to generate an

estimate of gypsum board waste.

The prediction of waste generation quantities for a single building project has only had

a limited amount of study. This type of

data, however would be useful to both solid

waste authorities as well as construction

project administrators, since it would allow

them to accurately develop a recycling project plan. It would also allow the recycling

manager of a C&D project to perform accurate economic analysis, market identification, and plan for storage/handling.

Table 3. Volume-weight conversions.

Material Conversion Rate

Wood 300 Ib/cu yd.

6.7 cu ydVton

Cardboard 30-100 Ib/cu yd.

20-50 cu yd./ton

Drywall 400 Ib/cu yd.

5 cu yd./ton

Rubble 1400 Ib/cu yd

1.4 cu yd./ton

Mixed waste 350 Ib/cu yd.

5.7 cu yd./ton

'Source: Yost and Lund (1997).

Accurately predicting the quantity ofindividual waste materials from a construction

or demolition project is, however, problematic. For some materials, such as concrete,

the project team may be able to reasonably determine the total volume ofreinforced

concrete that is in a specific building, based on a survey of the total volume of

individual components of the concrete frame, i.e., the columns, floor slabs and

foundation. It is not certain, however, ifthe predicted amount is the total amount

that can be sent to a recycling facility. Factors such as the method of demolition and

the method of collection will greatly influence the amount of material gathered at

a site. For other materials such as steel, there are many more factors that go into

the amount ofmaterial that is used in the fabrication of a building.

Accurately measuring the building and its individual components is also problematic. Some materials are not readily available for measurement, or are difficult to

measure, particularly ifthe building is in use. The ceiling, walls, or floors will have

to be opened to identify types and amount ofmaterials. In most cases, this should

be a minor difficulty since the building or part of the building in question has

already been identified for demolition. If the building is not to be systematically

deconstructed, it may be too difficult for the project manager to approximate the

quantities by inspection. In these cases, the best source ofinformation may be the

original blueprints or "as-built" drawings for the building.

Once the quantity of each material class has been estimated, the next step is to

transform this information into either weight or volume estimates. Table 3 lists

volume-weight conversions for wood, cardboard, drywall, and mixed waste. There

are some references available that may assist the project team in specifically
CERL TR-99/58 19

determining the quantity of each of the seventeen categories of materials. The

American Society of Civil Engineers' Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and

Other Structures (ASCE 7- 95), for example, lists the minimum design loads, or dead

loads, for different building materials and systems. Army Technical Manual 5-809-

1, Structural Design Criteria for Loads, also lists the design dead loads for various

materials and systems. Another source for dead loads and system weights for

various building assemblies is Means Assemblies Cost Data (1994).

For instance, the weight per square foot of a plaster and lath partition wall is,

according to the ASCE 7- 95, 8 lb/sq ft (ASCE 1995). Once the total wall area has

been calculated, this figure can be multiplied by this weight per square foot to obtain

the total weight ofthe plaster and lath in the building. For example, a wall area

of 3000 square feet would calcuate as follows:

3000 sq ft x 8 lb/sq ft x 2000 lb/ton = 12 tons of plaster and lath

Typical densities for construction material and some assemblies are listed in Table

4. Density for all materials and subassemblies (e.g., toilets, ductwork, etc.) are not

available at this point. The recycling project manager will have to make estimates

based on experience or physical measurement. This information can then be used

to quantify the various categories ofmaterials.

Current Waste Stream

Every stage in the building life cycle involves the consumption ofmaterials (Figure

3). Because materials are used in both the physical aspect ofthe building as well

as the processes involved in the fabrication, operation, and maintenance of the

building, waste is produced.

At each stage during the facility life cycle, materials are discarded as either waste

products or obsolete assemblies. Approximately 97 percent of building materials

(exclusive of concrete and brick) are not being recycled at the end oftheir usefulness

(Gordon and Huddart 1997). Some ofthe factors that influence the disposition of unneeded material as waste include the high price of labor needed to reuse the

materials, the low relative cost of new or virgin materials, resistance by regulatory

authorities, or the impracticability (financially or otherwise) ofreuse.
20 CERL TR-99/58

Table 4. Typical densities for construction material.

Materials & Description Density (lb per cu ft)

Gypsum or plaster board 50

Plywood 34

Sheathing, fiberboard 18-25

Particleboard 40

Blanket and Batt Insulation

mineral wool, fibrous form 0.3-2.0

Boards and Slabs Insulation

Cellular glass 8.5

Glass fiber 4-9

Expanded rubber (rigid) 4.5

Expanded polyurethane (R-11 blown) 1.5

Acoustical tile 18-23

Cement mortar 116

Sand & gravel or stone aggregate 140

Stucco 116

Brick, common 120

Brick, face 130

Granite, marble 150-175

Aluminum 171

Brass 524-542

Copper 550-555

Iron, gray cast 438-445

Iron, pure 474-493

Lead 704

Steel 490

Cement plaster, sand aggregate 116

Gypsum plaster 45

1 -ply membrane roofing 83

Asphalt roll roofing 70

Asphalt shingles 70

Built-up roofing 70

* Source: Hoke (1988).

For most contractors, waste management is not a critical issue in the planning and

operation of a building project. Construction and demolition wastes are a necessary

by-product ofthe delivery of a facility. Traditionally, the only consideration given

to waste issues is the identification ofthe most cost-effective disposal option and its

implementation. This has not, though, excluded recycling C&D waste in the past

since, when it is cost-effective and legally acceptable to do so, many contractors

recycle waste materials such as concrete and metal.
CERLTR-99/58 21

The solid waste policy in the Army is based on the concept ofIntegrated Solid Waste

Management (ISWM), which is designed to minimize the initial input to the waste

stream through waste reduction, reuse, and recycling (AR 420-49). To add a

recycling component in project planning, the project manager must know how C&D

waste is handled in the current waste stream.

The typical flow ofmaterials for small to medium size projects begins with a hauler

dropping off a roll-off or other container at the project site and the contractors

discarding waste in the container. Once notified that the container is full, or by

prearrangement, the hauler will pick it up and dispose ofit in either a sanitary or

C&D landfill. The hauler may charge by volume (typically, the capacity of the

container) for relatively low-density materials such as wood waste, and by weight

for dense materials such as metal. The amount charged, commonly referred to as

a tipping fee, is determined by the nature ofthe waste, local applicable regulations,

or by the final disposal technique. The charges for scrap metal, for example, are

usually computed by weight since most metal smelters will purchase their feedstock

from these scrap dealers.

Disposal of C&D waste in a landfill is not the only option available to contractors or

solid waste managers. Donovan (1992) describes the currently available disposal

options for construction materials:

• permitted disposal, either on-site or off-site, by burying or burning the waste

• unpermitted disposal, either on-site or off-site, by burying or burning

• re-use ofthe waste by salvaging usable materials or assemblies

• recycling the waste into another, usable form.

C&D waste haulers are typically the same companies that haul to re-processors or

landfill sites. Most haulers are either independently contracted by the contractor

or are affiliated with a current waste processor or landfill operator. Although in

most States a MSW hauler must be licensed, the same may not be true for every

State's C&D waste haulers. Many State health organizations believe that the

mostly inert C&D waste does not pose the same health risks to operators as does

MSW. This situation may change due to the increasing awareness ofthe environmental impacts of demolition debris landfills (demofills).

According to SWANA (1993) there are approximately 1800 C&D landfill sites in the

United States. The type of materials that these demofills accept varies by State,

even by community, but primarily they accept inert materials such as concrete,

asphalt, and masonry. Many demofills also accept wood, soil, gypsum, and plastics,

but in the face ofincreasing evidence ofthe unacceptable liquid leaching from older
22 CERL TR-99/58

demofills, these materials will more likely be directed to a MSW landfill. The

USEPA's recently enacted Federal municipal landfill regulations (40 CFR 258)

restrict the disposal of C&D waste in new MSW landfills to increase their service

lives. In anticipation of stricter Federal and State guidelines for demofills, some

waste management firms are contemplating using MSW landfills features in their

demofills, such as impermeable liners, to prevent run-off or leaching. These

improvements will, in effect, increase the waste generators' disposal costs.

In the past, one option for the disposal of construction and demolition debris was to

burn it on or off site to reduce its volume. This technique reduced the overall

amount of physical mass to be disposed, but contributed to the release of gases and

particulate matter into the atmosphere. Unregulated or widespread refuse burning

is generally accepted to have a negative effect on air quality. It also creates a

hazardous physical condition in the case oflarge fires. In many cases, some debris

can be incinerated for energy recovery. In most States a permit is required to burn

any form of debris. Therefore, the availability of this option depends on local

authority. Besides the loss of material resources, the increasing stringency of air

quality regulation has made this option less desirable. Regulated or authorized

burning of C&D waste still occurs in some areas, but only in special cases such as

the clean up after natural disasters. Due to the Army's policy to recover as many

resources as possible from the solid waste stream, incineration is an unlikely

disposal option for military solid waste managers (AR 420-49).

There has, of course, always been some form of unpermitted disposal of C&D debris.

As mentioned previously, the economics of construction and demolition projects

encourage contractors to find the lowest cost of disposal. In the face of expensive

tipping fees, many contractors have opted for alternatives, including burying the

waste on-site or in an un-permitted site. For some inert materials such as concrete

and masonry, many States allow the contractor to directly use the waste on site as

back-fill for foundation work. Again, in the face of increasing evidence of health

problems and negative environmental impacts of burying or burning this waste,

disposal according to methods dictated by State and local waste authorities is the

best method.

Regulatory Environment

The Base Closure and Realignment Act of 1988 and the Defense Base Closure and

Realignment Act of 1990 require the DOD, or in specific cases other Federal

agencies, to comply with a variety of laws and associated regulations that effect
CERLTR-99/58 23

Federal real property disposal at most BRAC installations. Pertinent environmental

legal provisions with jurisdiction at BRAC installations include:

• Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act

[CERCLA] Section 120, which establishes a framework for responding to

releases of hazardous substances, pollutants, or contaminants in all media at

all installations, as well as specific requirements for property transfer at BRAC

installations

• Executive Order 12580 and the statutory provisions of the Defense Environmental Restoration Program [DERP], of which the Installation Restoration

Program [IRP] is a sub-component

• National Environmental Policy Act [NEPA], which governs the Federal

evaluation of the environmental consequences of disposal (i.e., selling or

transferring) ofsurplus Federal property to the public or private sector

• Resource Conservation and Recovery Act [RCRA] requirements under

Subtitles C, I, and D, which govern most environmental mission/operationalrelated and closure-related compliance activities. These compliance laws may

also be applicable or relevant and appropriate requirements for selecting and

implementing remedial actions under CERCLA.

All BRAC installations are subject to RCRA, particularly because most

generate, transport, store, treat, or have disposed of hazardous waste. Subtitle D

ofthe RCRA regulates the proper disposal ofsolid waste, which almost exclusively

refers to nonhazardous solid waste. Subtitle D covers all wastes not regulated by

Subtitle C, which regulates hazardous waste and Subtitle I, which regulates

petroleum products and other hazardous substances as defined in CERCLA Section

101 (14). Certain hazardous wastes that are excluded from Subtitle C, such as

household hazardous waste and hazardous wastes generated by small quantity

generators, are also covered under Subtitle D. Section 100 (27) of the Act defines

solid waste as:

• Garbage, e.g., milk cartons and coffee grounds

• Refuse, e.g., metal scrap, wall board and empty containers

• Sludge from a waste treatment plant, water supply treatment plant, or

pollution control facility

• Other discarded material, including semisolid, liquid, or contained gaseous

material resulting from industrial, commercial, mining, agricultural, and

community activities, e.g., boiler slag or fly ash.
24 CERL TR-99/58

Most construction and demolition waste, therefore, is also covered by RCRA, Subtitle

D. Since there have been very few Federal studies of C&D waste, there are few

Federal regulations pertaining strictly to C&D waste. The RCRA, an amendment

ofthe Solid Waste Disposal Act (SWDA) of 1976, 42 U.S.C. 6901 et seq., addresses

how to safely dispose of the huge bolume of municipal and industrial soid waste

generated nationwide. The RCRA permits states and local governments to enact

their own waste management programs, which the state would be responsible for

enforcing. At the State level, most C&D regulations pertain to landfill issues such

as excluding certain types of materials.

The recently enacted Federal municipal landfill regulations do not affect the

disposal of C&D waste unless it is disposed ofin a MSW landfill. Effective October

1993, these regulations place stringent siting, design, and operating requirements

on the owners/operators of MSW landfills. Stricter regulations will also limit the

type of material that can be disposed in a demoflll. The Solid Waste Association of

North America found that 32 States exclude some C&D materials from demofills

(SWANA 1993). According to SWANA, there are eight States that require operators

to meet the same State regulations as MSW sanitary landfills to prevent toxic

leachate from leaking from the demofills. Other States, such as New Jersey, use

new solid waste rules that encourage the recycling ofC&D waste by strictly limiting

the disposal of C&D debris. In response to these stricter disposal guidelines,

information in this study will provide the basis for solid waste managers to identify

and possibly avoid materials that could limit the number of disposal/recycling

options.

Recovery of valuable resources is not the only incentive to the DA to recycle C&D

waste. In many cases, the costs of conventional disposal of C&D waste (i.e.,

landfilling) have increased to the point where recovery and reuse of the waste is

economically feasible. The increase in the tipping fees charged by landfills is being

caused by both the overall decrease in the amount of landfill space, as well as the

increasing costs ofmanaging landfills.

Another incentive to increase the amount ofrecycling of C&D waste is the effort on

the behalf of Federal agencies, such as the USEPA and General Services Agency

(GSA), to increase the procurement ofrecycled content products. Untiljust recently,

building materials have not been emphasized in these procurement guidelines.

Increased recycling ofC&D waste will "close the loop" of material procurement and

reuse by increasing the amount ofmaterials available for procurement.
CERL TR-99/58 25

3 Recycling Issues in Building Materials

Definition

Reclamation of material from the waste stream is not completely considered

recycling in and of itself. Recycling, on the other hand, is the reprocessing of a

reclaimed material and converting it into a new material or use. Army Technical

Manual 5-634, Solid Waste Management, considers recyclable materials as those

that have been or would be discarded and can be reused after undergoing some type

of physical or chemical reprocessing.

Recycling construction and demolition debris is hardly a new concept for the

construction industry. Concrete and paving materials have been reused as fill

material or roadbed for many years. In fact, the form of concrete used by the

Romans included "recycled" aggregate from older stone structures. In many areas

ofthe country, particularly in the Northeast where landfill space is at a premium,

the recycling of some C&D debris is becoming more commonplace.

There are several reasons besides the cost of disposal for the increased interest in

recycling C&D waste. The decreasing availability of a high-quality resource base

for the manufacture of building materials is an important consideration. In many

cases, the sources for "virgin" materials are great distances from

installations/building projects and transportation costs warrant contractors to look

for a local replacement. For example, aggregate from demolition rubble can be an

abundant and prevalent local source ofroad base and fill. An additional benefit to

the use of demolition aggregate is that the virgin quarried aggregate will not have

to be used in such low value applications such as backfill. In this case, a low cost but

equivalent recycled product such as demolition aggregate is an acceptable

substitute. There are other products such as recycled gypsum board and lumber

that are being used in new construction projects.

The increasing cost of materials manufactured with virgin materials is also an

incentive for recycling materials. Recycled asphalt paving (RAP) is an acceptable

replacement for new asphalt in road base and secondary pavement construction,

such as driveways and parking lots. The cost savings comes from the reduction of

transportation costs for the virgin aggregate, and reduction of asphalt cement
26 ___^_ CERL TR-99/58

requirements. In a large paving project, the savings to the owner can be significant.

The estimated potential savings can range from 20 to 30 percent (Brown and Basset

1988).

Steel has also been extensively recycled in the past. Steel and other metals

generally do not lose their physical properties after re-smelting. The high price steel

mills are paying for scrap, as well its relative ease of separation from C&D debris

(by magnet), have made it an attractive material for scrap dealers. The Army

maximizes the amount of recycling of ferrous and nonferrous scrap through the

DOD's Scrap Recycling Program and the Defense Property Disposal Office (DPDO).

From a recycling standpoint, the more material reused, the fewer resources are

consumed. Within recycling operations, the amount of resources and capital

equipment involved can be placed in a hierarchy:

• recycling on site (to reduce transport and handling)

• recycling locally off-site by separation and minimal processing

• recycling at a central station

• recycling at a long range plant (200 miles plus).

In a recycling operation, it is useful to classify the debris for recycling according by

this hierarchy. For example, in an office space renovation, doors and door jambs

could be carefully removed, stored on-site, reconditioned as necessary, and then

replaced in their new locations. Recycling is taking place on-site with minimal

processing. Classifying debris by its recyclability such as this is useful because of

justification, and program targets.

Recycling Initiatives in DOD, and Nationwide

There is some concern in the DA for the amount of solid waste produced on

installations and the environmental effects of its disposal. Several programs now

exist to reduce the overall amount of waste produced on military installations and

to encourage recycling. Definitions, policies, and direction indicated in this report

are based on information derived from the following applicable solid waste

regulations:

• Executive Order 13101, Greening the Government Through Waste Prevention,

Reycling, and Federal Acquisition

• DOD Directive 4165.60, Solid Waste Management - Collection, Disposal,

Resource Recovery and Recycling Program
CERL TR-99/58 27

• Army Regulation 200-1, Environmental Quality: Environmental Protection

and Enhancement

• Army Regulation 420-49, Utility Services

• Army Technical Manual 5-634, Solid Waste Management

• Army PAM 420-47, Solid Waste Management

• TN 420-47-02, Installation Recycling Guide.

The Executive Order Number 13101, Greening the Government Through Waste

Prevention, Recycling, and Federal Acquisition, was signed on 14 September 1998.

This new Executive Order strengthens and expands the requirements of EO 12873

(now rescinded) for Federal agencies to reduce generation of solid waste, increase

recycling, and procure environmentally-preferable products. For recycling and

waste prevention, each agency is required to establish a goal for recycling or for

diversion ofsolid waste from landfilling or incineration. The current DOD goal by

the end ofFY2005, is to divert at least 40 percent ofthe solid waste, which otherwise

would have been sent to a landfill or incinerator by reusing, recycling, composting,

or otherwise keeping it from entering the solid waste disposal stream; and the cost

of these diversions should be less than the cost of landfilling or incinerating the

waste.

The Department ofDefense (DOD) already had a directive, DOD Directive Number

4165.60, which had the objectives to conserve natural resources by:

1. Judicious collecting and disposing ofsolid waste

2. Reducing the amount ofmaterial wasted

3. Recovering and recycling materials and/or energy from solid waste products as

an alternative to burial in landfills, incineration, or environment-menacing

dispositions.

Barriers to Recycling

A significant barrier to increased recycling ofC&D waste is the variability ofsupply

for recyclers and re-processors. The financial success of any recycling enterprise is

the dependent on the amount and quality of the supply of feedstock. Most

processors will not make a large commitment of capital unless a consistent quantity
28 CERLTR-99/58

and composition of waste can be guaranteed. The variability of C&D waste is due

to a number offactors:

• inconsistent composition of C&D waste

• widely dispersed C&D activities

• varying C&D waste management regulations

• range of disposal options, including prevalence of illegal or unregulated

disposal

• varying cost of conventional landfill disposal.

The nature and quality ofthe waste stock will vary greatly. C&D waste includes 16

different classes of materials (Table 2), any of which can be expected from typical

residential, commercial, or institutional projects. The physical composition ofsome

building materials changes dramatically depending on such factors as the age ofthe

project (in the case of renovation and demolition), availability of resources, and

construction/demolition practices.

As mentioned earlier, contamination can also be a significant problem. In most

cases, a single container is used for waste collection on a construction site.

Commingled waste is difficult to segregate unless the separation is done by hand or

by specialized machinery. A few classes of materials, such as chemically treated

wood, can alter the characteristics of the waste enough to make it unusable as

feedstock for recycled materials. Hazardous materials such as asbestos or leadbased paint can contaminate the waste and make it unusable as feedstock for other

materials. If hazardous waste streams are mixed with nonhazardous waste

streams, the entire mixture must be treated as hazardous waste.

Location ofthe project also factors into the feasibility of C&D recycling since there

is not always a highly concentrated level of C&D activity. As a result, the materials

must be transported to accumulate enough material for a centralized recycling

operation or to get to a recycling infrastructure. Ifthe economics ofrecycling depend

on the low cost of feedstock, the increased cost of transportation may preclude

recycling.

State and local waste management regulations may have a significant impact on the

consistency of C&D waste feedstock availability. Some States consider certain

components of C&D waste exempt from landfill regulations. Many States, for

example, allow inert granular material, such as stone aggregate, and wood waste

from land clearing to be disposed of on-site as fill. Despite the availability of

alternative recycling options, it is more cost-effective for contractors to dispose of

these materials on-site.
CERL TR-99/58 29

The varying nature ofsolid waste regulations indicates the range of disposal options

for C&D waste. As indicated above, it is still possible in some localities to bury the

waste on site or off-site, or incinerate it for fuel. There is also the possibility that a

significant portion ofthe waste is disposed of by un-permitted dumping or burning.

Although the amount of this material is difficult to characterize, it probably

represents a significant portion ofthe potential C&D waste feedstock.

The variability ofthe cost of conventional landfill disposal also presents a problem

in accurately predicting the economics of centralized recycling operations. Although

in many areas tipping fees at municipal and C&D landfills are increasing, they still,

at least superficially, represent the lowest cost of disposal to the individual

contractor.

Technical information about recycled-content materials is lacking. Many developers, clients and designers are reluctant to use recycled-content materials because of

limited testing or code approval.

There are also several project-related barriers to recycling, such as economic and

time resource constraints. For example, in most public and private-sector

construction and renovation projects, disposal of waste is considered by most

contractors as overhead. In most cases, it is not directly calculated in the bid for a

project. This means that the contractor will opt for the lowest, first-cost means of

disposal. This explains the prevalence of on-site or illegal dumping disposal ofthe

waste. The cost of disposal may not always be directly passed on to the client or

agency funding the project.

The separation of each material prior to recycling requires increased handling of

waste and, subsequently, more work for the contractor. Generally, in preparation

for recycling, the waste has to be separated on-site, stored, and transported to a

processor. The contractor must therefore include increased handling and processing

fees in the bid. Unless the client has specified certain disposal options, the

contractor will opt for the lowest cost solution—landfill disposal.

Once separated, the waste must be stored on site for a period oftime until there is

a sufficient quantity to transport. Much of the waste, such as wood and gypsum,

takes up a great deal ofspace because it frequently is transported in large pieces.

There may not be enough space on a construction site for separate waste containers

or access to the debris for haulers.

The number of persons involved in a project is also a barrier since on large C&D

projects there can be dozens of prime and subcontractors whose efforts to recycle
30 __^_ CERL TR-99/58

would all need to be coordinated. It also may be necessary to educate those

contractors who are not familiar with C&D waste recycling.

Another important barrier to the recycling of some classes of construction and

demolition wastes are governmental regulatory and Army policy that restrict the use

of recycled materials. For example, in 1992, SWANA found that only 26 (of 45

responding) States' DOTs allowed the use of recycled asphalt and concrete in

pavement and aggregate (SWANA 1993). A Federal Highway Administration

(FHWA) report published in March 1996 reached a number of conclusions on asphalt

pavement recycling practices. The report concludes that the use of RAP in hot-mix

asphalt (HMA) is not uniformly accepted throughout the United States. Only 33

percent of all asphalt pavement removed is recycled into HMA (Federal Highway

Report 1996).

The lack of recovery facilities is another barrier to recycling. As described in this

section, the amount of capital investment necessary, lack of markets, and the

variability of the waste stream has resulted in few large scale, multi-waste

processors. The lack of recovery facilities means that, in many cases, contractors

have no outlets for C&D waste even if they want to separate debris for recycling.

This is particularly true for small scale C&D projects such as office remodels or

small building construction. Individually, the amount of waste produced by these

relatively small projects may not be significant, but in the aggregate of the C&D

activity, it can be significant.

Increasing the amount ofrecycling ofC&D waste represents a significant change in

the way of doing things. It is very easy for contractors to continue with the "status

quo." Members ofthe construction industry assume so much risk that maintaining

the status quo, even in the face of increased financial and ethical pressure, means

that the contractors and subcontractors at least know the extent of their liability

and involvement on a project.

Of several institutional and methodological barriers to recycling construction and

demolition waste, the most significant is the potential inability on the part of project

managers and solid waste authorities to identify markets for the debris. The limited

distribution channels for the debris prevents contractors and solid waste managers

from finding appropriate disposal alternatives. The difficulty in accurately

characterizing C&D waste is also a barrier since construction and demolition waste

is highly variable in both content and quantity. This variability is due to the nature

of the waste, the dispersion of C&D activities, inconsistent waste management

regulations, the range of disposal options, and the variance in cost of the disposal

options.
CERL TR-99/58 31

The nature of the construction/demolition project contract administration also

presents a barrier to increased recycling of C&D waste by a contractor. In the bidaward contract system used for most Army projects, overhead costs, including waste

disposal, are computed as a fixed percentage ofthe total contract. Innovative waste

recovery programs typically increase the percent of overhead dedicated to disposal.

This forces the contractor to find the lowest first-cost method of disposal of waste.

In most areas, this remains the indiscriminate collection of the debris in a single

container such as a roll-off box. This heterogenous debris cannot be reclaimed

without an intermediate separation step. The additional processing may affect the

financial effectiveness ofthe recycling program.

Finally, an important barrier is the lack of communication between the architects/engineers, contractors, subcontractors, and waste haulers. There are many

issues that must be addressed and each party may not understand the roles,

responsibilities, and expectations of the other parties. Additionally, if these roles

are not explicitly defined before the contract begins, important issues may not be

addressed: the waste may not be properly characterization, or the end markets may

not be identified.

Benefits of Recycling C&D Waste

There are many benefits to the increased recycling of C&D waste. For the

Department of the Army, recycling building materials conserves resources by

diverting them from the landfill. For every recovered pound of concrete re-used in

new construction, a corresponding pound of virgin material-based concrete is not

consumed. The diversion ofbulky and difficult-to-handle C&D waste from the MSW

stream will increase the operating life for local landfills and will result in fewer

associated environmental impacts such as groundwater contamination.

C&D waste generators, i.e., contractors, building trades, and clients, can expect

lower material and disposal costs in the long term. With the development of new

markets for their debris, waste generators may also potentially have new sources

of revenue. The cost of salvaging materials such as unique wood millwork and

fixtures for reuse by others is generally lower than the price of new comparable

materials. Providing that there is a market for these materials, the generator may

make a profit on salvaged materials. A benefit for the solid waste industry may be

lower operating costs as it finds new markets for the waste materials.
32 CERL TR-99/58

Managing Construction/Demolition Site Recycling Operations

Since the perceived benefits ofincreased C&D recycling may not be readily apparent

to the contractor, the project manager must also consider how the project can be best

managed to maximize recycling. The aspects ofthe construction contract that must

be addressed are: (1) contract specifications, (2) material specifications, and (3)

recycling operation supervision. Typical contract specifications for a construction

project describe the work to be performed and the standards that the contractor

must meet. The specification that addresses recycling should reflect the additional

work the contractor and subcontractors must perform to meet the project's recycling

goals. This information may include an explanation of the methods needed to

remove and process the materials as well as a description ofthe final condition this

material must be in for it to be marketable. Material specifications include a

description of the condition of the material, including weight, size, quantity, etc.,

that the material is expected to be in at the point of delivery to the end-market.

Supervisory issues include defining the execution of the recycling operation in

accordance with the normal construction project objectives. The areas of concern in

project supervision include inspection of the operation by a representative of the

client or architect/engineer, quality control procedures, and final authorization of

the material's condition.

For most Army facilities, an extensive C&D waste recycling operation will entail the

investment of a large investment of both time and capital. Denison and Ruston

(1990) list the factors that should be considered by the solid waste and project

managers before commencing with any form of a recycling operation to ensure that

the recycling project is both financially and methodologically feasible:

1. The amount of waste generated

2. The composition ofthe waste

3. The specific materials targeted for recycling and the design of programs

intended to recover them

4. The expected effectiveness of participation in the program

5. The type of additional processing required to prepare the recovered materials

for marketing

6. The overall costs ofrecycling handling, collection, and processing

7. Financial and logistical risks and uncertainties associated with the proposal

8. The availability of markets for recovered materials, prevailing prices, price

volatility, and the potential effect ofmarket development programs.
CERL TR-99/58 33

Producing a solid waste recycling operation for Army projects involves nine steps:

1. Assembling an interdisciplinary project team

2. Characterizing the waste

3. Classifying the waste components

4. Identifying constraints

5. Identifying end-markets

6. Economic analysis

7. Project planning

8. Contract administration

9. Project operation.

Figure 4 shows the nine steps in this C&D waste recycling action plan. The first

step, assembling a project team, involves identifying the persons with some stake

in the success ofthe recycling operation. Possible members ofthe team include the

construction manager, installation engineer, including the solid waste manager, and

a local solid waste authority who will be familiar with local markets and product

standards. The next step, characterizing the waste, is critical to managing the

operation. The potential success ofthe project will depend on accurately identifying

both the nature of the waste and its quantity. The composition of the demolition

waste, for example, will be affected by not only the materials used in the building,

but also by their age and location within the building. The quantity of debris will

be affected by both the amount ofmaterials and the techniques used to remove the

materials or demolish the building. Once the character ofthe waste is known, the

debris may be classified by the amount in which it is recyclable or salvageable.

The next three steps determine both the financial and methodological feasibility of

the operation. The project team first determines the permit requirements for the

project. This entails defining any potential health and safety issues that will arise

in executing the recycling project. One important area is the identification of

hazardous or special wastes. The next step is to identify markets for the recycled

debris. The local solid waste authority may be helpful in developing a list of endmarkets. They will be aware of appropriate disposal options as well as any new

recycling enterprises. The project team determines the market's materials

specifications, contract requirements, and prices. Once this information is known,

the team performs an economic analysis to check ifthere is a financial incentive to

recycle the waste. The analysis will determine whether the expected revenue from

the operation is greater than the added costs of performing the operation.

The final three steps in the action plan involve planning the project, preparing and

administrating the contracts, and finally supervising the operation.
34 CERLTR-99/58

ASSEMBLE RECYCLING

PROJECT TEAM

Project Manager

Installation Engineer

DRMO Officer

v

CHARACTERIZE

WASTE

Identify waste:

- Composition

- Quantity

"

CLASSIFY

WASTE

Classify Waste:

- Salvageability

Recyclability

i r

INDENTIFY PROJECT

CONSTRAINTS

Determine:

Permit Requirements

- Health and Safety Issues

_5r

Potential Hazardous Waste

INDENTIFY

END MARKETS

Consult:

Installation Engineer

- DRMO Officer

1 r

Solid Waste Autnonty

ECONOMIC

ANALYSIS

Factors:

- Added Costs

- Avoided Costs

1 r

Expected Revenue

PROJECT

PLANNING

Plan:

Debris Handling

Debris Separation

1 r

Storage

- Transport

CONTRACT

ADMINISTRATION

Prepare Contract:

- Contract Specifications

1 r

PROJECT

ADMINISTRATION

Project Operation

Figure 4. C&D waste recycling action plan.
CERLTR-99/58 35

Incentives To Recycle

There are both direct and indirect incentives to increase the amount ofrecycling by

contractors and waste processors. Direct incentives are those that apply particular

strategies to directly achieve recycling goals. Incentives that will directly increase

the amount of recycling by DA construction contractors include: banning certain

waste disposal options (such as landfill disposal) and financial incentives, including

subsidizing costs ofrecycling.

The banning of the disposal of all or some of C&D waste materials from landfills

may increase the amount ofrecycling by contractors. Restricting disposal options

may also increase the amount ofunregulated and unpermitted disposal ofthe waste.

The most effective incentive to increase the recycling of C&D waste by contractors

and waste handlers is to make recycling financially competitive with conventional

disposal. Financial incentives that offer compensation for separating or reusing

materials that would otherwise end up in a landfill would reduce the amount of

landfilled materials. Nonfinancial incentives may be include code or zoning

requirements for source separation and recycling.

Some indirect incentives to increase recycling include: developing procurement

standards for recycled-content building materials, including specified percentages

of product, constituent materials, banning DA purchase of nonrecycled content

materials, and requiring waste reduction programs for DA contractors.

From a regulatory agency viewpoint, restricting the disposal ofC&D waste in either

demofills or MSW landfills will tend to increase the amount of waste diverted to

alternative methods. One method of restrictive control of disposal is increasing

tipping fees for disposal at demofills or MSW landfills. The increase in tipping fees

will make recycling more financially feasible.

Recycling Economics

Army Technical Manual 5-634 States that the economic feasibility of a recycling

program depends on whether the added costs (increased time, effort, and equipment)

associated with the recycling program are less than the avoided costs (tipping fees,

surcharges, labor, hauling fees, maintenance, permit fees, and taxes) plus sales

revenue (TM 5-634, p 4-79). Ifthe added costs exceed avoided costs plus revenue,

the operation should not be undertaken (Eq 1).

Added Costs > Avoided Costs + Sales Revenue [Eq 1]
36 CERL TR-99/58

It is therefore critical that careful economic analysis be performed to determine

whether a project should include a recycling program. An economic analysis is

required by the Department ofthe Army to establish the amount offunding required

to rent or procure operating equipment and facilities for the project.

According to SWANA, the value ofthe final marketable waste, or market price, is

determined by the cost of competing products at the point of application. This "free

market price" (MP) is based on the following factors (SWANA 1993):

MP = MC + PC + TC + P [Eq 2]

'e:

MC = material cost

PC = processed cost

TC = transportation cost

P = profit.

Material costs include the cost of procuring the raw waste stock from the generator.

Processing costs generally depend on the sophistication of the equipment and the

amount of labor required to handle, process, and prepare/package the products.

Overhead costs, such as administrative costs, should also be computed in the

processing cost. Transportation costs depend on the distance from the site of

processing. The greater the distance to its market, the greater the market price for

the goods. Transportation costs will be based, partly, on the density ofthe material

being transported. Ifthe hauler charges by volume (cubic yards), materials such as

expanded polystyrene or scraps of lumber will cost more to transport since they

require more volume per unit of weight than other, denser debris. Transportation

costs can be the most important factor in the market price. Profit is set by the

processing facility to cover the risk involved in operating a waste processing facility.

Once the free market price is calculated, this information can be used to compare the

products with those produced with "virgin" materials.

Some recovered products will have higher value than others. This value will only

be realized if the market for the product exists within an economical transport

distance and ifthe "incremental cost of producing the higher value product is less

than the incremental higher value ofthe product" (SWANA 1993).

The level of economic analysis will depend on the scale and scope of the recycling

operation. If the extent of the operation is to simply prepare waste materials by

sorting on-site, then the analysis should not be more involved than determining: (1)

the cost oflabor and equipment needed to separate the waste (added costs), (2) the

hauling, permit, and tipping fees of disposing of the material in a landfill (avoided
CERL TR-99/58 37

costs), and (3) any revenue expected from sale ofthe debris. Ifthe added costs are

less than the avoided costs plus the revenue, then it would be cost-effective to

separate the waste and sell it to a recycling facility.

Economic analysis for larger recycling operations should be more extensive,

particularly ifit will involve the purchase of equipment or facilities. Figure 5 shows

a sample economic analysis worksheet from Army Technical Manual 5-634.

Market Analysis

The identification ofmarkets for the C&D waste diverted from the waste stream is

a critical component ofthe C&D recycling plan. "Once a market exists, the material

is no longer a waste but a commodity" (Kibert 1994). The economic success of a

recycling program depends primarily on the use of a stable, profitable market. The

Appendix to this report lists potential markets for each class ofraw C&D material.

SWANA suggests that, to have a market for a recycled product, five requirements

must be met and agreed on between the buyer and the seller: (1) specifications,

(2) quantity, (3) delivery conditions, (4) price, and (5) commitment (SWANA 1993).

The material specification for the end market should reflect the required condition

ofthe waste material at the end market. The specification should include a general

description ofthe waste(s). It is very important to determine this before execution

of the recycling program because it will affect how the entire project is planned

including the method of storage, job site handling, and any preprocessing needed

prior to delivery to the market.

As mentioned previously, the determination of quantities of each class ofmaterials

is critical to planning and executing a recycling program. The contractor/project

manager will need to indicate an estimate ofthese quantities before distribution of

the waste materials if the quantities are significantly high. This will allow the

market/processor to determine whether delivery of the waste will require special

handling.

As described in Chapter Two, the quantity of demolition material can be estimated

by performing a "reverse" material take-off on the building or portion ofthe building.

There are many cost-estimating guides available to construction managers that

convert material and assembly quantities to unit costs. This information can also

be used to roughly determine, by square foot of floor space, the quantity of

demolition materials.
38 CERL TR-99/58

Installation:

Preparer:

Location:

Target recyclable material:

Tons-lb-gal-ea/project:

ESTIMATED ADDED COSTS

1. Source separation and material preparation

a. Equipment (amortize over life of equipment) $ /pro.

b. Labor

(1) Procurement (amortize over life of equipment) $ /pro.

(1) Operations $ /pro.

(1) Maintenance $ /pro.

c. Other (materials, supplies) $ /pro.

Subtotal: ($ /pro.)

2. Collection and storage

a. Equipment and facilities $ /pro.

(amortize over life of equipment or facility)

b. Labor

(1) Procurement (amortize over life of equip, or facil.) $ /pro.

(1) Operations $ /pro.

(1) Maintenance $ /pro.

c. Other (materials, supplies) $ /pro.

Subtotal: ($ /pro.)

3. Project administration

a. Instructions and operating procedures $ /pro.

b. Fiscal management

c. Other (publicity, supplies) $ /pro.

Subtotal: ($ /pro.)

TOTAL ADDED COSTS: $ /pro.

ESTIMATED AVOIDED COSTS AND REVENUE

1. Savings resulting from reduced volume of waste

going to disposal facilities $ /pro.

2. Sales revenue (tons-lb-gal-ea/project) x ($/ton-lb-gal-ea) $ /pro.

Subtotal: ($ /pro.)

TOTAL AVOIDED COSTS + REVENUE: $ /pro.

ESTIMATED RETURN

(Total Avoided Costs + Revenue) - (Total Added Costs) = $ /pro.

Figure 5. Worksheet for determining waste sales economic analysis (adapted from Department of the Army

Technical Manual 5-634).
CERLTR-99/58 39

Delivery conditions describe the type of transport/hauling required by both the

contractor and the end market. Issues such as the type of transport vehicle, the

containers, and the timing ofthe delivery need to be agreed on before the delivery.

Market price for recyclable materials depends on the cost of storage, collection,

transportation, and other costs ofthe processor. The demand for these materials is

the most important factor (and depends on short-term demand for and availability

of virgin material). The scarcer a resource is, the more economically feasible the

recovered materials will be. At least six key factors drive the supply, demand, and

pricing ofrecycled materials:

1. Export markets. The Far East, where fiber is in short supply, represents a

particularly strong export market for recycled materials.

2. Virgin capacities and recycled capacities. When price and availability ofvirgin

commodities change, the price and availability ofrecycled commodities follow.

3. Geography. A West Coast generator with access to markets in the Pacific Rim

has different opportunities than a generator in the Midwest.

4. Transportation costs. The distance to market plays a role in the pricing of all

commodities, whether recycled or virgin.

5. End product demand. Recycled materials serve three key sectors of the

economy: automobiles, housing and retail. When the auto industry booms, so

does the steel and plastic industries. When housing booms, business increases

for suppliers of steel, paper, plastic and other virgin and recycled materials.

Likewise, when retail sales climb, so do paper and plastic packaging material

sales.

6. Natural disasters around the world. When a community begins to rebuild after

a natural disaster, demand for recycled materials in all areas spike up (Fickes

1997).

The final requirement is an explicit commitment between the general contractor or

project manager, hauler, and market. For large scale or long-term projects, this

should be in the form of a contract that states each party's requirements. Having

a prearranged agreement will reduce the amount of uncertainty associated with the

recycling program.
40 CERL TR-99/58

4 Salvaged Building Materials and Systems

As mentioned previously, the re-use of C&D salvage has occurred for centuries. In

most cases, this has been in the form of salvaging the materials from one building

for use in other construction projects. When resources were scarce, many indigenous

or vernacular builders salvaged components from existing buildings for new

construction.

From the point of view of the construction industry and solid waste management,

salvaging materials has several advantages. First it recovers the highest percentage

of the "embodied" resources in the materials or subsystems. The energy and raw

materials consumed in the original manufacture ofthe materials or systems are not

lost to landfill disposal. Second, salvaging reduces the total cost of materials since

only the cost of removal, refurbishing, and transport are incurred by the salvage.

Also important is that many State and regional waste authorities restrict disposal

of bulk waste such as furniture, appliances, and building equipment to special solid

waste handlers or landfills. This, in turn, has driven up the disposal tipping fees.

In most cases, any level of salvage reduces the cost of disposal.

The Department of the Army uses the DOD's Defense Reutilization and Marketing

Office (DRMO) to manage the reuse ofreusable equipment and building materials.

The DRMO has the responsibility to provide technical assistance to installations in

the identification, collection, and storage of scrap materials. There is no Army

regulation that specifically governs a systematic building material salvage

operation. However, the Defense Reutilization and Marketing Manual, DOD

4160.21-M, does provide good technical assistance on the identification of markets

and organization of a large-scale scrap operation.

Several barriers must be overcome to increase the salvage of building materials

during C&D projects. First is the difficulty in identifying markets, or outlets, for the

materials. Although this is an essential aspect of all recycling/salvage projects, the

resources and time required make the analysis difficult for project managers.

Market identification, described below, first entails inspecting the target building

and analyzing the expected waste materials for their salvage potential.
CERL TR-99/58 41

A second barrier for a systematic salvage operation is determining whether the

material and/or assemblies can be removed in a cost-effective and safe manner. This

information is vital to determining the economic feasibility ofthe project.

Another barrier is the amount ofsalvaged material from each project. Ifthere is not

enough material to financially justify a full fledged salvage disposal operation, the

operation may not take place despite the existence of outlets/markets for the

material. A lack ofstorage space until disposition can prevent a salvage operation

ifthere is too much material. In some cases, the material may have to be stored for

an indefinite period oftime. Some classes ofmaterials, such as wall board, degrade

and become unusable over time and lose their economic value ifnot stored properly.

The time required to adequately remove the materials and components is another

barrier. Construction and demolition projects typically have tight schedules. Once

a bid for a project has been accepted and the notice to proceed is issued, work

usually begins immediately. It is the responsibility of the project manager to

schedule an adequate amount oftime for the salvage operation.

Another barrier is the necessary timing of the salvage operation during the C&D

activities. The ideal time to salvage materials is before construction or demolition

begins. This avoids conflicting activities between the work crews. The problem is

that, in some cases, a certain degree of demolition must occur to make the salvaged

material accessible.

Fort McCoy Case Study

Fort McCoy implemented a successful building salvage program in 1992. The

Directorate of Engineering (DE) at Fort McCoy developed a program to remove

WWII "temporary" wood buildings in response to the installation's Facility

Reduction Program. Besides the typical Fixed Firm Requirements contracts let for

demolition and building removal, the Fort McCoy DE advertised Individual

Demolition Service contracts. The DE recognized the need to reduce the costs

involved in demolition ofbuildings targeted under the FRP and the one-for-one MCA

matching requirements. They also realized the importance ofrecovering valuable

dimensional lumber and timbers from the World War II structures. The objective

ofthe individual demolition program is to "demolish the buildings at the lowest cost

to the Government" (Fred Weiner, Fort McCoy, WI, professional discussion, 1992

[hereafter referred to as "Weiner 1992"]).
42 CERL TR-99/58

The premise of the program at Fort McCoy was to allow local individuals (e.g.,

homeowners, farmers) to bid for the salvage rights to a variety of buildings such as

barracks, administrative offices, theaters, and mess halls. The Fort McCoy DE felt

that there were persons in the community willing to exchange their time and effort

for low cost, well-maintained lumber, equipment, and bricks. Once the DE accepts

the bids for the individual service contracts, the contractors have a limited amount

of time to remove any materials contained within the building, such as lumber,

equipment, bricks, flooring, wiring, and pipe. Fort McCoy removes any friable

asbestos, provides a roll-off dumpster and technical information, and performs the

final clean up, including the foundation and piers. Figure 6 shows a wood-framed

barracks being deconstructed. Figure 7 shows a wood-framed mess hall under

deconstruction and the mechanical equipment that came with the building.

The cost savings (cost avoidance) from a salvage program are illustrated in Table 5

using average values provided by Fort McCoy. The actual cost for the 126 buildings

originally contracted from mechanical demolition was $5.79 per square foot offloor

space. Using Fort McCoy's method of deconstruction for salvage and recycling, the

cost per square foot of floor space was $1.61. To date, over 100 of these buildings

have been deconstructed for salvage with the current cost for debris removal and site

clean-up, including restoration seeding, totaling only $1.80 per square foot of floor

space. The cost of mechanical demolition continues to increase and now runs in

excess of $7.00 per square foot of floor space in a typical commercial demolition

contract (Fred Weiner, Fort McCoy, WI, professional discussion, 1997).

As the table shows, salvage can dramatically reduce the cost of facility reduction.

As an added benefit, these Individual Demolition Service contracts have provided

an inexpensive source of building materials for the local community. Churches,

homes, and garages that might have not been otherwise built due to the high cost

of new building products were constructed from these salvaged materials. Some of

the other indirect benefits of the program include using less landfill space and a

reduction in the use of virgin wood resources.

The DE and Fort McCoy Planners/Estimators developed the Individual Service

contract specifically for this program. The original commercial program contracts

required the potential contractors to retain a bid bond. The DE felt that this

requirement excluded the individuals they believed would be most interested in this

program. The typical Corps ofEngineers demolition bid package contains a myriad

offorms and procedures, particularly ifthe bid includes provisions for special waste

handling such as asbestos abatement. It was felt that this will also reduce the

notification ofthe individuals who would be most interested in salvaging the wood

and other materials in the buildings.
CERL TR-99/58 43

Figure 6. Wood-framed barracks in process of deconstruction.

Figure 7. Wood-framed mess hall in process of deconstruction.
44 CERL TR-99/58

^.A^**. »***s

Figure 8. Equipment used to grind building foundation materials for future use on

the installation.

Table 5. Cost savings with Fort McCoy WWII salvage program.

Floor area 3,500 sq ft

Board-feet of lumber 18,300 board ft

Tons of debris 45 tons

Cost of commercial demolition $40,000

Cost of landfill disposal $1,800

Total commercial demolition cost $41,800

Cost of building salvage, including administration,

supervision, use of heavy equipment.

$5,600

Cost savings from salvage vs. demolition: ($41,800-$5,600) = $36,200

*AII values are per one typical building

The Individual Demolition Service contract requires the bidders to remove roofing

and siding before any other materials can be taken from the site. This partially

protects the installation from bidders who are only interested in salvaging the most

valuable building materials such as equipment, metals, or choice wood.
CERL TR-99/58 45

Fort McCoy has used the salvage program as an opportunity to improve the training

ofseveral technical and engineering units. Engineering units have used the salvage

sites to train in excavation, grading, and material processing. Instead of using the

local wooded areas for training, the units have been able to train in more "realistic"

conditions of a building site. Also, the excavated foundation materials were used as

road bed for a new access road on the installation. Figure 8 shows the equipment

used to grind up the foundation materials.

According to the DE, several key points to the success ofthe Fort McCoy

building salvage program are (Weiner 1992):

Environmental and safety considerations need to be addressed through

respective Division Chiefs, and legal opinions need to be cleared through Judge

Advocates's Office (JAG).

Adopt the philosophy that anything someone else demolishes, the Government

does not have to.

The individual demolition contract must be managed by on-site personnel

rather than outside agencies.

Make the contract "user-friendly." Keep it simple and easy to understand.

Remove barriers that may keep small potential customers from bidding, e.g.,

requiring a bid bond or concrete removal. Provide for removal of the final

debris.

Keep your interests in focus, too. Labor intensive work should be done first

before valuable materials leave the site.

Limit the duration ofthe contract with the option to extend at the discretion

of the Contract Office Representative, based on the past performance of the

contractor.

Be creative! The objective is to get the buildings down at a minimum cost to

the Government.

Know the needs and wants ofyour community. Remember, potential bidders

want buildings to save money on materials.

Project Planning for Salvage Operations

Perhaps the most important issue for planning a salvage operation is identifying insitu that materials can be salvaged. The two criteria that must be considered are

whether there is a market or outlet for the material or assembly, and whether the

material meets the specification ofthe market. The salvage manager evaluating the

demolition project must identify potential salvageable materials and plan how the

materials will be removed. Project planning for salvage is very important since
46 CERL TR-99/58

there is typically little time in a demolition project for the salvagers to work. Issues

that must be addressed include:

identification ofsalvageable materials, equipment, and assemblies/components

identification of special removal or technical issues

application of permits from local or State authorities, where applicable

contracting for salvage contractor

identification ofsecure storage area.

It is difficult to create a comprehensive list ofthe types ofmaterials, equipment or

assemblies that can possibly be salvaged since the most important factor is the

existence of a market or the materials. Materials and subsystems that may have

little value to one project may be of great value to another. Some of the most

common items that are kept out of landfills are ceramic tile, windows, lumber,

molding, plumbing fixtures, sinks, and kitchen cabinets. Salvage operations can

find new homes for this C&D waste.

The DRMO may assist the project manager to organize the disposal or redisposition

of useable equipment. According to Army Technical Manual 5-634, the DRMO

supports a recycling program by:

1. Conducting market research to determine proceeds from the operation

2. Providing advice on procedures for collecting, segregating, and storing

materials to optimize sale proceeds

3. Assuming accountability for materials made available for sale

4. Determining whether materials turned in under the recycling program shall

be diverted to higher priority program

5. Conducting sales and depositing the proceeds in the program account.

In the same manner, the identification of special requirements, such as asbestos

removal or material of unique quality will depend on each project. The installation

should determine what markets exist, if any, and prices associated with markets

(AR 420-49). According to AR 420-49, an installation may directly sell recyclable

materials acquired with appropriated funds ifthe direct sale is expected to be cost

effective and 100 percent of the proceeds from the sale will be credited to the

installation.

Most local governments have an agency that is responsible for permitting demolition

projects. Project managers should check with all applicable local and State

authorities to determine their permit requirements.
CERLTR-99/58 47

5 Demolition Techniques

Recycling Considerations in Demolition

Demolition is the systematic total or partial removal of structural systems,

subsystems, and materials from a building. The method of demolition used to

remove materials from a facility has a significant impact on the recyclability ofthe

waste materials. The economic feasibility of a recycling project depends on the

amount ofhandling and processing necessary to condition the goods according to the

needs of the markets. In essence, the more mixed the waste, the more separation

required before processing the waste. This additional processing increases the final

cost of recycling the waste. Most techniques have been developed to perform the

demolition quickly and efficiently. Any amount of "processing" ofthe raw wreckage,

such as shredding or grinding, should be done to decrease the cost oftransport by

reducing volume. Ideally, this means that all materials are demolished at the same

time and into the same pile ofmaterial. Any post-demolition separation that occurs

at this point involves mostly recovery ofscrap metal or removal of any material that

may substantially increase the cost of disposal, such as hazardous materials.

There are three typical approaches to building demolition: (1) manual wrecking; (2)

mechanical wrecking; and (3) explosive charge demolition.

Manual Wrecking Methods

Manual wrecking describes the methods used by contractors generally without the

assistance of heavy equipment. Manual wrecking generally occurs on either very

small projects that do not warrant contracting a bulldozer or front-end loader, in

high density residential or industrial areas, or on partial-demolition projects such

as interior remodeling. Manual wrecking involves the "systematic hand removal of

materials from a given structure" (Murthy and Chaterjee 1976). Figure 9 shows the

order of activities. Manual wrecking can be very labor-intensive since most ofthe

demolition involves cutting and ripping with hand and power tools.

The advantage ofmanual wrecking methods is that it may result in debris with the

highest salvage and reclamation potential. Materials and assemblies can be

systematically removed and prepared for disposition. Although manual wrecking
48 CERL TR-99/58

INSPECT

THE

STRUCTURE

MANUALLY

REMOVE

COPPER

PIPES

-*

MANUALLY

REMOVE

ELECTRICAL

COPPER

WIRING

REMOVE ALL

STRUCTURAL

STEEL

COMPONENTS

REMOVE

HEAVY

TIMBER

-

DEMOLISH

STRUCTURE

WITH SLEDGE

HAMMER

AND/OR

MECHANICAL

HAMMERS

LOAD

WASTES

INTO

DUMP

TRUCKS

WITH

LOADERS

DISPOSE

^. OR REUSE

SOLID

WASTE

Figure 9. Steps in manual wrecking.

is costly and time intensive, the expense ofthis method may be offset by the money

gained from sale of the reclaimed materials. Of course, if the costs cannot be

recovered (including some profit) and/or ifthe construction schedule is too tight, the

likelihood ofsalvage and recovery ofthe building components is greatly diminished.

Mechanical Wrecking Methods

Mechanical wrecking is the most common method of building demolition. It is both

efficient and cost effective compared to manual wrecking since it substantially

improves labor productivity. There are several different types of mechanical

demolition techniques and equipment (Table 6). The use of each method depends

on the type ofstructure, cost, safety and health issues, and local zoning constraints.

The amount ofmaterial that can be salvaged after mechanical wrecking methods is

usually very low. The use of a bulldozer or front-end loader will typically crush and

mix the materials, eliminating the possibility of salvaging the materials in their

original condition. The recyclability of the materials depends on whether the

condition ofthe materials makes them unusable, and the amount ofseparation that

can be performed after wrecking. Murthy and Chaterjee (1976) suggest different

strategies for improving the separation of goods by using equipment such as grab

buckets or mechanical claws that are capable of some separation of the materials

from the structure. In the same manner, some

techniques, such as the use of hydraulic splitters for concrete and flame cutting for steel,

can be efficient means to separate materials

before general demolition ofthe building.

Table 6. Mechanical demolition techniques

and equipment.

Explosive Demolition Methods

Explosive demolition techniques are used for

specialized projects such as shearing wood

piles, posts or timbers, or large, multi-story

buildings. Explosive demolition generally

Heavy Equipment

Gravity-Impact Method

• Ball and crane

• Cylinder and drop weight

• "Arrow" drop ram

Clamshell Bucket and Crane Method

• Tagline control

Pneumatic/Hydraulic Impact Method

• Nibbler

Hydraulic Splitters

Flame Cutting

Drag Through Method
CERL TR-99/58 49

results in the lowest recyclability and salvage potential for all buildings except

primarily reinforced concrete and masonry buildings. The techniques include the

use of:

shaped charges

linear shaped charges

controlled blasting.

Criteria for System Selection and Evaluation

The selection of a wrecking technique that will maximize the recycling potential of

its materials depends on two factors: (1) amount ofsystems and materials that are

salvageable, and (2) the potential to preseparate or to make separation ofmaterials

easier. These factors have to be balanced against the other issues concerning choice

of demolition technique such as cost, availability of equipment and expertise, safety,

and time constraints. Analysis of the method of demolition as Stated in Army

Technical Manual 5-634: "The final choice of methods or combination of methods

should be based on least cost where such studies are conclusive while in accordance

with local, State, and Federal requirements."
50 CERL TR-99/58

6 Debris Handling

The manner in which the waste materials are handled during and after construction/demolition have a significant impact on the economic viability ofthe recycling

program because labor and equipment costs of preselection and sorting are relatively

high. Despite the other preconstruction planning issues that this report has

addressed, the actual quantity and composition ofthe waste will not be known until

it is being generated. To avoid increasing the cost of disposal, waste material that

cannot be recycled or that has no preidentified markets should not be handled

differently than the normal waste disposal procedure. Proper handling and storage

will simplify quantification, collection, and resource recovery.

The critical factor to consider in debris handling is the efficient collection and

disposition ofthe materials into the appropriate storage containers or area. Avoid

contaminating ofthe material during handling, such as allowing the material to sit

on the ground or to mix with other classes of materials. The waste should be

collected and handled in a safe and healthy manner.

Storage is also an important issue since the cost offrequent hauling to the market

may be cost prohibitive if the project is a great distance from the point of final

disposition. Some organic wastes, such as wood waste, are especially difficult to

store and protect against deterioration.

Special waste materials such as hazardous waste, including fluorescent lamps,

asbestos, containers, etc. may warrant careful handling. USEPA regulations require

the generator ofwaste to determine whether the materials are hazardous. Lighting

components, such as outdated ballasts and lamps, are not obvious hazardous

materials, but they do fall under many State and Federal waste regulations

(Leishman 1996).

Project Planning for Debris Handling

Recycling operations will not only require some market analysis, but also a great

deal of planning by construction management. The variability of recycling

economics demands that management preplan the project as much as possible to
CERL TR-99/58 51

reduce the likelihood of unforeseen problems from upsetting the project. Although

every construction and demolition project will be different, project managers,

installation engineers, and contractors should consider the following factors:

layout of collection area

collection

contract issues for disposal, hauling, etc.

material separation and/or preprocessing

handling hazardous waste.

Collection Area Layout

Some materials, such as gravel and rubble, do not need any special considerations

to store on site. This type of waste does not need to be covered. Other types of

wastes, such as cardboard or gypsum board waste are not water-resistant and will

deteriorate if left exposed to the elements. Many processors will not accept wet

waste since its weight and characteristics make it difficult to process. Also, since

some raw materials are purchased by the pound, processors may not accept

excessively heavy, wet stock. The issues that must be addressed for site storage of

the materials are:

• containers, including capacity

• cost/fees for containers

• location.

Most construction sites require larger containers because the volume ofthe debris

is much greater than other types of solid waste. The size and type of containers

depends on the nature ofthe waste to be contained. Flexible waste materials like

cardboard or wall board may be able to folded or broken into pieces and placed in

smaller, portable containers. Larger, inflexible materials such as wood or metals,

will require containers with enough capacity to accommodate their size while

minimizing the need to process the materials to fit the container.

The anticipated length oftime ofstorage ofthe materials also has to be considered

in selection ofthe containers. Ifmaterials must be stored for longer periods oftime,

Army Technical Manual 5-634 requires that they must not constitute a fire, health,

or safety hazard. The types of containers used for C&D waste typically use include:

• manually-loaded lugger boxes

• enclosed, compaction-type containers
52 CERL TR-99/58

• roll-off containers

• open top, trailer-mounted containers.

The location ofsite storage is an important consideration since large scale recycling

will generate a great deal of waste. The location has to be convenient for workers

to use when disposing ofthe material. A location too far away from the work area

may increase the amount oftime taken to dispose of the material. This may affect

the time required to complete the project.

The choice of location also has the potential to disrupt vehicular and pedestrian

circulation on the site. Location of the waste debris storage also has some impact

on economic feasibility of the project since it may require more time and effort for

the hauler to retrieve the debris from their containers. Solid waste managers

carefully develop a plan for waste pickup for curbside collection programs.

As with choosing a container, the project manager must consider the composition

and quantity ofthe waste in choosing a location to store the materials. Most inert

wastes must be piled or stacked in a location on the project site that has convenient

access for loading onto a trailer.

There are several options for hauling waste materials from the generating site to

either the transfer station or the end market. The most common method is by truck.

The hauler will either pick up the storage container(s) or will load the material into

an open trailer. Other options for transportation are by barge and rail. Both of

these options are typically used in special circumstances, such as when very large

quantities are involved and when the project is in close proximity to existing

transportation.

Debris Collection

Debris collection for recycling entails daily collection/deposit ofwaste materials in

storage containers and subsequent collection of the aggregate waste by a waste

hauler. All considerations must comply with debris collection guidelines in AR 420-

49. The collection frequency will be established in accordance with TM 5-634.

Special collection arrangements and handling procedures need to be established for

unique installation activities that produce waste that is different from what is

normally collected and disposed. Events such as unit relocation, building

demolition, new construction, and base closure and rehabilitation action can affect

the number of containers and collection schedules required to dispose of waste (AR

420-49).
CERL TR-99/58 53

Project management should be primarily concerned with the logistical issues

involved in the collection of waste. The most important factor to consider is the

timing/frequency of collection. Scheduling the collection should balance the capacity

for storage on site with the cost of more frequent hauling. The fee that the waste

hauler charges may depend on the distance to the processing facility or transfer

station. Therefore, the greater the amount ofmaterial to haul to a recycling facility

the more cost effective the collection. An important issue to consider, though, is that

the longer the material remains on site, the more likely that is may become

contaminated with nonrecyclable materials, or degrade from exposure to the

elements.

Construction site waste management usually entails depositing the waste in a

lugger box or roll-offsomewhere close to the work site. As mentioned previously, to

maximize the amount ofrecyclable material, every effort should be taken to separate

materials before they are deposited in the collection containers.

Contract Issues

Contracting for hauling is the responsibility ofthe project contractor. Contracts for

salvage operations need to be negotiated to include personal injury liability,

including coverage for power equipment and motor vehicle operation. For liability

purposes, a salvage contractor should seek to be the general contractor in

appropriate projects. Under certain circumstances (e.g., demolition of high-rise or

masonry structures), a salvage contractor may enter the project as a subcontractor

for predemolition salvage or post-demolition scavenge. Other contract-related issues

include determining insurance requirements and specifying the salvage operation.

If necessary, a liquidation firm may be used.

Material Preparation

Separation of the materials is the most common aspect in material preparation.

Segregation of the waste enables the individual materials to be directed to the

appropriate markets. The more separation that can be done at the source, the less

processing and handling will be required at some later point. The economic

integrity of the operation can be enhanced by the intelligent management of the

waste while it is being generated.

Separation ofthe waste entails both breaking the materials into their constituent

components and deciding the disposition of the waste at the point of generation.
54 CERL TR-99/58

Each person involved in the handling process, whether as a generator, or later, as

someone who must dispose ofthe materials, must be able to determine whether the

material qualifies for recycling. Some materials, such as shrink wrapping, discarded

paint brushes, etc., cannot be feasibly recycled. These wastes should be disposed in

the normal manner. Actual processing of the waste debris (i.e., grinding, etc.) is

covered in the next chapter.

Transfer stations are the intermediary location for storage or preprocessing ofsolid

waste. Transfer stations are typically needed when the final location for disposal

or recycling is a great distance from the generator. The intermediate location can

collect the material until a sufficient quantity of material is accumulated to

economically transport the waste to its final disposition. The waste may be

subjected to some form of processing, such as shredding, at the transfer site to

reduce its volume and reduce the cost oftransport. Municipal solid waste transfer

operations, for example, compact and bale materials awaiting shipping to a recycling

center. If the transfer stations are used to perform some processing, such as

separation, on the waste they may simplify the material requirements of the

generator. This may, in turn, increase the amount ofparticipation ofthe generators.

Transfer operations range from a simple, centrally-located loading dock for collection

vehicles unloading, to complex facilities requiring capital equipment such as

unloading/sorting machinery. C&D waste transfer sites can be both temporary and

permanent installations, depending on the life and scale of the project.

The use of a transfer station for recycling C&D waste would depend on the expected

life ofthe construction and demolition projects, their scale, the density ofthe project,

and its location to end market producers or processors. Long-term, remote site

construction projects (3-plus years) may have an extended life and produce enough

waste material to warrant the capital expense of a transfer station. A transfer site

may also make sense when a there is no room on the construction or demolition site

for storage or separation of the wastes, such as would occur in the case of a

demolition project in a densely urban area.

The 1993 flooding in the Mississippi River Valley around Hull, IL caused the

widespread destruction of a number of homes and structures. After the demolition

water damaged structures, the IL Department of Transportation (IDOT) used a

centrally-located transfer station in East Hull, IL as a collection point for demolition

materials from as far away as 25 mi (Lowell Hewlett, Illinois Department of

Transportation [IDOT], professional discussion, 1993). Because of the amount of

material and the widespread nature of the activity, IDOT felt a central location
CERL TR-99/58 55

would be best in terms of managing the collection and processing of the waste

material.

Although the use of transfer stations to coordinate the collection and recycling of

C&D debris may be beyond the scope of many DA construction and demolition

projects, several factors may affect their viability for use on or around an Army

installation (Army PAM 420-47):

large quantity of waste

availability ofsite for transfer

location ofthe site

availability of collection and transfer equipment

final method or location offinal disposition ofthe material.

Developing a transfer operation will require some capital expenditure. Army

Technical Manual 5-634 states the economic issues that must be considered are:

facilities and site, equipment, and investment costs, including financing. The

transfer station will also incur some operating costs such as: materials and supplies,

labor costs, equipment rental, cost of utilities, maintenance and repair costs, and

permit and closure costs. There will also be the overhead costs of operation such as

supervision pay and installation support (Army TM 5-634, sec. 3.2.10).

Handling Hazardous Waste

Another important factor that must be considered in planning a project is the

environmental characteristics ofthe materials. Gidley and Sack (1984) pose three

questions about the waste materials that must be addressed:

1. Does the waste possess properties that make it potentially harmful?

2. Does the waste possess properties that would make it mobile in the environment?

3. Does the final disposition ofthe waste possess properties that will increase or

decrease the likelihood of harmful exposure to the waste?

At least seven attributes make any waste materials potentially harmful: toxicity,

infectivity, reactivity, flammability, explosivity, corrosivity, and radioactivity (Gidley

and Sack 1984). Hazardous waste is defined in 40 CFR part 261 as a substance that

is ignitable, corrosive, reactive, or toxic. Ignitable means a liquid with a low

flashpoint (a flammable solid or compressed gas), or that is an oxidizer. A liquid is

corrosive if it has a pH less than or equal to 2 or greater than or equal to 12.5. A
56 CERLTR-99/58

reactive substance is one that is unstable or that emits toxic gases under normal

conditions, or that reacts violently with water. A waste is toxic if the Toxicity

Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP) yields a concentration that exceeds

regulatory levels established by the USEPA (Test Method 1311). The purpose ofthe

TCLP test is to simulate conditions in a landfill to determine if a given waste would

become mobile in the leaching process. The procedure determines the mobility of

both organic pollutants (e.g., volatile organics, semi-volatile organics, pesticides, and

herbicides), and metals. Most ofthese attributes have some measurable component

that can be tested at the collection or storage site.

The mobility ofthe waste material after it has been removed from the work site can

cause several different environmental impacts. The wastes may become mobile by

volatilization, dusting, abrasion, suspension, and dissolution (Gidley and Sack

1984). It is reasonable to assume that an adverse environmental impact will not

occur unless the waste has one of the hazardous attributes described above. A

significant path ofmobility on a construction site is fugitive dust. Ifthe dust is toxic

to natural life, increased health problems may result.

The site of C&D waste disposal has traditionally been either a landfill or backfill.

With increased recycling, the final disposition for the material may still be fill, but

may also be in the form of other building or consumer products. It is important to

consider the final use or disposition of the wastes, particularly if the materials

contain some hazardous or restricted materials. An example is the chipping or

shredding offinished wood. Lead-based paint is considered a hazardous material,

and reducing the wood to small particles make the lead more mobile in the

environment. Using this material as mulch or landscape cover should actually

increase the exposure of people to the lead than if the material were left in place.

The same is true when the hazardous material is reduced to a small particle size;

in such a case, the dissolution by prolonged exposure to moisture will increase the

level ofthe material in ground water. Reduction ofthe waste may also increase the

density of its toxic constituent, therefore making it relatively more hazardous.

Appendix I to 40 CFR 260 - Overview ofSubtitle C Regulations, is designed to help

those who are unfamiliar with the hazardous waste control program to determine

with which regulations (if any) they should comply. A series of questions is

presented in a flow chart concerning the waste. After following the chart, a person

should be able to determine ifthe solid waste he/she handles is hazardous.
CERL TR-99/58 57

Lead-Based Paint

For lead-based paint (LBP) waste to be considered a hazardous waste, it must

contain more than 5 parts per million (ppm) ofleachable lead as determined by the

TCLP test. While other hazardous substances, such as mercury as a fungicide, have

been used in paint, lead presents the most serious problem due to its widespread use

especially in pigments, which may comprise a major volume component ofthe paint

film. The classification and final disposal of LBP waste depend on its form and

source (Cosper, Hallenbeck, and Brenniman 1993). Figure 10 presents a flow chart

for determining the status of LBP waste. If individual homeowners remove LBP

from their own residences, the resulting waste is considered general MSW and is not

regulated any further. However, if a contractor is hired to remove the LBP from the

same residence, the waste would be considered a special waste, and would be subject

to State and Federal regulations. When Army facilities containing LBP are

demolished, demolition debris will be characterized and disposed of in accordance

with Federal, State, and local solid waste management regulations.

Disposal restrictions are based on the possibility that lead content in such wastes

may leach into the water table if placed in a landfill. A study done by Gershman,

Brickner & Bratton, Inc. shows that lead is not a major component of demolition

landfill leachate even with the high lead paint content often found in older

demolition projects (NADC 1995). The adherence of the LBP to a substrate may

decrease the amount ofleachable lead in the waste. As a result, waste components

such as windows, doors, shelves, baseboards, and other trim containing or

contaminated with lead-based paint have a low chance offailing the TCLP test. All

Household

Hazardous Exempt

>

Adhered to

Original Surface

Loose

Removed by

Homeowner

General Municipal

Solid Waste

Lead Based Paint Removal

I Commercially I

I Removed I

I Non-hazardous I

I Special Waste I

Non-household

Special Waste

I— Waste Analysis Jl

Not TCLP Toxic TCLP Toxic

Non-hazardous

Special Waste

Hazardous Waste

Figure 10. Flow chart for determining status of lead paint waste.
58 CERL TR-99/58

LBP removed from a substrate by virtually any method will, almost without

exception, be hazardous waste and should be disposed of accordingly.

Asbestos

For regulatory purposes, the USEPA has defined an asbestos-containing material

as one that contains greater than 1 percent asbestos. The accepted method of

determining whether a sample of a material contains greater than 1 percent

asbestos and the type of asbestos present uses a polarizing light microscope. The

presence of asbestos in a material does not always pose a significant hazard.

Substances that are easily crumbled or reduced to powder by hand pressure are

termed "friable," whereas those that do not produce powder by hand pressure, are

termed "nonfriable." Airborne fibers present a hazard ifinhaled. A friable material

would be more likely to produce airborne than a nonfriable material.

Section 112 of the Clean Air Act has a section titled National Emission Standards

for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAP), which prohibits the renovation or

demolition in many buildings of greater than either 160 sq ft of asbestos-containing

surfacing material, or 260 linear feet of asbestos-containing pipe insulation without

adequate precautions against fiber release. The USEPA has promulgated

regulations on the use and disposal of asbestos and removal standards for buildings

under renovation or demolition beginning at 40 CFR part 61.140. Accordingly, the

owner of a building scheduled for renovation/ demolition or the contractor, must

notify the USEPA Air Compliance Branch, asbestos section and provide the

following:

• description of the facility and an estimate of the amount of friable asbestos

present

• demolition schedule

• asbestos removal procedure

• location for final disposal.

For friable asbestos materials, this means that demolition is only allowed after the

material has been removed prior to the start unless it is encased in concrete or it is

kept wet during the project to prevent dust emissions. Nonfriable materials can fall

under NESHAP regulations if they can become friable during renovation or

demolition. If asbestos waste is wetted during removal, put in proper containers,

and labeled, it can be disposed ofin any landfill.

Many different types of building materials at one time contained asbestos, such as

beam spray, ceiling acoustical texture, joint compound and wall texture, flooring,
CERLTR-99/58 59

ceiling tile, piping or thermal system insulation, roofing, cement, and glue, etc.

During demolition of an old building, construction workers are at risk from asbestos.

Any building from before 1980 can have asbestos in the insulation, fireproofing,

floors, walls, or roof. Newer buildings can have asbestos in the roof or floors. If

there are doubts whether a building contains asbestos, the Occupational Safety and

Health Administration (OSHA) requires you to act as ifthere were asbestos.

To track compliance with health, safety, and environmental protection requirements, a flow chart can be used an effective communication tool and field guide

(Asfahl and Johnson 1993). This method can be used effectively for asbestos

demolition/renovation projects, lead paint removal, and other work covered by

Federal and State standards. Figure 11 shows a sample working flow chart for

asbestos removal in renovation or demolition work. The numbers assigned to each

block refer the chart user to an explanation, contact phone number, or other

pertinent information that would be printed on the reverse side ofthe chart. Using

flow charts for managing projects with hazardous materials can be very helpful, and

can give workers and supervisors confidence that they are in compliance with all

applicable regulations at each stage ofthe job.

Other Hazards

Many hazardous products are routinely used on construction sites and it is likely

that some will find their way into the C&D waste stream. Table 7 lists possible

hazardous contaminants in C&D waste taken from a study commissioned by the

California Department of Health Services (Cosper, Hallenbeck and Brenniman

1993). Many ofthe materials are associated with painting, solvents, or maintenance

products for heavy equipment. These potential hazardous materials may be mingled

with materials in the process of to recovery and may create future disposal

problems.
60 CERL TR-99/58

Contact trained

O&M personnel to

arrange sampling

Deliver samples

to industrial

hygiene for testing

Notify if date or

quantity changes.

Notify if date or

quantity changes.

KEY:

ACM-asbestos containing material

0&M--operating & maintenance personnel

RACM--regulated asbestos containing material

DEMOLITION-wrecking or removal of loadbearing structures, intentional burning

RENOVATION-altering structures in any way,

including stripping or removal of RACM

Threshold--260 linear ft for pipe, 160 sq ft, 35 cubic ft

Figure 11. Flow chart for asbestos demolition/renovation.
CERL TR-99/58 61

Table 7. Possible hazardous contaminants in C&D waste.

Acetone Acetylene gas

Adhesives Ammonia

Anti-freeze Asphalt

Benzene Bleaching agents

Carbon black Carbon dioxide (in cylinders)

Caulking, sealant agents Caustic soda (sodium hydroxide)

Chromate salts Chromium

Cleaning agents Coal tar pitch

Coatings Cobalt

Concrete curing compounds Creosote

Cutting oil De-emulisifier for oil

Diesel fuel Diesel lube oil

Etching agents Ethyl alcohol

Fiberglass, mineral wool Foam insulation

Freon Gasoline

Glues Greases

Helium (in cylinders) Hydraulic brake fluid

Hydrochloric acid Insulation

Kerosene Lime

Lubricating oils Lye

Methyl ethyl ketone Motor oil additives

Paint/lacquers Paint remover

Paint stripper Particle board

Pentachlorophenol Polishes for metal floors

Putty Resins, epoxies

Sealers Shellac

Solder flux Solder, lead

Solder, other Solvents

Sulfuric acid Transite pipe

Varnishes Waterproofing agents

Wood preservatives
62 CERL TR-99/58

7 Debris Processing

Recycling C&D material will require some form of processing ofthe raw waste stock.

Except for salvageable systems and materials, C&D waste debris will have to meet

the specification of the end markets for which its destined. The objective of

processing the waste is to "add maximum value to the overall C&D waste stream"

(SWANA 1993). Most waste materials will need to be either processed to reduce

volume or to meet the product grades and market specifications.

Quality Control

Ifrecycled materials are to compete with virgin materials, processors must deliver

high quality products that closely match the customer's specifications. The key to

producing a good product from raw waste stock is quality control. Debris processors

may accept waste material from unknown sources or waste material that may be

contaminated. Incoming loads ofreclaimed material must be inspected, requiring

only a quick glance ifthe source is well known, or a careful inspection ifthe source

is suspect (Cosper, Hallenbeck, and Brenniman 1993). Quality assurance

continuing through the sorting process, either manual or automated, is required to

yield a homogeneous, uncontaminated product.

Processing Techniques

Debris processing techniques can be broken into two categories: on-site and off-site.

The advantage of on-site processing is the reduction in the cost oftransporting the

materials to their final disposition. Relatively dense waste reduces the amount of

equipment needed to transport the material. The methods of on-site processing that

could be used for C&D waste processing are:

• crushing • grinding

• shredding • pulverizing.

• chipping
CERL TR-99/58 63

Figure 12. Demolition debris being loaded into debris compactor.

The equipment used for crushing C&D waste is, typically, some type ofloading or

conveyance equipment, such as a bucket loader or a claw grappler or conveyor belt,

and a crusher. Figure 12 shows demolition waste material being fed into a debris

compactor.

The equipment used to shred C&D waste includes conveyance machinery, collection

systems, and a shredder, tub grinder, or hammermill. Ifthe waste is mixed, there

may also be some sort of separation system to prevent ferrous scrap or hard

materials from jamming the shredder. A shredder either uses rotary hammers or

revolving cutting edges to break apart the waste into smaller particles. Shredding

is used to reduce the size of dry C&D waste materials such as wood.

Chippers and grinders are similar to shredders in that the material is reduced to

smaller particles. The chipper and grinders typically use rotary devices such as

wheels, as opposed to hammermills, to reduce the size ofthe waste. The materials

best suited for processing with a grinder are rubble types of materials, such as

masonry or concrete.

A pulverizer grinds or crushes materials into small pieces. A pulverizer uses mills,

such as hammermills, to pummel the waste into the requisite size particles.

Although any dry waste may be processed with a pulverizer, its primary use is for

concrete and rubble.
64 CERL TR-99/58

Processing some materials may require the combination of several different types

of processing technologies. Asphalt processing, for example, may require a grinder

to first reduce the size oflarge pieces of broken asphalt. After the initial grinding,

the asphalt may be milled again, with a plug mill, to either reduce the particles to

the appropriate size, or mix the asphalt with other materials. There may also be

other forms of fixed equipment needed at the materials processing facility, like

magnetic separators, screens, classifiers, conveyors, etc.

Despite the advantages of on-site processing, it may be impractical to process

materials at the job site due to increased labor, space restrictions, or lack of pick-up

services. Commingled C&D waste must be taken off-site to a material recovery

facility (MRF) where it can be separated and recycled ifthere is a sufficient market.

The technology ofthe equipment will vary from one MRF to another. At one end is

the MRF that does not use any type of automatic sorting equipment. The sorting is

done by hand, and a bobcat (tractor) is used to move the materials. Or the MRF may

have a conveyor belt with a person at each picking station assigned to remove a

specific material. Materials separated at this type offacility are usually limited to

cardboard, wood, and metals.

Some MRFs use a combination of manual and mechanical sorting techniques to

process C&D waste materials. A grappler may be used to remove oversize items,

such as appliances and large pieces of rock, from mixed loads. The remaining

material is crushed and fed onto a conveyor with a front end loader where fines and

small stones and larger aggregate are removed by a vibrating screen. What is left

then passes a magnet to remove ferrous metals. Another conveyor directs the

material past several picking stations where wood, stone, and metals are separated

manually into roll-off containers.

Larger MRFs will use many more mechanical devices to sort incoming waste based

on material size, density, or other physical properties. It may also have the

technology to process the sorted material into a marketable item at the facility. A

flotation separator will separate dirt and rock from wood and a cyclone and dust

control system can discharge light materials such as paper and plastic.

Portable recycle crusher plants are also available. They are compact and fit into

confined spaces. A typical unit is equipped with a belt feeder, a vibrating screen, a

jaw crusher or shredder, discharge conveyors, diesel engine, and hydraulic power.

These plants are built to be road legal, and mount on either standard self-loading

vehicles or low-bed trailers.
CERL TR-99/58 65

Criteria for Choosing Processing Equipment

In the analysis of the required equipment for either on-site or off-site processing,

several factors need to be addressed by the installation engineer, project manager,

and contractor (SWANA 1993):

composition and quantity

magnetic properties

physical size ofinput material

market specifications ofthe potential users

average density and expected variance.
66 _^_^_ CERL TR-99/58

8 Project Evaluation

The ultimate product of today's construction industry is a structure designed and

constructed without any consideration for dismantling and reuse at the end ofits life

cycle (Gordon and Huddart 1997). The construction industry must consider ways

ofreducing the impact ofbuilding materials on the earth's resources. Directives for

recycling and reuse at the outset of a project will encourage the construction

industry to rethink the use ofprocesses and materials on the demolition project and

to innovate to meet the challenges ofsustainable development. A project must be

evaluated in terms of how it will benefit the community both economically and

environmentally.

Before the industrial revolution, used building materials were valued because they

conserved the great deal of human effort required to produce and install virgin

materials. Building materials were routinely cycled from one structure to another.

With the mechanization of building material production, installation, and

demolition, the industry standard changed from systematic "de-construction" to

mechanized demolition (Gordon and Huddart 1997).

From a disposal perspective, C&D waste requires a high level of energy to recycle,

which is why most of it ends up in landfills. Dismantlement of a building is

extremely labor intensive compared to mechanized demolition. Technological

advances have resulted in the cost oflabor overtaking the cost ofmachines and fuel.

As a result, the value ofwaste materials fell in relation to the low cost of producing

and installing new materials.

Economics of Recovery

To make a case for C&D recovery, it is necessary to examine the cost and benefits

associated with job-site recovery. Table 8 lists the types of costs and financial

benefits associated with C&D waste disposal, as well as those associated with

recovery (O'Brien and Allen 1996). Several indirect costs and benefits are included

in the table. Although bottom-line accounting does not take these indirect costs into

account, it is important to consider them when setting up and operating a job-site

recovery program. Actual costs will vary due to a variety of factors:
CERLTR-99/58 67

Table 8. Costs and benefits of disposal and recovery.

DISPOSAL

Direct Costs Indirect Costs

Labor Stress on limited natural resources

Equipment Loss of embodied energy

Tipping fees Environmental impact of extraction and manufacturing operation

Taxes and fees Loss of higher use of land to landfill

Financial value of lost Long-term cleanup costs of landfill

material

Benefits

Convenient

No training needed

No cost to implement a new program

RECOVERY

Operation Costs Set-up Costs Indirect Costs

Labor Labor Environmental impact of processing and

Equipment rental Equipment purchase manufacturing operations

Equipment repair Training materials

Recycling/tipping fees Incentives

Transportation Evaluation/waste

analysis

Direct Benefits Indirect Benefits

Reduced disposal costs

Rebates for recovered materials

Reduced costs for reused materials

Reduced safety claims

Marketing advantage

Increased feedstock for remanufacturing

Increased employment opportunities in remanufacturing

Reduced extraction of raw materials

Retention of embodied energy

Extension of natural resource base

Reduced development costs of new landfill/disposal,

which leads to higher tipping fees

'Source: O'Brien & Company, 1996

Size and type ofconstruction. Construction size and type will affect how much

and what types ofmaterials are generated, and also when greater volumes of

a given material will be generated ("peak generation").

Space constraints. Space restrictions will affect aspects ofthe system used to

collect recyclable materials on site, such as the size and types of containers,

and the equipment used to handle the materials. They may also affect the

ability to apply waste reduction techniques, such as setting up a central

location for cutting materials.

Recycling equipment capability. The type of equipment available to the project

for materials handling and collection can affect the ability to recover materials
68 CERL TR-99/58

on site. For example, if cranable containers are available, they are useful in

multi-level projects.

Recycling services availability. The type of cost-effective recycling services

available at the job site will affect the types ofmaterials that can be recovered.

This should be factored into identifying materials to be targeted for recycling

on the project.

Job scheduling (including phasing). An extremely fast-paced job can put

severe limitations on the amount ofmaterials recovered for reuse or recycling,

since many activities will be happening simultaneously and site recovery

efforts may be placed on the back burner. Careful planning, however, can help

minimize this problem. With a slow job, the problem can be the inability to

collect enough of certain materials in a given period oftime to make materials

recovery cost effective. If materials can be stored on site without causing

safety or space constraints, then this will not be a problem.

Fees and rebates. When looking at specific materials, it is important to

consider the cost to dump versus the cost to reuse or recycle. This would

require looking at disposal and recycling fees, taxes, and rebates.

Field personnel's previous experience with waste reduction. Expect a learning

curve when dealing with field personnel inexperienced with waste reduction

and recycling practices. This should be factored into setting a percentage goal

for waste reduction. It is better to exceed goals than to miss them.

Other Issues. Ifthe site is urban, the city may charge contractors a special fee

for sorting containers located on the city sidewalk. Or, if the site is a

commercial remodel in an operating mall, there are likely to be limitations

(time, space) regarding materials collection and storage.

Environmental Matrix

Defense Construction Canada (DCC), a Canadian Government Crown Corporation,

has developed a process called "Best Value Tendering" to achieve the best value,

defined in terms of energy conservation and waste minimization, when a building

is decommissioned. DCC structured contract tender documents to include the

diversion of waste from landfills. Contractors are encouraged to devise innovative

approaches to achieving high rates of landfill diversion within the bid process. A

matrix based on environmental criteria as well as price, is used as an evaluation tool
CERLTR-99/58 69

(Table 9). A scoring table (Table 10) is then used to convert percentile criteria to

ordinal scores (Gordon and Huddart 1997).

Tender submissions were evaluated for the following attributes:

• proposed degree of C&D waste reuse and recycling

• proposed system ofstaffing, managing, and executing the project

• detail, sophistication, and technical adequacy ofthe waste management plan

• bid price.

Table 9. Evaluation matrix.

Evaluation Category Score

Percent reuse and percent recycling** Varies from 0 to 25 as per scoring table

Project management and methodology Varies from 0 to 5

Waste management system Varies from 0 to 10

Price Varies from 0 to 60 as per scoring table

Total /100

*Source: Gordon and Huddart (1997).

**A minimum aggregate percentage of 90 percent is required by DCC

Table 10. Scores for reuse, recycling, and price.

Reuse

(%)

Reuse

Score

Recycle

(%)

Recycle

Score

Price % above

Low Bid"

Price

Score

100 25 100 10 1 59

90 22 90 9 2 57

80 18 80 8 3 55

70 15 70 7 4 53

60 13 60 6 5 51

50 10 50 5 6 48

40 8 40 4 7 45

30 5 30 3 8 42

20 3 20 2 9 39

10 2 10 1 10 35

0 0 0 0 over 10 0

*Source: Gordon and Huddart (1997).

**Note: Low Bid = full score of 60
70 CERLTR-99/58

The contract is awarded to the bidder with the highest total score in the above

categories in accordance with the grading criteria. The bid review process uses a

two-envelope bid submission system so that technical proposals are evaluated

separately from price submissions. Technical envelopes are opened first, evaluated,

and either accepted for further review or rejected. Scores of 25 out of 40 are required

on technical submissions before the bid advances to the price evaluation stage.

Fort Ord Pilot Project

A pilot project to dismantle wooden barracks on the former Fort Ord Army Base in

Santa Clara, CA began in May 1997. University of California Extension, Santa

Cruz, Business Environmental Assistance Center (BEAC) and Fort Ord Reuse

Authority (FORA) are working together on the project to determine whether

deconstruction is viable alternative to mechanical demolition. The estimates for

removal have been as high as $120 million. This project should demonstrate ways

to offset many of these costs and benefit the community both economically and

environmentally.

This project will also provide training and educational materials for reuse and

recycling to others across the nation. The goals for this project include (UCSC 1997):

• to collect critical data about deconstruction of representative buildings,

including: labor needed; quality and quantity ofmaterials; actual resale value

of the materials; pre- and post-soil, lead, and asbestos testing; costs for

deconstruction, and impact on regional landfills—both quantities and savings

of diverted materials plus the cost of disposal residue

• to train local contractors and workers from the demolition and recycling, and

construction industries in deconstruction techniques, material preparation,

types and quality of woods, and associated job-site health and safety procedures

• provide materials for a national materials testing program that will contribute

to the development of engineering and use standards for used lumber and

associated building materials

• to create training videos using former Fort Ord as a living laboratory of actual

work to use for training locally and across the nation

• to host a design charrette and design contest in relation to adaptive reuse,

remodeling, and creation of new architectural projects and products.

The high labor costs of dismantling a building have always made mechanical

demolition appear more cost-effective. However, such assessments ignore the resale
CERL TR-99/58 71

value ofthe materials and the related environmental benefits. The materials from

the deconstruction are stored on-site and sold by silent auction. In this project, up

to eight buildings will be dismantled to determine what might be recovered to cut

the costs ofredevelopment and keep tons of debris out oflandfills.
72 CERLTR-99/58

9 Conclusions and Recommendations

Conclusions

This study has developed concepts for the reutilization of construction materials,

including waste debris, by means ofrecycling into other components that are useful

in construction. Primary opportunities identified in this study to divert C&D debris

from the solid waste stream exist in the form of demolition operations to salvage or

recycle building materials and systems. Primary constraints on these operations are

the inconsistent nature of C&D debris, the effort and equipment it takes to evaluate

and separate the materials, the lack of or distance from recycling facilities,

fluctuations in the marketplace for recycled materials, and environmental

regulations governing certain types ofrecyclable materials.

Early in the demolition project, the most appropriate means to divert C&D debris

from the solid waste stream must be determined. The waste stream must be

characterized and quantified, and markets for the C&D waste diverted from the

waste stream must be identified. Manual wrecking methods may result in debris

with the highest salvage and reclamation potential, although this method is very

labor intensive and generally occurs on small projects. Mechanical and explosive

demolition methods typically result in very little salvageable material. Certain

demolition activities are associated with specific kinds of C&D waste, and different

materials require varying degrees of processing to be recycled or salvaged.

Project managers charged with organizing a construction project recycling program

must bear in mind that recycling operations require market analysis and a great

deal of planning. The variability ofrecycling economics demands that management

preplan the project as much as possible to reduce the likelihood of unforeseen

problems from upsetting the project. Although every construction and demolition

project will be different, project managers, installation engineers, and contractors

should consider:

the layout of collection area

collection

contract issues for disposal, hauling, etc.

material separation and/or preprocessing

handling hazardous waste.
CERLTR-99/58 73

Denison and Ruston (1990) state that there are two myths that hamper the ability

to find workable solutions to the solid waste crisis: (1) that one can manage trash

without considering its individual components, and (2) that a single method can

successfully manage our entire waste stream. These myths are certainly true for the

disposal of C&D waste. In the past, C&D waste has been seen as strictly a single

material to be disposed ofin one way. Managing C&D solid waste in the future will

entail systematic evaluation of every constituent material in the C&D waste stream.

Dispelling the second myth will also have a considerable influence over solid waste

management. The plans and suggestions offered here go a long way in reducing the

amount of material that would eventually end up in the landfill, but that is not

enough. The most effective solid waste management begins with reducing the

amount of waste produced at the source. The amount of C&D waste in landfills is

only a symptom; the root ofthe problem is consumption, and patterns of consumption are ultimately the activities that must be addressed (Gordon and Huddart

1997).

Recommendations

The role of the Federal government in C&D waste management is limited. State

and local governments will have more impact because they are intimately involved

in working with the contractors. Perhaps the most important role of the Federal

government is to use its purchasing power to stimulate the markets for reclaimed

construction materials. Federal agencies heavily involved in construction (e.g.,

Army Corps of Engineers, DOT) can specify the use of reclaimed materials and the

recycling ofwastes created in their projects.

Processing C&D waste material can be much easier than finding uses for it and

selling it. Developing markets for the material, including allowing it to be used in

higher percentages in government-funded projects, would help "jump start" some

new markets. However, care must be taken to ensure that standards are not

lowered just so that recycled material can qualify for a job.

The construction industry, including contractors, architects, and owners, all have

a part to play in C&D waste reduction. Cosper, Hallenbeck, and Brenniman (1993)

have made some recommendations on how the private sector can become involved

in C&D waste management practices:
74 CERLTR-99/58

Design professionals should urge owners to explore the benefits of recycling

and make a commitment to the process for their projects.

Design professionals should specify the following recycling requirements for

waste materials generated on a project:

- Prequalified recycling firms should be named in the specification.

Reusuable demolition materials should be salvaged and incorporated into

new construction, stored for future use, or moved into the salvage market.

Nonreusuable demolition materials should be recycled.

Alternate bids should be used to determine the added cost or savings of the

recycling requirements.

Contractors and subcontractors should voluntarily initiate recycling programs.

The costs or savings ofthe recycling programs should be included in the bids.

To stimulate the markets for waste materials, design professionals should

select and specify used materials or new products made ofrecycled materials

whenever possible.
CERL TR-99/58 75

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CERLTR-99/58 I?

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82 CERL TR-99/58

Appendix: Catalog of Recyclable

Building Materials

Background

The catalog ofrecyclable building materials includes the following information (as

available) for each ofthe classifications ofwaste:

characteristics of each material category

quantitative predictive criteria for materials per building type

salvage potential, including existing end-markets;

recycling potential, including existing end-markets;

material removal techniques that maximize recyclability, including any health

and safety issues

• debris handling, including processing methods and techniques that, if costeffective, will increase the value of post construction and demolition materials

A review ofthe waste stream generated at C&D projects reveals that the composition of waste varies with every project. Although a definitive database of detailed

waste composition studies is not known to exist for C&D waste, the composition will

ultimately depend on such factors as: the type and size ofthe structure; geographic

location and local building requirements; the current overall schedule ofthe project;

daily activity being performed; materials used in construction; and demolition

practices (SWANA 1993). Construction waste also differs from demolition waste.

Demolition debris is more likely to contribute materials contaminated by undesirable components and/or toxic compounds, such as lead paints, varnishes, creosote,

and adhesives. Furthermore, materials removed from a demolition site are more apt

to be a conglomeration of materials making it more difficult to separate the waste

into recyclable building materials.

Accurately predicting the quantity ofindividual waste materials from a construction

or demolition project is problematic, in the least. For some materials, such as

concrete, the project team may be able to reasonably determine the total volume of

reinforced concrete that is in building, based on a survey of the total volume of

individual components of the concrete frame, i.e., the columns, floor slabs, and

foundation. It is not certain, however that this will be the total amount to be sent
CERLTR-99/58 83

to a recycling facility. Factors such as the method of demolition and the method of

collection will greatly influence the amount ofmaterial gathered at a site.

Also, accurately measuring the amount of material can be a problem. Some

materials are not readily available for measurement, or are difficult to measure. In

many cases, the ceiling, walls, or floors must be opened to identify the types and

amount ofmaterials. In any case, this should not be provide a major difficulty since

the building in question or part of the building has already been chosen for

demolition. For some materials, it may be too difficult to approximate the quantities

by inspection. In these cases, the best source of information may be the original

blueprints or "as-built" drawings for the building.

Once the quantity of each material class has been estimated, the next step is to

transform this information into either weight or volume estimates. Some references

are available to assist the project team specifically determine the quantity of each

category ofmaterials. The American Society ofCivil Engineers' Minimum Design

Loads for Buildings and Other Structures (ASCE 7-95), for example, lists the

minimum design loads, or "dead loads," for different building materials and systems.

Army Technical Manual 5-809-1, Structural Design Criteria for Loads, also lists the

design dead loads for various materials and systems. Another source for dead loads

and system weights for various building assemblies is Means Assemblies Cost Data.

The potential for salvaging and recycling C&D waste exists for almost every type of

material. Once the waste materials are recovered from C&D waste, they can then

be processed into new building materials or salvaged and reused. Markets exist for

recovered materials. The following list contains several resources that for locating

these markets as well as providing a guide to where recycled-content building

materials can be purchased. Your state and local community may have additional

resources that can be helpful in reducing the amount of C&D waste that ends up

landfills.

BioCycle C&D Debris Recycling

Monthly magazine Monthly magazine

419 State Avenue An Intertec/K-III Publication

Emmaus, PA 18049 29 North Wacker Drive

Phone: (610)967-4135 Chicago, IL 60606

Fax:(610)967-1345 Phone: (312)726-2802

Fax: (312) 726-2574
84 CERL TR-99/58

Construction Products Containing Recovered

Materials

Lists manufacturers and suppliers to facilitate

the implementation of the USEPA's Comprehensive Procurement Guideline (CPG)

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency National Center for Environmental Publications

and Information (NCEPI)

P.O. Box 42419

Cincinnati, OH 45242-2419

Phone: (800) 490-9198

Fax: (513) 489-8695

http://www.epa.gov

Cost-Effective Home Building

A handbook compiling material-saving methods of efficient design and construction.

NAHB Research Center, Inc.

400 Prince George's Boulevard

Upper Marlboro, MD 20774

Phone: (800) 638-8556

http://www.nahb.com

Directory of Recycled Content Building and

Construction Products (Report No, D-95-2)

An offshoot to the Center's Recycled Product

Directory (Report No. D-95-1) that features

over 400 products for use by business and

government agencies. Between the two directories, nearly 1000 recycled content products are

listed.

Clean Washington Center

2001 Sixth Avenue, Suite 2700

Seattle, WA 98121

Phone: (206) 587-5520

http://www.cwc.org

EcoDesign

Quarterly Magazine

Phone: (604) 738-9334

Eco-Living Sourcebook

Directory of recycled-content building materials.

110 Linden Street

Oakland, CA 94607

Phone: (510)452-0500

Enviro

Monthly magazine

Phone: (800)600-4445

Environmental Building News

A bimonthly newsletter on environmentally

sustainable design and construction.

RR1, Box 161

Brattleboro.VT 05301

Phone: (802) 257-7300

Fax: (802) 257-7304

E-mail: EBN@Sover.net

http://www.ebuild.com

The Environmental Home Database

Provides product information to help you make

appropriate design choices for commercial and

residential renovation projects.

LCRA

P.O. Box 220 5-300

Austin, TX 78767-0220

Attn: Marcia P. Roberts, ALA

Phone: (800) 776-5272 ext. 7626

Fax: (512) 473-4097

E-mail: marcia.roberts@lcra.org

http://www.lcra.org

The Eco Building Times

Quarterly journal

Phone: (206)782-3775

EcoDesign

Quarterly magazine

Phone: (604)738-9334
CERLTR-99/58 85

Guide to Resource Efficient Building Elements

A detailed listing of companies that manufacture resource-efficient building materials.

Center for Resourceful Building Technology

(CRBT)

P.O. Box 100

Missoula, MT 59806

Phone: (406) 549-7678

Fax: (406) 549-4100

Web page: www.montana.com/crbt/

Green Spec

Guideline specifications for environmentally

considered building materials and construction

methods offers considerations and suggestions

for specifying materials in CSI Divisions 1

through 9.

Alameda County Waste Management Auth.

777 Davis Street, Suite 200

San Leandro, CA 94577

Phone: (510) 614-1699

Environmental Resource Guide

A collection of detailed material assessments,

articles, and case studies connecting environmental awareness with building construction.

American Institute ofArchitects (AIA)

9 Jay Gould Court

P.O. Box 753

Waldorf, MD 20604

Phone: (800) 365-ARCH

Fax: (800) 678-7102

The Harris Directory

A database ofrecycled content building materials.

B.J. Harris

508 Jose St. #913

Santa Fe, MN 87501

Phone: (505) 995-0337

Fax: (505) 820-1911

E-mail: bjharris@igc.apc.org

Global Recycling Network (GRN)

A web site that features information on recycled products and offers a place for manufacturers and distributors to sell their products.

2715A Montauk Highway

Brookhaven, NY 11719

Fax: (516) 286-5551

E-mail: grn@grn.com

http://www.grn.com

GreenClips

Biweekly news on sustainable building design

and related government and business issues.

Phone: (415) 928-7941

E-Mail: GreenClips@aol.com

http://solstice.crest.org/envkonment/greenchps/

Journal ofLight Construction

Monthly magazine

P.O. Box 686

Holmes, PA 19043

Phone: (800)375-59811

McRecycle USA Program

Region-specific database available on recycled

content building materials.

McDonald's Corporation Environmental Affairs

Kroc Drive

Oak Brook, IL 60521

Phone: (800) 220-3809

National Park Service Database

A database of over 700 environmentally-responsible building materials and includes a

listing of 2,000 North American companies

that recycle construction waste.

Attn: Sally Small

P.O. Box 25287

Denver, CO 80225

Phone: (303) 969-2466

E-mail: sally_small@nps.gov
86 CERL TR-99/58

National Wood Recycling Directory

A reference book listing products made from

recycled wood, examples of products that can

be recycled, contact information, and nationwide listing of wood residue receiving centers.

American Forest & Paper Association (AF&PA)

111119th Street, NW, Suite 800

Washington, DC, 20036

Official Recycled Products Guide (RPG)

Directories listing companies specializing in

materials recycling markets, equipment and

special services.

American Recycling Markets, Inc.

P.O. Box 577

Ogdensburg, NY 13669

Phone: (800) 267-0707

Fax: (315) 471-3258

Recyclables Exchange

The Chicago Board of Trade (CBOT)

Dedicated to the international trade of recyclables by facilitating contact between

buyers and sellers. Users register online and

can trade for a $10 one-time fee and a nominal

charge for listings on a pay-as-you-go basis.

Sellers post product listings and buyers enter

requests for commodities.

http://cbot-recycle.com/indexst.html

Recycle Net

Web site with recycling associations,

publications,

equipment and recycler's exchange.

http://www.recycle.net

P.O. Box 24017

Guelph, Ontario

Canada NIE 6V8

Phone: (519) 767-2913

Recycled Products Guide

Federal Supply Service

U.S. General Services Administration

Centralized Mailing List

P.O. Box 6477

Mailing code RCPG-0001

Fort Worth, TX 76115

Recycling Times

Bi-weekly journal

4301 Connecticut Ave., N.W. #300

Washington, DC 20008

Phone: (800)829-5443

Recycling Today

Monthly magazine

4012 Bridge Ave.

Cleveland, OH 44113

Phone: (800) 456-0707 (216) 961-4130

Fax: (216) 961-0364

Resources for Environmental Design Index

Guide

Provides useful information on green building

products and materials along with techniques

for sustainable design and construction.

Iris Communications, Inc.

P.O. Box 5920

Eugene, OR 97405-0911

Phone: (800) 346-0104

Fax: (503) 484-1645

http://www.oikos.com

Resource Recycling

Monthly magazine

P.O. Box 10540

Portland, OR 97296-0540

Phone: (503)-227-1319

Fax: (503) 227-6135

E-Mail: rerecycle@aol.com

Sustainable Building Sourcebook

Available in electronic format on the Web.

City ofAustin Green Builder Program

http://www.greenbuilder.com/sourcebook

Waste Age

Monthly magazine

4301 Connecticut Ave., N.W. #300

Washington, DC 20008

Phone: (800) 829-5411 (202) 244-4700
CERLTR-99/58 87

WasteSpec World Wastes

Provides model specifications for construction Monthly magazine

waste reduction, reuse and recycling. Fulfillment Department

Triangle J Council ofGovernments P.O. Box 41369

P.O. Box 12276 Nashville, TN 37204-1094

Research Triangle Park, NC 27709 Phone: (800) 556-2209

Phone: (919) 549-0551

Asphalt

Characteristics

Asphalt is a cementitious material consisting of either naturally occurring bitumens

or those derived from petroleum distillation. Construction applications of asphalt

include: pavement for roads, bridges, parking lots, roofing, and resilient flooring.

Asphalt Paving. Hot or cold pavement includes: asphalt, fine and coarse

aggregates. The subbase consists of compacted fine and coarse aggregates. Heavy

duty applications may include roadway construction and drainage systems. All

mixes of asphalt paving generally contain only 5 percent of pure asphalt, the rest

being aggregate material. Asphalt paving is typically constructed as a continuous

surface, but it may also be found in the form of blocks and tiles.

Roofing Materials. Asphalt-based roofing materials typically contain asphalt and

felt, stabilizers particles (silica, marble, sandstone, etc.), and colored granules.

Asphalt shingles typically contain 25 to 40 percent pure asphalt depending on the

fibers used and the age of manufacture (Donovan 1991). If it is built-up roofing,

materials may also include gravel, crushed stone, etc., for ballast. The methods of

fastening for most roofing systems are usually mechanical (nails, generally) or

cementitious adhesive.

Flooring. Resilient asphalt flooring contains asphaltic binder, fibers (including,

prior to 1971, asbestos), inert filler materials, and color pigments. Asphalt was, at

one time, used for extruded shapes, such as cove bases. Flooring is usually installed

on wood subfloor system (plywood or fiberboard, lumber, etc.) in residential

applications. The fastening system is usually adhesive.
88 CERL TR-99/58

Quantity Estimates

Most asphaltic products are sheet or paving materials, therefore, the best way to

estimate the quantity of expected waste is by measuring the area. Once this has

been calculated, the quantity must be converted to its weight, in tons, by

multiplying this area by the ASCE 7- 95 figure. It is important to determine the

number oflayers (or plies) of asphalt. Ifthe roofis asphalt shingles, the total area

ofthe roofmust be multiplied by the number oflayers of shingles to determine the

total area ofshingles. For example, a wood frame barracks has the layers of asphalt

shingles. The total area ofthe roofis 1400 sq ft. The ASCE 7-95 dead load figure

is 2 lb/square foot (ASCE 1995). Therefore, the total weight ofthe asphalt shingles

is 8400 lb or 4.2 tons.

3 layers x 1400 sq ft x 2 Ib/sq ft = 8400 lb

Ifthe roofis built-up, multi-ply type asphalt felt, the number ofplies determines the

weight per square foot.

5-ply roofing = 6.5 Ib/sf

Salvage Potential

The potential to salvage most asphalt building products is very low. The two largest

categories of asphaltic materials, roofing materials, and paving, cannot be reused

directly without substantial processing.

Recycling Potential

The potential to recycle asphaltic materials is high considering the fact that

technology and the markets for recycled asphalt is in place in most areas of the

country. This is primarily due to the reuse of asphalt for recycled asphalt paving

(RAP). There are some drawbacks to the use of recycled asphalt waste materials.

The disadvantage to using reclaimed asphalt paving or roofing materials for RAP

is that it may be difficult to characterize the reclaimed aggregate since its difficult

to maintain consistent quality control, moisture may be higher than acceptable,

there is not a consistent standard for reference. There is still not a long term study

of performance ofRAP in such high use applications as highway topping. Therefore,

most RAP is used in noncritical applications as road base, bottom layer ofpavement,

or driveways and parking areas.

Second, RAP processors may be unwilling to use waste roofing materials because of

the high potential for contaminants. Waste roofing may contain fasteners, flashing,
CERLTR-99/58 89

adhesive, fiberglass reinforcement, gravel and other aggregate, wood or other roof

substrate, asbestos, etc. If the debris contains asbestos there is nothing the

processor may do with the stock. Recyclers may also be unwilling to use the stock

in fear that it will cause a break down in their machinery.

Material Removal

Most asphalt roofing materials must be manually removed from structures. The

shingles or plies are lifted from the roof decking manually and transported to the

collection containers. Asphalt paving materials are generally removed mechanically

in two ways: (1) by breaking it in place and then loading into a collection vehicle or

(2) by the special-use surface grinding machines.

Debris Handling

Both categories of asphalt products, roofing and paving, require different methods

ofhandling depending on the final application ofthe roofing materials. The asphaltimpregnated fibers and aggregate in the roofing felt must be cleanly separated from

the roofing substrate. In the case of asphalt roofshingles, this is not a difficult since

the shingles are typically mechanically attached to the substrate with nails or other

fasteners. The shingles are just pried up and pulled from the roof.

Asphalt-impregnated composition roofing is more difficult to remove. Typically, the

adhesion between the asphalt and the substrate is relatively tough. The roofing

materials must be removed mechanically with scoops, but this is rarely done since

the plies are difficult to separate. In the normal course of a building's life, the roof

is maintained by adhering more layers to the existing roof.

Asphalt paving materials are generally removed mechanically by breaking the

asphalt into small pieces. The pieces are then loaded into a truck and hauled to a

processing area. Many municipalities use equipment that removes the asphalt

pavement, or a layer ofit, mixes it with new asphalt and aggregate, and re-lays it

in one continuous operation.

If the debris is to be used for RAP, the steps to process the debris include:

transporting the waste asphalt materials to a central processing facility, crushing

or shredding the debris, separating the asphalt and mineral aggregate from

contaminants such as metal or wood, and mixing with either new aggregate, other

reclaimed asphalt materials, or virgin asphalt emulsion. Donovan (1990) describes

a representative recycled asphalt paving processing plant (see Figure Al).
90 CERL TR-99/58

RECYCLABLE

ASPHALT

PAVING (RAP)

CONCRETE,

BRICK, TILE

ir

1DVERSIZED MATERIAL

UNLOADED FOR

INSPECTION

CRUSHER MAGNET SCREENING

1 T

ASPHALT

EMULSION

UNACCEPTABLE LOADS

HAULED AWAY

FERROUS METAL

SEPARATED,

REUSED

Figure A1. Representative recycling asphalt paving processing plant.

Brick

Characteristics

The term brick refers to the shape of a small unit ofbuilding material. Bricks have

been used for centuries in building projects. Bricks are used most commonly as wall

materials, either in load-bearing walls or nonload bearing partitions. Concrete and

clay bricks are often also used as paving materials. It is either a fired clay unit or

a cementitious unit that cures by chemical reaction. Sand and lime mixtures can

also be used to produce bricks for applications that require high compressive

strength or acid and fire resistance.

Clay brick, also known as burned or fired brick, comes in a number of different

configurations, colors, and finishes. The clay material is hydrated silicate of

alumina and may contain a number of different oxides. Some paving bricks are

made ofshale. Concrete brick will be covered under concrete masonry. Brick walls,

depending on the application, typically contain the brick, mortar (cement, aggregate,

and lime), metal ties and reinforcement, metallic flashing, and insulation. There are

three categories ofbrick waste categories: salvaged old bricks, discarded or left over

bricks from construction, and crushed masonry walls or partitions.

Quantity Estimates

The volume and density of debris from a masonry wall will depend on the type of

brick used and the construction of the wall. The weight of individual bricks may

range from 2 to 5 lb each, depending on its composition, density, and size. The most

appropriate method to determine the weight of the waste masonry debris is to

multiply the square footage ofthe wall(s) by the design dead load figure in ASCE 7-
CERLTR-99/58 ?1

95 or Army Technical Manual 5-809-1 for the wall. The dead load is listed by the

wythe ofthe wall. For example, ASCE (1995) lists the load for an 8-in. wythe clay

brick wall as 79 lb/sq ft. Ifthe square footage of brick wall is 1500 sq ft, the total

weight ofthe wall is 118,500 lb, or 59.25 tons.

500 sq ft x 79 lb/sq ft = 118,500 lb

The volume ofthe debris can be calculated by multiplying the square footage by the

width ofthe wall. The volume ofthe above wall would be 1500 sq ft by 0.66 ft wide

(8/12 in. = 0.66 ft), or 999.99 cu ft.

For other brick or masonry systems, such as brick paving, the weight ofthe debris

may be computed by multiplying the weight of an individual brick or small section

by the total number of bricks in the system.

Salvage Potential

The potential to salvage old bricks is high in many areas ofthe country. Markets

have existed for used brick throughout the country, particularly in the Midwest and

Northeast. This is because many buildings pre-date World War I. Most masonry

building prior to the WWI used mortar that was predominantly cement and lime.

Masonry walls using this type of mortar will generally allow the brick to be

separated with very little effort. Masonry walls or pavement are torn down and the

individual bricks can be carefully separated from the mortar and cleaned. The

bricks are cleaned either manually with hand tools and solvents, or mechanically

with machinery.

Left over or discarded bricks from construction activities, such as fireplace

construction, typically make it into the waste stream if the masonry contractor

cannot reuse them because of an unusual color or size. These bricks may be

returned to the supplier or consolidator. The bricks may also be sold to a

landscaping firm to be used for crushed ground cover.

Recycling Potential

Ifit is not economically or practically feasible to separate the salvaged bricks from

other materials in the wall or pavement, the next step to consider is recycling them

into other useful material. Crushed masonry can be used as aggregate for roadbed,

as backfill, or as aggregate for nonstructural concrete. The bricks may also be sold

to a landscaping firm to be used for crushed ground cover or ornamental stone.
92 CERL TR-99/58

Material Removal

The demolition of a masonry wall requires careful planning. Removing part or most

ofthe wall may reduce the structural stability ofthe wall or surrounding structural

system. This can lead to a collapse of the entire structure if the wall is a load

bearing.

Debris Handling

The amount ofseparation needed to remove the bricks from other materials in the

wall system such as mortar, insulation, or metal reinforcement needed will depend

on the recycling outlet. For salvaged bricks to be marketable, they must be

physically separated from the mortar and other materials of the wall or partition.

This must be performed carefully to prevent the individual bricks from breaking.

Most salvaged-brick markets require the bricks to be cleaned and palletized. The

separation of brick from mortar is labor intensive, which will affect the economics

of the salvage operations. Since clay bricks are relatively brittle and weak in

tension, there may be a significant amount of breakage during handling and

processing. This will lead to a significant amount ofresidue to be disposed.

If the final market for the masonry is crushed aggregate, then the demolition

contractor may use less care in removing the masonry walls and partitions since the

next step is to crush the debris into appropriate size granules. For crushed

aggregate, the masonry can be crushed using a tub grinder or hammermill. For

salvaged bricks, the most common form of processing is to pry the mortar from the

bricks and clean the bricks.

The most significant health and safety issue in the recycling or salvage of bricks is

in the demolition or removal ofthe brick from the wall. The bricks must be removed

carefully to prevent the wall from collapsing. The use ofmechanical equipment may

cause some dust or noise pollution that may also be considered hazardous.

Building Equipment

Characteristics

Building equipment can be split into three areas: installed building equipment,

equipment-in-place, and movable equipment. The most significant environmental

problem associated with building equipment is ifit contains a hazardous substance,

such as asbestos or Polychlorinated Biphynels (PCBs). Asbestos is a mineral that
CERL TR-99/58 93

was used in fire and chemical resistant products. Both asbestos and PCBs are

considered carcinogenic by the USEPA. This category of materials includes such

things as installed equipment, machinery, and hardware. Most removable

equipment from buildings are reused or discarded under AR 420-70 and Army

Technical Mechanical 5-634.

Installed. Installed building equipment is equipment that is "normally provided and

installed as part of a building construction contract and funded with Military

Construction, Army (MCA) funds," (AR 420-70, Terms). This category includes

equipment installed or fabricated as an integral or affixed component ofthe facility.

Included are cooling, heating, communications, and electrical equipment. Table Al

lists examples ofinstalled building equipment from Army Regulation 415-15. Ifthe

equipment was manufactured prior to the 1970s there may be some potential that

it may contain hazardous materials such as asbestos and PCBs.

Equipment-ln-Place. Equipment in place is defined as "personal property consisting

of capital property and other equipment of a usable nature that has been fixed in

place or attached to real property, but that may be severed or removed from

buildings without destroying the usefulness ofthe building" (AR 420-70). This type

of equipment is typically concentrated in commissaries, kitchens, lavatories,

Laboratory, maintenance, and storage facilities.

Movable. Movable equipment is any operational equipment for which installation

mountings and connection are provided in the building design, and that is

detachable without damage to the building (AR 415-15, p 7-4). These items are

considered personal property rather than real property. A list oftypical items is in

Table A2. Most of these items are disposed of through the DOD's Defense

Reutilization and Marketing Office (DRMO) according to AR 420-70.

Equipment in place and movable equipment are problems for the solid waste

industry because oftheir potential hazards to the environment. Home appliances,

also known as white goods, are a particular problem because the motors,

compressors, etc., sometimes contain PCBs.

Quantity Estimates

The appropriate manner to estimate the quantity of building equipment is

determined by the type of equipment. Supply equipment, such as wiring, piping, or

duct work is most likely measured in linear feet to measure the quantity of

reclaimable material. Individual equipment such as furniture, fixtures, hardware,

mechanical equipment, or storage units must be counted as individual items.
94 CERLTR-99/58

Table A1. Installed building equipment.

Army Regulation AR 415-15, p. 7-3 lists examples of installed building equipment as:

Antennas Nurse call system

Benches (built-in) Paging system

Bookcases Panel boards

Bulletin and chalkboards Plumbing

Cabinets Pneumatic tube systems

Carpet Pot and pan washing systems

Chapel seating, pulpits, and communion rail Protective construction features

Closets Refrigeration equipment

Desks and tables (built-in) Refrigerators (built-in and walk-in)

Dishwashing equipment Storm sash and doors

Drinking waste coolers Safety signs

Electric (electric fixtures and power equipment) Screens

Elevators and elevator doors Shelving and racks (built-in)

Escalators Signs and marking for boundary, area, building,

Exhaust systems room, and unit identification

Fire alarm systems Sprinklers

Food service equipment (built-in) Sterilizers (built-in)

Gas fittings Storage bins (built-in)

Generators Telecommunications system

Hardware and fixtures for the handicapped Theater and auditorium railings

Heating, ventilating, and air conditioning Theater stage and fire curtain

Hoists (cranes and crane rails) Traffic railings

Incinerators Vaults

Intercom system Vehicular and pedestrian traffic control and

Jail equipment direction signs

Key control systems Venetian blinds and window shades

Laboratory sinks, tables, and benches Wardrobes (fixed)

Lockers (built-in) Waste disposers

Meat-cutting equipment Other similar nonseverable items

Table A2. Movable equipment.

AR 415-15 (p. 7-4) defines Movable equipment as follows:

• Furniture

• Furnishings, including rugs

• Filing cabinets, and portable safes

• Office machines

• Wall clocks

• Food service equipment

• Dental chairs and pedestal units

• Shop equipment

• Photographic equipment

• Training aids and equipment, including simulators

• Automated data processing equipment.

Ifthe supply equipment is to be directly reused, the estimate oflinear feet should

suffice without modification. However, ifthe project team is trying to determine the

amount ofrecoverable salvageable metal content, for example, the linear quantity
CERLTR-99/58 95

must be converted to weight. This information is covered in the section metals,

ferrous and nonferrous.

Salvage Potential

The salvage potential for certain building equipment is very high due to the

availability ofsecond market outlets such as used equipment liquidators and scrap

processors in many areas of the country. Items such as furniture, data storage

systems, food service equipment, and other movable equipment generally retain a

percentage oftheir value on the second-hand market.

Built-in mechanical equipment may or may not have a high salvage potential ifthe

equipment is in need ofrepair, is unserviceable, or is relatively inefficient compared

to similar new equipment.

Recycling Potential

The "recycling" ofbuilding equipment is defined here as the direct reuse ofmovable

and fixed equipment without substantial reprocessing. For example, the use of

kitchen equipment such as tables, fixtures, and appliances is recycling.

Material Removal

Salvage stores obtain most of their items when a contractor calls and arranges to

have reusable building equipment removed from a demolition or remodeling site.

The salvage people go to the site and pick up the items in their truck. The "supplier"

of the item will either receive cash on the spot or credit at the salvage store. Care

must be taken to remove the equipment to be reused without substantial

reprocessing, such as appliances or movable equipment. The economic success ofthe

program will depend on whether the equipment is re-saleable without costly postremoval repair. A salvage operation such as this requires a large warehouse where

the items can be stored and displayed for sale. Nonprofit agencies may also be

willing to take building equipment to supply community groups with affordable

building materials. The donor ofthe materials receives a tax deduction in place of

an invoice from a disposal company and the materials stay out a landfill.

Debris Handling

An important consideration in handling equipment is transportation to the market

or reprocessor. Additional laborers can be used to remove valuable materials from

a building. Care needs to be taken to ensure that the materials are not damaged as
96 CERL TR-99/58

they are removed and stored on-site. Materials should be transported to reuse

centers or picked up by the reuse centers as soon as they are removed to minimize

damage. A second consideration is protecting the health and safety ofthe removal

team. Many buildings built before 1970 may contain asbestos insulation on duct

work and piping. There may also be lead-based paint on installed equipment'that

could become mobile if chipped during removal.

Ceramics/Clay

Characteristics

Ceramics are defined as "inorganic, nonmetallic materials or products that have

been subjected to heat treatment and are usually serviceable through high

temperature processing and use" (Hornbostel 1973, p 155). Ceramic material is used

for a great variety of building products including: porcelain fixtures, sewer pipe,

terra cotta veneer, floor/wall tile, and structural/fire-resistant brick and pipe. The

principal component of ceramic materials is raw clay. Clay consists offine mineral

granules, including aluminum silicates. There are several types of building

applications: fixtures, structural tile, pipe, rooftiles, and veneer applications.

Fixtures. Plumbing fixtures comprise the bulk of use of ceramic/clay material.

Porcelain, a refined form of clay that is vitrified to form a hard, water-impermeable

surface is a commonly used form of clay for fixtures. Toilets, sinks, and some

chemical laboratory equipment are made of porcelain. Although these fixtures are

usually not an integral part of a building's structure, they are typically part ofthe

debris from demolition since there is, in most cases, little economic incentive to

reuse porcelain plumbing fixtures.

Structural/Masonry Units. Clay structural tiles are used in both load bearing and

nonload bearing applications. Load bearing clay tiles are used either in wall

construction or as facing tile. These tiles are typically laid up with mortar and

reinforcement. Nonload bearing tile comes in the form of back up tile, fireproofing,

or decorative screen tile. These also are commonly constructed with mortar and, if

applicable, reinforcement. In some cases, structural tiles are faced with ceramic

veneer tile or plaster/drywall. Clay floor or roofstructural tiles also come under the

distinction ofstructural/masonry units.

Pipe. Drain tiles, vitrified pipe, and flue linings consist ofthe same type of clay used

in fired brick. Drain tiles come in a variety of sizes and shapes and are typically

used for below-grade applications. Vitrified pipe is used for sanitary and sewer
CERLTR-99/58 97

systems, but also can be used for heating ducts. Rubber gaskets, oakum and

cement, and bituminous compounds are used to seal the tile joints. But in many

cases, no sealing gasket is used.

Roof Tiles. The clay used for rooftiles is similar to the type used for brick. There

is also a variety of styles, shapes, and sizes. The tiles either interlock or are

connected to the roof with mechanical fasteners.

Veneer Tiles. Ceramic wall and floor tile are referred to as veneer tile since they are

not expected to add to the structural integrity of the support system. They are

distinguished by their thinness and glazed finish.

Quantity Estimates

According to Architectural Graphic Standards (Hoke, ed., 1988), the quantity of

structural clay tile can be estimated using the following conversions:

4-in. Hollow = 23 lb/sf

6-in. Hollow = 38 lb/sf

8-in. Hollow = 44 lb/sf

Porcelain plumbing fixtures from kitchens and bathrooms should be counted and

listed as individual items to be salvaged.

Salvage Potential

Ceramic plumbing fixtures can be removed from a building and sold to salvage

operations for their resale value. Ceramic tiles left over from a construction job can

be saved and reused. However, variations in shades between the different batches

ofthe same tile line may occur.

Recycling Potential

Ceramics such as porcelain as well as clay tiles and veneer, can be crushed and used

for aggregate.
98 CERLTR-99/58

Concrete

Characteristics

Concrete is the generic term for a mixture of cement, sand, gravel, and other forms

of aggregate and admixtures that cures into a hard, durable material. The mixture

of these components influences the concrete's characteristics including strength,

consistency, and curing time. Concrete is used in a wide variety of construction

applications such as foundation and superstructure construction, retaining walls,

floors, walls, roofs, and pavement.

Because of the wide variety oftypes and uses for concrete, for this report, concrete

applications will be categorized as ether:

• Reinforced concrete, including foundation, structural members, slabs, floor and

roof decking

• Precast concrete, includes veneer panels for exterior application, pipe, as well

as structural units such as precast sections of decking and structural shapes

• Concrete masonry units (CMUs), a block of molded concrete with one or two

hollows. The type of aggregate used for CMUs can include sand, stone, gravel,

slag, and coal cinders.

Quantity Estimates

Estimation of the potential concrete debris volume is, in most cases, not difficult.

Ifthe actual volume ofthe concrete cannot be estimated by directly measuring the

walls, floors, or columns ofthe building's structure, there are several good references

that give the quantity of materials for general building uses. One of these

references, Means Assemblies Cost Data, published by R.S. Means Company, lists

the quantity ofmaterial in either volume or density for typical building applications.

If, in the case of concrete, the data is listed in volumetric form, this information may

be converted to density by multiplying the volume by 145 lb/ cu ft, or 3,915 lb/cu yd

of normal weight concrete. For example, is you know a concrete wall contains 8.5

cu yd of concrete, the weight ofthis wall is:

4.5 cu yd x 3915 lb/cu yd = 17,618 lb

Footings. According to Means (1994), a 16-in. wide by 8-in. deep strip footing

contains approximately 0.033 cu yd of concrete and 2.5 lb of reinforcing steel per

linear foot of footing (Means 1994). A 24-in. wide by 12-in. deep strip footing

contains 0.074 cu yd of concrete and 3 lb ofreinforcing steel per linear foot offooting.
CERLTR-99/58 99

Therefore, the outside perimeter distance should be multiplied by these quantities.

For example, the footing for a building with a perimeter measuring 240 ft would

contain approximately 8 cu yd of concrete (31,320 lb) and 600 lb ofsteel ifthe footing

is 16 in. wide.

A typical spread footing for one or two story residential and commercial building is

3 x 3 ft in area, and 1 ft thick. This contains approximately 0.33 cu yd of concrete

and 12 lb ofreinforcing steel. Therefore, a building with three interior load bearing

columns, would have three spread footings that amount to approximately 1 cu yd of

concrete (3,915 lb) and 36 lb ofsteel. Spread footings for larger buildings depend on

the bearing capacity ofthe soil and the superimposed load on the footing.

Pilings. The amount of concrete in a pile depends on the diameter and length ofthe

pier. Ifthe pier length is not known since it is typically below grade, the length will

have to be estimated. A typical pier for a one/two story building may be 10 in.

square (or round) thick and 6 ft long, with approximately 5 lb/ft of steel reinforcement. A square pier would therefore contain 0.15 cu yd dof concrete and 30 lb of

steel.

Foundation Walls. A cast-in-place concrete wall, 4 ft tall by 10 in. thick, contains

0.199 cu yd of concrete and 9.6 lb ofreinforcing steel per linear foot ofwall (Means

1994). The volume of concrete used in other foundation elements such as grade

beams, spread footings and piles is highly dependent on the loading condition ofthe

building and the bearing capacity ofthe soil. Therefore, it is difficult to include an

generalized estimate here. The surveyor should estimate the volume of these

elements.

Superstructure. The superstructure of a concrete frame building includes columns,

walls, beams and slabs. Most cast-in-place concrete floor and roofsystems include

beams and slabs that are cast monolithically, i.e., at the same time, to ensure that

they act as a single system. Therefore, once the type of system is identified, an

estimation of the quantities can be derived from a configuration listed in Means

(1994). There are several types ofslab and beam systems, such as one way or two

way beam and slab systems, flat plate and waffle slabs. The quantity of concrete

can be estimated by determining the quantity in each ofthe individual elements.

Floor Systems. The easiest method to estimate the quantity of concrete in the floor

system of a building is to multiple the total floor area by a proportionate quantity

ofmaterial. Means Building Construction Cost Data (Means 1994) contains a table

of quantities of concrete and reinforcement in a floor system, categorized by the type

of construction, the design live load, and the span ofthe construction. For example,
100 CERL TR-99/58

the estimated amount of concrete in a one way beam and slab floor system with a

design live load of 100 lb/sq ft and a 20-ft span is 0.54 cu ft/sq ft of floor area.

Therefore, a building with a total floor area of 5400 sq ft would contain 2,916 cu ft

(or 108 cu yd) of concrete. According to the table, this system would also contain

2.69 lb/sq ft of floor area in reinforcement steel. The floor system, therefore,

contains 14,526 lb ofsteel. A summary ofthe most common floor systems, assuming

a 100 lb/sq ft design live load, is given in Table A3.

A majority of cast-in-place concrete floor slabs are usually 4 to 6.5 in. thick.

Reinforcement may be steel bars, but generally is a steel reinforcement mesh. The

slab may also be a composite type, in which a metal deck is used as both a form and

as a structural element. To ensure that the two materials act together under

loading, these composite slabs may also contain metal studs that are welded to the

steel decking. These studs will increase the amount of steel, but without the

original construction documentation, it is difficult to determine whether the studs

exist. Therefore, it is acceptable to generalize the amount of reinforcing steel in a

slab. A 4-in. concrete slab contains 0.330 cu ft of concrete and 1 lb of reinforcing

steel per square foot for short span configurations.

An alternative concrete floor or roofsystem may use precast concrete elements, such

as precast tees, planks, and beams. In this case, the individual elements will need

to be added up to find the total volume. Since each building will contain varying

Table A3. Proportionate quantity of concrete in various floor

systems.

Type of Floor

System DLL Span

Per sq ft of floor area

Concrete Reinfor.

Flat Plate 100 psf 15ft

20 ft

25 ft

0.46 cf

0.71 cf

0.83 cf

2.141b

2.72 lb

3.47 lb

Flat Plate

w/Drop Panels

100 psf 20 ft

25 ft

30 ft

0.64 cf

0.79 cf

0.96 cf

2.83 lb

3.88 lb

4.66 lb

Waffle

30-in. Domes

50 psf 25 ft

30 ft

35 ft

40 ft

0.69 cf

0.74 cf

0.86 cf

0.78 cf

1.831b

2.39 lb

2.71 lb

4.80 lb

One Way

Beam and Slab

100 psf 15ft

20 ft

25 ft

0.42 cf

0.54 cf

0.69 cf

1.901b

2.69 lb

3.93 lb

Two Way

Beam and Slab

100 psf 15ft

20 ft

25 ft

0.47 cf

0.63 cf

0.83 cf

2.26 lb

3.06 lb

3.79 lb

'Adapted from Means Building Construction Cost Data, 1995
CERLTR-99/58 101

amounts of precast materials, the most appropriate estimation method is to use a

rule ofthumb for the volume of concrete, e.g., a 6 in. thick hollow core concrete plank

is approximately 0.013 cu yd per square foot of plank. Therefore, the volume of

concrete in an 8 ft wide, 18 in. deep, "double-tee" precast deck is approximately 0.010

cu yd per square foot of deck.

For some linear precast members, such as beams, the volume should be computed

by the length of the member. For instance, the volume of concrete in a linear foot

of a 36 in. deep precast "T" beam, is 0.13 cu yd per linear foot.

Once the horizontal elements have been estimated, the next step is to estimate the

quantity of concrete in columns and walls. Ifthe height ofthe column or wall cannot

be determined, a floor-to-floor height is acceptable for this analysis.

According to Means (1994), a round, cast-in-place column that is 12 in. in diameter

and 10 ft high generally contains 0.029 cu yd of concrete and 6.6 lb of reinforcing

steel. A square column, 10-in. square for a 10 ft story contains 0.026 cu yd of

concrete and 5.0 lb ofreinforcing steel per vertical linear foot of column.

Final calculation should include any other significant concrete elements.

Concrete Masonry. Concrete block is used extensively in building applications over

the whole world. Its low cost, flexibility, durability, and ease of construction make

it one of the most widely used building systems. Concrete masonry walls may be

solid, hollow, grout filled, and reinforced with steel, therefore the quantity of

materials may vary substantially.

Paving. Another significant use of concrete in building applications is concrete

pavers. These pavers are typically composed of a wide range ofmaterials, including

aggregate and colorants, depending on the use and aesthetic goals of their users.

The two most typical forms of concrete pavers are either as "brick" or squares.

Salvage Potential

Reuse of entire concrete masonry units is not recommended because ofthe decreased

porosity of the surface of used units. The pores will have become sealed with

mortar, preventing a strong bond from forming.
102 CERL TR-99/58

Recycling Potential

Broken or crushed CMUs may be used as backfill material, fill, roadbed aggregate,

or aggregate for new CMUs. Aggregate made from recycled concrete can also be

used in asphalt paving. Recycling concrete saves on disposal fees for concrete

contractors, reduces the expenses of buying new gravel and decreases the cost of

making asphalt paving material. Recycled concrete can be used for many of the

applications for which virgin concrete is used, such as foundations or the concrete

layer used below the cold and hot mixes on highway bridges.

Material Removal

The primary challenge in recycling old concrete, is breaking the concrete and

separating it from its steel reinforcement. An example of effective steel separation

from the concrete was accomplished by a contractor in Illinois who used a 60,000 lb

machine with a large steal beam to send vibrations through the concrete. There are

several other methods for the removal of concrete:

hydraullic and pneumatic hammers

ball and crane

explosives

high pressure waterjet

carbon dioxide expansion bursting

ultrasonic vibrations

laser

electromagnetic waves or fields

microwaves

low frequency or high frequency currents.

Debris Handling

All these methods of demolition then require that the concrete be removed and

processed. There are two primary approaches to processing concrete: on-site with

mobile crushing units or at a processing facility. Figure A2 shows a flow diagram

of a processing facility where the scrap concrete is crushed into aggregate. First, the

aggregate is conveyed from the crusher to a large electromagnet that separates out

ferrous metals. The aggregate then passes through a series ofscreens that separate

the material by size into three grades. Aggregate sized at 3 in. in diameter is

classified as Grade A material and is primarily used in foundations. Grade B

aggregate is 1.5-in. in diameter and is primarily used for sidewalks and other
CERLTR-99/58 103

GRADE A

AGGREGATE

GRADE B

AGGREGATE

SCRAP

CONCRETE

ERSIZED MATER A i L

ir

INITIAL

INSPECTION CRUSHER MAGNET SCREEN SCREEN SCREEN

I T

REJECT FERROUS METAL

SEPARATED,

REUSED

GRADE C

AGGREGATE

Figure A2. Representative concrete processing plant.

applications exposed to weather. Grade C aggregate is 3/8-in. in diameter and is

used a subbase material (such as for footings in foundations) (Donovan, 1991).

Contaminants

Characteristics

In some projects, either the preparation of the site or the demolition of a building

will involve the disposal of materials that may be contaminated and, therefore,

present special handling requirements according to Army Regulations.

Contaminated materials are those that require special handling to minimize the

toxicological and environmental hazards in disposal. The types of recyclable

contaminants on military installations may include soil that is saturated with motor

oil or chemicals, and underground fuel tanks that may contain some residues of oil

or gas. This category may also include empty paint or chemical containers used

during construction or renovation as well as lead paint and asbestos. This class of

materials does not include, though, the materials that are classified as hazardous.

Hazardous materials are defined in Army TM 5-634 (p 4-121) as "a solid waste or

combination of solid wastes, which because of its quantity, concentration, or

physical, chemical, or infectious characteristics may: (1) cause, or significantly

contribute to, an increase in mortality or an increase in serious irreversible, or

incapacitating reversible, illness; or (2) pose a substantial present or potential

hazard to human health or the environment when improperly treated, stored,

transported, or disposed of, or otherwise managed."
104 CERL TR-99/58

Contaminated materials, such as oil-impregnated soil or fuel tanks, are a common

occurrence on military installations. The presence of vehicles, heavy equipment,

and other transportation equipment usually indicates the presence of contaminated

earth due to fuel leaks or runofffrom maintenance activities. These contaminants

generally are a problem for contractors who are excavating the site or are

performing clean up operations. Contaminants will become more of an issue in the

future as more military installations are closed under Base Realignment and

Closure (BRAC) activities. Many installations must be free ofhazardous conditions

prior to privatization. Because of the high cost of remediation and disposal,

recycling the contaminated materials provides an attractive alternative to disposal.

Quantity Estimates

The difficulty in estimating petroleum saturated soil is accurately measuring the

quantity of soil that has been contaminated. Typically, a geologist must be called

to measure the extent of the contamination. The common unit ofmeasurement for

soil is volume. The quantity offuel containers must be measured by the number of

containers and their weight ifthey are to be scrapped.

Salvage Potential

The fuel tanks and empty cans and containers may be cleaned and sold for their

scrap value if economics warrant this disposition. Used solvents, such as paint

thinner and cleaning chemicals can be recycled. In some cases the relatively high

cost of disposal in special hazardous material landfills may make for salvaging the

materials for their scrap value economically viable.

Recycling Potential

There a few recycling options for the two common forms of contaminants, petroleum

impregnated soil, and used fuel containers. In the case of soil, it is generally not

financially feasible to recover the fuel content of the soil. The soil may be used,

though, as fill for paving. There are also a few manufacturers that can use the soil

as one component of bricks. The fuel containers can generally be either reused ifin

good condition, or scrapped for their material content if they are made of steel.

Reuse of the containers, particularly large capacity tanks would require

recertification ifit is to be used again for liquid storage.
CERLTR-99/58 105

Material Removal

To ascertain whether C&D debris is hazardous, the debris sample must undergo

Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP) analysis by a certified

laboratory. The results ofthe analysis are then compared to levels established by

the USEPA for certain chemicals. Ifthe level in the sample exceeds the established

level, the waste is considered hazardous (Ch. 6).

Debris Handling

Prior to demolishing a structure, undesirable components should be removed. In

most cases, these contaminated materials require special handling or disposal. Ifthe

C&D debris is hazardous, the debris must be properly disposed at a licensed

hazardous waste facility.

Fibrous Materials

Characteristics

There are three groups offibrous materials used in construction (Hornbostel 1973):

• natural fibers

• regenerated fibers

• synthetic fibers.

Natural fibers includes those fibers that are derived from vegetable, mineral, or

animal material. The most common building product use for natural fibers is as

textiles, such as canvas or fabrics. Textiles have a number of construction uses, but

are mostly included in movable equipment applications such as upholstered

furniture, wall coverings, floor coverings, modular office furniture coverings, and

window treatments.

Regenerated fibers are synthesized from naturally occurring polymeric materials

like glass, proteins, and cellulose. Glass fibers, for example, are used in fiberglass

and mineral wool insulation, textiles, and as reinforcements in polymers.

Synthetic fibers are produced from synthetic polymers. This type offiber includes

polyester, nylon, polyethylene and PVC. Most synthetic fibers are used in textiles,

carpet, etc.
106 CERLTR-99/58

Salvage Potential

Scrap carpet can be salvaged and used as landfill cover.

Recycling Potential

Carpet has been recycled and used as an additive for recycled plastic lumber. This

composite material contains a blend of vinyl, nylon fibers, and post-consumer

plastic. Recycled plastic lumber is extruded into a flexible array of configurations

including standard lumber profiles that can be used for picnic tables and decking as

well as landscaping timbers.

Old fabric from office workstations can be shredded and made into insulation and

carpeting for automobiles (Demkin 1996). Carpet padding made from reclaimed and

recycled fibers such as jute, hemp, acrylics and cotton are an excellent use of

reclaimed fibers from industrial textile mills and recycled jute and hemp from

burlap and rope. Some other products that include recycled fibrous materials are

IGLOO containers with 10 to 25 percent post-consumer fiberglass and NAGAWOOD

ceiling tiles with 100 percent recycled content — 70 percent post-consumer cellulose

fiber, 30 percent recovered plastic.

Glass

Characteristics

Most building applications for glass, such as windows, doors, and shelves, are in the

form ofsheet glass. The most common form of glass found in building applications

is designated as silicon-sodium-calcium. From a recycling standpoint, this form of

glass is most conducive to reuse, since it will contain (in the form ofC&D waste) the

least amount of contamination. The amount of contamination is important because

the virgin resources (with the exception of energy) for glass are relatively inexpensive. Removing contamination from glass debris will certainly affect the economics

of a recycling operation.

Glass block, corrugate sheets, cellular, structural glazing, which has an opaque

coloring, mirrors that have a reflective backing, wire glass and safety glass are less

likely to be recycled because oftheir varying chemical and physical composition.

The possible contaminants found in building glass include the materials used to

make weathertight seals between glass and frames: gaskets, foam, adhesives, wood
CERLTR-99/58 107

or metal shims, clips, glazing compounds, polybutene tapes, poly elastomers. These

are "soft" contaminants that may or may not be removed during processing.

Insulated window units may contain other types of contaminants including the alloy

spacer between the frames and adhesive. The glass may also be adhered to

reflective or laminating materials (such as films and coatings).

The most difficult contaminants to deal with are "hard" contaminants including

metals, concrete, masonry or clay, and ceramics. These contaminants must be

removed mechanically. Metallic particles are the most potentially damaging

contaminants to the recycling processes. For example, in fiberglass production,

elemental metals are not oxidized in the electric melting furnaces and therefore are

not dissolved. The molten metal may then collect at the bottom ofthe furnace and

seep through joints in the refractory and make contact with the metal casing ofthe

furnace. Contact with the steel surface ofthe furnace can cause a ground and shut

down the furnace. The extra metal may also cause corrosion to the point that it

reduces the life of a furnace (Guter 1992).

Quantity Estimates

Residential window glass 1/8 in. thick = 1.625 lb/sf

Commercial plate glass 1/4 in. thick = 3.28 lb/sf

Glass block = 18 lb/sf

Salvage Potential

Windows can be removed during demolition and warehoused in a salvage store.

Other businesses and salvage yards buy used windows and doors from contractors

and resell them. Salvaged windows are not used in new construction, but odd size

windows may be just what the home remodeler is looking for.

Recycling Potential

At present, only a small amount of waste glass from remodeled and demolished

buildings is recycled. For it to be used as cullet in the manufacture of new glass, it

must be essentially free on nonglass constituents. However, certain types of flat

glass can be recycled into glasphalt, an asphalt substitute; glascrete, a concrete

substitute; glass aquarium stones; glass beads; and glass filler for street curbs and

ceramic floor tiles (Demkin 1996). Plate glass form C&D activities can be used as

part of the feedstock for manufacturing fiberglass. Glass accounts for 3-4 percent

ofthe material used to produce fiberglass.
108 CERLTR-99/58

In a septic filtration project recently developed in a cooperative effort by Federal

agencies, fifteen tons of discarded glass was crushed, sifted, and then used as lining

for a septic field. The glass is inert and does not attract bacteria as does gravel.

Water also flows through glass almost 20 times faster than through stone.

Material Removal

Windows must be carefully removed before demolishing a building ifthey are to be

salvaged. It is labor intensive and not cost-effective unless the windows have value

as architectural salvage (Donovan 1992). Once a building has been demolished, it

is virtually impossible to salvage the windows. Broken glass cannot be easily

separated out and therefore should be removed intact.

Debris Handling

Various methods have been investigated for the processing ofvarious glass-making

wastes to recover valuable components. Crushing, screening, magnetic and other

metal separations, gravity separation, and vitrification have all been considered as

processes, and all have merit. Multigravity separators may prove to be effective in

separating cullet from ceramic fragments because most ceramics are denser than

glass. Optical techniques, where infrared light passes through the glass, have been

used to detect ceramic contaminants that are opaque to infrared light and will

produce shadows. When a contaminant is detected, a trigger sets off a jet of air that

blows out the foreign ceramic.

Gypsum/Plaster

Characteristics

The principal construction use for gypsum products is in wall board construction.

Plaster and gypsum products both have has naturally hydrated calcium sulfate as

their principal component. Gypsum (CaS04»2H20) is composed of 79 percent

calcium sulfate and 21 percent water, and is used as a generic term for all calcium

materials. In addition to gypsum, drywall contains several other additives,

including soaps, boric acid, silicone glue, starches, potassium sulfate, fiberglass,

chelating agents, water dispersants, and asphalt wax emulsions (Musick, 1992).

Due to these contaminants, the use of recycled drywall for anything other than for

new drywall, will be limited.
CERLTR-99/58 109

Wallboard waste from construction activities is relatively free of paint, asbestos, or

other substances that contaminate demolition wallboard over the life of a building.

Wallboard waste from demolition of buildings may have higher contaminant levels

because of earlier manufacturing processes (asbestos for example) and paint,

wallpaper and other substances that may have come in contact with the wallboard

over the life ofthe building.

Occasionally, gypsum is also used in the form of building blocks for fire proofing.

These light weight, fire resistant blocks sometimes have, in the past, included

asbestos or vegetable fibers.

Quantity Estimates

The industry rule of thumb is that drywall scrap will equal 1 lb/sq ft offloor area,

or about 1 ton per average house. According to Architectural Graphic Standards

(Hoke, ed. 1988), material take-offs can be calculated using the following

conversions:

XA in. gypsum wallboard = 2 lb/sf

plaster on wood lath = 8 lb/sf

Examples:

One linear foot of an 8 foot tall interior partition [(1 lf)(8 ft) = 8 sf], gypsum

wallboard both sides:

2 (2 lb/sf) (8 sf) = 32 lbs

One linear foot of an 8 foot tall interior partition (8 sf), plaster on both sides:

2 (8 lb/sf)(8 sf) = 128 lbs

Salvage Potential

Both construction and demolition drywall can be salvaged or recycled. When

hanging drywall in new construction and remodeling, larger scraps should be set

aside for use where filler pieces are needed, e.g., in closets.
110 CERL TR-99/58

Recycling Potential

Plaster waste from remodeling or demolition is generally not being recycled because

of the problem of distinguishing gypsum plaster from lime plaster in the waste

stream, the difficulty in separating plaster from lathing and stud material, and the

lack of clearly identified products into which the waste can be recycled. However,

new technologies exist which will change this in the future. When paint and other

coverings are not present, waste gypsum wallboard can be recycled into new

wallboard. Virgin gypsum has long been used as a soil amendment in different

parts ofthe country. Crop-growing tests have shown that drywall applied as a soil

amendment in specified amounts benefited crops (Goddard 1994). Processes are also

being developed to transform waste drywall into animal bedding and fertilizer.

Material Removal

Scrap gypsum from construction projects should be source separated at the site and

stored in separated marked containers for drywall waste only. Care should be taken

not to mix the drywall waste with other C&D debris because if the gypsum is

contaminated, it may not be recyclable.

Debris Handling

There are several firms in North America known to be actively processing waste

drywall. Figure A3 shows the flow of drywall waste through a representative

gypsum processing plant. Relatively homogeneous drywall waste is processed into

a fine powder that is then sold back to the manufacturers of wallboard. Other

companies have developed the technology to separate the paper from the gypsum.

This paper is either sold to a paper mill or recycled into backing paper.

SCRAP

DRYWALL >

PAPER

BACKING

t

POWDERED

^ GYPSUM

PULVERIZE

SCREEN

MAGNET

SIFT INITIAL

INSPECTION GRINDER MAGNET

1

MET/

PLASTI

«.AND

C DEBRI

F

(

ERROUS

SCREWS

METALS

, NAILS)

1

MET ALS

Figure A3. Flow of drywall waste through a representative gypsum processing plant.
CERLTR-99/58 111

Metal, Ferrous

Characteristics

Metals that are designated as ferrous are those that contain iron. This includes all

iron-based alloys such as: cast and wrought iron, steel, stainless steel, super steels,

and weathering steels.

Steel. The term steel usually refers to plain carbon steels that do not contain more

than 2 percent carbon. The physical composition of construction steels varies

considerably, according to its applications. For example, some steels are more

corrosion resistant than others. The most prevalent form ofsteel used in buildings

is mild, structural grade steel, which is characterized by 0.15 to 0.29 percent carbon.

Some typical construction applications for this type ofsteel include:

structural steel

ornament

rod

reinforcing rod

windows

mesh, including fencing

corrugate and rolled sheets

doors

fasteners.

Machinery steel, i.e., that which may be found in large building equipment, usually

contains 0.25 to 0.35 percent carbon.

Steel may be finished in a number of ways, such as painted or galvanized.

Galvanizing represents somewhat of a problem for recycling, since once removed, it

is considered a hazardous material. Applications where the steel will have some

substantial finish are: roofing, siding, decking, and cladding.

Stainless Steel. The stainless steel alloys used in construction generally contain

more than 10 percent chromium. Stainless steel is more resistant to heat, oxidation,

and corrosion than typical carbon steels. Its uses are varied, but are primarily

concentrated in exterior uses such as doors windows, trim, grilles, flashing, etc. It

is also extensively used in kitchens, bathrooms, and laboratories.
112 CERL TR-99/58

Cast Iron. Cast iron is an iron alloy that contains

more than 1.7 percent carbon. Its relatively high

carbon content increases its compressive strength,

but also makes it more brittle. Its primary uses in

construction have been in pipes and fittings, enabled plumbing fixtures, and miscellaneous details.

Quantity Estimates

According to AISC Manual of Steel Construction, a

linear foot of 1 in. diameter steel pipe, for example,

weighs 1.68 lb/ft. A 4 in. steel pipe weighs 10.79

lb/ft. Steel HVAC ducts must be converted to

weight measurements by first estimating the total

square footage ofthe ducts. Steel joist weights can

be found in Table A4.

Table A4. Steel joist weights.

Depth (in.) Weight (lb/If)

8 4.2

10 5.1

12 6.2

14 7.6

16 8.9

18 9.8

20 10.2

22 10.8

24 11.5

Based on the average weight per linear

foot of joist for both J and H series

joists, (adapted from Walmar and

Baron, p 2170).

Salvage Potential

There is an active scrap metal market throughout the United States. The actual

price depends upon the quality ofthe materials including such factors as the type

offerrous metal or alloy, the degree of contamination with nonferrous material, the

mixing of different types offerrous metal in one batch and the physical form ofscrap

for ease of handling and processing (SWANA 1993).

Recycling Potential

Magnetic separation makes steel one ofthe easiest and most economical materials

to remove from C&D waste. As a result, the overall recycling rate ofsteel products

in the United States is about 66 percent, the highest rate of any material. During

the past decade, more than 1 trillion lb ofsteel scrap have been recycled, extending

the life ofthe nation's landfills by more than 3 years (Demkin 1996). Iron and steel

including banding from wood bundles, nails and other fasteners, galvanized flashing

and roofing, as well as re-bar, can be separated and recycled. There are no

limitations on the reuse of steel in new products. This steel can either be melted

down and made into new products, or exported as scrap metal.
CERLTR-99/58 1J3

Material Removal

The magnetic property of ferrous metals allows them to be separated from mixed

debris with relative ease. In theory, steel fasteners can be separated magnetically

from demolition waste and recycled but these small pieces are often firmly attached

to nonsteel building components, making such recycling impractical.

Debris Handling

Ferrous scrap is processed by means ofshears, balers, and shredders to produce a

product suitable as a raw material in new steel manufacture. Solid material such

as steel plate, bars, rail, girders and castings are sheared to a size that can be

accommodated by remelting furnaces. Appliances are shredded in machines that

separate the ferrous, nonferrous, and nonmetallic materials. Very light scrap such

as drums, cans, and roofing iron is usually pressed into bales.

Metal, Nonferrous

Characteristics

The designation ofmetals as nonferrous includes all noniron based alloys. The most

common noniron metals found in construction applications are: copper, aluminum

alloys, lead, brass, magnesium, etc. Since we depend, as a nation, so heavily on

foreign supply of nonferrous raw materials, the relative price of this scrap will

continue to warrant diverting these materials from the waste stream.

Copper. Copper is a malleable, nonmagnetic metal that has many construction

related uses. Its three most important characteristics; high electrical conductance,

workability, and corrosion resistance, make it a useful material for a variety of

building products. The commonly used copper alloys include high copper alloys (99.3

to 96 percent copper content), brasses (commonly includes zinc, tin, as well as lead,

manganese and silicon), bronzes (also includes zinc, tin and other alloys), copper

nickels, lead coppers, etc. Copper may be painted, anodized, or left bare to form its

own protective coating. Most forms of copper are used in the following applications:

• wire, for electrical components and conductors

• formed/Rolled, for plumbing, HVAC applications

• sheets, for lashing, roofing, gutters, mesh, foil

• ornament, for screens, formed tiles.
114 CERL TR-99/58

Aluminum. Aluminum is a soft, lightweight metal that exhibits a high strength to

mass ratio. Like copper, it also conducts electricity well and therefore has a wide

variety of building uses. The aluminum alloy used most often in commercial

construction is an aluminum alloy that may contain copper, manganese, zinc,

chromium and nickel. Aluminum alloys may be finished, typically by anodization,

mechanical polishing, enameling, painting, or left unfinished. The typical

applications for aluminum include:

sheet, flashing, gutters

rolled, including structural members

hardware

extruded shapes for windows and doors

molding, ornament, screens

fasteners

corrugate (roofing)

miscellaneous, including poles and tubes

film, insulation and vapor barriers.

Lead. Lead is a heavy, soft metal that has excellent workability and good corrosion

resistance. At one point there was a wide range of uses for lead and lead alloys in

paints and protective coatings, sheathing, flooring, etc. After the discovery of the

toxicity of lead, its use by the construction industry declined significantly. Most

military uses for construction that will be found on bases will be:

• sheets, flashing

• rolled, pipes

• extruded, caulking

• bar or wire, electrical components.

Quantity Estimates

ASCE 7-95 lists the following minimum dead loads for the following nonferrous

metals:

Aluminum: 1701b/cuft Brass: 751b/cuft

Copper: 141b/cuft Lead: 7101b/cuft
CERLTR-99/58 115

Salvage Potential

Aluminum, copper, and brass all have a higher market value than steel. Ifthese

metals are mixed with steel, the market price for them becomes lower. It is more

economical to separate and market these materials individually.

Recycling Potential

Aluminum can be recovered, recycled and reused endlessly however, recovery of

aluminum from demolition and replacement in the building and construction

industry is minimal. Fifteen percent, or 60 million lb, of all construction-industry

aluminum is recovered (Demkin 1996). Lead chimney flashing can, and should be

recycled since it is especially important to keep lead out of landfills, where it can

pollute groundwater.

Material Removal

Most ofthe waste nonferrous metals vary widely in alloy and types. Consequently,

careful segregation is necessary to simplify controlled smelting.

Debris Handling

Nonferrous metals once sorted are smelted in furnaces and poured offinto molds or

billets for use in the extrusion industry. Most secondary aluminum is sold to the

foundry industry for die-casting new products or turned into sheets for aluminum

cans. Copper and brass are suitable for casting and extruding into bars, rods and

tubes.

Paper/Cardboard

Characteristics

Paper and cardboard products consist of mechanically processed cellulose fibers,

such as wood or vegetable fibers. Its readily available raw materials and relatively

low production costs have made it the predominant material for lightweight,

inexpensive applications. The raw material used in paper products, pulp, is

essentially the same for most construction uses. The difference in composition

between the various types of paper products is due to the additives included in

production to improve its characteristics.
116 CERL TR-99/58

Hornbostel (1973, p 500) describes four categories of use for paper products in

construction:

• building materials

• containers and protective coverings

• concrete forms

• paper for administrative and supervisory purposes.

The building materials that are paper or pulp-based typically fall into the following

categories:

• fiberboard

• sheathing or roofing paper

• insulation

• felt, including asphalt or other mineral impregnates

• gypsum board.

Most of the paper or pulp-based containers include packaging materials for

equipment and materials. These paper products include:

• cardboard boxes or cartons

• wrappers

• bags

• protective paper coverings.

Paper-based concrete formwork is typically laminated sheets of paper and adhesive.

These forms may be impregnated or lined with wax, plastic, or silicone.

Quantity Estimates

The equivalents for Cardboard waste are 100 lb/cu yd; 0.05 tons/cu yd; 20 cu yds/ton.

Salvage Potential

Large cardboard boxes from appliances and other corrugated containers can be

reused on the construction site as storage containers or as intermediate waste

containers.

Recycling Potential

Old corregated cardboard is usually the most marketable material generated from

construction sites. Most recyclers do not accept wax coated cardboard or nonpaper
CERL TR-99/58 117

packaging materials so these would have to be separated out. Paper and cardboard

can be recycled at paper mills or used for fuel pellets.

Plastics

Characteristics

Plastic materials are used for an enormous range ofbuilding materials. For almost

every component of a building, with the exception of structural and mechanical

systems, there is a synthetic, plastic counterpart. Plastics are used for wall finishes,

flooring, textiles, roofing, plumbing, siding, furniture, and glazing. In general, there

are eight different forms that plastics may take in building products:

coatings

flooring

extruded and molded shapes

foam

fibers and textiles

laminates

film

sheets and panels.

Plastic coatings include liquefied plastic or cementitious coatings for masonry,

concrete, wood, and roofing materials. These coatings include epoxies, acrylics,

polyesters, polyurethanes, and vinyls.

Plastics are particularly suited for extruded and molded shapes. This includes a

wide variety of products including piping and fittings, gaskets, shims, baseboard,

weatherstripping, electrical components and fixtures, and furniture. These types

of plastics include both thermoplastics such as acrylics, fluorocarbons, polycarbonates, polyesters, polyethylene, and polyvinyls.

Plastic films are used for water proofing, vapor barriers, protective coverings,

reflective surfaces, and enclosures. The typical plastics used are fluorocarbons,

Polyamides, polyesters, polyethylene, polyurethanes, and polyvinyls.

The most prevalent use of plastics in flooring is vinyl resistant flooring. Vinyl

resistant flooring either comes in solid vinyl or is a vinyl laminated to another

resilient sheet. Vinyl flooring comes in sheets, tiles, and poured terrazzo-style

flooring.
118 CERL TR-99/58

Plastic foams are generally used in applications that require thermal insulation.

They are typically used in sheet form or laminated with other materials such as

plywood and metal to create suitable panels for exterior walls and roofing. The most

common insulating materials are made from polyurethane and polystyrene.

Plastic laminates have a variety of uses including counter tops, furniture and wall

board/paneling. The plastic sheet is typically adhered to either particle board,

plywood, or other fiber sheets.

Plastic sheets and panels are used in some ofthe applications listed above, but also

include glazing materials, panels, and roof membranes. Glazing and panel

materials are made of acrylics, polycarbonates, polyesters, and polystyrene. Most

ofthese materials can be transparent, translucent, colored, opaque, or patterned.

Salvage Potential

PVC piping, vinyl siding, and polystyrene packaging may be marketed if they are

clean and generated in fairly large quantities. Plastic film is difficult to market

because of the many different types of plastic used to make the various grades of

plastic film (Illinois DCCA 1997). Check with your municipal solid waste office to

find out what your recycling options are.

Recycling Potential

Plastics recovered from C&D waste can be separated, cleaned and reformed into

plastic lumber, highway barriers and traffic cones. Plastic laminates are almost

unrecyclable because they are a composite material with thermosetting resins.

However, thermosetting resins are increasingly being reground and used as filler

in new resin applications. Plastics that cannot be easily separated by type are being

processed as mixed plastic waste. Ifthe material is not suitable for plastic lumber,

it is being converted into chemicals and fuel.

Material Removal

Waste materials should be separated and stored where they will stay relatively

clean. The plastic industry typically imprints packaging or consumer products with

information describing the particular resin used in the plastic. Plastic collected and

separated by resin type has a higher market value and demand compared to

commingled plastic. There are a few plastic building materials that can be

separated by resin type for which potential market exist. PVC and vinyl siding are

examples of C&D waste that has a high potential for separation and recycling.
CERLTR-99/58 119

Debris Handling

Advanced plastic recycling technologies have continued to mature. Recovered

plastic components of virtually any kind are broken down into monomers that can

be turned into new polymer resins for feedstock (Fickes 1997). Figure A4 shows the

process for the mechanical recycling of plastics. Plastics are collected and separated

by resin type. The plastics are cleaned and regrinded into pellets. These pellets are

used as feedstock for the fabrication ofrecycled plastic lumber products.

Soil

Characteristics

Soil is comprised ofsolid grain material, including gravel, sand and silts, water, air,

and organic material including organisms, peat, and plant material. Depending on

the project, soil stones and clay can be a large proportion ofthe materials from the

demolition and construction site.

Soils may be contaminated by previous site uses including refinery and petroleum

storage facilities, sites with metal processing and metal recycling histories, and

manufactured gas and coal or coke processing and storage sites.

Quantity Estimates

Earth, dry and packed = 95 lb/cu ft

Salvage Potential

In a project where the waste material is likely to be soil, such as the development

of a new road, all ofthe recovered material can in principle be reused on site. Soil

can be also be reused in landscaping applications or for landfill cover.

COLLECTION SORTING &

SEPARATION

CLEANING REGRINDING PELLETIZING PROCESSING

PRODUCT

FABRICATION

Figure A4. Process for mechanical recycling of plastics.
120 CERL TR-99/58

Recycling Potential

Soil contaminated with petroleum products and other hazardous materials such as

lead, arsenic, cadmium, and zinc can be stabilized and recycled. The soil can be

mixed with gravel and used as fill or paving material.

Material Removal

Most site, land clearing, and foundation activities include gathering or collecting soil

since it is difficult segregate the soil from any intended material with heavy

equipment.

Debris Handling

A screening process separates fine soil from mixed rubble. In a two stage process,

commingled rubble is first raked to separate out large contaminants and then

mechanically sieved to produce a fine soil product. If excavation generates

petroleum contaminated soil, special handling, processing and/or disposal is

required.

Treated Wood

Characteristics

Wood has been used for construction for thousands of years. It has been used in all

facets of buildings, including structural systems, furniture, wall coverings, cabinets,

etc. Its prevalence for military installation is due to the fact that most Army

barracks were constructed in dimensional lumber. The physical and chemical

properties of wood varies widely, though, making it a difficult category ofmaterial

to classify. This problem is compounded by the dozens ofmethods in which the wood

is treated. This report has classified wood into two categories: treated and

untreated.

Donovan (1992, p 4) used three categories to define treated wood:

• surface-coated with paints, stains, and coatings

• manufactured with glues and binders

• impregnated with preservatives.

The largest quantity oftreated wood used in construction has been surface-coated.

Most wood species require some protection against moisture or are finished to
CERLTR-99/58 121

enhance its aesthetic qualities. This includes painting or finishing the wood with

either solvent or water based finishes. It also includes wood laminated with plastics.

Wood products manufactures with glues and binders include plywood, laminated

wood, particle board, and oriented strand sheathing. Wood that has been

impregnated with preservatives includes moisture and insect resistant lumber

treated with creosote pentachlorophenol, or chromated copper arsenate.

Salvage Potential

The salvage potential for treated wood is not as high as that for untreated wood.

The treatments on the wood usually have to be removed before that can be reused

i.e., stripping paint. Other wood products that can be salvaged in renovations and

demolitions include cabinets, flooring, siding, doors, structural components, and

dimensional lumber. These items have a resale value and are typically maketed for

reuse at a fraction of the comparable new product prices. Resale requires a large

storage area or warehouse for the goods as well as a knowledgeable sales staff and

sufficient publicity to draw potential customers from the public (Goddard 1994).

Scarcity oftraditional building materials and a perceived reduction in quality have

increased the interest in salvaging materials.

Recycling Potential

Wood treated with coatings such as paint can be classified as hazardous material if

the paint contains lead. This is also true for lumber treated with preservatives. All

coatings must first be removed before the wood can be recycled. End-use markets

for wood include landscaping mulch, boiler fuel and animal bedding.

Material Removal

Mechanical demolition leaves a large pile of mixed material out ofwhich the wood

must be separated and processed. Deconstruction or dismantlement allows the wood

to remain separate from other materials and contaminants also salvaging the

dimensional lumber for reuse. Removing lumber piece by piece will reduce the

structural stability ofthe building and one needs to be careful ofstructural failure.

Wood products such as cabinets and doors should also be carefully removed so that

they maintain their resale value ifthey are to be salvaged.
122 CERL TR-99/58

Debris Handling

Wood waste can be processed in a variety of ways. A mobile chipper can grind the

material at the site where the waste is produced. Or, the material can be hauled

away to a processing plant that processes waste. Figure A5 shows a representative

wood waste processing plant. Specific equipment and material flows will vary

among processing facilities (Donovan 1991). Nonwood waste is separated first

through source separation by the waste generator or the waste hauler. Some

facilities may accept mixed loads ofC&D waste and the separation ofnonwood waste

would be done at the plant. Separation can be accomplished by loading materials

into a flotation tank in which wood material floats and other materials sink.

Next the wood is loaded onto a conveyer belt where it is sorted manually and

inspected to remove contaminated wood that should not be processed. The conveyer

passes a large magnet that separates out metals such as nails, staples and other

scrap. From here the wood waste is processed by a hammermill that reduces the

multiple shapes and sizes ofwood into small, uniform wood chips. A second magnet

removes any remaining ferrous material from the wood waste before it passes over

a vibrating screen that separates the material according to size.

Untreated Wood

Characteristics

Untreated wood is clean wood that contains a minimal amount ofnonwood material.

Some construction and demolition activities produce wood waste that is free of

nonwood materials. The source ofthis type ofwood is the harvested wood materials

created in clearing a site, dimensional lumber, pallet wood, and other packaging

materials.

WOOD

WASTE

TO CONVEYING

1 OVERSIZED MATERIALUNLOADED

FOR

INSPECTION

FLOATION AND

SEGREGATION

TANK

VISUAL AND

MANUAL

INSPECTON

AND SORTING

MAGNET

«1

HAMMERMILL MAGNET

#2

VIBRATING

SCREEN

I i 1 '

1 1

I 1 UNACCEPTABLE

LOADS

HAULED AWAY

NON-WOOD

MATERIAL

PROCESSED

FOR OTHER

MARKETS OR

niRCARnFn

NON-WOOD

MATERIAL

PROCESSED

FOR OTHER

MARKETS OR

ntsnARDFn

CLEAN

PROCESSED

WOOD

WASTE

TO END-USE

MARKET

FERROUS METAL

SEPARATED,

REUSED

FERROUS METAL

SEPARATED,

REUSED

UNDERSIZED

MATERIAL

TO END-USE MARKET

OR DISCARDED

Figure A5. Flow of materials through a representative wood waste processing plant.
CERLTR-99/58 123

Quantity Estimates

2x4 interior partition 16 in. O.C. = 4 Ib/sf

One linear foot of an 8 foot high 2x4 partition = (4 lbs/sf)(8 sf) = 32 lb

Salvage Potential

More and more, builders are looking into the use of salvaged lumber. Reclaimed

timbers from old buildings often offer wood of species or a quality less readily

available otherwise. This salvaged wood can also be used to make furniture. At a

construction site, much of the wood waste are cut-offs from dimensional lumber.

These smaller lengths oflumber can be used for criples, lintels, and blocking. One

way to keep this wood waste separate from other waste is to make all wood cuts at

a central location or have a centrally located pile where cut-offs are brought.

Bridging, blocking, and backframing lumber can come from this cut-offs pile.

Recycling Potential

Typically, wood waste is processed and sold to the highest price market. Developing

markets include landfill cover and municipal solid waste and sludge composting. If

wood products cannot be salvaged, they can be chipped into a feedstock used to

create new building materials such as particleboard or medium-density fiberboard

(MDF). The specifications for building material feed stock are very stringent since

any contamination can affect the final product's performance and appearance.

Boiler fuel and mulch have less restrictive specifications than building material

feedstock since they are degraded through burning or decomposition. Contamination with nonwood materials is prohibited for these products because they can cause

pollution problems. One area of great promise for recycled wood is its use in

combination with recycled plastics to make useful, high-performance composite

products. The possibilities range from complex molded forms for automobile

interiors to packaging, furniture, and housing components. This lumber substitute

is also being used in outdoor applications, such as decks, due to its decay resistance.

Material Removal

As mentioned above, wood that has not be contaminated with coatings or mixed with

other C&D debris will yield a higher value at end markets. Therefore, manual

dismantlement of a wooden structure is the best method for removal of this

material. Mechanical demolition is also an option. Some recycling facilities accept

the mixed C&D, but it is not worth as much. If the wood is to be salvaged and

reused as dimensional lumber, all nails and other fasteners will need to be removed.
124 CERLTR-99/58

Debris Handling

Untreated wood waste is processed in the same manner as treated wood waste.

Figure A4 shows a representative wood processing plant. Most ofthe raw material

requires chipping, grinding, or fiberizing to reduce the nonhomogeneous wood waste

into a uniform material for processing. By utilizing various sized wood particles

generated from the waste stream and hot pressing the particles with adhesive, a

variety of panel products such as particle board and MDF can be produced.

Old timber that is to be salvaged and reused as a structural member should be

graded by a grading agency. Currently, the only standardized method available for

assigning allowable engineering properties to lumber and timbers (lumber greater

than 5-in. in thickness) is by using visual grading. Visual grading is based on the

premise that the many growth characteristics that exist in timber can be seen and

judged by the eye.
CERLTR-99/58 125

Glossary

asbestos: Mineral used in construction materials from which fibers may be

released, become entrained in the air of the building, be inhaled by an

inhabitant, and lodge in the bronchia or lungs. The most common type of

asbestos consists of the mineral chrysotile. It is considered the least toxic of

the asbestos minerals. Less common is a group of amphibole minerals. The

amphiboles occur in nature both as fibrous and as nonfibrous varieties. All the

fibrous varieties are regulated by both the USEPA and OSHA. The nonfibrous

varieties of the amphiboles are not regulated. The fibrous amphiboles are

considered to be more toxic than chrysotile, and are more likely to become

airborne, due to their brittleness and shorter fiber length.

base realignment and closure (BRAC): A process directed by Federal law to

mandate closure, consolidation, and realignment of defense installations.

bid-award contract: Award of the contract shall be made by the owner to the

lowest, qualified bidder whose proposal conforms to the cited requirements

ofthe owner.

construction: The erection, installation, or assemble of a new facility; the

addition, expansion, extension, alteration, conversion, or replacement of an

existing facility; or the relocation of a facility form one installation to another.

Includes equipment installed and made part ofsuch facilities, and related site

preparation, excavation, filling and landscape, or other land improvements.

construction/demolition waste: The waste building materials, packaging, and

rubble resulting from construction, alteration, remodeling, repair, and

demolition operations on pavements, houses, buildings, and other structures.

deconstruction: Manual dismantling of a building.

demofill: Landfill for construction and demolition waste only.
126 CERL TR-99/58

demolition: The removal of existing structures and utilities as required to clear

the construction site. The removal ofthe facilities proposed for destruction in

the justification for the new construction.

ferrous: Metals containing iron.

friable: Crumbles under hand pressure; used to describe asbestos.

hazardous waste: A solid waste, not specifically excluded from the restrictions of

Federal regulations, that meets the criteria listed in 40 CFR part 261 or is

specifically named as a hazardous waste in Federal regulations.

leachate: Liquid that has percolated through solid waste and has extracted

dissolved or suspended materials from it.

lead-based paint: Paint or other surface coatings that contain lead equal to or in

excess of 1.0 mg/cm2or more than 0.5 percent by weight (5,000 ppm).

municipal solid waste landfill: A discrete area ofland or an excavation, on or off

an installation, that receives household waste and that is not a land

application unit, surface impoundment, injection well, or waste pile. A

municipal solid waste landfill unit also may receive other types ofwaste, such

as commercial solid waste or industrial waste.

recoverable resources: Materials that have useful physical or chemical properties

after serving their original purposes. Recoverable resources can be re-used or

recycled for the same or for other purposes.

recyclable materials: Materials that normally have been, or would be discarded

(such as scrap and waste) and materials that may be reused after undergoing

some kind of physical or chemical processing. Recyclable materials may

include discarded materials that have undergone demilitarization or

mutilation at an installation prior to transfer to the property disposal office for

sale. Recyclable materials do not include:

1. Precious metal-bearing scrap

2. Those items that may be used again for their original purposes or functions

without any special processing such as used vehicles, vehicle or machine

parts, bottles (not scrap glass), electrical components, and unopened

containers of unused oil or solvent.
CERL TR-99/58 127

recycling: The result of a series of activities by which materials that would

become or otherwise remain waste, are diverted from the solid waste stream

by collection, separation, and processing and are used as raw materials in the

manufacture of goods sold or distributed in commerce or the reuse of such

materials as substitutes for goods made of virgin materials.

re-use: The use of a product more than once in its same form for the same purpose.

salvage: Personal property that has some value in excess of its basic material

content, but is in such condition that it has no reasonable prospect for use as

a unit for the purpose for which it was originally intended, and that its repair

or rehabilitation for use as a unit is impracticable.

scrap: Material that has no value except for its basic material content.

solid waste: Solid waste is composed of nonliquid, nonsoluable materials ranging

from municipal garbage to industrial wastes that contain complex and

sometimes hazardous substances. Solid waste also includes sewage sludge,

agricultural refuse, demolition wastes, and mining residues. Technically, solid

waste also refers to liquids and gases in containers.
128 CERL TR-99/58

Abbreviations and Acronyms

ASCE

BEAC

BRAC

C&D

CERCLA

CERL

CMU

DA

DCC

DE

DERP

DOD

DOT

DPDO

DRMO

USEPA

FHWA

American Society of Civil Engineers

Business Environmental Assistance Center

base realignment and closure

construction and demolition

Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation &

Liability Act

U.S. Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratory

concrete masonry unit

Department ofthe Army

Defense Construction Canada

Directorate ofEngineering

Defense Environmental Restoration Program

Department of Defense

Department ofTransportation

Defense Property Disposal Office

Defense Reutilization and Marketing Office

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

Federal Highway Administration
CERLTR-99/58 129

FORA Fort Ord Reuse Authority

GSA General Services Agency

HMA hot-mix asphalt

HQUSACE Headquarters, U.S. Army Corps ofEngineers

HVAC heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning

IDOT Illinois Department ofTransportation

IRP Installation Restoration Program

ISWM Integrated Solid Waste Management

JAG Judge Advocates's Office

LBP lead-based paint

MCA Military Construction, Army

MRF materials recovery facility

MSW Municipal Solid Waste

NADC The National Association ofDemolition Contractors

NAHB National Association ofHome Builders

NEPA National Environmental Policy Act

NESHAP National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants

OSHA Occupational Safety and Health Administration

PCB Polychlorinated Biphynel

ppm parts per million

PVC polyvinyl chloride
130 CERL TR-99/58

RAP

RCRA

SIC

SWANA

SWDA

TCLP

recycled asphalt pavement

Resource Conservation and Recovery Act

Standard Industrial Code

The Solid Waste Association ofNorth America

Solid Waste Disposal Act

Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure

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