NATIONAL CENTER FOR EDUCATION STATISTICS

Statistical Analysis Report March 1996

NATIONAL EDUCATION

LONGITUDINAL STUDY: 1988-1994

Descriptive Summary Report

With an Essay on Access and Choice in Postsecondary Education

U. S. Department of Education

Office of Educational Research and Improvement NCES 96-175
NATIONAL CENTER FOR EDUCATION STATISTICS

Statistical Analysis Report March 1996

NATIONAL EDUCATION

LONGITUDINAL STUDY: 1988-1994

Descriptive Summary Report

With an Essay on Access and Choice in Postsecondary Education

Allen Sanderson

Bernard Dugoni

Kenneth Rasinski

John Taylor

National Opinion Research Center (NORC)

at the University of Chicago

1155 East 60th Street

Chicago, Illinois 60637

C. Dennis Carroll

Project Officer

National Center for Education Statistics

U. S. Department of Education

Office of Educational Research and Improvement NCES 96-175
U.S. Department of Education 

Office of Educational Research and Improvement 

U.S. Department of Education 

Richard W. Riley 

Secretary

Office of Educational Research and Improvement 

Sharon Robinson 

Assistant Secretary

National Center for Education Statistics 

Jeanne Griffith 

Acting Commissioner of Education Statistics 

National Center for Education Statistics 

"The duties of the Center are to collect, analyze, and disseminate statistics and

other information related to education in the United States and in other nations...." 

Section 404 of the National Education Statistics Act of 1994 (20 U.S.C. 9003). 

March 1996

Contact: 

Aurora D'Amico

(202) 219-1365
iii

Highlights

The essay presented in this report used data from the National Education Longitudinal

Study of 1988 eighth graders to examine postsecondary access and choice issues confronted by

this nationally representative cohort in both 1992 (as high school seniors) and in 1994 (two years

out of high school). The analysis focuses on potential barriers to access and choice as

experienced by women, racial and ethnic minorities, and those in lower socioeconomic groups. 

Special attention was paid to students who scored in the highest quartile of the 1992 math and

reading test composite.

 Nearly 63 percent of 1988 eighth graders had attended some type of postsecondary

education by 1994 (Table 6A). Of those attending postsecondary education, about 57

percent matriculated at public or private four-year colleges or universities; 36 percent

enrolled in public two-year institutions; and the remainder (7 percent) attended trade or

technical programs of shorter duration (Table 10A).

 In 1988, 66 percent of the 1988 eighth graders who participated in both the 1988 and

1992 surveys expressed the expectation of attaining at least a bachelor's degree, and an

additional 22 percent expected to obtain some postsecondary education (Table 1).

 There was a five percent decline between 1988 and 1992, from 66 percent to 61 percent,

in the percentage of the 1988 eighth grade cohort expecting to attain a bachelor's degree

or higher (Table 1). 

 High school transcripts for this cohort indicate that approximately 62 percent of the

cohort pursued programs that would constitute college preparation; 38 percent were

enrolled in general or vocational tracks (Table 2A).

 By 1994, 81 percent of 1988 eighth graders had received a regular high school diploma. 

Another 6 percent had earned a GED certificate (Table 3A).

 By the spring of 1992, about 40 percent of 1988 eighth graders had not submitted any

postsecondary applications; of those who had applied, 88 percent had completed at least

two applications (Table 5A).

 Almost three-fourths of 1988 eighth graders who enrolled in four-year institutions

attended them in their home state (Table 16A).

 Approximately 71 percent of cohort members who attended a four-year institution

indicated that the college or university they attended represented their first or second

choice (Table 17A).

 Over 96 percent of 1988 eighth graders who attended four-year institutions were enrolled

full-time (Table 18A).
iv

 A greater percentage of females than males in the 1988 eighth grade cohort reported in

1992 that they expected to obtain a bachelor’s or higher degree (Table 1). In choosing a

college, a greater percentage of women than men reported being concerned about the

institution's reputation (Table 11A) and about the crime rate (Table 15A).

 Greater percentages of Asians or Pacific Islanders in the cohort reported expectations for

a bachelor’s or higher degree (Table 1), had graduated from high school by 1994 (Table

3A), and had enrolled in postsecondary education by 1994 than any other racial/ethnic

group (Table 6A). Hispanics who were in the eighth grade in 1988 were more inclined

than any other racial/ethnic group to enroll in public two-year institutions (Table 10A). 

Blacks in this cohort enrolled in private four-year institutions at rates comparable to

Asians and whites (Table 10A).

 There were no significant differences by sex or race/ethnicity in the access and choice

variables for 1988 eighth grade cohort members who scored in the highest quartile in the

1992 achievement test. However, respondents in the highest socioeconomic status

quartile had a higher rate of expectation for a bachelor's or higher degree (Table 1), a

higher graduation rate (Table 3B), a greater percentage reporting filing two or more

postsecondary applications by 1992 (Table 5B), and a smaller percentage delaying entry

(Table 10B).
v

Foreword

This report describes the 1994 postsecondary education attendance patterns, job

experiences, lifestyles, and values of the eighth grade class of 1988. The data from the report are

from the 1994 Third Follow-up of the National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 eighth

graders (NELS:88/94). NELS:88/94 collected information on postsecondary education

participation, employment, earnings, family formation, and other activities and experiences

relevant to individuals as they are about to enter their adult lives.

NELS:88/94 contains information that represents several nationally representative

samples, including 1988 eighth graders, 1990 tenth graders, and 1992 twelfth graders enrolled in

public or private schools. By the time of the 1994 follow-up study most NELS:88 sample

members had completed four years of high school. However, some had dropped out of high

school or had attended alternative programs to complete their diploma. (A more complete

description of the NELS:88 sample can be found in Appendix A of this report.)

The first section of this report is an essay that examines the postsecondary education

access and choice of the 1988 eighth grade cohort. Access to postsecondary education is defined

in terms of factors related to enrollment into a postsecondary institution. Student-level factors,

such as their expectations and their academic preparation, may combine with background

characteristics, and with life circumstances, to facilitate or inhibit enrollment. The meaning of

postsecondary educational choice covers the type of institution attended, whether it was a "firstchoice" institution, the level of intensity (full or part time), and location, among other things. 

Access and choice are examined differentially by sex, race, socioeconomic status, and tested

achievement.

The second part of the report consists of sets of tables which present other information

about the education, jobs, and life experiences of the 1988 eighth grade cohort. The tables are

organized into four sections: Postsecondary Education Expectations and Experiences, Labor

Force Participation, Family and Financial Circumstances, and Values, Other Activities, and Civic

Participation. As in the essay, these experiences are examined for young people with different

types of high school experiences and backgrounds.

The results presented in this report were produced using the NELS:88/94 Data Analysis

System (DAS). The DAS is a microcomputer-based program that allows users to create these

and other tables from the NELS:88 data. The DAS produces survey design-adjusted standard

errors appropriate for testing the statistical significance of differences between the groups shown

in the tables. Additional information about the NELS:88/94 DAS, including how it may be

obtained, is presented in Appendix A of this report.

We hope that the information provided in this report will be useful to a wide range of

interested readers. We also hope that the results reported here will encourage others to use the

NELS:88/94 data. We welcome recommendations for improving the format, content, and

analytic approach, so that future descriptive reports will be more informative and useful.

Paul D. Planchon

Associate Commissioner
vi

Acknowledgments

The authors express their sincere thanks to all those who contributed to the production of

this report. First and foremost, we acknowledge the expertise of the NELS:88/94 Technical

Review Panel (TRP), whose insights guided this study from its very beginning through the

completion of this report. C. Dennis Carroll and Marilyn M. McMillen at the National Center for

Education Statistics (NCES) reviewed early drafts of the report and offered many useful

suggestions for its improvement. Panel members from the Department of Education were Nabeel

Alsalam, who suggested the report format, and to whom we are particularly grateful; Cliff

Adelman; David Bergeron; and Dan Goldenberg. Other panel members were Jay Noel of the

Congressional Budget Office, Jomills Braddock of the University of Miami, Vincent Tinto of

Syracuse University, Jerry Bachman of the University of Michigan, Nancy Karweit of Johns

Hopkins University, Marta Tienda of the University of Chicago, Eric Hanushek of the University

of Rochester, and consultant Laura Knapp. The authors would especially like to thank the

members of the adjudication panel for their careful reading and thoughtful comment. Members

of the panel were Jeffrey Owings, Nabeel Alsalam, Sal Corrallo, Dan Goldenberg, David

Bergeron, and Jerry Bachman.

At NORC, Norman Bradburn, Steven Ingels, Paul Buckley, and Howard Speizer provided

substantive and technical review. Michael Fleischer produced tables, statistical tests, and

highlights for the table compendium. Dennis Dew, Whitney Moore, Kate Baldwin, Yi Li, and

Rebecca Thomson assisted in the production of tables and statistical tests for the report. Karen

Rosenthal, assisted by Suzanne Erfurth, provided editorial review and assisted greatly in the

preparation of the Glossary.
vii

Table of Contents

Highlights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii

Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v

Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi

List of Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii

Introduction ................................................................. 1

Access ..................................................................... 3

Educational expectations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Academic preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Academic performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Participation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Background and individual decision making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

At-risk of school failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Marriage and family formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Choice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Choice of institution type and sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Enrollment in four-year postsecondary institutions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

Out-of-state attendance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Institution of choice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Intensity of enrollment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Sex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Race/ethnicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Socioeconomic status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

Tested achievement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

Endnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

Table Compendium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

Section 1: Education Experiences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

Section 2: Labor Force Participation and Earnings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Section 3: Sex, Marriage, and Family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

Section 4: Values, Leisure Time Activities, Volunteer Activities, and Voting . . . . . . . 93

Appendices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

Appendix A: Technical Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

Appendix B: Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
viii

List of Tables

Essay Tables

Table Page

 1 Percentage of 1988 eighth graders indicating in 1988 and 1992 the highest 

level of education they expect to obtain, by selected background characteristics .....4

 2A Percentage of 1988 eighth graders reporting in 1992 their type of high school 

program at the last high school attended, by various characteristics ...............6

 2B Percentage of 1988 eighth graders in the highest 1992 test quartile reporting

in 1992 their type of high school program at the last high school attended, 

by various characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

 3A Percentage of 1988 eighth graders in 1994 high school diploma status groups,

by various characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

 3B Percentage of 1988 eighth graders in the highest 1992 test quartile, in

1994 high school diploma status groups, by various characteristics ...............7

 4 Percentage of 1988 eighth graders in 1992 tested achievement quartile 

groups, by various characteristics ..........................................8

 5A Percentage of 1988 eighth graders reporting numbers of postsecondary

applications filed in 1992, by various characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

 5B Percentage of 1988 eighth graders in the highest 1992 test quartile reporting

numbers of postsecondary applications filed in 1992, by various characteristics . . . . 10

 6A Percentage of 1988 eighth graders reporting attendance at a postsecondary 

institution (PSE) by 1994, by various characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

 6B Percentage of 1988 eighth graders in the highest 1992 test quartile reporting 

attendance at a postsecondary institution (PSE) by 1994, by various characteristics . 12

 7A Percentage of 1988 eighth graders with numbers of factors placing them at risk of

school failure, by various characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

 7B Percentage of 1988 eighth graders in the highest 1992 test quartile with numbers of

factors placing them at risk of school failure, by various characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . 14
ix

List of Tables (Cont’d)

 8A Percentage of 1988 eighth graders reporting their marital status as of 1994, 

by various characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

 8B Percentage of 1988 eighth graders in the highest 1992 test quartile reporting their

marital status as of 1994, by various characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

 9A Percentage of 1988 eighth graders reporting number of children of their own as of 

1994, by various characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

 9B Percentage of 1988 eighth graders in the highest 1992 test quartile reporting number 

of children of their own as of 1994, by various characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

 10A Percentage of 1988 eighth graders with postsecondary enrollment by 1994 by type of

first institution attended, by various characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

 10B Percentage of 1988 eighth graders in the highest 1992 test quartile with postsecondary

enrollment by 1994 by type of first institution attended, by various characteristics . . 21

 11A Percentage of 1988 eighth graders attending public or private not-for-profit four-year

institutions by 1994 who rated the reputation of the institution as very important in 

their consideration of which institution to attend, by various characteristics . . . . . . . 24

 11B Percentage of 1988 eighth graders In the highest 1992 test quartile attending public or

 private not-for-profit four-year institutions by 1994 who rated the reputation of the

 institution as very important in their consideration of which institution to attend, 

by various characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

 12A Percentage of 1988 eighth graders attending public or private not-for-profit four-year

institutions by 1994 who rated expenses as very important in their consideration of

which institution to attend, by various characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

 12B Percentage of 1988 eighth graders in the highest 1992 test quartile attending public 

or private not-for-profit four-year institutions by 1994 who rated expenses as very

important in their consideration of which institution to attend, by 

various characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

 13A Percentage of 1988 eighth graders attending public or private not-for-profit four-year

institutions by 1994 who rated financial aid as very important in their consideration of

which institution to attend, by various characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

 13B Percentage of 1988 eighth graders in the highest 1992 test quartile attending public or

private not-for-profit four-year institutions by 1994 who rated financial aid as very

important in their consideration of which institution to attend, by 

various characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
x

List of Tables (Cont’d)

 14A Percentage of 1988 eighth graders attending public or private not-for-profit four-year

institutions by 1994 who rated living at home as very important in their consideration 

of which institution to attend, by various characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

 14B Percentage of 1988 eighth graders in the highest 1992 test quartile attending public or 

private not-for-profit four-year institutions by 1994 who rated living at home as 

very important in their consideration of which institution to attend, by various

characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

 15A Percentage of 1988 eighth graders attending public or private not-for-profit four-year

institutions by 1994 who rated a low crime environment as very important in their

consideration of which institution to attend, by various characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

 15B Percentage of 1988 eighth graders in the highest 1992 test quartile attending public or 

private not-for-profit four-year institutions by 1994 who rated a low crime 

environment as very important in their consideration of which institution to attend, 

by various characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

 16A Percentage of 1988 eighth graders attending public or private not-for-profit 

four-year institutions by 1994 who attended their first postsecondary institution in 

or out of their home state, by various characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

 16B Percentage of 1988 eighth graders in the highest 1992 test quartile attending public 

or private not-for-profit four-year institutions by 1994 who attended their first

postsecondary institution in or out of their home state, by various characteristics . . . 30

 17A Percentage of 1988 eighth graders attending public or private not-for-profit four-year

institutions by 1994 who attended their first or second choice postsecondary 

institution, by various characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

 17B Percentage of 1988 eighth graders in the highest 1992 test quartile attending public or 

private not-for-profit four-year institutions by 1994 who attended their first or 

second choice postsecondary institution, by various characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

 18A Percentage of 1988 eighth graders attending public or private not-for-profit four-year

institutions by 1994 who were enrolled in their first postsecondary institution 

full-time or less than full-time, by various characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

 18B Percentage of 1988 eighth graders in the highest 1992 test quartile attending public or

private not-for-profit four-year institutions by 1994 who were enrolled in their first

postsecondary institution full-time or less than full-time, by various characteristics . 33
xi

List of Tables (Cont’d)

Table Compendium

 1-1 Percentage of 1988 eighth graders with different levels of educational expectation in

1994, by selected background characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

 1-2 Percentage of 1988 eighth graders with different levels of educational expectation in

1994, by selected secondary education characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

 1-3 Percentage of 1988 eighth graders with postsecondary enrollment by 1994 with 

different enrollment statuses by 1994 at first postsecondary education institution, 

by selected background characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

 1-4 Percentage of 1988 eighth graders with postsecondary enrollment by 1994 with 

different enrollment statuses by 1994 at first postsecondary education institution, 

by selected secondary education characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

 1-5 Percentage of 1988 eighth graders reporting in 1994 different numbers of 

postsecondary attendance spells, by selected background characteristics . . . . . . . . . . 51

 1-6 Percentage of 1988 eighth graders with postsecondary enrollment by 1994 still 

enrolled in first postsecondary education institution in 1994, by selected

background characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

 1-7 Percentage of 1988 eighth graders with postsecondary enrollment by 1994 still 

enrolled in first postsecondary education institution in 1994, by selected secondary

education characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

 2-1 Average number of jobs held, average number of months unemployed in 1993 for 

1988 eighth graders who were employed in 1993, by selected background

characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

 2-2 Average number of jobs held, average earnings, and average number of months

unemployed in 1993 for 1988 eighth graders who were employed in 1993, 

by selected secondary education characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

 2-3 Percentage of 1988 eighth graders in the labor force in 1993 unemployed for 

different numbers of months in 1993, by selected background characteristics . . . . . . 59

 2-4 Percentage of 1988 eighth graders in the labor force in 1993 unemployed for different

numbers of months in 1993, by selected secondary education and labor force

characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

 2-5 Percentage of 1988 eighth graders with different 1993 postsecondary education 

attendance and employment statuses, by selected background characteristics . . . . . . 61
xii

List of Tables (Cont’d)

 2-6 Percentage of 1988 eighth graders with different 1993 postsecondary education 

attendance and employment statuses, by selected secondary and postsecondary 

education characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

 2-7 Percentage of 1988 eighth graders employed in 1993 reporting different fringe 

benefits received from held job in 1993, by selected background characteristics . . . . 64

 2-8 Percentage of 1988 eighth graders employed in 1993 receiving employer-provided 

tuition assistance and job training benefits in 1993, by selected background

characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

 2-9 Average number of weeks attended, and average hours per week, by 1988 eighth

graders employed in 1993 in job-related training in 1993, by selected background

characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

 2-10 Percentage of 1988 eighth graders employed in 1993 reporting they are very satisfied

with various employment conditions and benefits from longest held job in 1993, 

by selected background characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

 2-11 Percentage of 1988 eighth graders reporting in 1994 their expectations to be in

different occupations by age 30, by various background characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . 70

 2-12 Percentage of 1988 eighth graders reporting in 1994 their expectations to be in

different occupations by age 30, by selected secondary education characteristics . . . 71

 2-13 Average of 1988 eighth graders' reports in 1994 of expected income at age 30, by

selected characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

 2-14 Average of 1988 eighth graders' reports in 1994 of expected income at age 30, by

selected secondary education characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

 3-1 Percentage of 1988 eighth graders by timing of first sexual intercourse, by selected

background characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

 3-2 Percentage of 1988 eighth graders by timing of first sexual intercourse, by selected

secondary education and labor force characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

 3-3 Percentage of 1988 eighth graders reporting in 1994 that they used birth control 

during their first sexual intercourse, by selected background characteristics . . . . . . . 79

 3-4 Percentage of 1988 eighth graders reporting in 1994 that they used birth control during

their first sexual intercourse, by selected secondary education and labor force

characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
xiii

List of Tables (Cont’d)

 3-5 Percentage of 1988 eighth graders not married in 1994 who reported that they used 

birth control during their last sexual intercourse, by selected background 

characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

 3-6 Percentage of 1988 eighth graders not married in 1994 who reported that they used 

birth control during their last sexual intercourse, by selected secondary education 

and labor force characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

 3-7 Percentage of 1988 eighth graders by marital status in 1994, by selected background

characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

 3-8 Percentage of 1988 eighth graders by marital status in 1994, by selected secondary

education characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

 3-9 Percentage of 1988 eighth graders with none, one, or two or more children by 1994, 

by selected background characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

 3-10 Percentage of 1988 eighth graders with none, one, or two or more children by 1994,

by selected secondary education characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

 3-11 Percentage of 1988 eighth graders with oldest children of different ages by 1994, 

by selected background characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

 3-12 Percentage of 1988 eighth graders with oldest children of different ages by 1994,

by selected secondary and postsecondary education characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

 3-13 Percentage of 1988 eighth graders reporting in 1994 contributing to dependents'

support, and average yearly amounts contributed to dependents' support, by 

selected background characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

 4-1 Percentage of 1988 eighth graders reporting in 1994 that various values are "very

important," by selected background, secondary education, and postsecondary 

education characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

 4-2 Percentage of 1988 eighth graders participating in 1994 in various activities at least 

once a week on average, by selected demographic, secondary education, and

 postsecondary education characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

 4-3 Percentage of 1988 eighth graders reporting in 1994 the number of organizations to

which they volunteered time, by selected demographic, secondary education, and

postsecondary education characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

 4-4 Percentage of 1988 eighth graders who, in 1994, were registered to vote, voted 

in the 1992 presidential election, and voted in the last local election, by selected

demographic, secondary education, and postsecondary education characteristics . . . 100
Introduction

This essay uses the data from the National Education Longitudinal Study, Third Followup (NELS:88/94), to study access and choice issues related to postsecondary educational

experiences of a national sample of young Americans who were eighth graders in 1988. Most of

these young people are now leaving their teenage years and are engaged in independent decisionmaking and adult experiences in areas such as marriage and parenting, postsecondary education

alternatives, and labor market searches and employment. Acquiring additional training and/or

continuing formal study beyond high school are important objectives for many people in their

twenties. Thus, this summary report focuses on two fundamental postsecondary education 

issues--access and choice--during the initial two-year period after high school. 

Postsecondary education in the United States entails considerable heterogeneity and

flexibility. Although curricular differences certainly exist in elementary and secondary

education, they are relatively minor in comparison with the postsecondary landscape (i.e.,

institutional type, the type and length of certificate and degree programs, and so forth).

Furthermore, whereas legislation requires nearly universal participation for all children under age

16, participation in postsecondary education is voluntary.<1> Finally, while students progress

through elementary and secondary school in a more or less regular fashion, progressions in

postsecondary education do not have this same inherent regularity. 

The factors affecting participation in elementary and, to some degree, secondary

education result in education systems that mirror the nation's population. In the absence of these

forces, however, the postsecondary education system is highly subject to individual preferences,

decisions, opportunities, and constraints. The consequences can be both positive and negative. 

On the positive side, individual choices may result in a closer match between predilections,

abilities, and goals on the one hand, and postsecondary educational decisions concerning

participation, curriculum, intensity, and timing on the other. On the negative side, constraints

may lead to lost opportunities as well as social or economic inequities.

The analyses that follow document the experiences of and effects on various economic,

social and ethnic groups as they participate in and navigate through the heterogeneity in

American postsecondary education. As noted above, there is enormous diversity by type and

length of program, intensity of enrollment (i.e., full- vs. part-time), institutional size and control,

and the relative cost of postsecondary education alternatives. There may not be the full diversity

or representation of the American population in postsecondary education, however, if significant

barriers to access and choice exist. This could occur through deliberate means as when some

state postsecondary education systems restrict access (and distribute students) on the basis of

high school performance. It could also occur implicitly, such as when students and their parents

consider their options and constraints in making postsecondary enrollment decisions, and limit

their participation to ways that they would otherwise consider less desirable. (Of course, some

inequalities in the enrollment distribution by, say, gender could occur across institutions or

programs as the result of individual student preferences, and thus are not the result of access or

choice barriers.)

The National Educational Longitudinal Study (NELS:88) has to date collected for 1988

eighth grade cohort members data that bracket an individual's life, from approximately ages 14 to
2

20. Cohort members were surveyed in 1988, 1990, 1992, and 1994. This period encompasses

years in which lifestyle expectations are formed and perhaps cemented, information on many

fronts is gathered and assessed, and important decision making, some of which includes or at

least affects postsecondary education, occurs. The 1988 to 1994 time period covered by

NELS:88 is also marked by important continuing trends in American labor markets and higher

education, environments into which most members of the 1988 eighth grade cohort have just

entered. These include the increasing tendency of individuals to mix work and learning by

holding jobs while continuing their formal education, as well as contemporary educational paths

that entail interruptions and adjustments rather than continuous, seamless enrollment patterns. 

The rising premium on skills and college degrees, the widening inequality of earnings across skill

levels, and the increasing net financial burden on those who seek college degrees (as tuition

levels continue to rise and financial aid programs shift from grants to loans) represent additional

personal and societal concerns. NELS:88/94 data represent a rich source of information which

can shed light on obstacles to and opportunities to participate in postsecondary education as seen

by those who were in the eighth grade in the United States in 1988.

Access to postsecondary education can be affected by many factors. Students' academic

aspirations or expectations, the quality and level of their preparation, and their achievements are

cardinal influences. Personal considerations, such as peer influences, family background, and

lifestyle choices may also affect postsecondary enrollment decisions. Through providing

descriptive information about access in tables and accompanying narrative, this report addresses

many of these issues. The tables explicitly examine factors influencing postsecondary education

decisions by sex, race/ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and tested achievement. 

Throughout the document, special attention will be paid to students who scored in the

highest quartile of the composite of the math and reading cognitive tests administered in

NELS:88/92 (the Second Follow-up). Obstacles to access, if they exist at all, should be less

severe for these students, a group which has demonstrated its intellectual readiness for

postsecondary education. The presence of obstacles to access here may be cause to evaluate

education policy in light of meritocratic principles. The other focus will be those who enroll in

public and private four-year institutions. 

Choice and access are related to each other in the sense that access factors may limit

choices. Beyond this, choice is related to such considerations as institution or program type, the

timing and intensity of enrollment, and other institutional characteristics, such as its location,

reputation, size, cost, and social environment. As with the discussion of access, the narrative

summaries and tabular displays discuss choice in the context of sex, race/ethnicity,

socioeconomic status, and tested achievement. 

There are, to be sure, other dimensions of access and choice. These would include:

nontraditional enrollments, remedial course-taking, training and retraining opportunities, and

life-long learning (i.e., adult continuing education). Although important in and of themselves,

these areas are beyond the scope of this essay. 
3

Access

Educational aspirations and expectations, perhaps formed fairly early in life, are

certainly key factors influencing access. They are, in turn, undoubtedly influenced by academic

benchmarks such as achievement levels in elementary and secondary school, the type of

secondary education program followed, and persistence through high school to awarding of the

diploma. 

Other important determinants of access arise from circumstances over which the student

has had little or no control. Among these are one's background, which includes family structure

as well as the expectations parents have for their children, available role models, educational

opportunities, and perhaps even health.<2> In addition, lifestyle choices, such as whether and

when to get married and start a family (as well as some forms of pro-social or anti-social

behavior), affect postsecondary educational opportunities and decisions. Finally, because

postsecondary education must start with the application and enrollment process, the failure to

take these steps, for whatever reasons, can be viewed as obstacles to postsecondary access. 

Educational expectations. Early goals and images of ability level and opportunities

may affect achievement throughout life. The NELS:88 data contain reports of the highest level

of education students expected to attain, collected while cohort members were in the eighth grade

and then four years later. 

As early as eighth grade, almost two-thirds of the NELS:88 eighth grade cohort

expected to attain a bachelor's degree or higher, and an additional 22 percent expected to obtain

some postsecondary education.<3> There was an overall decline between 1988 and 1992 in the

percentage who expected to earn a bachelor's or higher degree (Table 1). This may reflect more

realism and knowledge acquired during this four-year interim as students assess their own

interests and abilities, learn more about the availability and costs of postsecondary alternatives,

consider other life-style choices such as marriage, gain some employment experience, and

become more aware of the potential gains from a college or advanced degree. 

Considering 1992 expectations, a greater percentage of women than men, and a greater

percentage of Asians than other racial/ethnic groups, reported that they expected to obtain at least

a baccalaureate degree. Also, a lower percentage of Hispanic 1988 eighth graders than whites

expected to earn a bachelor's degree or higher. As one moves up the socioeconomic ladder there

is a pronounced increase in the percentage of 1988 eighth graders who expected in 1992 to earn

at least a bachelor's degree, from 36 percent in the lowest socioeconomic quartile to 86 percent in

the highest quartile. In addition, as tested achievement increases so does the percentage of cohort

members with expectations for a bachelor's or higher degree: Approximately 92 percent of those

in the highest test quartile in 1992 expected to complete college and/or additional postgraduate

work (Table 1). Students in this latter group have likely done well in high school, and thus have

probably received more positive feedback and encouragement with respect to continuing their

formal learning.<4>
4

Table 1 Percentage of 1988 eighth graders indicating in 1988 and 1992 the highest level of

education they expect to obtain, by selected background characteristics

Less than Some college Bachelor’s

high school High school or vocational degree or

Year diploma graduate school more

 Total 1988 1.5 10.3 22.4 65.8

1992 2.3 8.1 28.1 61.4

Sex

 Male 1988 1.8 11.7 23.2 63.3

1992 2.8 8.9 28.6 59.7

 Female 1988 1.1 8.9 21.7 68.2

1992 1.9 7.2 27.6 63.2

Race/ethnicity

 Asian or Pacific Islander 1988 1.8 4.8 21.3 72.2

1992 2.7 4.3 19.2 73.8

 Hispanic regardless of race 1988 2.3 13.1 29.8 54.8

1992 4.2 9.4 33.8 52.7

 Black not of Hispanic origin 1988 2.3 7.5 25.9 64.3

1992 1.8 10.5 28.7 59.0

 White not of Hispanic origin 1988 1.1 10.5 20.7 67.6

1992 2.2 7.4 27.6 62.8

Socioeconomic status (1992)

 Lowest quartile 1988 3.2 22.2 32.5 42.2

1992 6.9 16.2 40.9 35.9

 Middle two quartiles 1988 1.0 9.8 25.1 64.1

1992 1.4 7.3 31.5 59.7

 Highest quartile 1988 0.8 1.4 8.9 88.9

1992 0.2 2.4 11.0 86.3

Test quartile (1992)

 Lowest quartile 1988 2.7 22.5 35.7 39.0

1992 4.8 15.4 47.8 31.9

 Middle two quartiles 1988 0.9 7.6 23.9 67.6

1992 1.6 6.3 31.6 60.5

 Highest quartile 1988 0.3 1.0 7.5 91.3

1992 0.0 1.0 6.9 92.1

Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-94 9/25/95

Note: Rows may not sum to 100 percent due to rounding. The estimates in this table include those

who dropped out of school between eighth and twelfth grade.
5

Academic preparation. Access to various postsecondary education options in general,

and to four-year colleges and universities in particular, is affected first and foremost by academic

preparation. Nearly 62 percent of all 1988 eighth graders reported being enrolled in a high

school academic/college preparatory track in 1992; 38 percent were enrolled in a general or

vocational program (Table 2A).<5> A significantly higher percentage of females than males

were in academic/college preparatory programs. Asians had significantly higher percent

representation in high school academic programs than any other racial/ethnic group except

whites. Blacks and Hispanics showed lower representations than the other two racial/ethnic

groups (but with no significant differences between blacks and Hispanics). Those in the middle

and highest socioeconomic and test quartiles participated in academic programs in greater

percentages 

(Table 2A).

Among the 1988 eighth graders in the highest 1992 test quartile, only 13 percent were

enrolled in vocational or general study programs in high school. In contrast to observations

about the entire cohort above, there were no differences in academic program participation by

sex, race/ethnicity, or socioeconomic status (Table 2B).

For the vast majority of students, attaining a high school diploma is a necessary, but not

sufficient, condition for the successful attainment of a bachelor's or advanced degree. Also

important are the particular high school courses taken and the level of achievement attained in

them. By 1994, 81 percent of those who were eighth graders in 1988 had received a regular high

school diploma, 6 percent had received a GED certificate, 0.4 percent reported that they were still

working toward a high school diploma, and 5 percent were working toward a GED or certificate

(Table 3A). The remainder, 7.2 percent, reported not having earned a diploma or certificate and

were not continuing to pursue one.<6>

Asians were graduated at a rate higher than the other racial/ethnic subgroups, and whites

had statistically higher rates than blacks or Hispanics. High school graduation rates vary directly

by socioeconomic and test quartile. In the highest test quartile, almost all students had earned

diplomas (Table 3B).
6

Table 2A Percentage of 1988 eighth graders reporting in 1992 their type of high school

program at the last high school attended, by various characteristics

Academic Vocational & other

 Total 61.9 38.1

Sex

 Male 60.1 39.9

 Female 63.7 36.3

Race/ethnicity

 Asian or Pacific Islander 72.1 27.9

 Hispanic regardless of race 53.0 47.0

 Black not of Hispanic origin 53.2 46.8

 White not of Hispanic origin 64.7 35.3

Socioeconomic status (1992)

 Lowest quartile 45.1 54.9

 Middle two quartiles 62.1 37.9

 Highest quartile 78.5 21.5

Test quartile (1992)

 Lowest quartile 44.5 55.5

 Middle two quartiles 73.0 27.0

 Highest quartile 86.6 13.4

Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-94 9/25/95

Note: Rows may not sum to 100 percent due to rounding.

Table 2B Percentage of 1988 eighth graders in the highest 1992 test quartile reporting

in 1992 their type of high school program at the last high school attended, by

 various characteristics

Academic Vocational & other

 Total 86.6 13.4

Sex

 Male 85.4 14.6

 Female 87.8 12.2

Race/ethnicity

 Asian or Pacific Islander 85.7 14.3

 Hispanic regardless of race 81.8 18.2

 Black not of Hispanic origin 79.5 20.5

 White not of Hispanic origin 87.2 12.8

Socioeconomic status (1992)

 Lowest quartile 79.7 20.3

 Middle two quartiles 86.7 13.3

 Highest quartile 87.2 12.8

Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-94 9/25/95

Note: Rows may not sum to 100 percent due to rounding.
7

Table 3A Percentage of 1988 eighth graders in 1994 high school diploma status groups,

by various characteristics

Received a Received a Working toward

high school GED or Enrolled in high school

diploma certificate high school equivalence

Dropout

 Total 81.3 6.2 0.4 4.9 7.2

Sex

 Male 80.2 7.1 0.4 4.7 7.5

 Female 82.4 5.2 0.4 5.1 6.9

Race/ethnicity

 Asian or Pacific Islander 91.3 1.4 0.2 2.0 5.1

 Hispanic regardless of race 72.7 5.9 1.4 5.7 14.3

 Black not of Hispanic origin 71.8 10.5 0.5 8.9 8.4

 White not of Hispanic origin 84.4 5.5 0.3 4.0 5.7

Socioeconomic status (1992)

 Lowest quartile 64.8 7.8 0.9 8.7 17.8

 Middle two quartiles 83.6 6.3 0.4 4.6 5.0

 Highest quartile 93.6 4.0 0.1 1.4 0.9

Test quartile (1992)

 Lowest quartile 72.0 5.6 0.9 9.3 12.2

 Middle two quartiles 90.7 4.8 0.2 2.0 2.3

 Highest quartile 99.1 0.7 0.0 0.1 0.1

Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-94 9/25/95

Note: Rows may not sum to 100 percent due to rounding.

Table 3B Percentage of 1988 eighth graders in the highest 1992 test quartile, in 1994 

high school diploma status groups, by various characteristics

Received a Received a Working toward

high school GED or Enrolled in high school

diploma certificate high school equivalence

Dropout

 Total 99.1 0.7 0.0 0.1 0.1

Sex

 Male 99.0 0.8 0.0 0.0 0.1

 Female 99.1 0.6 0.0 0.2 0.1

Race/ethnicity

 Asian or Pacific Islander 99.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1

 Hispanic regardless of race 99.4 0.3 0.0 0.3 0.0

 Black not of Hispanic origin 99.5 0.5 0.0 0.0 0.0

 White not of Hispanic origin 99.0 0.8 0.0 0.1 0.1

Socioeconomic status (1992)

 Lowest quartile 98.0 0.7 0.0 0.7 0.5

 Middle two quartiles 98.5 1.3 0.0 0.1 0.2

 Highest quartile 99.7 0.2 0.0 0.1 0.0

Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-94 9/25/95

Note: Rows may not sum to 100 percent due to rounding.
8

Academic performance. Achievement in mathematics and reading, as measured by

scores on the NELS:88/92 Second Follow-up cognitive test score composite, was used in this

report as a proxy for college readiness.<7> Those in the highest test quartile are a subgroup that

should have experienced the fewest academic access barriers. Consistent with educational

expectations, type of high school program pursued, and high school diploma status, a

significantly smaller percentage of women than men scored in the lowest test quartile, and

significantly more women than men scored in the middle two quartiles. There was no observed

difference between men and women in the highest quartile (Table 4).

The NELS:88 data do show differences, however, across test quartiles by racial/ethnic

groupings and socioeconomic status. A higher percentage of Asians and whites than blacks and

Hispanics in the 1988 eighth grade cohort fall into the highest test quartile. Furthermore, a

significantly higher percentage of Hispanics than blacks scored in the highest test quartile. 

About six percent of students from the lowest socioeconomic quartile scored in the highest test

quartile, while about half of those in the highest socioeconomic quartile did so; conversely, 44

percent of students in the lowest socioeconomic group also fell into the lowest test quartile while

only 7.5 percent of those in the highest socioeconomic quartile did.

Table 4 Percentage of 1988 eighth graders in 1992 tested achievement quartile groups, by

various characteristics

Lowest Middle two Highest

quartile quartiles quartile <7>

 Total 23.0 50.1 26.9

Sex

 Male 25.0 48.3 26.7

 Female 20.9 52.0 27.1

Race/ethnicity

 Asian or Pacific Islander 15.9 46.8 37.3

 Hispanic regardless of race 36.5 50.4 13.1

 Black not of Hispanic origin 45.0 47.0 7.9

 White not of Hispanic origin 17.4 50.9 31.7

Socioeconomic status (1992)

 Lowest quartile 44.2 49.3 6.5

 Middle two quartiles 22.0 55.0 23.0

 Highest quartile 7.5 42.3 50.3

Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-94 9/25/95

Note: Rows may not sum to 100 percent due to rounding. Refer to endnote 7 for details regarding

construction of quartiles.
9

Applications. As noted above (Table 3A), 81 percent of 1988 eighth graders had earned a

regular high school diploma by 1994 (the Third Follow-up). In the vast majority of cases this

would have occurred soon after the Second Follow-up survey in 1992. In 1992, 61 percent of the

eighth grade cohort expressed the expectation of obtaining at least a bachelor's degree, and an

additional 28 percent expected to obtain some postsecondary education (Table 1). However, by

spring of 1992 (i.e., the senior year in high school for most of these students), 40 percent of the

1988 eighth graders had not submitted a completed postsecondary application (Table 5A). This

group should include at least three categories: those who fully intend to apply at some point but

are delaying entry, those who intend to enroll sometime in 1992 and will apply after high school

(such as to local community colleges that have multiple, as well as more flexible, application

deadlines), and those who currently do not intend to enroll in postsecondary education. 

Of those who had applied to a postsecondary institution by 1992, about 12 percent

reported applying to only one institution, while almost 88 percent who had applied to a

postsecondary institution reported completing at least two applications (Table 5A). There was

considerable variation by sex, race/ethnicity, socioeconomic status and tested ability in the

application process.

A significantly greater percentage of males than females failed to file an application by

the 1992 survey date, while a significantly greater percentage of females than males had filed two

or more applications by that date. A higher percentage of Asians and whites than blacks and

Hispanics filed at least one postsecondary application. A greater percentage of Asians also

reported filing multiple applications than did any group except whites. Blacks and Hispanics did

not differ from each other with regard to filing no applications.

More than twice the percentage of 1988 eighth graders in the lowest socioeconomic

quartile did not file an application in comparison to those in the highest socioeconomic quartile. 

Furthermore, those in the lowest test quartile had nearly four times the percentage of non-filers

compared to those in the highest test quartile. At the other end of the spectrum, over threefourths of those in the highest socioeconomic quartile and 85 percent of cohort members in the

highest test quartile filed two or more applications while only 31 and 29 percent in the lowest

socioeconomic and test quartiles, respectively, did so (Table 5A).<8>

Whereas for the 1988 eighth grade population as a whole, 40 percent had not filed a

postsecondary application by spring of 1992, within the highest tested achievement quartile only

15 percent had not done so (Table 5B). Inasmuch as virtually all of this group, at the same point

in time, expressed the expectation of extending their formal learning beyond high school, and

most of that in a baccalaureate institution (92 percent), it would be reasonable to assume that this

15 percent figure represents delayed entry rather than withdrawal. If this is a valid assumption,

delay may be more pronounced among the lower socioeconomic quartiles and for Hispanics in

comparison to Asians and whites. (Hispanics, even when they do apply and enroll, attend twoyear community-college programs in significantly greater percentages--see below.)
10

Table 5A Percentage of 1988 eighth graders reporting numbers of postsecondary

applications filed in 1992, by various characteristics

Zero One Two or more

 Total 40.1 7.3 52.6

Sex

 Male 45.6 6.8 47.6

 Female 34.5 7.7 57.8

Race/ethnicity

 Asian or Pacific Islander 32.8 2.2 65.0

 Hispanic regardless of race 50.5 11.0 38.5

 Black not of Hispanic origin 47.6 8.2 44.2

 White not of Hispanic origin 36.9 6.8 56.4

Socioeconomic status (1992)

 Lowest quartile 55.2 14.3 30.6

 Middle two quartiles 42.3 6.7 51.0

 Highest quartile 20.8 1.5 77.7

Test quartile (1992)

 Lowest quartile 58.0 13.0 29.0

 Middle two quartiles 41.6 2.8 55.6

 Highest quartile 15.1 0.3 84.7

Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-94 9/25/95

Note: Rows may not sum to 100 percent due to rounding.

Table 5B Percentage of 1988 eighth graders in the highest 1992 test quartile reporting

numbers of postsecondary applications filed in 1992, by various

characteristics

Zero One Two or more

 Total 15.1 0.3 84.7

Sex

 Male 18.3 0.3 81.5

 Female 11.8 0.2 88.0

Race/ethnicity

 Asian or Pacific Islander 8.9 0.0 91.1

 Hispanic regardless of race 28.4 0.0 71.6

 Black not of Hispanic origin 18.0 0.0 82.0

 White not of Hispanic origin 14.5 0.3 85.2

Socioeconomic status (1992)

 Lowest quartile 34.0 0.9 65.1

 Middle two quartiles 21.4 0.5 78.1

 Highest quartile 7.9 0.0 92.1

Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-94 9/25/95

Note: Rows may not sum to 100 percent due to rounding.
11

Participation. Overall, about 63 percent of the NELS:88 eighth grade cohort had

attended some form of postsecondary education by 1994. In general, enrollment patterns

followed those for applications. A greater percentage of women than men reported attending at

least one postsecondary institution.<9> In the overall 1988 eighth grade respondent population,

Asians showed the greatest percentage having attended a postsecondary educational institution

compared to all other racial/ethnic groups. Blacks and Hispanics had lower enrollment rates than

Asians or whites. 

Sizable differences were also found for test and socioeconomic groupings; a greater

percentage of 1988 eighth graders in the highest and middle two socioeconomic quartiles (88

percent and 63 percent, respectively) reported attending at least one postsecondary institution,

whereas among those in the lowest quartile only 36 percent reported doing so. The enrollment

percentage was much higher (92.7 percent) for those in the highest test quartile than in the

middle two quartiles (69.3 percent) or in the lowest quartile (38.6 percent). Furthermore, a

greater percentage of those in the middle test quartile than those in the lowest quartile reported

having attended a postsecondary institution by 1994 (Table 6A).

Similar differences in enrollment patterns as those noted above also occurred by sex

among cohort members in the highest test quartile. No significant differences in postsecondary

attendance by race/ethnicity were observed for the highest test quartile (Table 6B).
12

Table 6A Percentage of 1988 eighth graders reporting attendance at a postsecondary

institution (PSE) by 1994, by various characteristics

Did not attend a PSE Attended at least one PSE

 Total 37.3 62.7

Sex

 Male 40.4 59.6

 Female 34.2 65.8

Race/ethnicity

 Asian or Pacific Islander 19.5 80.5

 Hispanic regardless of race 48.8 51.2

 Black not of Hispanic origin 47.1 52.9

 White not of Hispanic origin 34.0 66.0

Socioeconomic status (1992)

 Lowest quartile 64.0 36.0

 Middle two quartiles 37.0 63.0

 Highest quartile 11.7 88.3

Test quartile (1992)

 Lowest quartile 61.4 38.6

 Middle two quartiles 30.7 69.3

 Highest quartile 7.3 92.7

Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-94 9/25/95

Note: Rows may not sum to 100 percent due to rounding.

Table 6B Percentage of 1988 eighth graders in the highest 1992 test quartile reporting

attendance at a postsecondary institution (PSE) by 1994, by various

characteristics

Did not attend a PSE Attended at least one PSE

 Total 7.3 92.7

Sex

 Male 9.8 90.2

 Female 4.9 95.1

Race/ethnicity

 Asian or Pacific Islander 3.7 96.3

 Hispanic regardless of race 12.4 87.6

 Black not of Hispanic origin 6.9 93.1

 White not of Hispanic origin 7.3 92.7

Socioeconomic status (1992)

 Lowest quartile 23.1 76.9

 Middle two quartiles 11.1 88.9

 Highest quartile 2.6 97.4

Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-94 9/25/95

Note: Rows may not sum to 100 percent due to rounding.
13

Background and individual decision making 

Academic considerations, such as high school preparation, performance and persistence,

can certainly affect one's readiness for and access to (and, of course, success in) postsecondary

education. However, family background and personal choices can also be important influences

and/or determinants. We now turn to three of these issues: at-risk factors, marriage, and

parenting. 

At-risk of school failure. The NELS:88/94 data contain information on 1988 eighth

graders who were identified as "at risk" of dropping out of high school based on background and

family circumstances present while in eighth grade.<10> The factors constituting risk were

whether the student lived in a single-parent family, was from a family with an annual income of

less than $15,000, had an older sibling who had dropped out of school, had parents who did not

finish high school, had limited proficiency in English, and/or was at home without adult

supervision more than three hours a day. Overall, 55 percent of NELS:88 participants showed no

at-risk factors, 25 percent had one, and almost one-fifth, 19 percent, had two or more (Table 7A). 

Eighth graders with two or more of these factors present may experience a substantial barrier to

postsecondary education participation and success.<11> 

While the presence of two or more risk factors appears to be independent of gender, it is

not independent of race/ethnicity or tested achievement. (Differences in the number of risk

factors are not examined by socioeconomic status because family income and parent's education,

two components of socioeconomic status, are also components of the "at-risk" variable. Thus,

the number of risk factors is related to socioeconomic status, which would result in artificially

inflated differences in risk factors for the different socioeconomic status groups.) A smaller

percentage of Asians and whites, in comparison to blacks and Hispanics, had two or more risk

factors (Table 7A). Eighth-grade risk factors are strongly associated with 1992 tested

achievement, indicating a justification for concern that these factors affect students' learning

opportunities. More than three-fourths of those in the highest test quartile had no risk factors,

while only about half that percentage (37 percent) in the lowest test quartile had no risk factors. 

By contrast, only 5 percent of high tested achievement students had two or more risk factors, as

did 16 percent of those in the middle two test quartiles and nearly one-third of those in the lowest

test quartile (Table 7B).<12>
14

Table 7A Percentage of 1988 eighth graders with numbers of factors placing them at

risk of school failure, by various characteristics

Zero One Two or more

 Total 55.4 25.4 19.2

Sex

 Male 54.7 26.4 18.9

 Female 56.1 24.4 19.5

Race/ethnicity

 Asian or Pacific Islander 59.5 25.7 14.9

 Hispanic regardless of race 33.5 31.7 34.9

 Black not of Hispanic origin 31.3 30.2 38.5

 White not of Hispanic origin 63.1 23.5 13.4

Socioeconomic status (1992)

 Lowest quartile 16.2 29.0 54.8

 Middle two quartiles 60.4 28.3 11.4

 Highest quartile 79.4 16.8 3.8

Test quartile (1992)

 Lowest quartile 37.4 29.8 32.8

 Middle two quartiles 58.9 24.7 16.4

 Highest quartile 76.8 18.0 5.2

Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-94 9/25/95

Note: Rows may not sum to 100 percent due to rounding.

Table 7B Percentage of 1988 eighth graders in the highest 1992 test quartile with

numbers of factors placing them at risk of school failure, by various

characteristics

Zero One Two or more

 Total 76.8 18.0 5.2

Sex

 Male 78.2 16.8 5.0

 Female 75.4 19.2 5.3

Race/ethnicity

 Asian or Pacific Islander 77.0 21.0 2.0

 Hispanic regardless of race 55.8 29.0 15.2

 Black not of Hispanic origin 45.0 38.6 16.4

 White not of Hispanic origin 79.3 16.4 4.3

Socioeconomic status (1992)

 Lowest quartile 22.9 39.9 37.2

 Middle two quartiles 72.7 21.2 6.1

 Highest quartile 85.6 13.2 1.1

Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-94 9/25/95

Note: Rows may not sum to 100 percent due to rounding.
15

Marriage and family formation. For purposes of postsecondary education decisions,

which include attendance, intensity of enrollment, and financing of studies, it is unclear whether

people in “marriage-like” relationships, who constituted 7 percent of 1988 eighth graders overall

in 1994, behave more like single or married respondents (Table 8A). The number of divorced,

separated, or widowed respondents is too small to draw conclusions about these members of the

cohort. Consequently, married and single, never married cohort members constitute the focus of

this discussion.

With regard to access and choice in postsecondary education, the impact of marriage by

itself, without taking children in the household or other factors into consideration, is ambiguous. 

For example, marriage may provide financial support if one spouse is enrolled in a postsecondary

institution and the other is employed, as well as providing stability, maturity, purpose, and other

generally accepted positive byproducts. On the other hand, marriage can bring financial

pressures. These, in turn, could affect the timing of participation in postsecondary education

(i.e., delayed entry), a preference for part-time enrollment coupled with employment rather than

full-time student status, and perhaps even a tendency to attend an institution or program closer to

home.

Most 1988 eighth graders (83 percent), most of whom were about twenty years old, had

never been married by 1994 (Table 8A). Higher reported marriage rates for 1988 eighth grade

women is consistent with known tendencies for men to marry at a later age and for husbands to

be several years older than their wives. Thus some women in the NELS:88 survey are married to

men who are older than twenty and are therefore not in the 1988 eighth grade cohort. In every

category less than fifteen percent of the population reported being married. The percent married

decreases as one moves up socioeconomic and test quartiles.

A greater percentage of those in the highest test quartile group reported never having

been married by 1994 (94 percent). Within the 1992 high tested achievement quartile there are

no significant differences in reported marriage rates by race/ethnicity or socioeconomic status. 

However, those in the lowest and middle two socioeconomic quartiles have significantly lower

rates of remaining single than those in the highest quartile (Table 8B).<13>

Unlike marriage, where there can be counterbalancing or offsetting forces as noted

above, the presence of young children most likely constitutes a financial burden for the NELS:88

cohort member. This would in turn be expected to reduce immediate postsecondary education

participation, or certainly limit it to part-time enrollments. Overall, approximately 16 percent of

1988 eighth graders reported having at least one child. The percentages of Asian and white 1988

eighth graders with children by 1994 were lower than for Hispanics or blacks (Table 9A).

When grouped by test quartiles, the percentage of 1988 eighth graders reporting no

children varied inversely with tested achievement, and within the highest test quartile there were

no reported differences by race/ethnicity. However, a greater proportion of those who were also

in the highest socioeconomic quartile reported having no children than did those in the other two

socioeconomic groupings (Table 9B). 
16

Table 8A Percentage of 1988 eighth graders reporting their marital status as of 1994,

by various characteristics 

Single Divorced or In

never separated or marriage-like

married Married widowed relationship

 Total 82.6 9.3 1.3 6.9

Sex

 Male 87.6 6.0 1.1 5.3

 Female 77.5 12.6 1.5 8.5

Race/ethnicity

 Asian or Pacific Islander 90.7 4.2 0.5 4.6

 Hispanic regardless of race 74.8 14.2 1.4 9.6

 Black not of Hispanic origin 89.3 3.2 0.3 7.2

 White not of Hispanic origin 82.4 9.7 1.5 6.4

Socioeconomic status (1992)

 Lowest quartile 72.6 13.9 2.9 10.6

 Middle two quartiles 82.5 10.1 1.0 6.4

 Highest quartile 92.6 3.6 0.3 3.5

Test quartile (1992)

 Lowest quartile 76.6 13.4 1.3 8.8

 Middle two quartiles 84.0 8.2 1.5 6.3

 Highest quartile 94.2 2.9 0.3 2.6

Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-94 9/25/95

Note: Rows may not sum to 100 percent due to rounding.

Table 8B Percentage of 1988 eighth graders in the highest 1992 test quartile reporting

their marital status as of 1994, by various characteristics 

Single Divorced or In

never separated or marriage-like

married Married widowed relationship

 Total 94.2 2.9 0.3 2.6

Sex

 Male 96.3 2.2 0.2 1.3

 Female 92.0 3.7 0.4 3.9

Race/ethnicity

 Asian or Pacific Islander 96.1 1.8 1.3 0.8

 Hispanic regardless of race 95.0 1.3 0.3 3.4

 Black not of Hispanic origin 93.3 1.4 0.0 5.2

 White not of Hispanic origin 94.0 3.2 0.3 2.5

Socioeconomic status (1992)

 Lowest quartile 83.2 7.8 1.1 7.9

 Middle two quartiles 92.0 3.8 0.6 3.6

 Highest quartile 97.1 1.7 0.0 1.2

Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-94 9/25/95

Note: Rows may not sum to 100 percent due to rounding.
17

Table 9A Percentage of 1988 eighth graders reporting number of children of their own

as of 1994, by various characteristics 

None One or more

 Total 84.1 15.9

Sex

 Male 90.1 9.9

 Female 78.1 21.9

Race/ethnicity

 Asian or Pacific Islander 92.7 7.3

 Hispanic regardless of race 73.7 26.4

 Black not of Hispanic origin 70.8 29.2

 White not of Hispanic origin 88.2 11.8

Socioeconomic status (1992)

 Lowest quartile 70.5 29.5

 Middle two quartiles 85.2 14.8

 Highest quartile 95.8 4.2

Test quartile (1992)

 Lowest quartile 75.0 25.0

 Middle two quartiles 88.3 11.7

 Highest quartile 97.6 2.4

Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-94 9/25/95

Note: Rows may not sum to 100 percent due to rounding.

Table 9B Percentage of 1988 eighth graders in the highest 1992 test quartile reporting

number of children of their own as of 1994, by various characteristics

None One or more

 Total 97.6 2.4

Sex

 Male 98.5 1.5

 Female 96.8 3.2

Race/ethnicity

 Asian or Pacific Islander 98.7 1.3

 Hispanic regardless of race 97.4 2.6

 Black not of Hispanic origin 94.5 5.5

 White not of Hispanic origin 97.7 2.3

Socioeconomic status (1992)

 Lowest quartile 90.7 9.3

 Middle two quartiles 96.4 3.6

 Highest quartile 99.4 0.6

Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-94 9/25/95

Note: Rows may not sum to 100 percent due to rounding.
19

%JQKEG

The American postsecondary education system is very diverse, and, taken as a whole,

presents opportunities to those with any predilection and from virtually all walks of life. A

young person just out of high school who contemplates the full range of possibilities might find

the options overwhelming. However, choices are shaped by, among other things, abilities,

interests, social influences, societal expectations, group membership, and resource limitations. 

These influences and constraints may reduce the decision task to a more tractable and

comfortable set of alternatives. But in some ways they could also impose tight limits. 

This section examines postsecondary education decisions made by the NELS:88 cohort

members by 1994. Four factors are discussed: the choice of institutional type and sector, the

influences of social and financial concerns, the role of institutional location, and the intensity of

enrollment. These factors are considered for all 1988 eighth graders with postsecondary

enrollment by 1994 and for that portion of this population who were in the highest cognitive test

quartile in 1992. The population of 1988 eighth graders attending baccalaureate institutions by

1994 constitutes an additional focus in this section.

Choice of institution type and sector. One of the most important decisions a young

person aspiring to postsecondary education must make is which type of institution to attend. 

This decision is affected by many factors, such as academic performance in high school, family

background and parental influences, and the student's own career goals. Of course, financial and

life circumstances also play a role.

About five percent of 1988 eighth graders with postsecondary enrollment by 1994

reported attending a private-for-profit institution, about two percent reported attending private

not-for-profit institutions, and nearly one percent reported attending public less-than-two-year

institutions (Table 10A). These three types of postsecondary institutions are most likely trade or

technical programs. Thirty-six percent enrolled in community colleges (public two-year

institutions), 38 percent matriculated at public four-year institutions, and 19 percent reported

attending private four-year colleges or universities (Table 10A). A comparison of attendance

rates for the three most frequently attended types of postsecondary institutions revealed a number

of differences. Almost 50 percent of Hispanics first enrolled in community colleges; a smaller

percentage of Hispanics than Asians, blacks, or whites enrolled in private not-for-profit four-year

institutions. Blacks enrolled in private four-year institutions at rates comparable to Asians and

whites. For four-year public institutions, a lower percentage of Hispanics were enrolled than

whites. No other race/ethnicity differences were significant for four-year public institutions.

A higher percentage of 1988 eighth graders with postsecondary enrollment by 1994

from higher socioeconomic status and test quartiles enrolled in private four-year institutions. 

Attendance at public four-year schools is also associated with socioeconomic status and tested

achievement. Furthermore, those in the lowest groupings on socioeconomic status and tested

achievement reported a higher percentage of enrollments at public two-year institutions than did

those in the middle and highest quartiles (Table 10A). 

Of the 1988 eighth graders who were in the highest test quartile in 1992 and had

attended a postsecondary institution by 1994, 82 percent enrolled in either a public or private not-
20

for-profit four-year institution. In contrast to the entire population of 1988 eighth graders

attending postsecondary institutions by 1994, there were no significant differences by sex,

race/ethnicity, or socioeconomic status with regard to enrollment in public four-year institutions

by those in the highest 1992 test quartile. For enrollment in private four-year institutions by high

test quartile students, there were no observed differences by sex or race/ethnicity, but there were

differences by socioeconomic status: A higher percentage of 1992 high test quartile students in

the highest socioeconomic quartile than in the mid or low socioeconomic quartiles attended

private four-year colleges and universities. However, while a greater percentage of Hispanics

overall first enrolled at public two-year institutions, this difference was no longer significant for

Hispanics in the highest test quartile (Table 10B).
21

Table 10A Percentage of 1988 eighth graders with postsecondary enrollment by 1994 by

type of first institution attended, by various characteristics

Private Public Private

Private not-for-profit less than Public not-for-profit Public

for-profit less than 4-year 2-year 2-year 4-year 4-year

 Total 4.9 1.5 0.7 35.6 19.2 38.0

Sex

 Male 3.8 1.6 0.9 37.5 18.2 38.2

 Female 6.0 1.5 0.5 33.9 20.1 37.9

Race/ethnicity

 Asian or Pacific Islander 2.2 0.8 0.0 35.3 24.2 37.5

 Hispanic regardless of race 7.1 1.8 0.5 49.2 10.5 30.9

 Black not of Hispanic origin 11.9 0.6 2.5 29.9 18.6 36.5

 White not of Hispanic origin 3.8 1.7 0.5 34.6 20.1 39.2

Socioeconomic status (1992)

 Lowest quartile 12.7 1.3 1.5 47.7 10.0 26.8

 Middle two quartiles 5.1 1.4 1.0 41.8 14.7 36.0

 Highest quartile 1.9 1.9 0.0 22.5 28.9 44.8

Test quartile (1992)

 Lowest quartile 8.7 3.1 1.8 62.1 7.0 17.3

 Middle two quartiles 5.4 1.5 0.3 41.6 15.5 35.6

 Highest quartile 0.9 0.6 0.1 16.4 30.3 51.7

Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-94 9/25/95

Note: Rows may not sum to 100 percent due to rounding.

Table 10B Percentage of 1988 eighth graders in the highest 1992 test quartile with

postsecondary enrollment by 1994 by type of first institution attended, by

various characteristics

Private Public Private

Private not-for-profit less than Public not-for-profit Public

for-profit less than 4-year 2-year 2-year 4-year 4-year

 Total 0.9 0.6 0.1 16.4 30.3 51.7

Sex

 Male 0.9 0.4 0.0 17.1 27.6 53.8

 Female 0.9 0.8 0.1 15.8 32.8 49.6

Race/ethnicity

 Asian or Pacific Islander 0.1 0.0 0.0 16.0 36.4 47.4

 Hispanic regardless of race 2.0 0.0 0.4 21.9 28.1 47.6

 Black not of Hispanic origin 0.0 0.0 0.0 8.7 30.5 60.7

 White not of Hispanic origin 0.9 0.7 0.1 16.6 30.0 51.7

Socioeconomic status (1992)

 Lowest quartile 3.3 0.0 1.2 21.1 21.3 53.1

 Middle two quartiles 1.4 0.7 0.1 22.0 22.3 53.4

 Highest quartile 0.3 0.6 0.0 11.8 37.0 50.3

Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-94 9/25/95

Note: Rows may not sum to 100 percent due to rounding.
22

Enrollment in four-year postsecondary institutions. Overall, 57 percent of the

NELS:88 eighth grade cohort members who had attended a postsecondary institution by 1994

were in a four-year college or university (Table 10A). Furthermore, most of those in the highest

test quartile who had enrolled also chose a public or private four-year institution (Table 10B). 

For these reasons, the remainder of this essay will limit tables and analyses to those individuals

who chose this type of postsecondary alternative.

There are many possible considerations that influence a student's choice of four-year

postsecondary institution, including the availability of courses and awarding of degrees in the

student's preferred field of study, as well as the institution's track record for placing its graduates

in jobs or graduate/professional programs. Other considerations might include athletic programs,

where one's parents went to college, the social environment, racial composition of the student

body, and total enrollment at the institution. In light of considerations reported by 1988 eighth

graders as very important in the Second Follow-up (1992), five variables were isolated for

analysis: (1) the institution's reputation, (2) the expected expenses, (3) the availability of financial

aid, (4) the option of living at home (which could include both financial benefits and more family

support), and (5) the crime rate at or around the institution.

Overall, 64 percent of those enrolled in baccalaureate-granting colleges and universities

indicated in 1992 that the institution's reputation was a very important factor in their enrollment

decision. Across all sex, racial/ethnic, socioeconomic and tested achievement categories, the

majority of 1988 eighth graders listed this factor as very important (Tables 11A and 11B). A

higher percentage of women than men said that the reputation of the institution was a very

important consideration, as did a higher percentage of those in the highest test quartile. 

Only 24 percent of 1988 eighth graders indicated that the level of college expenses was

very important in their decision as to where to enroll, and 44 percent indicated that the

availability of financial aid was also very important (Tables 12A, 12B, 13A and 13B). Thus it

appears that students may regard college expenses (including tuition, which is not shown

separately) in tandem with financial aid.<14> A higher percentage of women than men, of

blacks than Asians, whites, or Hispanics, of Hispanics than whites, and of those in the lowest

socioeconomic and test quartiles indicated that the level of college expenses was a very

important consideration. With regard to the availability of financial aid, the same pattern of

differences was observed for sex, and race/ethnicity, except that Hispanics also had a

significantly higher percentage than Asians, and blacks also had a significantly higher percentage

than Hispanics, reporting that the availability of financial aid was a very important consideration. 

Among those in the highest tested achievement quartile, a greater percentage of women than

men, of black students compared to all other racial/ethnic groups, and of those in the lowest

socioeconomic quartile reported that financial aid was an important consideration.

An institution's location, whether it be urban versus rural, or close to one's home and

family versus far from them, can be a criterion upon which students base an enrollment decision. 

On the NELS:88 Second Follow-up survey (1992), 1988 eighth graders did not indicate that

location, measured on one of those dimensions--living at home--was a very important

consideration in choosing a college; only 10 percent of baccalaureate-bound students indicated

that being able to live at home was very important to them (Table 14A). However, a greater

percentage of women than men, of Hispanics than of whites or blacks and of those in the lowest
23

and middle socioeconomic categories reported that it was a very important consideration for

them. (Since this analysis is limited to four-year institutions, the higher incidence for Hispanics

is not the community-college effect noted earlier.) Only five percent of 1988 eighth graders in

the highest 1992 test quartile said that choosing an institution that would allow them to live at

home was very important, a significantly lower percentage than in the other test quartile groups

(Table 14B). 

Of the 1988 eighth graders attending public or private four-year institutions by 1994, 27

percent listed a low crime environment as a very important consideration in their choice of a

college. Not surprisingly perhaps, a higher percentage of women than men were interested in

safe surroundings. Higher percentages of Asians and blacks exhibited concern about crime than

did Hispanics and whites (Table 15A). The percentage of students indicating that crime was a

very important consideration decreased as one moved up both the socioeconomic status and

tested achievement quartiles; within the high tested achievement quartile, a higher percentage of

women than men again indicated that a safe environment was important to them. There were no

differences by racial/ethnic divisions (Table 15B).
24

Table 11A Percentage of 1988 eighth graders attending public or private not-for-profit

four-year institutions by 1994 who rated the reputation of the institution as

very important in their consideration of which institution to attend, by

various characteristics

Very important Less than very important

 Total 63.5 36.5

Sex

 Male 58.9 41.1

 Female 67.6 32.4

Race/ethnicity

 Asian or Pacific Islander 71.4 28.6

 Hispanic regardless of race 62.3 37.7

 Black not of Hispanic origin 66.7 33.3

 White not of Hispanic origin 62.8 37.2

Socioeconomic status (1992)

 Lowest quartile 60.4 39.6

 Middle two quartiles 59.3 40.8

 Highest quartile 67.9 32.1

Test quartile (1992)

 Lowest quartile 53.1 46.9

 Middle two quartiles 57.1 42.9

 Highest quartile 69.7 30.3

Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-94 9/25/95

Note: Rows may not sum to 100 percent due to rounding.

Table 11B Percentage of 1988 eighth graders in the highest 1992 test quartile attending

public or private not-for-profit four-year institutions by 1994 who rated the

reputation of the institution as very important in their consideration of which

institution to attend, by various characteristics

Very important Less than very important

 Total 69.7 30.3

Sex

 Male 65.3 34.8

 Female 73.8 26.2

Race/ethnicity

 Asian or Pacific Islander 81.5 18.5

 Hispanic regardless of race 65.3 34.8

 Black not of Hispanic origin 72.4 27.6

 White not of Hispanic origin 69.2 30.8

Socioeconomic status (1992)

 Lowest quartile 64.6 35.4

 Middle two quartiles 66.7 33.3

 Highest quartile 72.0 28.0

Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-94 9/25/95

Note: Rows may not sum to 100 percent due to rounding.
25

Table 12A Percentage of 1988 eighth graders attending public or private not-for-profit

four-year institutions by 1994 who rated expenses as very important in their

consideration of which institution to attend, by various characteristics

Very important Less than very important

 Total 23.8 76.2

Sex

 Male 21.3 78.7

 Female 25.9 74.1

Race/ethnicity

 Asian or Pacific Islander 23.5 76.5

 Hispanic regardless of race 31.2 68.8

 Black not of Hispanic origin 44.4 55.6

 White not of Hispanic origin 20.6 79.4

Socioeconomic status (1992)

 Lowest quartile 41.3 58.7

 Middle two quartiles 28.2 71.8

 Highest quartile 16.5 83.5

Test quartile (1992)

 Lowest quartile 39.3 60.7

 Middle two quartiles 23.3 76.7

 Highest quartile 20.2 79.8

Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-94 9/25/95

Note: Rows may not sum to 100 percent due to rounding.

Table 12B Percentage of 1988 eighth graders in the highest 1992 test quartile attending

public or private not-for-profit four-year institutions by 1994 who rated

expenses as very important in their consideration of which institution to

attend, by various characteristics

Very important Less than very important

 Total 20.2 79.8

Sex

 Male 18.3 81.7

 Female 22.1 77.9

Race/ethnicity

 Asian or Pacific Islander 14.4 85.6

 Hispanic regardless of race 27.9 72.1

 Black not of Hispanic origin 41.0 59.0

 White not of Hispanic origin 19.3 80.7

Socioeconomic status (1992)

 Lowest quartile 38.3 61.7

 Middle two quartiles 26.9 73.1

 Highest quartile 14.6 85.4

Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-94 9/25/95

Note: Rows may not sum to 100 percent due to rounding.
26

Table 13A Percentage of 1988 eighth graders attending public or private not-for-profit

four-year institutions by 1994 who rated financial aid as very important in

their consideration of which institution to attend, by various characteristics

Very important Less than very important

 Total 43.8 56.2

Sex

 Male 38.9 61.1

 Female 48.0 52.0

Race/ethnicity

 Asian or Pacific Islander 41.6 58.4

 Hispanic regardless of race 58.1 41.9

 Black not of Hispanic origin 73.1 26.9

 White not of Hispanic origin 38.9 61.1

Socioeconomic status (1992)

 Lowest quartile 74.9 25.0

 Middle two quartiles 51.8 48.3

 Highest quartile 31.0 69.1

Test quartile (1992)

 Lowest quartile 54.3 45.7

 Middle two quartiles 43.0 57.0

 Highest quartile 43.3 56.7

Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-94 9/25/95

Note: Rows may not sum to 100 percent due to rounding.

Table 13B Percentage of 1988 eighth graders in the highest 1992 test quartile attending

public or private not-for-profit four-year institutions by 1994 who rated

financial aid as very important in their consideration of which institution to

attend, by various characteristics

Very important Less than very important

 Total 43.3 56.7

Sex

 Male 38.8 61.2

 Female 47.6 52.4

Race/ethnicity

 Asian or Pacific Islander 36.7 63.3

 Hispanic regardless of race 56.4 43.6

 Black not of Hispanic origin 80.2 19.8

 White not of Hispanic origin 41.1 58.9

Socioeconomic status (1992)

 Lowest quartile 76.3 23.7

 Middle two quartiles 56.8 43.2

 Highest quartile 32.1 67.9

Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-94 9/25/95

Note: Rows may not sum to 100 percent due to rounding.
27

Table 14A Percentage of 1988 eighth graders attending public or private not-for-profit

four-year institutions by 1994 who rated living at home as very important in

their consideration of which institution to attend, by various characteristics

Very important Less than very important

 Total 9.7 90.3

Sex

 Male 8.3 91.7

 Female 10.9 89.2

Race/ethnicity

 Asian or Pacific Islander 14.3 85.7

 Hispanic regardless of race 22.7 77.3

 Black not of Hispanic origin 9.6 90.4

 White not of Hispanic origin 8.4 91.6

Socioeconomic status (1992)

 Lowest quartile 19.0 81.0

 Middle two quartiles 12.2 87.8

 Highest quartile 5.6 94.4

Test quartile (1992)

 Lowest quartile 27.1 72.9

 Middle two quartiles 11.4 88.6

 Highest quartile 5.0 95.0

Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-94 9/25/95

Note: Rows may not sum to 100 percent due to rounding.

Table 14B Percentage of 1988 eighth graders in the highest 1992 test quartile attending

public or private not-for-profit four-year institutions by 1994 who rated

living at home as very important in their consideration of which institution to

attend, by various characteristics

Very important Less than very important

 Total 5.0 95.0

Sex

 Male 3.8 96.2

 Female 6.1 93.9

Race/ethnicity

 Asian or Pacific Islander 8.0 92.0

 Hispanic regardless of race 14.9 85.1

 Black not of Hispanic origin 6.6 93.4

 White not of Hispanic origin 4.3 95.7

Socioeconomic status (1992)

 Lowest quartile 6.7 93.3

 Middle two quartiles 8.6 91.4

 Highest quartile 2.6 97.4

Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-94 9/25/95

Note: Rows may not sum to 100 percent due to rounding.
28

Table 15A Percentage of 1988 eighth graders attending public or private not-for-profit

four-year institutions by 1994 who rated a low crime environment as very

important in their consideration of which institution to attend, by various

characteristics

Very important Less than very important

 Total 27.2 72.8

Sex

 Male 20.3 79.7

 Female 33.3 66.7

Race/ethnicity

 Asian or Pacific Islander 42.4 57.6

 Hispanic regardless of race 26.5 73.5

 Black not of Hispanic origin 43.1 56.9

 White not of Hispanic origin 24.2 75.8

Socioeconomic status (1992)

 Lowest quartile 39.9 60.1

 Middle two quartiles 28.8 71.2

 Highest quartile 23.4 76.6

Test quartile (1992)

 Lowest quartile 43.0 57.0

 Middle two quartiles 30.2 69.8

 Highest quartile 20.7 79.3

Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-94 9/25/95

Note: Rows may not sum to 100 percent due to rounding.

Table 15B Percentage of 1988 eighth graders in the highest 1992 test quartile attending

public or private not-for-profit four-year institutions by 1994 who rated a

low crime environment as very important in their consideration of which

institution to attend, by various characteristics

Very important Less than very important

 Total 20.7 79.3

Sex

 Male 15.6 84.4

 Female 25.6 74.4

Race/ethnicity

 Asian or Pacific Islander 27.3 72.7

 Hispanic regardless of race 18.1 81.9

 Black not of Hispanic origin 21.1 78.9

 White not of Hispanic origin 20.5 79.5

Socioeconomic status (1992)

 Lowest quartile 22.9 77.2

 Middle two quartiles 20.3 79.8

 Highest quartile 20.9 79.1

Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-94 9/25/95

Note: Rows may not sum to 100 percent due to rounding.
29

Out-of-state attendance. To the extent that geographic location matters to students,

whether it comes in the form of being able to attend a postsecondary institution close to home

and family or far away from them, the lack of desirable programs within a given area could

restrict choice. (For that matter, it could restrict access as well.) Enrollment in an out-of-state

institution may reflect a positive personal preference or a location constraint. The decision to

pursue postsecondary education out of state may depend on a number of factors, including the

types of in-state alternatives and the student's available financial resources. While many states

offer a wide range of postsecondary education, in general, students who can attend postsecondary

institutions outside of their home state have access to an even wider range of options, albeit in

most instances at a higher net financial cost to them. Unfortunately, some students may not be

able to afford to take advantage of this wider range of opportunities. 

Almost three-fourths of 1988 eighth graders who subsequently enrolled in a four-year

postsecondary institution did so in their home state (Table 16A). A higher percentage of blacks

than Hispanics indicated attendance at an out-of-state college or university. Also, a higher

percentage of students in the highest socioeconomic and/or highest tested achievement quartiles

reported out-of-state enrollment (Table 16A). 

In the highest test quartile, about one-third of males and females attended out-of-state

colleges, and over 40 percent of the highest socioeconomic quartile did as well, the latter being a

significantly higher percentage than the other socioeconomic groups.
30

Table 16A Percentage of 1988 eighth graders attending public or private not-for-profit

four-year institutions by 1994 who attended their first postsecondary

institution in or out of their home state, by various characteristics

Home state Different state

 Total 72.0 28.0

Sex

 Male 70.4 29.6

 Female 73.5 26.5

Race/ethnicity

 Asian or Pacific Islander 77.8 22.2

 Hispanic regardless of race 83.2 16.9

 Black not of Hispanic origin 65.5 34.5

 White not of Hispanic origin 71.7 28.3

Socioeconomic status (1992)

 Lowest quartile 84.8 15.2

 Middle two quartiles 80.0 20.0

 Highest quartile 62.3 37.7

Test quartile (1992)

 Lowest quartile 81.4 18.5

 Middle two quartiles 78.4 21.6

 Highest quartile 67.5 32.5

Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-94 9/25/95

Note: Rows may not sum to 100 percent due to rounding.

Table 16B Percentage of 1988 eighth graders in the highest 1992 test quartile attending

public or private not-for-profit four-year institutions by 1994 who attended

their first postsecondary institution in or out of their home state, by various

characteristics

Home state Different state

 Total 67.5 32.5

Sex

 Male 67.1 32.9

 Female 68.0 32.0

Race/ethnicity

 Asian or Pacific Islander 73.1 26.9

 Hispanic regardless of race 73.8 26.2

 Black not of Hispanic origin 69.0 31.0

 White not of Hispanic origin 66.8 33.2

Socioeconomic status (1992)

 Lowest quartile 84.3 15.7

 Middle two quartiles 81.2 18.8

 Highest quartile 57.3 42.7

Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-94 9/25/95

Note: Rows may not sum to 100 percent due to rounding.
31

Institution of choice. Those who eventually matriculated at a postsecondary institution

had to employ their considerations and selection criteria, from net cost to reputation to location,

as well as an assessment of their own abilities and constraints, in coming to a decision about

which college or university they would like to attend. When they weighed all of these factors and

available information, completed the application process, and finally were accepted, to what

degree were their hopes to attend a particular postsecondary institution fulfilled? 

 In 1992, 1988 eighth grade cohort members were asked to list the names of their first and

second postsecondary institutions of choice. Of those who then had actually attended at least one

four-year college or university in the interim (i.e., 1992 to 1994), 71 percent indicated in 1994

that they were able to attend their first or second choice institution (Table 17A). <15> There was

no significant difference across sex, race/ethnicity, socioeconomic, and test groups with regard to

the percentage of students who were able to attend one of their preferred institutions. 

Within the highest tested achievement quartile, 69 percent reported that they were able to

attend one of their preferred institutions. There was no significant difference with regard to

attendance in a preferred institution within the high achievement test group by sex, race/ethnicity,

or socioeconomic status (Table 17B). 

For 71 percent of the students to have been matched with an institution of choice is a

strong indication that the widely varied preferences of baccalaureate-bound students are being

satisfied by the postsecondary education system, at least in terms of admission. Of course, this

does not mean that these students' preferences and expectations will be met, or remain constant,

once they enroll and progress toward their undergraduate degree and program objectives. But it

does suggest that the availability of information and the varied postsecondary landscape are

serving high school graduates well as they leave one educational environment and begin the task

of adapting to a new one.

Intensity of enrollment. Not being able to attend college at a level of intensity that

assures timely degree completion may limit one's ability to establish and to achieve educational

and career goals. Among 1988 eighth graders who attended four-year institutions, over 96

percent were enrolled full-time, a path that one would expect to lead to more timely program

completions as they work toward the baccalaureate; the percentage was 98 for those in the

highest test quartile (Tables 18A and 18B). There were no significant differences by sex or

race/ethnicity with regard to the intensity of enrollments. However, a greater percentage of those

in the highest socioeconomic and tested achievement quartiles attended full-time, compared to

those in the lowest and middle two quartiles. Within the highest tested achievement quartile,

however, no significant differences were observed by sex, race/ethnicity, or socioeconomic

status. 
32

Table 17A Percentage of 1988 eighth graders attending public or private not-for-profit

four-year institutions by 1994 who attended their first or second choice

postsecondary institution, by various characteristics

Attended Did not attend

 Total 70.8 29.2

Sex

 Male 69.0 31.0

 Female 72.3 27.6

Race/ethnicity

 Asian or Pacific Islander 65.8 34.2

 Hispanic regardless of race 72.0 28.0

 Black not of Hispanic origin 64.8 35.2

 White not of Hispanic origin 71.9 28.1

Socioeconomic status (1992)

 Lowest quartile 74.0 26.0

 Middle two quartiles 73.0 27.0

 Highest quartile 68.5 31.5

Test quartile (1992)

 Lowest quartile 64.7 35.3

 Middle two quartiles 71.8 28.2

 Highest quartile 68.9 31.1

Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-94 9/25/95

Note: Rows may not sum to 100 percent due to rounding.

Table 17B Percentage of 1988 eighth graders in the highest 1992 test quartile attending

public or private not-for-profit four-year institutions by 1994 who attended

their first or second choice postsecondary institution, by various

 characteristics

Attended Did not attend

 Total 68.9 31.1

Sex

 Male 67.1 32.9

 Female 70.6 29.4

Race/ethnicity

 Asian or Pacific islander 57.9 42.1

 Hispanic regardless of race 66.8 33.3

 Black not of Hispanic origin 61.3 38.7

 White not of Hispanic origin 69.9 30.0

Socioeconomic status (1992)

 Lowest quartile 76.6 23.4

 Middle two quartiles 72.9 27.1

 Highest quartile 65.9 34.1

Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-94 9/25/95

Note: Rows may not sum to 100 percent due to rounding.
33

Table 18A Percentage of 1988 eighth graders attending public or private not-for-profit

four-year institutions by 1994 who were enrolled in their first postsecondary

institution full-time or less than full-time, by various characteristics

Full-time Less than full-time

 Total 96.2 3.8

Sex

 Male 96.1 3.9

 Female 96.3 3.7

Race/ethnicity

 Asian or Pacific Islander 96.1 3.9

 Hispanic regardless of race 92.2 7.8

 Black not of Hispanic origin 96.9 3.0

 White not of Hispanic origin 96.5 3.5

Socioeconomic status (1992)

 Lowest quartile 92.6 7.4

 Middle two quartiles 95.5 4.5

 Highest quartile 97.5 2.5

Test quartile (1992)

 Lowest quartile 92.2 7.8

 Middle two quartiles 94.9 5.1

 Highest quartile 98.4 1.6

Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-94 9/25/95

Note: Rows may not sum to 100 percent due to rounding.

Table 18B Percentage of 1988 eighth graders in the highest 1992 test quartile attending

public or private not-for-profit four-year institutions by 1994 who were

enrolled in their first postsecondary institution full-time or less than fulltime, by various characteristics

Full-time Less than full-time

 Total 98.4 1.6

Sex

 Male 98.4 1.6

 Female 98.4 1.5

Race/ethnicity

 Asian or Pacific Islander 99.4 0.6

 Hispanic regardless of race 97.5 2.5

 Black not of Hispanic origin 97.4 2.6

 White not of Hispanic origin 98.5 1.5

Socioeconomic status (1992)

 Lowest quartile 96.1 3.9

 Middle two quartiles 98.0 2.0

 Highest quartile 98.9 1.1

Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-94 9/25/95

Note: Rows may not sum to 100 percent due to rounding.
35

%QPENWUKQPU

Any discussion of postsecondary education must include an assessment of how well it is

serving its current participants and the nation as a whole. That assessment, in keeping with the

postsecondary education world itself, should be multidimensional in nature. This particular

essay has restricted its coverage to some aspects of access and choice that can be gleaned from

NELS:88 data. Within this scope, then, one should attempt to measure postsecondary education

in terms of how well it serves racial and ethnic minorities, and those on the lower socioeconomic

rungs in comparison with those whose backgrounds and circumstances are more privileged. 

With regard to gender, it is important to investigate whether young females hold

educational expectations different from their male counterparts, and whether in high school

females are represented in programs similar to males, test as well as males, and receive diplomas

at the same rate as males. Compared to males, it is important to test whether females follow

similar postsecondary education paths--with regard to the type, timing, and intensity of

enrollment. These and other differences that can be detected for women versus men can, and

should, be examined for the other categories of potential barriers and inequalities as well. This

section provides each of these comparisons.

Gender. Data from NELS:88/94 (the Third Follow-up) suggest that females in the 1988

eighth grade cohort held similar or even higher educational expectations compared to males. In

comparison with their male counterparts, a higher percentage of women also chose or were

"tracked into" academic over vocational or general programs. A smaller percentage of women

than men scored in the lowest 1992 test quartile, and a higher percentage of women scored in the

middle two test quartiles, while there was no observed difference between men and women in the

highest test quartile.<16> A smaller percentage of women than men failed to file a

postsecondary application by 1992, and a greater percentage of women filed multiple

postsecondary applications. Thus, on these various access comparisons, which hold for the

overall 1988 eighth grade cohort and for the high tested achievement quartile, women appear to

be at least on a par with men in terms of being positioned to take advantage of postsecondary

educational opportunities

With regard to choice, women and men in NELS:88 enrolled in public and private notfor-profit four-year institutions by 1994 in approximately equal percentages. Women attending

four-year institutions also enrolled out of state, attended full-time, and attended an institution of

their choice at the same rates as men. Again, these conclusions hold both for the aggregate

NELS:88 cohort with postsecondary enrollment by 1994 and for those in the highest 1992 test

quartile. Thus, on the criterion of choice, postsecondary education again appears to be meeting

the needs of women at least as well as it does for men. There are few observed sex differences

across NELS:88 categories, and where there are differences, they tend to favor women. On the

criteria of access and choice, then, there do not appear to be postsecondary education barriers that

affect women disproportionately

Race/ethnicity. While in high school, a higher percentage of Asian students reported the

expectation of earning at least a bachelor's degree than for any racial/ethnic group, and a

significantly lower percentage of Hispanics than whites held this level of expectation (there were

no significant differences across other racial/ethnic categories). Asians also had higher percent
36

enrollment in academic tracks and had higher high school graduation rates. (With regard to

academic program enrollment and graduation, whites showed higher rates than blacks and

Hispanics; there were no significant differences between these last two groups.) Within the

highest achievement test quartile, racial/ethnic differences by enrollment or graduation

disappeared, though higher percentages of Asians and Whites than blacks and Hispanics ranked

in the highest quartile on the cognitive test composite.

A higher percentage of Asians than other racial/ethnic groups filed postsecondary

applications and enrolled in postsecondary institutions right after high school. Again, these

differences disappear in the highest test quartile. A higher proportion of blacks and Hispanics,

even within the highest tested achievement quartile, exhibited two or more at-risk factors than

whites and Asians. The tendency for Hispanics to enroll in public two-year colleges and for

blacks to enroll out of state were the only pronounced postsecondary attendance patterns, and

even these do not hold for the highest test quartile. There were no racial or ethnic differences

with regard to attendance at a preferred four-year institution, or the tendency to enroll full-time in

a four-year institution.

Socioeconomic status. More observed differences across the potential access and choice

barriers (i.e., sex, race/ethnicity, socioeconomic conditions, or tested achievement) occur by

socioeconomic status, and they occur from the outset. Educational expectations, in terms of the

percentages of those who indicated achievement of at least a bachelor's degree, vary directly by

socioeconomic ranking. The same is true for representation in academic tracks in high school,

the rate of earning a regular high school diploma, and performance on the cognitive test battery. 

This pattern continues with respect to the postsecondary application process, where a smaller

percentage of 1988 eighth graders in the lowest socioeconomic quartile completed applications. 

In turn, a smaller percentage from this group matriculated, and when they did enroll there was

more delay and a higher incidence of enrollment at public two-year institutions (and in state).

On the personal side, the percentage of 1988 eighth graders who had never married by

1994, and the percentage who reported not having children, varied directly by socioeconomic

status. Within the high tested achievement quartile, however, many of these socioeconomic

differences disappear or are lessened.

Tested achievement. Those in the highest tested achievement quartile have the fewest

postsecondary access and choice barriers. Their initial expression of educational expectations in

the eighth grade and their higher rate of postsecondary enrollment characterize them as well

motivated. Their higher rate of out-of-state enrollment suggests that they are more mobile than

their counterparts; and, for lack of a better word, their discipline as regards the timing of

marriage and children position them to take better advantage of the opportunities that the

heterogeneous postsecondary world has to offer.

Specifically, over 90 percent of this group want at least a baccalaureate degree from the

outset. They take academic subjects in high school, receive their diplomas on time, file multiple

applications, enroll soon after high school graduation (mostly in four-year institutions). On the

personal side, they are saddled with fewer at-risk factors to begin with, and they do not marry or

have children by their early twenties, which reduce even further the obstacles in their paths to

achieving their educational goals. 
37

When one restricts comparisons to those in the highest tested achievement quartile, some

differences observed for the overall eighth grade cohort with regard to race/ethnicity or

socioeconomic status disappear. This is true for type of high school program attended (i.e.,

academic vs. general/vocational track) and high school graduation rate. However, Asians and

whites tend to exhibit significantly different levels for some of the other access and choice

variables, such as at-risk factors and application patterns. 

The most glaring inequalities within the high tested achievement quartile occur across

socioeconomic divisions, as opposed to sex or racial/ethnic differences. Although there were no

observed differences in terms of high school programs pursued or graduation rates by

socioeconomic quartile, personal considerations (i.e., at-risk factors, marriage rates, and the

incidence of parenthood), postsecondary application patterns and attendance, institution type

(four-year versus other and in-state versus out-of-state), and intensity of enrollment were

associated with one's socioeconomic grouping. Some of these same access and choice barriers

appear to be present by socioeconomic status, as opposed to sex or race/ethnicity, for the whole

1988 eighth grade cohort as well as for those in the 1992 highest tested achievement quartile.
39

Endnotes

<1> In addition, laws such as those that prohibit or significantly restrict employment

opportunities for those under 16 years of age who might otherwise choose work over

school do not generally restrict individuals in the postsecondary education age range

from making that choice. This means that employment may represent an attractive

alternative to more education for some young people.

<2> Chapter 6 in the NELS:88/92 report A Profile of the American High School Senior in

1992 (June 1995) discusses in some detail parental educational attainment and parents’ 

expectations for their children (vs. their children's own expectations) as of 1992. Thus,

the current essay will not cover that same ground. However, inasmuch as parents'

educational backgrounds may affect family decision-making with regard to human

capital investments as well as the desired educational and occupational horizons as seen

by their children, this factor should be acknowledged explicitly in any treatment of

educational access. In addition, the Table Compendium that follows this essay--see

section 1 and table 1-1--provides several important linkages in this regard. Those

include the fact that: 1988 eighth graders whose parents completed high school or less

were more likely to set their own educational expectations at that level than were those

whose parents had at least a bachelor's degree; and students whose parents finished

college or earned graduate degrees were more likely to expect to obtain a graduate

degree themselves than those whose parents had completed high school or less. These

relationships hold for both the mother's and the father's level of educational attainment.

<3> In these analyses expectations of bachelor degree attainment was combined with

expectations to attain all other higher degrees, in part because one has to obtain the

former before being admitted into graduate and first professional programs. Just as

completing high school is a prerequisite for beginning college, a college degree is an

access variable with regard to participation in graduate school/first professional program.

<4> With regard to expectations or any of the other dimensions on which postsecondary

access and choice issues are discussed in this essay, distributions are presented by sex,

race/ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and tested achievement. There is obviously

overlap among variables, and to the extent that, say, socioeconomic status and ethnicity

are highly correlated, distribution comparisons by race/ethnicity and by socioeconomic

quartile may actually represent only one comparison not two. The table below provides

cross-tabulations for race with both socioeconomic level and test quartile. As is

apparent, blacks and Hispanics fall disproportionately in the bottom socioeconomic and

test quartiles, while Asians and whites are over-represented in the top quartiles, relative

to their presence in the overall 1988 eighth grade cohort. However, in the middle fifty

percent of each distribution, there is significant representation across all racial/ethnic

groups. In fact, it is only in the highest socioeconomic and test quartiles that one notices

a predominance of only one of the four racial/ethnic groups--whites. In virtually all

other situations, distinctions made in the text by socioeconomic status or test quartile

would not be referring implicitly to any one racial/ethnic group.
40

Race/ethnicity by socioeconomic status and achievement test quartile 

Race or ethnicity as of 1994

 Asian White Black Hispanic

 Total 3.8 71.6 13.5 11.1

 

Socioeconomic status (1992) 

 Lowest quartile 2.8 51.3 22.3 23.6

 Middle quartiles 3.5 75.1 12.9 8.5

 Highest quartile 5.0 84.5 6.8 3.7

Test quartile (1992) 

 Lowest quartile 2.7 56.9 24.1 16.3

 Middle quartiles 3.6 75.0 11.3 10.1

 Highest quartile 5.3 86.3 3.5 4.9

Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-94 9/25/95

Note: Rows may not sum to 100 percent due to rounding.

<5> Because of the small percentage of students in vocational programs, and because our

main focus in this report is academic preparation for four-year colleges, the vocational

and general categories were combined.

<6> The true dropout rate is difficult to calculate as cohort members might report "still trying"

while moving to a "dropout" status. Distinguishing between these categories at this point

in the development of this cohort is difficult, and for this reason we turn our focus in this

essay toward those who have graduated and/or received the necessary prerequisites to

participate in postsecondary education.

<7> The quartile rankings for tested achievement and socioeconomic status were intended to

produce an approximately symmetric division of the NELS:88/94 sample, with 50 percent

in the middle group and 25 percent in the upper and lower tails of the distribution. The

actual breakdown deviates from this intention for two reasons. First, the underlying

centile scores are expressed as integer values. Therefore, any regrouping into quartiles

will only be approximate. Second, the centile ranking was constructed using the

NELS:88/92 Second Follow-up questionnaire weight. Thus, the analyses using the 1988

eighth grade cohort and Third Follow-up weight will also produce a degree of asymmetry

when quartiles are defined. Nonetheless, the observed deviation was not dramatic,

resulting in a lower quartile that is slightly more exclusive (23.0%) and an upper quartile

that is slightly more inclusive (26.9%).

<8> The application process is one important step in access to postsecondary education. Thus,

variations in reported application patterns by sex, race/ethnicity, socioeconomic status,

and tested achievement are one indication of possible inequality, and thus less diversity,

in postsecondary educational participation than in elementary and secondary school

programs. This is a concern expressed at the outset of this essay, and one to which we

will return later.

<9> Attendance in this report is measured by the variable NUMATND1 (Number of

attendance spells at the first postsecondary institution attended). This was used 

(indirectly) as an index of whether or not a respondent ever attended a postsecondary
41

institution, and whether there were gaps in attendance at that institution. It should not be

misinterpreted as an indication of whether the respondent attended more than one

institution. See the Glossary for more information on this variable.

<10> The "at-risk" factors used in this report are the same ones used in a number of previous

NCES reports (Hafner, A., Ingels, S.J., Schneider, B., and Stevenson, D.L. A Profile of

the American Eighth Grader, 1990; NCES 90-458; Green, P.J., and Scott, L.A.“At-Risk”

Eighth Graders Four Years Later, NCES, 1995; NCES 95-380; Kaufman, P., and

Bradby, D. Characteristics of At-Risk Students in NELS:88, 1992; NCES 92-042). These

factors have been suggested by previous studies (e.g., Pallas, A., Natriello, G., and

McDill, E. “The Changing Nature of the Disadvantaged Population: Current Dimensions

and Future Trends,” Educational Researcher (June-July 1989).) as increasing the risk of

school failure. The factors chosen are a small subset of factors related to the risk of

school failure. Kaufman and Bradby (1992) have identified others.

<11> Green, P.J., and Scott, L.A. “At-Risk” Eighth Graders Four Years Later, NCES, 1995;

NCES 95-380.

<12> It should be noted that the 33 percent of 1988 eighth graders in the lowest test quartile

with two or more risk factors may also be an underestimate because many in the high atrisk category did in fact drop out, and test scores are missing from a larger percentage of

dropouts than any other group.

<13> The analysis has done relatively little with the marital status variable because of

uncertainties about the "in a marriage-like relationship" category. For purposes of

postsecondary education decisions, which include attendance, intensity of enrollment, and

even financing one's studies, it is not clear if people in the "marriage-like relationship"

group, who constitute 7 percent of 1988 eighth graders overall, behave more like single or

married respondents. Furthermore, inasmuch as little is known about the divorcedseparated-widowed members, this was another complication with delving too deeply into

the marital status variable.

<14> The NELS:88/94 surveys were not designed to elicit substantial information on how

students and their families finance higher education, or how financial aid affects

enrollment decisions; understanding those considerations has been the chief goal of the

National Postsecondary Student Aid Study, NPSAS:90-93. As such, this essay does not

dwell on issues of tuition, financial aid, and/or the net costs of postsecondary education to

students and their families.

<15> To the extent that 1988 eighth grade cohort members listed their institutions of choice in

the spring of 1992 after having filed completed applications, and in some instances after

they may have already received admission results from some colleges or universities,

there was undoubtedly selection bias in terms of listing; that is, it is unlikely that a high

school senior would have listed as his or her first and second choice institutions to which

he/she had already been denied admission.

<16> With regard to sex differences, one can presumably at first blush treat as constant

racial/ethnicity, socioeconomic, and at-risk factors, since these should be largely

independent of sex. This will not be the case when the review turns to the other equity
42

variables. The only area in which one could see sex differences that matter would be in

marriage rates and fertility, which, as noted in the body of the essay, is attributable to

different ages at first marriage between men and women.
Table Compendium
45

Section 1

Education Experiences

1994 Highest Level of Expected Education

 In 1994, 1988 eighth grade women were more likely to expect to obtain a graduate degree

than were 1988 eighth grade men (Table 1-1) (37 percent to 32 percent).

 1988 eighth graders who had one or more children by 1994 were more likely to expect

only to obtain a high school diploma or less compared to those without children 

(Table 1-1) (28 percent to 8 percent). 

 A greater percentage of 1988 eighth graders without children than those with children by

1994 expected in 1994 to obtain a graduate degree (Table 1-1) (39 percent to 12 percent).

 1988 eighth graders who were in the highest socioeconomic quartile were more likely to

expect in 1994 to obtain a graduate degree than those in the middle two and lowest

socioeconomic quartiles (Table 1-1) (61 percent to 30 percent and 16 percent

respectively).

 In 1994, a higher percentage of 1988 eighth grade Asians or Pacific Islanders expected to

obtain graduate degrees than 1988 eighth grade Hispanics, blacks, and whites (Table 1-1)

(50 percent to 25 percent, 29 percent, and 37 percent respectively).

 1988 eighth graders who were single in 1994 were more likely to expect to obtain a

graduate degree than those who were in a marriage-like relationship, were married, or

were divorced, separated, or widowed in 1994 (Table 1-1) (39 percent to 16 percent, 

12 percent, and 12 percent respectively).

 1988 eighth graders whose parents finished college or earned graduate degrees were more

likely in 1994 to expect to obtain a graduate degree than those whose parents completed

high school or less (Table 1-1) (54 percent and 70 percent to 22 percent respectively for

fathers; 56 percent and 64 percent to 24 percent respectively for mothers).

 1988 eighth graders who attended Catholic or other (non-Catholic) private sector high

schools were more likely in 1994 to expect to obtain a graduate degree than those who

attended public sector high schools (Table 1-2) (59 percent and 68 percent to 34 percent).

 1988 eighth graders in the highest 1992 test quartile were more likely in 1994 to expect to

obtain a graduate degree than those in the middle two or lowest 1992 test quartiles (Table

1-2) (67 percent to 34 percent and 13 percent respectively).
46

Table 1-1 Percentage of 1988 eighth graders with different levels of educational

expectation in 1994, by selected background characteristics

High school Trade/ Some Bachelor's Graduate

or less vocational college degree degree

 Total 10.9 9.8 13.1 31.4 34.7

Sex

 Male 11.4 11.5 12.8 32.4 31.9

 Female 10.4 8.1 13.5 30.5 37.5

Alcohol consumption during lifetime in 1992

 No occasions 13.2 6.8 10.8 31.5 37.5

 One or two occasions 10.8 8.7 10.7 30.7 39.2

 Three - nineteen occasions 8.0 8.4 11.3 31.8 40.5

 Twenty or more occasions 11.0 10.8 14.4 32.0 31.8

Cocaine or crack use during lifetime in 1992

 No occasions 9.9 8.4 12.1 32.0 37.6

 One or two occasions 15.0 18.3 10.8 34.0 21.9

 Three to nineteen occasions 13.6 15.9 13.4 24.0 33.0

 Twenty or more occasions 11.4 15.3 18.6 30.4 24.2

Socioeconomic status (1992)

 Lowest quartile 23.9 16.9 15.8 28.0 15.5

 Middle two quartiles 9.2 10.3 15.5 34.5 30.4

 Highest quartile 1.8 2.3 5.8 28.9 61.1

Children

 None 7.8 8.0 12.2 33.1 38.8

 One or more 27.6 19.7 18.1 22.3 12.3

Race/ethnicity

 Asian or Pacific Islander 6.2 4.3 8.1 31.2 50.1

 Hispanic regardless of race 13.6 12.4 16.6 32.6 24.9

 Black not of Hispanic origin 10.1 13.3 14.0 33.4 29.2

 White not of Hispanic origin 10.5 9.0 12.7 31.1 36.7

Education level of father as of 1992

 High school or less 16.1 13.8 16.9 31.3 22.0

 Trade school after high school 5.7 10.3 11.7 37.5 34.8

 College after high school 4.1 7.0 14.0 31.4 43.5

 Finished college 3.6 2.9 6.5 32.7 54.3

 Graduate degree 1.9 1.7 3.9 22.9 69.6

Education level of mother as of 1992

 High school or less 15.0 13.9 15.8 31.2 24.0

 Trade school after high school 4.5 5.9 12.1 37.5 40.0

 College after high school 5.2 6.8 12.4 33.1 42.5

 Finished college 3.4 2.6 7.1 31.3 55.6

 Graduate degree 2.9 2.4 5.5 24.8 64.5

Current marital status

 Single never married 7.9 8.3 11.7 33.0 39.1

 Married 27.9 16.4 19.7 24.0 11.9

 Divorced/separated/widowed 21.9 23.6 17.3 25.7 11.5

 In marriage-like relationship 23.1 16.3 20.6 23.8 16.2

Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-1994 9/25/95

Note: Rows may not sum to 100 percent due to rounding error.
47

Table 1-2 Percentage of 1988 eighth graders with different levels of educational

expectation in 1994, by selected secondary education characteristics

High school Trade/ Some Bachelor's Graduate

or less vocational college degree degree

 Total 10.9 9.8 13.1 31.4 34.7

High school sector

 Public 10.4 9.9 13.6 32.3 33.8

 Catholic 0.5 2.1 4.0 33.9 59.4

 Other private 1.9 2.7 7.9 19.1 68.5

Last high school program type

 Academic 4.6 6.1 10.4 34.5 44.4

 Vocational 20.4 19.1 22.5 27.3 10.8

 Other 21.5 14.6 15.3 26.8 21.7

Test quartile (1992)

 Lowest quartile 22.9 17.1 18.0 29.1 12.9

 Middle two quartiles 5.7 9.0 13.9 37.3 34.2

 Highest quartile 0.7 1.2 4.3 26.7 67.1

High school status (1994)

 Graduate 5.7 7.8 12.2 33.8 40.5

 Dropout 56.6 19.9 10.8 9.6 3.1

 GED or equivalent 13.9 16.5 23.7 27.5 18.5

Highest level of education expected in 1992

 High school or less 44.5 19.3 14.3 16.8 5.1

 Trade/vocational 18.4 26.5 23.8 24.0 7.3

 Some college 9.4 13.4 24.5 39.3 13.5

 Finish college 2.0 3.0 8.6 45.0 41.4

 Graduate degree 1.4 2.1 4.4 23.5 68.6

At risk of school failure factors (1988)

 None 6.1 6.6 11.5 31.7 44.1

 One 11.2 11.1 13.4 33.1 31.1

 Two or more 20.6 15.3 16.4 30.0 17.7

Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-1994 9/25/95

Note: Rows may not sum to 100 percent due to rounding error.
48

Enrollment Status in First Postsecondary Educational Institution

 A greater percentage of 1988 eighth graders who enrolled by 1994 in a postsecondary

education institution and whose parents finished college or earned graduate degrees

enrolled in their first postsecondary institution full-time by 1994 than those whose

parents completed high school or less (Table 1-3) (90 percent and 92 percent compared

to 

80 percent respectively for fathers; 91 percent and 90 percent compared to 83 percent

respectively for mothers).

 1988 eighth graders who enrolled by 1994 in a postsecondary education institution and

were in the lowest 1992 test quartile were less likely to have enrolled in their first

postsecondary institution full-time by 1994 than those in the middle two and highest

1992 test quartiles (Table 1-4) (76 percent compared to 85 percent and 93 percent

respectively).

 A higher percentage of 1988 eighth graders who enrolled by 1994 in a postsecondary

education institution and who, in 1992, expected to obtain a baccalaureate or a graduate

degree enrolled in their first postsecondary education institution full-time by 1994 than

those who expected to complete trade or vocational education, or to complete some

college (Table 1-4) (87 percent and 93 percent compared to 71 percent and 77 percent

respectively).

 1988 eighth graders who, by 1992, had used crack or cocaine either on one or two

occasions or from three to nineteen occasions during their lifetime were more likely in

1994 to report no postsecondary education enrollment than those who had never used

crack or cocaine (Table 1-5) (64 percent and 52 percent compared to 33 percent

respectively). 

 1988 eighth graders with parents whose education did not go beyond high school were

more likely not to have enrolled in a postsecondary education institution by 1994 than

those whose parents finished college or earned a graduate degree (Table 1-5) (50 percent

compared to 16 percent and 10 percent respectively for fathers; 48 percent compared to

17 percent and 14 percent respectively for mothers). 
49

Table 1-3 Percentage of 1988 eighth graders with postsecondary enrollment by 1994

with different enrollment statuses by 1994 at first postsecondary education

institution, by selected background characteristics

Full-time Half-time Less than half-time

 Total 85.1 9.2 5.7

Sex

 Male 84.7 8.8 6.5

 Female 85.5 9.5 5.0

Race/ethnicity

 Asian or Pacific Islander 86.2 9.1 4.8

 Hispanic regardless of race 78.9 13.6 7.5

 Black not of Hispanic origin 87.6 9.6 2.8

 White not of Hispanic origin 85.5 8.5 6.0

Current marital status

 Single never married 86.7 8.3 5.0

 Married 66.8 18.6 14.6

 Divorced/separated/widowed 54.4 21.6 24.0

 In marriage-like relationship 75.6 16.4 8.0

Alcohol consumption during lifetime in 1992

 No occasions 88.8 7.7 3.5

 One or two occasions 86.1 9.5 4.4

 Three to nineteen occasions 87.2 7.8 4.9

 Twenty or more occasions 83.4 10.0 6.6

Cocaine or crack use during lifetime in 1992

 No occasions 86.3 8.6 5.2

 One or two occasions 74.9 13.3 11.8

 Three to nineteen occasions 77.1 14.4 8.5

 Twenty or more occasions 82.2 11.0 6.8

Socioeconomic status (1992)

 Lowest quartile 82.3 11.3 6.4

 Middle two quartiles 82.2 10.9 6.9

 Highest quartile 90.4 5.9 3.7

Children

 None 86.2 8.4 5.3

 One or more 69.8 19.6 10.5

Education level of father as of 1992

 High school or less 80.5 11.8 7.7

 Trade school after high school 83.4 10.8 5.8

 College after high school 84.6 11.3 4.1

 Finished college 90.2 5.1 4.8

 Graduate degree 92.2 5.2 2.7

Education level of mother as of 1992

 High school or less 82.6 10.6 6.8

 Trade school after high school 83.7 10.1 6.2

 College after high school 83.9 11.4 4.7

 Finished college 90.6 4.9 4.6

 Graduate degree 90.3 6.6 3.1

Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-1994 9/25/95

Note: Rows may not sum to 100 percent due to rounding error.
50

Table 1-4 Percentage of 1988 eighth graders with postsecondary enrollment by 1994

with different enrollment statuses by 1994 at first postsecondary education

institution, by selected secondary education characteristics

Full-time Half-time Less than half-time

 Total 85.1 9.2 5.7

High school sector

 Public 85.1 9.1 5.8

 Catholic 90.8 6.1 3.1

 Other private 88.8 9.7 1.5

Last high school program type

 Academic 87.7 8.0 4.3

 Vocational 71.3 17.7 11.0

 Other 79.5 12.0 8.5

Test quartile (1992)

 Lowest quartile 75.7 17.4 7.0

 Middle two quartiles 84.8 9.5 5.7

 Highest quartile 93.4 3.9 2.7

High school status (1994)

 Graduate 86.2 8.7 5.1

 Dropout 64.3 12.0 23.7

 GED or equivalent 64.7 18.9 16.4

Highest level of education expected in 1992

 High school or less 63.8 15.6 20.6

 Trade/vocational 70.8 17.1 12.1

 Some college 76.8 14.4 8.8

 Finish college 86.8 8.5 4.6

 Graduate degree 92.7 4.9 2.3

At risk of school failure factors (1988)

 None 87.1 8.4 4.6

 One 83.4 9.9 6.7

 Two or more 81.0 10.9 8.1

Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-1994 9/25/95

Note: Rows may not sum to 100 percent due to rounding error.
51

Table 1-5 Percentage of 1988 eighth graders reporting in 1994 different numbers of

postsecondary attendance spells, by selected background characteristics

None One Two Three or more

 Total 37.3 59.2 3.4 0.2

Sex

 Male 40.4 56.0 3.4 0.2

 Female 34.2 62.4 3.3 0.1

Race/ethnicity

 Asian or Pacific Islander 19.5 77.3 3.1 0.2

 Hispanic regardless of race 48.8 46.5 4.4 0.4

 Black not of Hispanic origin 47.1 49.4 3.4 0.2

 White not of Hispanic origin 34.0 62.7 3.2 0.1

Current marital status

 Single never married 31.0 65.3 3.5 0.2

 Married 67.2 29.9 2.8 0.1

 Divorced/separated/widowed 70.5 25.3 4.3 0.0

 In marriage-like relationship 66.1 31.7 2.2 0.1

Alcohol consumption during lifetime in 1992

 No occasions 37.5 60.4 2.1 0.0

 One or two occasions 33.4 63.6 2.9 0.1

 Three to nineteen occasions 30.9 65.9 3.2 0.1

 Twenty or more occasions 38.3 57.7 3.8 0.2

Cocaine or crack use during lifetime in 1992

 No occasions 33.0 63.6 3.3 0.1

 One or two occasions 63.7 34.6 1.5 0.2

 Three to nineteen occasions 51.8 43.5 4.4 0.3

 Twenty or more occasions 47.7 47.2 5.1 0.0

Socioeconomic status (1992)

 Lowest quartile 64.0 33.8 2.1 0.2

 Middle two quartiles 37.0 59.0 3.8 0.2

 Highest quartile 11.7 84.4 3.8 0.2

Children

 None 30.4 66.0 3.5 0.2

 One or more 73.7 23.2 3.0 0.1

Education level of father as of 1992

 High school or less 49.9 47.0 3.0 0.1

 Trade school after high school 28.4 66.7 4.5 0.4

 College after high school 25.4 71.5 2.9 0.3

 Finished college 16.1 78.8 4.8 0.3

 Graduate degree 10.2 86.4 3.3 0.1

Education level of mother as of 1992

 High school or less 47.5 48.9 3.6 0.1

 Trade school after high school 24.5 71.3 3.8 0.4

 College after high school 25.5 71.3 3.0 0.2

 Finished college 17.0 80.0 2.8 0.2

 Graduate degree 14.3 82.1 3.4 0.2

Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-1994 9/25/95

Note: Rows may not sum to 100 percent due to rounding error.
52

Continuity of Enrollment in First Postsecondary Educational Institution

 1988 eighth graders who were single in 1994 were more likely to be still enrolled in their

first postsecondary institution than those who were married, were in a marriage-like

relationship, or were divorced, separated, or widowed in 1994 (Table 1-6) (63 percent

compared to 32 percent, 31 percent, and 19 percent respectively).

 1988 eighth graders who, by 1992, had never consumed alcohol, had consumed it on one

or two occasions, or had consumed it on three to nineteen occasions were more likely to

be still enrolled in their first postsecondary education institution than those who had

consumed alcohol on twenty or more occasions (Table 1-6) (66 percent, 67 percent, and

65 percent compared to 55 percent respectively).

 1988 eighth graders whose parents finished college or earned a graduate degree were

more likely to be still enrolled in their first postsecondary education institution in 1994

than those whose parents finished high school or less (Table 1-6) (69 percent and 

72 percent compared to 54 percent respectively for fathers; 68 percent and 69 percent

compared to 54 percent respectively for mothers).

 A greater percentage of 1988 eighth graders in the highest 1992 test quartile were still

enrolled in their first postsecondary institution in 1994 than those in the lowest or middle

two 1992 test quartiles (Table 1-7) (74 percent compared to 45 percent and 60 percent

respectively).

 1988 eighth graders who were high school graduates by 1994 were more likely to be still

enrolled in their first postsecondary institution in 1994 than those who had a GED or

equivalent by 1994 (Table 1-7) (62 percent compared to 23 percent).
53

Table 1-6 Percentage of 1988 eighth graders with postsecondary enrollment by 1994

still enrolled in first postsecondary education institution in 1994, by selected

background characteristics

Percentage still enrolled

 Total 60.3

Sex

 Male 59.0

 Female 61.4

Race/ethnicity

 Asian or Pacific Islander 73.2

 Hispanic regardless of race 52.2

 Black not of Hispanic origin 52.0

 White not of Hispanic origin 61.8

Current marital status

 Single never married 63.3

 Married 31.6

 Divorced/separated/widowed 19.2

 In marriage-like relationship 30.8

Alcohol consumption during lifetime in 1992

 No occasions 66.4

 One or two occasions 66.9

 Three to nineteen occasions 65.3

 Twenty or more occasions 55.2

Cocaine or crack use during lifetime in 1992

 No occasions 62.8

 One or two occasions 42.1

 Three to nineteen occasions 41.7

 Twenty or more occasions 38.9

Socioeconomic status (1992)

 Lowest quartile 46.7

 Middle two quartiles 57.0

 Highest quartile 69.9

Children

 None 62.3

 One or more 30.9

Education level of father as of 1992

 High school or less 53.5

 Trade school after high school 58.8

 College after high school 60.1

 Finished college 68.6

 Graduate degree 72.0

Education level of mother as of 1992

 High school or less 53.6

 Trade school after high school 59.7

 College after high school 64.3

 Finished college 68.3

 Graduate degree 68.9

Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-1994 9/25/95
54

Table 1-7 Percentage of 1988 eighth graders with postsecondary enrollment by 1994

still enrolled in first postsecondary education institution in 1994, by selected

secondary education characteristics

Percentage still enrolled

 Total 60.3

High school sector

 Public 60.2

 Catholic 70.9

 Other private 66.8

Last high school program type

 Academic 64.7

 Vocational 38.6

 Other 49.9

Test quartile (1992)

 Lowest quartile 45.2

 Middle two quartiles 60.3

 Highest quartile 74.1

High school status (1994)

 Graduate 62.3

 Dropout 9.0

 GED or equivalent 23.1

Highest level of education expected in 1992

 High school or less 33.1

 Trade/vocational 38.0

 Some college 47.8

 Finish college 63.7

 Graduate degree 69.3

At risk of school failure factors (1988)

 None 65.3

 One 55.1

 Two or more 45.8

Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-1994 9/25/95
55

Section 2

Labor Force Participation and Earnings

The analyses reported in this section represent one of three populations, as noted below

and in the tables: 1) 1988 eighth graders in the labor force in 1993 (including sample members

employed for one or more months in 1993 who reported that they were not students or that they

were students but were primarily employed in 1993 and sample members who were unemployed

for all of 1993 but were seeking work; 2) 1988 eighth graders employed in 1993 (sample

members who were in the labor force in 1993, excluding those who were unemployed for all of

1993); and 3) all 1988 eighth graders.

Employment, Unemployment, and Earnings

Of the 1988 eighth graders who were employed for one or more months in 1993:

 Men's 1993 average total earnings exceeded those of women (Table 2-1) ($10,194 to

$6,723).

 Those in the lowest socioeconomic quartile were unemployed longer in 1993 than those

in the middle two socioeconomic quartiles (Table 2-1) (1.8 compared to 1.2 months).

 Blacks were unemployed longer in 1993 than 1988 eighth grade whites, Asians or Pacific

Islanders, and Hispanics (Table 2-1) (3.2 to 0.9, 1.3, and 1.8 months respectively).

 Those in the lowest and middle two 1992 socioeconomic quartiles held fewer jobs in

1993 than those in the highest test quartile (Table 2-1) (1.6 and 1.6 to 1.9 respectively).

 Those in the highest 1992 test quartile were unemployed for fewer months in 1993 than

those in the lowest or middle two test quartiles (Table 2-2) (0.6 to 2.0 and 1.0

respectively).

 Those who expected, in 1992, to obtain a baccalaureate degree were unemployed for

fewer months in 1993 than those who expected to obtain a high school diploma or less

(Table 2-2) (1.1 to 2.1 months).

Of the 1988 eighth graders who were in the labor force in 1993:

 Those in the lowest socioeconomic quartile were more likely to be unemployed from six

to twelve months in 1993 than those in the middle two socioeconomic quartiles

(Table 2-3) (14 percent to 9 percent).

 Blacks were more likely to be unemployed from six to twelve months in 1993 than

whites, Asian/Pacific Islanders, or Hispanics (Table 2-3) (27 percent to 7 percent, 10

percent, and 14 percent respectively).

 A greater percentage of those in the lowest 1992 test quartile were unemployed from six

to twelve months in 1993 than those in the middle two or highest test quartiles (Table 2-
56

4) (17 percent to 8 percent and 4 percent respectively).

 Those who were high school dropouts by 1994 were more likely to be unemployed from

six to twelve months in 1993 than those who were high school graduates (Table 2-4) 

(18 percent to 8 percent).

 A higher percentage of those with two or more at-risk of school failure factors were

unemployed from six to twelve months in 1993 than those with no at-risk factors or with

one at-risk factor (Table 2-4) (15 percent to 7 percent and 12 percent respectively).

The results reported below are based on the full eighth grade cohort, without selection for 1993

labor force status.

 A smaller percentage of 1988 eighth grade men than women were employed for only one

to five months in 1993 (4 percent to 6 percent), while a smaller percentage of 1988 eighth

grade women than men were employed for six or more months in 1993 (Table 2-5) 

(24 percent to 36 percent).

 1988 eighth grade blacks were more likely to be unemployed for all of 1993 than were

Asian/Pacific Islanders, Hispanics, or whites (Table 2-5) (8 percent to 1 percent, 

3 percent, and 1 percent respectively). 

 1988 eighth graders who had one child or more by 1994 were more likely to be

unemployed for the whole year in 1993 than those without children (Table 2-5) (8 percent

to 2 percent). 

 A higher percentage of 1988 eighth graders who attended public sector high schools were

unemployed for all of 1993 than those who attended other private high schools 

(Table 2-6) (2 percent to 1 percent).

 1988 eighth graders who participated in vocational high school programs were more

likely to be employed for six or more months in 1993 than those who participated in

traditional academic or other high school programs (Table 2-6) (55 percent to 21 percent

and

42 percent respectively).

 A greater percentage of 1988 eighth graders who, in 1992, expected to obtain a high

school diploma or less were unemployed for all of 1993 than those who expected to

obtain a baccalaureate or graduate degree (Table 2-6) (8 percent to 1 percent and 1

percent respectively).
57

Table 2-1 Average number of jobs held, average earnings, and average number of

months unemployed in 1993 for 1988 eighth graders who were employed in

1993<a>, by selected background characteristics

Average jobs Average earnings Average months

held in 1993 from jobs in 1993 unemployed in 1993

 Total 1.6 $8,728 1.5

Sex

 Male 1.6 10,194 1.3

 Female 1.6 6,723 1.7

Alcohol consumption during lifetime in 1992

 No occasions 1.5 7.609 2.2

 One or two occasions 1.5 7,450 1.8

 Three to nineteen occasions 1.6 8,337 1.3

 Twenty or more occasions 1.7 9,150 1.4

Cocaine or crack use during lifetime in 1992

 No occasions 1.6 8,528 1.5

 One or two occasions 2.1 8,921 1.5

 Three to nineteen occasions 1.7 7,861 1.4

 Twenty or more occasions 1.6 9,416 1.5

Socioeconomic status (1992)

 Lowest quartile 1.6 8,182 1.8

 Middle two quartiles 1.6 9,042 1.2

 Highest quartile 1.9 8,926 1.4

Children

 None 1.6 9,011 1.2

 One or more 1.6 7,698 2.4

Race/ethnicity

 Asian or Pacific Islander 1.6 8,205 1.3

 Hispanic regardless of race 1.5 8,133 1.8

 Black not of Hispanic origin 1.5 6,674 3.2

 White not of Hispanic origin 1.7 9,210 0.9

Education level of father as of 1992

 High school or less 1.6 8,597 1.3

 Trade school after high school 1.7 9,303 0.9

 College after high school 1.7 8,981 1.6

 Finished college 1.8 9,261 1.4

 Graduate degree 1.8 7,924 1.3

Education level of mother as of 1992

 High school or less 1.6 8,826 1.3

 Trade school after high school 1.7 8,406 1.2

 College after high school 1.9 8,363 1.9

 Finished college 1.6 9,245 0.9

 Graduate degree 1.8 9,038 2.3

Current marital status

 Single never married 1.6 8,790 1.5

 Married 1.6 8,770 1.1

 Divorced/separated/widowed 2.5 8,873 1.0

 In marriage-like relationship 1.7 8,210 2.0

Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-1994 9/25/95

<a> This table is based on 1988 eighth graders whose 1993 labor force status indicated they were students but

were primarily employed in 1993 or were not students and were employed one or more months during

1993.
58

Table 2-2 Average number of jobs held, average earnings, and average number of

months unemployed in 1993 for 1988 eighth graders who were employed in

1993<a>, by selected secondary education characteristics

Average jobs Average earnings Average months

held in 1993 from jobs in 1993 unemployed in 1993

 Total 1.6 $8,278 1.5

High school sector

 Public 1.6 8,786 1.4

 Catholic 1.7 8,163 1.2

 Other private 1.6 8,825 0.9

Last high school program type

 Academic 1.6 8,454 1.0

 Vocational 1.5 9,933 1.3

 Other 1.6 8.287 2.0

Type of first institution

 Private for-profit 1.8 6,264 1.3

 Private not-for-profit less than 4-year low n low n low n

 Public less than 2-year 1.6 low n 0.8

 Public 2-year 1.7 8,727 0.7

 Private not-for-profit 4-year 1.9 6,586 0.9

 Public 4-year 2.0 7,932 0.9

Test quartile (1992)

 Lowest quartile 1.5 8,340 2.0

 Middle two quartiles 1.7 8,638 1.0

 Highest quartile 1.9 8,080 0.6

High school status (1994)

 Graduate 1.6 8,882 1.0

 Dropout 1.6 8,245 2.2

 GED or equivalent 1.7 9,743 2.1

Highest level of education expected in 1992

 High school or less 1.6 9,369 2.1

 Trade/vocational 1.5 9,270 1.5

 Some college 1.6 8,618 1.3

 Finish college 1.7 8,165 1.1

 Graduate degree 1.8 7,194 1.4

Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-1994 9/25/95

Note: "low n" indicates too few cases for reliable estimate.

<a> This table is based on 1988 eighth graders whose 1993 labor force status indicated they were

students but were primarily employed in 1993 or were not students and were employed one or

more months during 1993.
59

Table 2-3 Percentage of 1988 eighth graders in the labor force in 1993<a> unemployed

for different numbers of months in 1993, by selected background

characteristics

One Two Three to five Six to twelve

None month months months months

 Total 76.9 2.5 3.1 6.0 11.6

Sex

 Male 78.7 3.0 2.6 5.8 9.9

 Female 74.6 1.9 3.6 6.2 13.6

Alcohol consumption during lifetime in 1992

 No occasions 71.1 1.6 2.5 8.0 16.9

 One or two occasions 73.9 2.5 3.2 5.8 14.6

 Three to nineteen occasions 79.8 1.5 3.1 4.7 10.9

 Twenty or more occasions 77.5 2.7 3.0 6.2 10.7

Cocaine or crack use during lifetime in 1992

 No occasions 77.5 2.2 2.9 5.7 11.7

 One or two occasions 77.1 2.3 4.1 4.9 11.7

 Three to nineteen occasions 73.0 0.4 5.8 10.7 10.1

 Twenty or more occasions 72.9 3.3 5.6 6.5 11.7

Socioeconomic status (1992)

 Lowest quartile 71.9 3.0 3.6 7.2 14.3

 Middle two quartiles 80.2 2.5 2.5 5.5 9.4

 Highest quartile 79.0 1.7 3.9 4.5 10.9

Children

 None 79.7 2.4 3.0 5.8 9.1

 One or more 67.5 2.9 3.2 6.7 19.8

Race/ethnicity

 Asian or Pacific Islander 80.4 2.0 4.5 3.2 9.9

 Hispanic regardless of race 72.6 3.5 3.2 6.2 14.5

 Black not of Hispanic origin 58.8 2.5 3.0 8.9 26.8

 White not of Hispanic origin 82.3 2.5 2.7 5.5 7.0

Education level of father as of 1992

 High school or less 77.6 2.8 3.0 6.3 10.4

 Trade school after high school 83.5 2.0 2.1 5.2 7.1

 College after high school 76.3 2.3 3.9 5.1 12.4

 Finished college 79.9 2.3 2.7 3.9 11.2

 Graduate degree 83.1 0.0 0.5 5.2 11.1

Education level of mother as of 1992

 High school or less 77.6 2.7 3.2 6.6 9.9

 Trade school after high school 78.9 2.0 4.5 4.8 9.8

 College after high school 77.1 1.3 2.0 4.4 15.2

 Finished college 81.4 2.3 3.8 4.8 7.7

 Graduate degree 74.1 2.8 0.3 2.2 20.7

Current marital status

 Single never married 77.0 2.4 3.0 6.1 11.5

 Married 79.1 3.7 3.3 5.6 8.2

 Divorced/separated/widowed 78.9 4.3 4.0 4.4 8.4

 In marriage-like relationship 73.1 1.1 3.1 6.0 16.7

Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-1994 9/25/95

Note: Rows may not sum to 100 percent due to rounding error.

<a> This table is based on 1988 eighth graders whose 1993 labor force status indicated they were students but

were primarily employed in 1993, were not students and were employed one or more months during 1993,

or were unemployed for all of 1993 and were seeking work.
60

Table 2-4 Percentage of 1988 eighth graders in the labor force in 1993<a> unemployed

for different numbers of months in 1993, by selected secondary education

and labor force characteristics

One Two Three to five Six to twelve

None month months months months

 Total 76.9 2.5 3.1 6.0 11.6

High school sector

 Public 78.5 2.1 3.1 5.7 10.6

 Catholic 84.4 1.2 0.0 5.1 9.3

 Other private 82.9 1.9 7.3 1.0 6.8

Last high school program type

 Academic 83.0 1.6 2.8 5.5 7.1

 Vocational 80.3 2.3 1.8 3.8 11.8

 Other 68.9 3.3 4.1 6.8 16.9

Industry of longest held 1993 job

 Agriculture or forestry 75.8 5.5 2.9 5.7 10.1

 Construction 80.7 3.4 4.1 6.0 5.8

 Manufacture of durable goods 77.5 1.5 5.0 7.5 8.5

 Manufacture of non-durable goods 81.6 1.8 1.8 9.4 5.5

 Transportation/communications/utilities 80.9 4.2 3.2 5.0 6.8

 Wholesale trade 87.2 0.4 1.9 4.5 6.0

 Retail trade 81.7 1.9 3.1 5.7 7.6

 Finance/insurance/real estate 83.4 4.1 4.1 5.3 3.1

 Business and repair services 77.8 3.7 3.0 8.4 7.1

 Personal services 80.3 4.0 6.7 2.2 6.8

 Entertainment or recreation 78.7 2.8 5.2 9.7 3.5

 Professional and related services 81.6 4.1 1.1 7.8 5.4

 Public administration 77.1 0.0 3.6 12.4 6.9

 Military 95.1 1.5 1.1 1.2 1.0

Test quartile (1992)

 Lowest quartile 70.6 2.8 4.2 5.5 17.0

 Middle two quartiles 82.4 1.8 2.8 5.2 7.9

 Highest quartile 89.3 1.0 2.0 4.1 3.6

High school status (1994)

 Graduate 82.2 2.1 2.5 5.3 7.8

 Dropout 67.5 2.6 4.4 7.7 17.8

 GED or equivalent 67.9 3.0 4.3 7.9 16.8

At risk of school failure factors (1988)

 None 82.8 1.8 2.5 5.7 7.2

 One 77.1 3.6 2.7 5.1 11.6

 Two or more 71.2 2.8 3.3 7.5 15.2

Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-1994 9/25/95

Note: Rows may not sum to 100 percent due to rounding error.

<a> This table is based on 1988 eighth graders whose 1993 labor force status indicated they were students but

were primarily employed in 1993, were not students and were employed one or more months during 1993,

or were unemployed for all of 1993 and were seeking work.
61

Table 2-5 Percentage of 1988 eighth graders with different 1993 postsecondary

education attendance and employment statuses, by selected background

characteristics

------Postsecondary education student------ --------------Non-student---------------

Traditional Part-time Primarily Unemployed Out

postsecondary student postsecondary Employed Employed for the of

education not education Primarily 6 months 1 to 5 whole work

student employed student employed or more months year force

 Total 37.1 2.5 8.1 9.9 30.2 4.9 2.6 4.7

Sex

 Male 34.0 2.2 8.6 10.3 36.0 3.9 2.2 2.8

 Female 40.3 2.8 7.6 9.5 24.4 5.9 2.9 6.6

Alcohol consumption during lifetime in 1992

 No occasions 40.3 3.3 9.5 6.0 23.0 4.9 4.1 8.9

 One or two occasions 43.1 2.5 9.3 7.5 24.3 4.6 3.2 5.6

 Three to nineteen occasions 44.3 1.7 7.9 10.4 26.2 3.8 2.0 3.7

 Twenty or more occasion 33.8 2.8 8.2 11.4 32.7 5.2 2.5 3.3

Cocaine or crack use during lifetime in 1992

 No occasions 41.7 2.6 8.5 9.6 26.6 4.5 2.5 4.0

 One or two occasions 12.6 1.1 6.3 9.6 47.6 5.7 4.5 12.6

 Three to nineteen occasions 15.0 3.2 13.6 12.4 36.4 6.2 2.5 10.9

 Twenty or more occasion 16.4 3.2 7.8 17.5 40.9 6.2 4.3 3.8

Socioeconomic status (1992)

 Lowest quartile 13.9 2.8 6.3 7.7 47.2 8.1 4.2 9.7

 Middle two quartiles 34.1 2.1 8.4 12.5 32.1 4.9 2.0 3.9

 Highest quartile 65.4 2.9 9.3 6.8 10.7 1.7 1.7 1.3

Children

 None 43.3 2.1 8.9 10.5 28.1 3.3 1.6 2.1

 One or more 3.7 4.4 4.0 6.9 41.5 13.1 7.7 18.8

Race/ethnicity

 Asian or Pacific Islander 55.9 3.3 9.0 8.7 16.5 2.7 1.4 2.7

 Hispanic regardless of race 23.5 2.8 9.1 10.5 34.6 7.7 3.0 8.8

 Black not of Hispanic origin 26.9 4.1 9.0 8.1 26.6 8.8 8.2 8.4

 White not of Hispanic origin 40.7 2.1 7.8 10.3 30.6 3.8 1.2 3.4

Education level of father as of 1992

 High school or less 23.4 2.3 6.7 11.2 41.7 6.0 2.7 5.9

 Trade school 41.5 2.3 10.2 12.1 27.0 2.9 1.5 2.6

 Some college 46.4 3.6 11.3 8.5 21.3 4.1 2.7 2.2

 Finished college 60.4 2.1 9.4 8.9 13.5 2.6 2.0 1.1

 Graduate degree 69.7 2.1 9.5 5.2 9.4 1.5 1.0 1.6

Education level of mother as of 1992

 High school or less 25.6 2.3 7.1 11.3 39.5 5.8 2.9 5.6

 Trade school 45.1 2.1 10.2 12.1 22.9 4.0 1.2 2.4

 Some college 46.7 3.1 11.2 9.2 19.5 4.6 3.7 2.0

 Finished college 62.0 1.8 8.8 6.8 15.3 2.8 0.6 1.8

 Graduate degree 63.9 4.6 9.5 5.0 11.1 1.1 3.3 1.5

Current marital status

 Single never married 43.3 2.4 8.9 9.6 26.1 4.1 2.2 3.4

 Married 6.3 3.1 4.3 10.7 50.0 9.1 3.1 13.3

 Divorced/separated/widowed 1.8 4.6 3.8 10.2 61.3 9.1 2.5 6.8

 In marriage-like relationship 9.4 2.0 4.7 12.3 48.5 8.1 6.3 8.9

Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-1994 9/25/95

Note: Rows may not sum to 100 percent due to rounding error.
62

Table 2-6 Percentage of 1988 eighth graders with different 1993 postsecondary

education attendance and employment statuses, by selected secondary and

postsecondary education characteristics

------Postsecondary education student------ ----------------Non-student----------------

Traditional Part-time Primarily Unemployed Out

postsecondary student postsecondary Employed Employed for the of

education not education Primarily 6 months 1 to 5 whole work

student employed student employed or more months year force

 Total 37.1 2.5 8.1 9.9 30.2 4.9 2.6 4.7

High school sector

 Public 37.1 2.3 8.3 10.4 30.7 4.7 2.3 4.3

 Catholic 67.1 3.2 9.7 7.9 8.7 1.1 1.3 1.0

 Other private 61.2 6.7 10.6 6.5 9.0 2.9 0.7 2.4

Last high school program type

 Academic 51.0 2.6 9.4 10.2 20.6 2.6 1.2 2.5

 Vocational 8.7 2.0 5.2 12.0 55.3 6.3 4.3 6.3

 Other 17.4 2.4 6.5 8.8 42.4 9.1 5.2 8.2

Type of first institution

 Private for-profit 18.0 10.8 28.0 25.8 12.3 3.0 0.4 1.7

 Private not-for-profit

 less than 4-year 45.7 3.4 11.9 26.0 7.8 4.2 0.0 1.2

 Public less than 2-year 7.0 9.1 40.5 13.3 24.3 2.8 0.0 3.0

 Public 2-year 40.6 4.6 16.6 25.4 10.2 1.3 0.5 0.8

 Private not-for-profit 4-year 84.8 2.0 7.1 3.6 1.8 0.4 0.1 0.1

 Public 4-year 75.8 2.3 9.8 8.5 2.5 0.5 0.3 0.3

Test quartile (1992)

 Lowest quartile 14.4 2.5 6.3 9.3 44.9 8.3 5.7 8.6

 Middle two quartiles 40.0 2.7 9.9 11.6 27.7 3.2 1.4 3.6

 Highest quartile 73.2 2.0 6.9 7.1 8.5 1.4 0.3 0.6

High school status (1994)

 Graduate 45.3 2.5 9.4 11.1 25.1 3.0 1.1 2.4

 Dropout 0.2 0.6 1.9 2.0 57.2 12.7 7.5 17.9

 GED or equivalent 2.9 4.8 3.7 8.9 51.5 9.0 8.1 11.2

Highest level of education expected in 1992

 High school or less 1.3 1.0 2.5 2.6 62.5 9.8 7.7 12.6

 Trade/vocational 7.9 1.7 6.7 9.9 52.8 7.8 4.9 8.3

 Some college 19.4 2.4 7.5 15.4 39.4 6.6 3.0 6.3

 Finish college 52.1 3.3 11.2 11.5 16.4 2.4 1.3 1.9

 Graduate degree 66.3 2.6 8.5 7.4 10.6 2.3 1.1 1.2

Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-1994 9/25/95

Note: Rows may not sum to 100 percent due to rounding error.
63

1993 Employment Conditions and Employee Fringe Benefits

Of the 1988 eighth graders who were employed in 1993:

 Men were more likely than women to report receiving employer-provided medical

benefits (52 percent to 38 percent), dental benefits (36 percent to 27 percent), life

insurance 

(38 percent to 26 percent), sick days with pay (39 percent to 32 percent), paid vacation

(53 percent to 46 percent), pension plans (32 percent to 21 percent), and childcare

assistance (13 percent to 7 percent) from their longest held job in 1993 (Table 2-7).

 Whites and Hispanics were more likely than blacks to receive employer-provided medical

benefits in their longest held job in 1993 (Table 2-7) (47 percent and 45 percent to 

35 percent respectively).

 A greater percentage of whites than Hispanics and blacks received employer-provided

unpaid leave to care for others in their longest held job in 1993 (Table 2-7) (45 percent to

34 percent and 27 percent respectively).

 Those with two or more at-risk of school failure factors were less likely to receive

employer-provided unpaid leave to care for others in their longest held job in 1993 than

those with no at-risk factors (Table 2-7) (35 percent to 45 percent).
64

Table 2-7 Percentage of 1988 eighth graders employed in 1993<a> reporting different fringe benefits r

held job in 1993, by selected background characteristics

Employer Employer 

provided provided 

Employer Employer Employer Employer Employer paid unpaid Emplo

provided provided provided provided provided maternity maternity provid

medical dental life sick days paid or paternity or paternity pensibenefits benefits insurance with pay vacation leave leave plan 

 Total 45.6 31.8 32.7 36.2 50.2 27.4 36.8 27.2 Sex Male 51.5 35.8 37.9 39.4 53.2 27.0 32.5 32. Female 38.0 26.8 26.2 32.1 46.4 27.8 42.4 20.Socioeconomic status (1992) Lowest quartile 46.7 30.7 33.3 37.1 53.0 26.9 34.4 27. Middle two quartiles 46.2 33.2 33.6 36.4 50.3 27.9 39.4 28.0  Highest quartile 39.1 29.8 27.5 33.0 41.3 26.7 32.6 22.8 Children None 47.6 33.6 33.5 37.6 51.4 29.5 36.2 28.2  One or more 38.3 25.4 29.6 31.1 46.0 19.9 39.2 23.6 Race/ethnicity Asian or Pacific Islander 52.3 43.9 33.9 40.2 55.5 26.7 27.3 23.9  Hispanic regardless of race 45.0 30.7 30.0 37.1 49.8 27.8 32.9 24.6  Black not of Hispanic origin 35.0 25.5 27.1 31.8 42.2 24.2 29.5 22.4  White not of Hispanic origin 47.3 32.9 33.8 36.6 51.4 27.8 38.8 28.5 Current marital status Single never married 45.2 32.1 32.1 36.7 49.6 28.0 34.8 26.7  Married 49.3 34.4 39.3 36.7 55.2 28.3 45.6 28.8  Divorced/separated/widowed 58.1 25.3 47.8 45.2 62.3 16.7 26.8 44.3  In marriage-like relationship 41.3 27.9 25.3 30.1 45.6 24.0 40.7 24.5 At risk of school failure factors (1988) None 46.1 33.3 33.9 37.9 50.1 29.5 38.2 27.9  One 44.9 31.2 32.2 35.2 49.9 27.8 38.0 26.3  Two or more 44.5 29.6 31.9 34.8 51.2 24.9 35.3 27.6 Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-1994 9/25/95Note: Rows may not sum to 100 percent due to rounding error.<a> This table is based on 1988 eighth graders whose 1993 labor force status indicated they were students but were primarily emp

students and were employed one or more months during 1993.
65

Tuition Assistance, Job Training, and Job Satisfaction

Of the 1988 eighth graders employed in 1993:

 Blacks were more likely than whites to report receiving on-site formal training at their

longest held job in 1993 (86 percent to 70 percent) (Table 2-8). 

 A higher percentage of whites than blacks reported receiving employer-provided tuition

assistance at their longest held job in 1993 (Table 2-8) (27 percent to 12 percent).

 Men reported spending more weeks and more hours per week attending job training for

their longest held job in 1993 than 1988 eighth grade women (Table 2-9) (12 weeks to 

6 weeks; 29 hours per week to 16 hours per week).

 A greater percentage of men than women reported being very satisfied with opportunities

for advancement in their longest held job in 1993 (Table 2-10) (32 percent to 27 percent).

 Whites were more likely than blacks to be very satisfied with job security (46 percent to

31 percent) and with working conditions (44 percent to 33 percent) in their longest held

job in 1993. (Table 2-10).

 A higher percentage of those in the middle two socioeconomic quartiles than those in the

lowest quartile were very satisfied with job security in their longest held job in 1993

(Table 2-10) (46 percent to 39 percent).

 Those who were married by 1994 were more likely to be very satisfied with the

opportunity to use their education in their longest held job in 1993 than those who were

never married, were divorced, separated or widowed, or were in a marriage-like

relationship (Table 2-10) (35 percent to 27 percent, 16 percent, and 23 percent

respectively).

 A greater percentage of those who were married by 1994 were very satisfied with job

security in their longest held job in 1993 than those who had never married or were in a

marriage-like relationship in 1994 (Table 2-10) (51 percent to 42 percent and 36 percent

respectively).
72

Table 2-11 Percentage of 1988 eighth graders reporting in 1994 their expectations to be in different occ

by various background characteristics

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66

Table 2-8 Percentage of 1988 eighth graders employed in 1993<a> receiving employerprovided tuition assistance and job training benefits in 1993, by selected

background characteristics

On-site Informal Off-site Employer-provided

formal on-the-job formal tuition assistance

training received training received training received received

 Total 72.1 55.1 42.2 23.4

Sex

 Male 72.8 54.3 42.7 21.0

 Female 71.1 56.3 41.4 26.9

Socioeconomic status (1992)

 Lowest quartile 78.2 49.7 36.4 19.0

 Middle two quartiles 67.3 56.7 45.9 26.2

 Highest quartile 79.4 61.7 40.2 20.5

Children

 None 72.8 56.9 42.0 24.9

 One or more 68.7 44.3 44.2 14.1

Race/ethnicity

 Hispanic regardless of race 73.2 48.9 40.0 16.3

 Black not of Hispanic origin 86.5 45.4 34.5 11.9

 White not of Hispanic origin 70.2 57.6 43.4 27.0

Current marital status<b>

 Single never married 70.9 53.5 42.9 24.9

 Married 75.4 60.5 46.2 21.8

 In marriage-like relationship 77.7 55.5 32.1 17.9

Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-1994 9/25/95

<a> This table is based on 1988 eighth graders whose 1993 labor force status indicated they were

students but were primarily employed in 1993 or were not students and were employed one or

more months during 1993.

<b> The category “Divorced/separated/widowed” is not included because there are too few cases for

reliable estimates.
67

Table 2-9 Average number of weeks attended, and average hours per week, 

by 1988 eighth graders employed in 1993<a> in job-related

training in 1993, by selected background characteristics

Average number of Average hours per week

weeks training was training was 

attended in 1993 attended in 1993

 Total 9.5 23.8

Sex

 Male 12.1 29.0

 Female 5.6 16.1

Socioeconomic status (1992)

 Lowest quartile 8.7 21.0

 Middle two quartiles 9.8 25.3

 Highest quartile 10.3 24.7

Children

 None 9.7 24.1

 One or more 8.5 22.4

Race/ethnicity

 Hispanic regardless of race 7.1 23.1

 Black not of Hispanic origin 8.9 23.0

 White not of Hispanic origin 10.1 24.1

Current marital status<b>

 Single never married 9.2 23.8

 Married 11.3 26.5

 In marriage-like relationship 8.6 18.7

Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-1994 9/25/95

<a> This table is based on 1988 eighth graders whose 1993 labor force status indicated they were

students but were primarily employed in 1993 or were not students and were employed one or

more months during 1993.

<b> The category “Divorced/separated/widowed” is not included because there are too few cases for

reliable estimates.
68

Table 2-10 Percentage of 1988 eighth graders employed in 1993<a>

reporting they are very satisfied with various employment

conditions and benefits from longest held job in 1993, by selected

background characteristics

Pay Opportunity Opportunity Opportunities

and Working for to use for

benefits Importance conditions advancement education Security education

 Total 26.0 33.5 41.4 29.5 27.4 42.7 29.5

Sex

 Male 27.5 34.5 39.6 31.6 28.0 43.6 31.0

 Female 24.1 32.2 43.8 26.9 26.7 41.6 27.6

Socioeconomic status (1992)

 Lowest quartile 24.9 32.4 39.7 26.9 25.8 38.6 28.8

 Middle two quartiles 26.2 33.8 42.0 30.4 27.9 45.5 29.4

 Highest quartile 29.7 35.1 44.2 34.3 30.3 43.7 33.1

Children

 None 26.5 33.8 42.0 30.3 27.7 43.2 30.5

 One or more 24.3 32.3 39.3 26.8 26.2 40.8 25.6

Race/ethnicity

 Asian or Pacific Islander 32.2 33.2 35.2 34.1 31.6 43.6 30.9

 Hispanic regardless of race 25.2 32.9 39.2 29.1 25.6 39.8 31.1

 Black not of Hispanic origin 20.9 29.1 32.7 23.0 25.4 30.9 30.1

 White not of Hispanic origin 27.0 34.4 43.9 30.7 27.9 45.7 29.1

Education level of father as of 1992

 High school or less 26.8 33.5 43.2 29.5 27.5 44.8 30.7

 Trade school after H.S. 27.6 36.4 39.8 31.9 24.6 45.9 27.1

 College after H.S. 27.1 38.2 36.1 30.9 32.1 44.2 28.5

 Finished college 30.4 32.5 43.1 33.0 27.4 45.8 30.1

 Graduate degree 28.1 38.4 49.0 28.1 25.1 38.4 31.4

Education level of mother as of 1992

 High school or less 26.2 33.4 42.0 29.1 27.0 43.3 29.4

 Trade school after H.S. 25.5 29.9 42.1 30.6 28.5 47.2 28.0

 College after H.S. 27.7 35.9 37.2 29.0 29.8 43.8 29.3

 Finished college 32.3 37.4 47.5 37.8 28.8 45.4 38.2

 Graduate degree 22.5 38.2 38.2 33.1 30.2 37.4 30.7

Current marital status

 Single never married 26.9 33.0 41.4 29.4 26.9 41.9 30.9

 Married 27.0 39.3 43.0 34.6 35.0 50.9 29.1

 Divorced/separated/widowed 16.0 28.7 50.8 20.3 16.4 47.0 18.5

 In marriage-like relationship 21.0 30.1 37.5 25.8 22.8 36.5 22.5

Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-1994 9/25/95

<a> This table is based on 1988 eighth graders whose 1993 labor force status indicated they were students but

were primarily employed in 1993 or were not students and were employed one or more months during

1993.
69
70

Expected Occupations and Incomes

The following analyses represent the self-reports for all 1988 eighth graders

in 1994 regarding the occupation and income they expected to have at age 30. It

may be useful to note that CPS Trends in Income: 1990-1992 estimates median

income of 25-34 year olds in 1992 as $21,605 for males and $13,713 for females. 

By contrast, the NELS:88/94 respondents reported expectations of $63,719 for

males and $44,683 for females at age 30. It is apparent that the income

expectations of the NELS:88/94 respondents are, to say the least, optimistic even

taking into account potential inflation by the time they reach age 30. Therefore,

the data on income expectations reported below should be considered in terms of

relative differences among subgroups rather than absolute dollar amounts.

 1988 eighth grade women were more likely than 1988 eighth grade men to

expect in 1994 to be in a clerical occupation at age 30 (27 percent

compared to 4 percent). However, men were more likely than women to

report expecting to be craftsmen by age 30

 (Table 2-11) (31 percent compared to 4 percent).

 A greater percentage of 1988 eighth grade women than men reported in

1994 that they expected to be school teachers at age 30 (Table 2-11) (16

percent compared to 7 percent).

 A smaller percentage of 1988 eighth graders in the lowest socioeconomic

quartile than those in the middle two and highest quartiles expected in 1994

to be school teachers by age 30. (Table 2-11) (9 percent compared to 12

percent and 13 percent).

 In 1994, 1988 eighth graders who were enrolled in high school vocational

programs were more likely to expect to be craftsmen by age 30, compared to

those in academic or other high school programs (Table 2-12) (36 percent

compared to 14 percent and 22 percent).

 1988 eighth grade men expected in 1994 to have higher incomes by age 30

than did 1988 eighth grade women (Table 2-13) ($63,157 to $44,649).

 The 1994 reported average income expected by age 30 was higher for 1988

eighth graders in the highest socioeconomic quartile than for those in the

middle two or lowest socioeconomic quartiles (Table 2-13) ($62,817

compared to $55,789 and $46,137, respectively).
71

 1988 eighth graders without children by 1994 expected in 1994 to have

higher incomes by age 30 than did those with one or more children (Table

2-13) ($56,031 to $39,872).

 1988 eighth grade blacks expected in 1994 to have higher incomes by age

30 than did Hispanics (Table 2-13) ($66,966 compared to $48,474).

 1988 eighth graders who, in 1992, expected to earn a graduate degree also

reported higher expected incomes by age 30 in 1994 than those who

expected to complete less than four years of college, or to complete high

school or less (Table 2-14) ($61,775 to $45,961, and $45,838, respectively).
74

Table 2-13 Average of 1988 eighth graders' reports in 1994 of expected income at age 30,

by selected characteristics

Average expected income at age 30

 Total $54,328

Sex

 Male 63,157

 Female 44,649

Socioeconomic status (1992)

 Lowest quartile 46,137

 Middle two quartiles 53,789

 Highest quartile 62,817

Children

 None 56,031

 One or more 39,872

Race/ethnicity

 Asian or Pacific Islander 63,047

 Hispanic regardless of race 48,474

 Black not of Hispanic origin 66,966

 White not of Hispanic origin 52,673

Education level of father as of 1992

 High school or less 48,660

 Trade school after high school 51,476

 College after high school 63,024

 Finished college 59,267

 Graduate degree 66,528

Education level of mother as of 1992

 High school or less 49,578

 Trade school after high school 57,234

 College after high school 63,852

 Finished college 65,014

 Graduate degree 62,251

Current marital status

 Single never married 57,016

 Married 36,602

 Divorced/separated/widowed 43,227

 In marriage-like relationship 45,018

Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-1994 9/25/95
75

Table 2-14 Average of 1988 eighth graders' reports in 1994 of expected income at age 30,

by selected secondary education characteristics

Average expected income at age 30

 Total $54,328

Last high school program type

 Academic 54,546

 Vocational 47,239

 Other 54,880

Test quartile (1992)

 Lowest quartile 52,358

 Middle two quartiles 52,133

 Highest quartile 54,932

High school status (1994)

 Graduate 53,878

 Dropout 53,300

 GED or equivalent 58,297

Highest level of education expected in 1992

 High school or less 45,838

 Trade/vocational 49,217

 Some college 45,961

 Finished college 54,592

 Graduate degree 61,775

Highest level of education expected in 1994

 High school or less 46,795

 Trade/vocational 44,414

 Some college 46,599

 Finish college 54,117

 Graduate degree 61,666

Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-1994 9/25/95
77

Section 3

Sex, Marriage, and Family

The data reported in this section describe the relationship between various characteristics and marriage,

family, and sexual experiences reported in 1994 by the 1988 eighth grade cohort members. These variables provide

a context for assessing important factors in the personal development of the cohort as they move beyond high

school.

Reported Sexual Experiences

 The majority of 1988 eighth graders overall reported having had sexual intercourse by 1994. Women were

more likely than men to report that they had not had intercourse by 1994 (Table 3-1) (18 percent to 14

percent).

 A greater percentage of 1988 eighth graders in the lowest socioeconomic quartile reported in 1994 that

they had experienced their first sexual intercourse before high school than those in the middle two or

highest socioeconomic quartiles (Table 3-1) (26 percent to 

17 percent and 9 percent respectively).

 1988 eighth grade Hispanics, blacks, and whites were more likely to report in 1994 that they had

experienced their first sexual intercourse before high school than 1988 eighth grade Asians or Pacific

Islanders (Table 3-1) (17 percent, 32 percent, and 15 percent to 

8 percent).

 1988 eighth graders who participated in vocational and other high school programs were more likely to

report in 1994 that they had experienced their first sexual intercourse before high school than those who

participated in academic high school programs (Table 3-2) 

(26 percent and 26 percent to 11 percent respectively).

 In 1994, a higher percentage of 1988 eighth graders who had graduated from high school by 1994 reported

that they had experienced their first sexual intercourse after high school than those who were high school

dropouts or had a GED or equivalent by 1994 

(Table 3-2) (15 percent to 4 percent and 3 percent respectively).

 1988 eighth graders who, in 1992, expected to complete some college after high school, finish college, or

earn a graduate degree were more likely to report in 1994 never having sexual intercourse than those who

expected only to complete high school or less 

(Table 3-2) (11 percent, 19 percent, 23 percent to 5 percent respectively).

 Overall reported usage of birth control during first sexual intercourse was high for 1988 eighth grade

cohort members. A greater percentage of men than women reported in 1994 not using birth control during

their first sexual intercourse (Table 3-3) (29 percent to 

25 percent).
78

 1988 eighth graders in the highest and middle two socioeconomic quartiles were more likely in 1994 to

report having used birth control during their first sexual intercourse than those in the lowest socioeconomic

quartile (Table 3-3) (80 percent and 75 percent to 

64 percent respectively).

 In 1994, a higher percentage of 1988 eighth graders with children than those without children reported not

having used birth control during their first sexual intercourse (Table 3-3) (43 percent to 23 percent).

 1988 eighth grade Asians/Pacific Islanders, blacks, and whites were more likely in 1994 to report having

used birth control during their first sexual intercourse than 1988 eighth grade Hispanics (Table 3-3) (72

percent, 70 percent, and 76 percent to 61 percent respectively).

 1988 eighth graders in the middle two and highest 1992 test quartiles were more likely in 1994 to report

having used birth control during their first sexual intercourse than those in the lowest 1992 test quartile

(Table 3-4) (76 percent and 85 percent to 68 percent respectively).

 1988 eighth graders who were high school dropouts or had a GED or equivalent by 1994 were more likely

in 1994 to report not having used birth control during their first sexual intercourse than those who were

high school graduates by 1994 (Table 3-4) (48 percent and 44 percent to 22 percent respectively).

 In 1994, a smaller percentage of 1988 eighth graders who, in 1992, expected only to complete high school

reported using birth control during their first sexual intercourse than those who expected to complete some

college, finish college, or earn a graduate degree (Table 3-4) (60 percent to 73 percent, 80 percent, and 81

percent respectively).

 1988 eighth graders not married in 1994 in the lowest socioeconomic quartile were more likely in 1994 to

report not having used birth control during their last sexual intercourse than those in the middle two or

highest socioeconomic quartiles (Table 3-5) (26 percent to 17 percent and 13 percent respectively).

 In 1994, a greater percentage of 1988 eighth graders not married in 1994 who were high school graduates

by 1994 reported having used birth control during their last sexual intercourse than those who were high

school dropouts by 1994 (Table 3-6) (85 percent to 66 percent).

 1988 eighth graders not married in 1994 with no 1988 at risk of school failure factors were more likely to

report in 1994 having used birth control during their last sexual intercourse than those with two or more

1988 at-risk factors (Table 3-6) (86 percent to 

73 percent).
79

Table 3-1 Percentage of 1988 eighth graders by timing of first sexual intercourse<a>, by selected

background characteristics

Before During After Date

Never high school high school high school unknown

 Total 15.7 17.2 48.4 13.1 5.6

Sex

 Male 13.7 24.0 47.4 10.5 4.5

 Female 17.9 10.2 49.3 15.8 6.8

Socioeconomic status (1992)

 Lowest quartile 11.2 25.5 45.7 10.8 6.9

 Middle two quartiles 13.9 17.3 50.3 13.1 5.4

 Highest quartile 23.6 8.7 47.2 15.5 5.0

Race/ethnicity

 Asian or Pacific Islander 35.3 7.5 34.2 16.1 6.9

 Hispanic regardless of race 15.4 17.4 46.9 14.2 6.1

 Black not of Hispanic origin 7.4 32.3 45.6 8.6 6.1

 White not of Hispanic origin 16.5 14.6 50.0 13.6 5.3

Education level of father as of 1992

 High school or less 11.0 21.1 49.4 12.6 5.8

 Trade school after high school 16.0 16.9 47.9 14.3 4.8

 College after high school 16.6 13.7 47.0 15.9 6.7

 Finished college 23.1 8.2 48.2 15.5 5.0

 Graduate degree 25.3 8.0 46.7 15.6 4.4

Education level of mother as of 1992

 High school or less 11.7 20.1 49.7 12.5 6.0

 Trade school after high school 17.0 14.1 52.1 12.1 4.7

 College after high school 17.6 14.1 47.2 15.2 5.9

 Finished college 24.1 9.8 46.3 14.7 5.1

 Graduate degree 19.3 12.0 47.3 17.2 4.3

Current marital status

 Single never married 18.9 15.5 46.7 13.4 5.5

 Married 0.4 19.9 57.9 15.1 6.7

 Divorced/separated/widowed 1.0 53.2 41.9 2.3 1.6

 In marriage-like relationship 1.0 26.9 56.9 8.9 6.3

Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-1994 9/25/95

Note: Rows may not sum to 100 percent due to rounding error.

<a> Reported in 1994.
80

Table 3-2 Percentage of 1988 eighth graders by timing of first sexual intercourse<a>, by selected

secondary education and labor force characteristics

Before During After Date

Never high school high school high school unknown

 Total 15.7 17.2 48.4 13.1 5.6

High school sector

 Public 15.3 16.2 49.2 13.6 5.7

 Catholic 21.0 12.8 44.7 17.7 3.8

 Other private 39.4 3.1 40.1 11.0 6.3

Last high school program type

 Academic 19.3 11.4 48.4 15.9 5.0

 Vocational 10.5 26.3 47.8 9.3 6.0

 Other 10.4 25.8 49.1 8.8 5.9

Labor force status in 1993

 Postsecondary education student

 Traditional PSE student 26.2 6.5 44.5 17.6 5.2

 Part time student not employed 21.4 20.7 37.2 18.0 2.7

 Primarily PSE student, also employed 16.4 13.6 50.7 14.9 4.4

 Primarily employed, also student 10.5 15.6 56.4 11.8 5.7

 Non-student

 Employed 6 months or more 7.2 26.3 50.7 9.5 6.3

 Employed 1 to 5 months 8.1 23.4 55.3 7.2 6.0

 Unemployed 11.1 37.2 37.5 8.9 5.3

 Out of work force 5.9 30.5 49.3 7.2 7.0

Test quartile (1992)

 Lowest quartile 9.1 25.7 48.3 10.9 6.0

 Middle two quartiles 15.5 14.6 50.6 14.0 5.4

 Highest quartile 28.3 4.6 43.5 19.7 3.9

High school status (1994)

 Graduate 18.6 12.1 48.4 15.1 5.8

 Dropout 3.1 40.8 46.7 4.3 5.1

 GED or equivalent 1.9 40.0 51.0 3.4 3.8

Highest level of education expected in 1992

 High school or less 4.6 35.3 45.3 7.7 7.1

 Trade/vocational 8.5 23.0 53.3 9.7 5.6

 Some college 11.3 19.3 50.9 11.9 6.6

 Finish college 19.3 12.2 48.8 15.0 4.7

 Graduate degree 23.2 8.9 46.6 16.7 4.6

At risk of school failure factors (1988)

 None 19.3 11.8 48.7 15.3 4.9

 One 13.2 19.2 50.1 12.0 5.5

 Two or more 9.2 26.4 48.4 9.3 6.7

Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-1994 9/25/95

Note: Rows may not sum to 100 percent due to rounding error.

<a> Reported in 1994.
81

Table 3-3 Percentage of 1988 eighth graders reporting in 1994 that they used birth control during

their first sexual intercourse, by selected background characteristics

Did use Did not use

birth control birth control

 Total 73.2 26.8

Sex

 Male 71.3 28.7

 Female 75.3 24.7

Socioeconomic status (1992)

 Lowest quartile 64.2 35.8

 Middle two quartiles 75.1 24.9

 Highest quartile 79.8 20.2

Children

 None 77.1 22.9

 One or more 56.8 43.2

Race/ethnicity

 Asian or Pacific Islander 72.0 28.0

 Hispanic regardless of race 60.6 39.4

 Black not of Hispanic origin 69.7 30.4

 White not of Hispanic origin 76.2 23.8

Education level of father as of 1992

 High school or less 72.0 28.0

 Trade school after high school 74.9 25.1

 College after high school 75.6 24.4

 Finished college 78.4 21.6

 Graduate degree 83.0 17.0

Education level of mother as of 1992

 High school or less 71.5 28.5

 Trade school after high school 74.8 25.2

 College after high school 76.9 23.1

 Finished college 79.9 20.1

 Graduate degree 79.6 20.4

Current marital status

 Single never married 75.2 24.8

 Married 67.4 32.6

 Divorced/separated/widowed 46.2 53.8

 In marriage-like relationship 66.6 33.4

Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-1994 9/25/95

Note: Rows may not sum to 100 percent due to rounding error.
82

Table 3-4 Percentage of 1988 eighth graders reporting in 1994 that they used birth control during

their first sexual intercourse, by selected secondary education and labor force

characteristics

Did use Did not use

birth control birth control

 Total 73.2 26.8

High school sector

 Public 74.3 25.7

 Catholic 78.6 21.4

 Other private 87.7 12.3

Last high school program type

 Academic 78.9 21.1

 Vocational 68.3 31.7

 Other 65.8 34.2

Labor force status in 1993

 Postsecondary education student

 Traditional PSE student 84.3 15.7

 Part-time student not employed 73.6 26.4

 Primarily PSE student, also employed 79.3 20.7

 Primarily employed, also PSE student 72.1 28.0

 Non-student

 Employed 6 months or more 68.4 31.6

 Employed 1 to 5 months 64.1 35.9

 Unemployed 55.8 44.2

 Out of work force 48.1 51.9

Test quartile (1992)

 Lowest quartile 67.8 32.2

 Middle two quartiles 76.2 23.8

 Highest quartile 84.6 15.4

High school status (1994)

 Graduate 78.5 21.5

 Dropout 51.5 48.5

 GED or equivalent 56.4 43.6

Highest level of education expected in 1992

 High school or less 60.5 39.5

 Trade/vocational 66.3 33.7

 Some college 73.0 27.0

 Finish college 79.7 20.3

 Graduate degree 80.7 19.3

At risk of school failure factors (1988)

 None 79.3 20.7

 One 71.4 28.6

 Two or more 62.4 37.6

Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-1994 9/25/95

Note: Rows may not sum to 100 percent due to rounding error.
83

Table 3-5 Percentage of 1988 eighth graders not married in 1994 who reported that they used birth

control during their last sexual intercourse, by selected background characteristics

Did use Did not use

birth control birth control

 Total 81.8 18.2

Sex

 Male 82.2 17.8

 Female 81.3 18.6

Socioeconomic status (1992)

 Lowest quartile 74.5 25.5

 Middle two quartiles 83.3 16.8

 Highest quartile 87.1 12.9

Children

 None 83.7 16.3

 One or more 71.4 28.6

Race/ethnicity

 Asian or Pacific Islander 78.7 21.3

 Hispanic regardless of race 73.0 27.0

 Black not of Hispanic origin 81.8 18.2

 White not of Hispanic origin 83.5 16.5

Education level of father as of 1992

 High school or less 79.5 20.5

 Trade school after high school 85.3 14.7

 College after high school 86.8 13.2

 Finished college 84.9 15.1

 Graduate degree 87.3 12.6

Education level of mother as of 1992

 High school or less 79.6 20.4

 Trade school after high school 84.0 16.0

 College after high school 85.3 14.8

 Finished college 87.8 12.2

 Graduate degree 85.4 14.6

Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-1994 9/25/95

Note: Rows may not sum to 100 percent due to rounding error.
84

Table 3-6 Percentage of 1988 eighth graders not married in 1994 who reported that they used birth

control during their last sexual intercourse, by selected secondary education and labor force

characteristics

Did use Did not use

birth control birth control

 Total 81.8 18.2

High school sector

 Public 82.3 17.7

 Catholic 88.5 11.5

 Other private 91.2 8.8

Last high school program type

 Academic 85.7 14.3

 Vocational 78.4 21.6

 Other 75.8 24.2

Labor force status in 1993

 Postsecondary education student

 Traditional PSE student 90.3 9.7

 Part-time student not employed 86.0 14.0

 Primarily PSE student, also employed 86.0 14.0

 Primarily employed, also PSE student 80.7 19.3

 Non-student

 Employed 6 months or more 75.5 24.5

 Employed 1 to 5 months 71.7 28.3

 Unemployed 73.9 26.1

 Out of work force 68.9 31.1

Test quartile (1992)

 Lowest quartile 76.7 23.4

 Middle two quartiles 83.8 16.2

 Highest quartile 89.4 10.6

High school status (1994)

 Graduate 84.7 15.3

 Dropout 65.8 34.2

 GED or equivalent 78.3 21.8

Highest level of education expected in 1992

 High school or less 71.9 28.1

 Trade/vocational 77.8 22.2

 Some college 79.9 20.0

 Finish college 84.9 15.1

 Graduate degree 87.8 12.2

At risk of school failure factors (1988)

 None 85.7 14.3

 One 81.7 18.3

 Two or more 73.2 26.8

Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-1994 9/25/95

Note: Rows may not sum to 100 percent due to rounding error.
85

Marital Status and Family

 The majority of 1988 eighth graders had never been married by 1994. Men were more likely than women

to be single, never married (88 percent to 78 percent). 1988 eighth grade women were more likely than

men to be married or in a marriage-like relationship in 1994 (Table 3-7) (13 percent to 6 percent for those

married; 8 percent to 5 percent for those in marriage-like relationships).

 Only 1 percent of 1988 eighth graders overall reported that they were divorced, separated, or widowed in

1994. Those in the lowest and middle two socioeconomic quartiles were more likely to be divorced,

separated, or widowed by 1994 than those in the highest socioeconomic quartile (Table 3-7) (3 percent and

1 percent to 0.3 percent respectively).

 1988 eighth grade Hispanics were more likely to be married in 1994 than Asians/Pacific Islanders, blacks,

or whites (Table 3-7) (14 percent to 4 percent, 3 percent, and 10 percent respectively).

 1988 eighth graders who attended public sector high schools were more likely to be married in 1994 than

those who attended Catholic high schools (Table 3-8) (9 percent to 

2 percent).

 1988 eighth graders in the lowest 1992 test quartile were more likely to be divorced, separated, or widowed

by 1994 than those in the highest test quartile (Table 3-8) 

(1 percent compared to 0.3 percent).

 1988 eighth graders who, in 1992, expected to have an education of high school or less, or to attend trade

school or to complete some college after high school, were more likely to be married by 1994 (20 percent,

14 percent, and 12 percent respectively) than those who expected to finish college or earn a graduate

degree (Table 3-8) (5 percent and 4 percent respectively).

 1988 eighth grade women were more likely than 1988 eighth grade men to have one child, or two or more

children by 1994 (Table 3-9) (16 percent to 8 percent for one child; 

6 percent to 2 percent for two or more children).

 1988 eighth graders in the highest and middle two socioeconomic quartiles were more likely not to have

children by 1994 than those in the lowest socioeconomic quartile

(Table 3-9) (96 percent and 85 percent to 70 percent respectively).

 1988 eighth grade Hispanics, and blacks were more likely to have two or more children by 1994 than 1988

eighth grade Asians/Pacific Islanders and whites (Table 3-9) (8 percent, and 9 percent to 2 percent and 2

percent respectively).

 1988 eighth graders who attended Catholic and other private high schools were more likely not to have

children by 1994 than those who attended public sector high schools (Table 3-10) (96 percent and 96

percent to 85 percent).

 1988 eighth graders from academic high school programs were more likely not to have children by 1994

than those from vocational and other high school programs (Table 3-10) (92 percent to 79 percent and 72

percent respectively).

 1988 eighth graders who expected to complete some college after high school, earn a bachelor's degree, or

earn a graduate degree were more likely not to have children by 1994 than those who expected in 1992 to

have an education of high school or less (Table 3-10) (81 percent, 92 percent and 94 percent to 64 percent).

 1988 eighth graders with one, or two or more, 1988 at risk of school failure factors were less likely to have

no children by 1994 than those with no risk factors (Table 3-10) (84 percent and 70 percent to 91 percent,

respectively).
86

 1988 eighth grade women were more likely than 1988 eighth grade men to have children 48 months of age

or older by 1994 (Table 3-11) (19 percent to 7 percent).
87

Table 3-7 Percentage of 1988 eighth graders by marital status in 1994, by selected background

characteristics

Single, Divorced, In

never separated, marriage-like

married Married widowed relationship

 Total 82.6 9.3 1.3 6.9

Sex

 Male 87.6 6.0 1.1 5.3

 Female 77.5 12.6 1.5 8.5

Socioeconomic status (1992)

 Lowest quartile 72.6 13.9 2.9 10.6

 Middle two quartiles 82.5 10.1 1.0 6.4

 Highest quartile 92.6 3.6 0.3 3.5

Children

 None 89.6 5.0 0.4 5.0

 One or more 45.5 31.8 6.1 16.6

Race/ethnicity

 Asian or Pacific Islander 90.7 4.2 0.5 4.6

 Hispanic regardless of race 74.8 14.2 1.4 9.6

 Black not of Hispanic origin 89.3 3.2 0.3 7.2

 White not of Hispanic origin 82.4 9.7 1.5 6.4

Education level of father as of 1992

 High school or less 76.3 12.9 2.0 8.8

 Trade school after high school 85.3 7.4 1.5 5.8

 College after high school 86.3 8.8 0.6 4.3

 Finished college 91.4 4.7 0.4 3.5

 Graduate degree 94.9 2.4 0.1 2.6

Education level of mother as of 1992

 High school or less 77.3 12.3 2.1 8.3

 Trade school after high school 87.2 6.8 0.9 5.2

 College after high school 86.4 6.6 0.3 6.7

 Finished college 92.4 3.9 0.2 3.6

 Graduate degree 92.7 3.7 0.6 3.0

Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-1994 9/25/95

Note: Rows may not sum to 100 percent due to rounding error.
88

Table 3-8 Percentage of 1988 eighth graders by marital status in 1994, by selected secondary

education characteristics

Single, Divorced, In

never separated, marriage-like

married Married widowed relationship

 Total 82.6 9.3 1.3 6.9

High school sector

 Public 83.3 9.0 1.2 6.5

 Catholic 95.6 1.7 0.0 2.7

 Other private 91.9 7.3 0.2 0.6

Last high school program type

 Academic 88.5 6.6 0.5 4.4

 Vocational 74.8 15.1 0.9 9.1

 Other 73.7 12.8 3.0 10.5

Test quartile (1992)

 Lowest quartile 76.6 13.4 1.3 8.8

 Middle two quartiles 84.0 8.2 1.5 6.3

 Highest quartile 94.2 2.9 0.3 2.6

High school status (1994)

 Graduate 87.2 7.1 0.5 5.2

 Dropout 57.1 23.4 5.6 13.9

 GED or equivalent 64.6 16.3 5.2 14.0

Highest level of education expected in 1992

 High school or less 62.0 19.8 5.0 13.3

 Trade/vocational 74.7 14.1 1.4 9.8

 Some college 76.3 12.4 1.6 9.6

 Finish college 90.0 5.1 0.6 4.3

 Graduate degree 92.2 4.2 0.4 3.2

At risk of school failure factors (1988)

 None 87.1 7.5 0.7 4.8

 One 80.6 10.6 1.0 7.8

 Two or more 73.6 12.5 3.5 10.4

Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-1994 9/25/95

Note: Rows may not sum to 100 percent due to rounding error.
89

Table 3-9 Percentage of 1988 eighth graders with none, one, or two or more children by 1994, by

selected background characteristics

None One Two or more

 Total 84.1 11.9 4.0

Sex

 Male 90.1 8.3 1.6

 Female 78.1 15.6 6.3

Socioeconomic status (1992)

 Lowest quartile 70.5 21.0 8.5

 Middle two quartiles 85.2 11.6 3.2

 Highest quartile 95.8 3.2 1.0

Race/ethnicity

 Asian or Pacific Islander 92.7 5.3 2.0

 Hispanic regardless of race 73.7 18.9 7.5

 Black not of Hispanic origin 70.8 20.2 9.0

 White not of Hispanic origin 88.2 9.3 2.4

Education level of father as of 1992

 High school or less 79.9 15.4 4.7

 Trade school after high school 89.1 8.5 2.4

 College after high school 89.9 9.5 0.7

 Finished college 93.2 5.0 1.8

 Graduate degree 97.1 2.4 0.5

Education level of mother as of 1992

 High school or less 80.1 15.1 4.8

 Trade school after high school 88.8 9.5 1.6

 College after high school 91.9 6.3 1.8

 Finished college 94.8 4.1 1.1

 Graduate degree 93.6 3.9 2.5

Current marital status

 Single never married 91.3 6.7 2.1

 Married 45.6 39.6 14.8

 Divorced/separated/widowed 25.9 55.8 18.4

 In marriage-like relationship 61.5 29.3 9.2

Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-1994 9/25/95

Note: Rows may not sum to 100 percent due to rounding error.
90

Table 3-10 Percentage of 1988 eighth graders with none, one, or two or more children by 1994, by

selected secondary education characteristics

None One Two or more

 Total 84.1 11.9 4.0

High school sector

 Public 85.1 11.5 3.4

 Catholic 96.2 3.7 0.2

 Other private 96.1 3.7 0.3

Last high school program type

 Academic 91.6 7.1 1.4

 Vocational 78.7 15.9 5.4

 Other 71.7 20.2 8.1

Test quartile (1992)

 Lowest quartile 75.0 18.3 6.7

 Middle two quartiles 88.3 9.7 2.0

 Highest quartile 97.6 2.3 0.1

High school status (1994)

 Graduate 90.8 8.0 1.2

 Dropout 46.9 33.3 19.8

 GED or equivalent 61.9 23.1 15.0

Highest level of education expected in 1992

 High school or less 63.8 23.4 12.7

 Trade/vocational 72.9 19.4 7.7

 Some college 80.9 14.8 4.3

 Finish college 92.4 6.2 1.4

 Graduate degree 93.6 5.7 0.8

At risk of school failure factors (1988)

 None 90.7 7.4 1.8

 One 84.3 11.9 3.7

 Two or more 69.5 22.3 8.2

Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-1994 9/25/95

Note: Rows may not sum to 100 percent due to rounding error.
91

Table 3-11 Percentage of 1988 eighth graders with oldest children of different ages by 1994, by selected

background characteristics

Less than 12 months to 24 months to 48 months or

12 months 23 months 47 months older

 Total 16.5 32.4 35.7 15.4

Sex

 Male 18.9 42.9 30.8 7.4

 Female 15.4 27.8 37.9 18.9

Socioeconomic status (1992)

 Lowest quartile 15.6 32.5 35.5 16.3

 Middle two quartiles 16.3 33.8 37.7 12.2

 Highest quartile 23.2 24.2 33.0 19.6

Race/ethnicity

 Asian or Pacific Islander 15.9 34.8 30.1 19.2

 Hispanic regardless of race 24.0 25.5 30.4 20.1

 Black not of Hispanic origin 13.7 28.9 35.7 21.7

 White not of Hispanic origin 15.6 36.6 37.0 10.7

Current marital status

 Single never married 15.4 30.9 36.3 17.5

 Married 20.8 29.6 38.8 10.8

 Divorced/separated/widowed 5.4 37.2 39.6 17.8

 In marriage-like relationship 15.5 40.4 26.5 17.6

Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-1994 9/25/95

Note: Rows may not sum to 100 percent due to rounding error.
92

Table 3-12 Percentage of 1988 eighth graders with oldest children of different ages by 1994, by selected

secondary and postsecondary education characteristics

Less than 12 months to 24 months to 48 months or

12 months 23 months 47 months older

 Total 16.5 32.4 35.7 15.4

High school sector

 Public 17.9 34.3 35.8 11.9

 Catholic 22.9 51.6 21.9 3.6

 Other private low n low n low n low n

Last high school program type

 Academic 22.9 37.3 28.4 11.4

 Vocational 19.0 30.4 34.2 16.4

 Other 13.1 30.3 40.8 15.8

Test quartile (1992)

 Lowest quartile 16.5 30.7 38.5 14.4 

 Middle two quartiles 18.1 39.1 32.2 10.6

 Highest quartile 35.4 50.8 12.4 1.3

High school status (1994)

 Graduate 23.9 38.4 31.3 6.3

 Dropout 11.8 25.2 40.0 23.0

 GED or equivalent 8.0 25.6 36.4 30.0

Highest level of education expected in 1992

 High school or less 11.3 32.1 40.6 16.0

 Trade/vocational 13.9 24.8 38.8 22.6

 Some college 15.1 30.9 41.5 12.4

 Finish college 26.4 32.9 34.0 6.8

 Graduate degree 30.7 36.8 24.9 7.6

First postsecondary education intensity and timing

 Full-time before 9/92 27.6 31.2 30.7 10.5

 Part-time before 9/92 29.4 19.2 41.5 9.9

 Full-time 9/92 - 8/93 26.9 29.9 32.0 11.2

 Part-time 9/92 - 8/93 23.0 38.9 31.2 6.9

 Full-time after 8/93 12.6 44.9 27.6 14.9

 Part-time after 8/93 14.4 31.0 34.3 20.4

Valid postsecondary education institutions attended

 None 13.4 32.8 36.9 16.8

 One 24.9 31.2 32.8 11.1

 Two or more 25.2 32.5 30.3 12.0

Still enrolled in first institution

 Not still enrolled 27.3 28.5 32.3 11.9

 Still enrolled 19.4 38.0 32.8 9.8

Attendance spells at first postsecondary institution

 Never attended 13.4 32.8 36.9 16.9

 Attended once 27.3 30.2 30.7 11.9

 Attended twice 7.5 41.1 45.0 6.4

 Attended three or more times low n low n low n low n

At risk of school failure factors (1988)

 None 20.8 33.2 34.8 11.2

 One 18.5 34.0 35.8 11.7

 Two or more 14.5 32.0 36.4 17.1

Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-1994 9/25/95

Note: Rows may not sum to 100 percent due to rounding error.

Note: "low n" indicates too few cases for reliable estimate.
93

Dependent Support

 1988 eighth grade Asians/Pacific Islanders and whites were less likely to provide annual support for

another person in 1994 than Hispanics or blacks (Table 3-13) (3 percent and 

4 percent to 11 percent and 12 percent, respectively).

 1988 eighth graders in the lowest socioeconomic quartile were more likely to provide annual support for

another person in 1994 than those in the middle two or highest socioeconomic quartiles (Table 3-13) (11

percent to 6 percent and 2 percent respectively).

 1988 eighth grade men provided more annual support for another person in 1994 than did 1988 eighth

grade women (Table 3-13) ($147 to $83).

Table 3-13 Percentage of 1988 eighth graders reporting in 1994 contributing to dependents’ support,

and average yearly amounts contributed to dependents' support, by selected background

characteristics

Percentage contributing Average yearly amount

to dependents’ support of support provided<a>

 Total 5.9 $115

Sex

 Male 6.9 147

 Female 5.0 83

Socioeconomic status (1992)

 Lowest quartile 10.7 191

 Middle two quartiles 5.6 121

 Highest quartile 2.1 38

Children

 None 4.7 89

 One or more 12.6 260

Race/ethnicity

 Asian or Pacific Islander 3.4 44

 Hispanic regardless of race 11.3 266

 Black not of Hispanic origin 11.7 173

 White not of Hispanic origin 4.1 86

Education level of father as of 1992

 High school or less 7.2 143

 Trade school after high school 6.1 101

 College after high school 2.8 58

 Finished college 2.2 62

 Graduate degree 3.9 67

Education level of mother as of 1992

 High school or less 7.2 146

 Trade school after high school 5.0 69

 College after high school 3.2 100

 Finished college 2.6 47 

 Graduate degree 3.6 66

Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-1994 9/25/95

<a> Estimates are averages of all respondents in a given subgroup, including those providing no support ($0).
Section 4

Values, Leisure Time Activities, Volunteer Activities, and Voting Patterns

Values

 A higher percentage of 1988 eighth grade men than women reported in 1994 that having lots of money was

very important (Table 4-1) (43 percent to 34 percent).

 1988 eighth graders who attended public high schools were more likely to report in 1994 that having lots of

money was very important than those who attended Catholic or other private high schools (Table 4-1) (39

percent to 32 percent and 18 percent respectively).

 A higher percentage of 1988 eighth graders who attended Catholic high schools than those who attended

public high schools reported in 1994 that having strong friendships was very important (Table 4-1) (92

percent compared to 86 percent).

 A greater percentage of 1988 eighth graders in the lowest socioeconomic quartile than those in the middle

two or highest 1992 socioeconomic quartiles reported in 1994 that having lots of money was very

important (Table 4-1) (50 percent compared to 39 percent and 26 percent respectively).

 1988 eighth graders in the lowest socioeconomic quartile were more likely to report in 1994 that providing

their children with better opportunities was very important than those in the middle two or highest

socioeconomic quartiles (Table 4-1) (96 percent and 93 percent to 84 percent).

 A higher percentage of 1988 eighth grade blacks than Asians/Pacific Islanders, Hispanics, or whites

reported in 1994 that having lots of money was very important (Table 4-1) (58 percent to 41 percent, 44

percent, and 33 percent respectively).

 1988 eighth grade whites and Asians/Pacific Islanders were more likely than Hispanics or blacks to report

in 1994 that having strong friendships was very important (Table 4-1) (91 percent and 87 percent compared

to 76 percent and 64 percent respectively).

 1988 eighth graders who were high school graduates by 1994 were more likely to report in 1994 that

having strong friendships was very important than those who were dropouts or who had a GED or

equivalent by 1994 (Table 4-1) (88 percent to 72 percent and 80 percent respectively).

 A higher percentage of 1988 eighth grade men than women reported working on hobbies (59 percent to 47

percent) or participating in sports (63 percent to 34 percent) at least once a week on average in 1994 (Table

4-2).
95

Table 4-1 Percentage of 1988 eighth graders reporting in 1994 that various values are "very

important," by selected background, secondary education, and postsecondary education

characteristics

Professional Having lots Having Providing one's Being able

employment of strong children greater to find

success money friendships opportunity steady work

 Total 89.7 38.4 85.5 91.3 89.6

Sex

 Male 89.7 43.0 86.7 90.8 88.9

 Female 89.8 33.7 84.2 91.7 90.3

High school sector

 Public 89.9 39.0 85.7 91.7 90.1

 Catholic 89.3 32.5 92.2 88.5 88.5

 Other private 87.0 18.2 91.8 79.2 83.8

Last high school program type

 Academic 90.3 33.7 88.1 89.8 89.5

 Vocational 93.2 48.6 81.4 93.9 93.1

 Other 87.5 44.6 82.2 93.2 89.6

Type of first institution

 Private for-profit 95.0 42.9 79.8 95.6 95.3

 Private not-for-profit less than 4-yr 90.7 29.3 87.6 93.4 95.2

 Public less than 2-year 89.6 32.7 86.8 95.3 61.7

 Public 2-year 91.0 37.7 86.6 91.8 90.4

 Private not-for-profit 4-year 88.8 22.1 91.6 84.2 87.6

 Public 4-year 91.0 27.1 90.9 87.2 88.8

Socioeconomic status (1992)

 Lowest quartile 89.7 50.0 77.9 95.6 92.2

 Middle two quartiles 90.4 38.6 86.0 92.9 90.2

 Highest quartile 88.4 25.9 92.5 83.8 86.2

Race/ethnicity

 Asian or Pacific Islander 87.2 40.6 86.6 93.3 84.6

 Hispanic regardless of race 92.1 43.8 76.1 96.0 91.6

 Black not of Hispanic origin 93.4 57.9 64.2 97.1 91.4

 White not of Hispanic origin 88.8 33.3 91.2 89.3 89.3

High school status (1994)

 Graduate 90.6 35.1 87.6 90.2 89.9

 Dropout 81.3 55.1 72.4 95.6 84.9

 GED or equivalent 90.5 48.0 80.3 95.6 87.9

Highest level of education expected in 1992

 High school or less 85.9 51.5 77.5 95.8 86.3

 Trade/vocational 89.8 48.6 82.2 95.0 92.6

 Some college 90.7 44.5 84.9 94.1 91.4

 Finish college 89.3 31.3 88.3 88.9 88.4

 Graduate degree 92.0 30.1 89.3 88.3 89.8

Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-1994 9/25/95
96

Leisure Time Activities

 A greater percentage of 1988 eighth grade women than men reported reading for pleasure

(71 percent to 66 percent) or spending time on religious activities (42 percent to 35 percent) at least once a

week on average in 1994 (Table 4-2).

 A higher percentage of 1988 eighth grade women than men reported spending time talking to or doing

things with parents in 1994 (Table 4-2) (84 percent to 78 percent).

 1988 eighth graders who attended Catholic and other private high schools were more likely to report

spending time on religious activities in 1994 than those who attended public high schools (Table 4-2) (47

percent and 54 percent to 38 percent respectively).

 1988 eighth graders who attended a private not-for-profit four-year postsecondary institution as their first

postsecondary institution were more likely to report spending time on religious activities in 1994 than those

who attended private for-profit, public two-year, or public four-year postsecondary institutions (Table 4-2)

(50 percent to 34 percent, 

41 percent, and 43 percent respectively).

 A higher percentage of 1988 eighth grade blacks than whites reported reading for pleasure in 1994 (Table

4-2) (74 percent to 67 percent).

 1988 eighth graders who were high school graduates or who had obtained a GED by 1994 were more likely

to report reading for pleasure in 1994 than those who were dropouts 

(Table 4-2) (69 and 77 percent to 58 percent).

 1988 eighth graders who, in 1992, expected to complete some college or to finish college or earn a

graduate degree were more likely to report reading for pleasure at least once a week on average in 1994

than those who expected to complete high school or less 

(Table 4-2) (70 percent, 69 percent and 72 percent to 61 percent respectively).
97

Table 4-2 Percentage of 1988 eighth graders participating in 1994 in various activities at least once a

week on average, by selected demographic, secondary education, and postsecondary

education characteristics

6CNMKPIVQQT

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 Total 52.9 48.7 68.4 38.3 80.8

Sex

 Male 59.0 63.1 65.8 34.9 78.1

 Female 46.8 33.9 71.1 41.8 83.6

High school sector

 Public 53.1 48.3 68.0 38.0 80.9

 Catholic 54.9 55.1 69.3 47.2 82.9

 Other private 52.9 52.5 76.3 53.6 89.3

Last high school program type

 Academic 53.6 52.1 69.2 41.9 83.5

 Vocational 53.5 46.5 63.6 33.8 80.8

 Other 52.3 43.1 66.8 32.7 76.6

Type of first institution

 Private for-profit 47.7 35.4 75.2 34.3 78.0

 Private not-for-profit less than 4-yr 54.2 42.8 55.1 40.9 79.1

 Public less than 2-year 41.3 57.8 74.0 38.4 59.0

 Public 2-year 53.6 51.3 70.4 40.8 83.9

 Private not-for-profit 4-year 53.1 52.6 69.8 50.4 84.3

 Public 4-year 55.3 55.0 68.9 42.7 83.1

Socioeconomic status (1992)

 Lowest quartile 48.5 42.5 65.6 33.4 75.9

 Middle two quartiles 53.2 47.8 68.3 37.7 81.5

 Highest quartile 57.2 55.7 71.6 44.7 84.1

Race/ethnicity

 Asian or Pacific Islander 54.0 54.7 69.1 40.0 80.7

 Hispanic regardless of race 47.1 49.6 72.0 38.4 80.7

 Black not of Hispanic origin 42.5 45.7 74.3 47.1 77.4

 White not of Hispanic origin 55.8 48.7 67.0 36.6 81.7

High school status (1994)

 Graduate 53.8 50.6 68.8 41.1 82.7

 Dropout 43.3 34.9 57.7 19.7 67.2

 GED or equivalent 54.6 47.0 76.8 34.5 76.1

Highest level of education expected in 1992

 High school or less 47.9 38.7 61.1 28.1 73.0

 Trade/vocational 52.4 41.7 64.5 34.9 85.7

 Some college 55.4 47.9 69.5 35.5 82.3

 Finish college 53.5 52.2 69.4 42.4 80.3

 Graduate degree 53.2 53.6 71.8 45.4 83.4

Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-1994 9/25/95
98

Volunteer activities

Although in nearly all subgroups the majority of 1988 eighth graders reported in 1994 that they had not

done any volunteer work, there were a number of differences in the degree of lack of volunteerism.

 1988 eighth graders who participated in academic high school programs were less likely to report no

volunteer work as of 1994 than those who participated in vocational or other high school programs (Table

4-3) (60 percent to 76 percent and 72 percent respectively).

 1988 eighth graders who attended private not-for-profit four-year and public four-year institutions as their

first postsecondary education institutions were less likely to report having done no volunteer work as of

1994 than those from private for-profit postsecondary education institutions (Table 4-3) (42 percent and 52

percent to 76 percent respectively).

 1988 eighth graders in the middle two and highest socioeconomic quartiles were less likely to report not

doing any volunteer work as of 1994 than those in the lowest 1992 socioeconomic quartile (Table 4-3) (68

percent and 48 percent to 77 percent).

 1988 eighth graders who were high school graduates or had a GED or equivalent by 1994 were less likely

to report having done no volunteer work as of 1994 than those who were dropouts (Table 4-3) (62 percent

and 74 percent to 87 percent respectively).

 1988 eighth graders who, in 1992, expected to finish college or earn a graduate degree were less likely to

report not having volunteered in any organizations as of 1994 than those who expected to complete high

school or less or to go to trade school (Table 4-3) 

(60 percent and 50 percent to 82 percent and 79 percent, respectively).
99

Table 4-3 Percentage of 1988 eighth graders reporting in 1994 the number of organizations to which

they volunteered time, by selected demographic, secondary education, and postsecondary

education characteristics

None One Two Three Four or more

 Total 65.3 23.6 6.8 2.8 1.5

Sex

 Male 65.0 24.5 6.1 3.0 1.4

 Female 65.5 22.7 7.5 2.7 1.6

High school sector

 Public 65.4 23.5 6.9 2.8 1.4

 Catholic 54.1 28.6 10.0 5.3 2.0

 Other private 52.0 32.4 6.7 5.8 3.1

Last high school program type

 Academic 60.2 26.0 8.5 3.3 1.9

 Vocational 75.7 19.6 2.6 1.6 0.4

 Other 72.3 20.2 4.4 2.3 0.8

Type of first institution

 Private for-profit 76.3 19.1 2.7 1.6 0.2

 Private not-for-profit less than 4-yr 56.9 29.1 10.8 2.0 1.1

 Public less than 2-year 58.8 38.4 0.0 0.0 2.8

 Public 2-year 66.3 22.6 7.1 2.5 1.5

 Private not-for-profit 4-year 41.5 33.8 14.9 6.2 3.5

 Public 4-year 51.8 31.2 10.0 4.7 2.3

Socioeconomic status (1992)

 Lowest quartile 77.3 16.9 4.1 1.4 0.3

 Middle two quartiles 68.1 22.6 5.2 2.8 1.2

 Highest quartile 48.3 31.9 12.4 4.4 3.0

Race/ethnicity

 Asian or Pacific Islander 66.2 21.9 6.8 3.4 1.6

 Hispanic regardless of race 71.6 19.2 7.0 1.4 0.8

 Black not of Hispanic origin 66.8 23.2 5.5 3.5 1.0

 White not of Hispanic origin 63.8 24.7 7.0 2.9 1.6

High school status (1994)

 Graduate 61.7 25.3 7.9 3.3 1.7

 Dropout 87.3 11.3 0.9 0.3 0.3

 GED or equivalent 74.3 21.1 3.2 1.1 0.3

Highest level of education expected in 1992

 High school or less 82.3 14.5 2.0 0.7 0.6

 Trade/vocational 79.4 17.1 2.5 0.7 0.3

 Some college 74.4 19.1 4.3 1.6 0.6

 Finish college 60.3 25.9 8.9 3.4 1.5

 Graduate degree 49.8 31.6 10.6 5.2 2.9

Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-1994 9/25/95

Note: Rows may not sum to 100 percent due to rounding error.
100

Voting Patterns

 1988 eighth grade men were more likely than 1988 eighth grade women to report being registered to vote

as of 1994 (Table 4-4) (71 percent to 65 percent).

 A greater percentage of 1988 eighth graders who attended Catholic high schools reported being registered

to vote in 1994 than those who attended public high schools (Table 4-4) (78 percent to 69 percent

respectively).

 A higher percentage of 1988 eighth graders who attended public four-year postsecondary education

institutions than those who attended private for-profit institutions reported voting in their last local or state

election (Table 4-4) (40 percent to 26 percent).

 1988 eighth graders in the middle two and highest 1992 socioeconomic quartiles were more likely to

report being registered to vote as of 1994, voting in the 1992 presidential election, and voting in their last

local or state election than those in the lowest 1992 quartile (Table 4-4) (68 percent and 79 percent to 57

percent respectively for voter registration comparisons; 47 percent and 61 percent to 27 percent for 1992

presidential election voting comparisons; and 32 percent and 38 percent to 20 percent for last local or

state election voting comparisons).

 1988 eighth grade blacks and whites were more likely to report being registered to vote as of 1994 than

Asians/Pacific Islanders (Table 4-4) (66 percent and 72 percent to 

48 percent respectively).

 1988 eighth grade blacks and whites were more likely to report voting in the 1992 presidential election

than Asians/Pacific Islanders or Hispanics (Table 4-4) (38 percent and 51 percent to 27 percent and 29

percent).

 1988 eighth graders who were high school graduates by 1994 were more likely to report being registered

to vote as of 1994, voting in the 1992 presidential election, and voting in their last local or state election

than those who were dropouts or had a GED or equivalent in 1994 (Table 4-4) (72 percent to 49 percent

and 56 percent respectively for voter registration comparisons; 51 percent to 17 percent and 30 percent

respectively for 1992 presidential election voting comparisons; and 34 percent to 10 percent and 23

percent respectively for last local or state election voting comparisons).
101

Table 4-4 Percentage of 1988 eighth graders who, in 1994, were registered to vote, voted in the 1992

presidential election, or voted in the last local election, by selected demographic, secondary

education, and postsecondary education characteristics

Registered Voted in 1992 Voted last year

to vote presidential election in local or state election

 Total 68.1 45.5 30.6 

Sex

 Male 71.1 45.4 30.5 

 Female 64.9 45.5 30.7 

High school sector

 Public 69.0 46.5 31.6 

 Catholic 78.2 56.8 39.5 

 Other private 66.7 49.8 28.0 

Last high school program type

 Academic 73.5 53.0 35.9 

 Vocational 65.0 37.1 25.5 

 Other 58.6 34.0 22.5 

Type of first institution

 Private for-profit 62.7 36.3 26.5 

 Private not-for-profit less than 4-yr 62.0 31.8 20.0 

 Public less than 2-year 72.2 53.5 18.9 

 Public 2-year 72.5 52.9 36.5 

 Private not-for-profit 4-year 76.5 57.0 36.2 

 Public 4-year 80.0 59.8 39.5 

Socioeconomic status (1992)

 Lowest quartile 56.9 27.2 20.1 

 Middle two quartiles 68.2 46.7 32.3 

 Highest quartile 78.6 60.9 37.7 

Race/ethnicity

 Asian or Pacific Islander 48.2 26.8 19.7 

 Hispanic regardless of race 56.1 29.4 22.6 

 Black not of Hispanic origin 66.4 37.8 28.7 

 White not of Hispanic origin 71.5 50.8 33.0 

High school status (1994)

 Graduate 72.3 50.7 34.2 

 Dropout 48.8 17.1 9.9 

 GED or equivalent 55.8 30.5 23.0 

Highest level of education expected in 1992

 High school or less 53.4 26.1 16.8 

 Trade/vocational 59.5 34.1 25.1 

 Some college 61.7 39.3 27.4 

 Finish college 74.7 53.8 34.3 

 Graduate degree 77.6 59.3 39.0 

Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-1994 9/25/95
Appendices
Appendix A: Technical Notes
106

Appendix A

Technical Notes

The National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988: Overview

The major features of the National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88) include the

integration of student, dropout, parent, teacher, and school studies; initial concentration on a 1988 eighth grade

student cohort to be followed over a period of ten years; the inclusion of supplementary components to support

analyses of geographically or demographically distinct subgroups; and design linkages to previous longitudinal

studies and other current studies.

The Base Year of NELS:88 represented the first stage of a major longitudinal effort designed to provide

trend data about critical transitions experienced by students as they leave elementary school and progress through

high school and into postsecondary institutions or the work force. This study of the 1988 eighth grade cohort

collected data about educational processes and outcomes pertaining to student learning, predictors of dropping out,

and school effects on students' access to programs and equal opportunity to learn.

The First Follow-up in 1990 provided the first opportunity for longitudinal measurement of the 1988

baseline sample. It also provided a comparison point to high school sophomores 10 years before, as studied in

HS&B. (The NELS:88 sample was freshened<1> in the First Follow-up to represent the tenth grade class of 1990.) 

The study captured the population of early dropouts (those who leave school between the end of eighth grade and

the end of tenth grade), while monitoring the transition of the student population into secondary schooling.

The Second Follow-up took place in 1992, when most sample members entered the second term of their

senior year. The Second Follow-up provides a "capstone" measurement of learning in the course of secondary

school, and also collects information that will facilitate investigation of the transition into the labor force and

postsecondary education after high school. (Freshening<1> the NELS:88 sample to represent the twelfth grade

class of 1992 makes trend comparisons with the senior cohorts that were studied in NLS-72 and HS&B possible.) 

In addition to surveying the students who were in school during the First Follow-up, the NELS:88 Second Followup resurveyed students who were identified as dropouts in 1990, and identified and surveyed those additional

students who left school after the First Follow-up.

The Third Follow-up took place in the spring of 1994, when most sample members had been out of high

school for two years. The 1994 data collection was designed to meet four general requirements for information

about American education. These can be characterized as looking backward within the cohort(s) to understand the

impact of prior experiences on current circumstances, looking ahead to provide a basis for understanding cohort

members' future experiences, looking within the cohort at a single point in time to compare the outcomes and

experiences of different social groups, and looking across cohorts by comparing the experiences of the NELS:88

cohort(s) with cohorts separated by one or two decades. Major content areas for the Third Follow-up questionnaire

were: education histories; work experience histories; work related training; family formation; opinions and other

experiences; occurrence or nonoccurrence of significant life events; and income. The NELS:88 fourth follow-up is

slated for 2000.

Sample Weighting

The general purpose of weighting survey data is to compensate for unequal probabilities of selection and to

adjust for the effects of nonresponse. Weights are often calculated in several steps. In the first step, unadjusted

weights are calculated as the inverse of the probabilities of selection, taking into account all stages of the sample

selection process. In the second step, these initial weights are adjusted to compensate for unit nonresponse; such

nonresponse adjustments are typically carried out separately within multiple weighting cells. These steps were

followed in creating the NELS:88 Third Follow-up weights.

In order to maintain consistency in weights across the various waves and across the various weights within

wave, multidimensional raking was also applied when creating NELS:88 weights. In the Third Follow-up, raking
107

was performed with respect to base year school characteristics, race, sex, and status in each of the rounds.

The estimates in this report for the 1988 eighth grade cohort were produced using the 1994 questionnaire

weight subsetted for 1988 eighth grade sample members (F3QWTG8).

Survey Standard Errors

Because the NELS:88 sample design involved stratification, the disproportionate sampling of certain strata,

and clustered (i.e. multi-stage) probability sampling, the resulting statistics are more variable than they would have

been had they been based on data from a simple random sample of the same size.

The calculation of exact standard errors for survey estimates can be difficult and expensive. Frequently

used statistical analysis packages such as SPSS (Statistical Program for the Social Sciences) or SAS (Statistical

Analysis System) do not adjust for complex sampling designs of the type used in NELS:88 in the calculation of

standard errors. Several procedures are available for calculating precise estimates of sampling errors for complex

samples. Procedures such as Taylor Series approximations, Balanced Repeated Replication (BRR), and Jackknife

Repeated Replication (JRR) produce similar results.<2> Consequently, it is largely a matter of convenience which

approach is taken. For NELS:88, NORC used the Taylor Series procedure to calculate the standard errors. The

standard errors for this report were calculated using the Data Analysis System (DAS) developed by NCES. Table

A-1, which shows the standard errors for

table 4 in the essay, provides an example of the standard errors calculated by the DAS and used in the analyses for

this report.
108

Table A-1 Standard errors for percentage of 1988 eighth graders in 1992 tested 

achievement quartile groups, by various characteristics 

Lowest quartile Middle two quartiles Highest quartile

 Total 0.74 0.71 0.75

Sex

 Male 1.06 1.04 1.00

 Female 0.88 0.97 0.92

Race/ethnicity

 Asian/Pacific Islander 2.86 2.97 2.70

 Hispanic 2.06 2.00 1.22

 Black 2.35 2.33 1.15

 White 0.73 0.84 0.87

Socioeconomic status (1992)

 Lowest quartile 1.68 1.64 0.58

 Middle two quartiles 0.84 0.88 0.77

 Highest quartile 1.11 1.35 1.44

Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-1994 9/25/95

Data Analysis System

The estimates presented in this report were produced using the NCES Data Analysis System (DAS) for the

NELS:88 Third Follow-up. The DAS software makes it possible for users to specify and generate their own tables

from the NELS:88 data. With the DAS, users can recreate or expand upon the tables presented in this report. In

addition to the table estimates, the DAS calculates appropriate standard errors and weighted sample sizes for the

estimates.<3> If the number of valid cases is too small to produce an estimate, the DAS prints the message “low n”

instead of the estimate.

In addition to the tables, the DAS will also produce a correlation matrix of selected variables that can be

used in linear regression models, and the design effects (DEFT) for all the parameter estimates in the correlation

matrix. Since statistical procedures generally compute regression coefficients based on simple random sample

assumptions, the standard errors must be adjusted with the design effects to take into account the complex sampling

procedures used in the NELS:88 surveys. For more information about the NELS:88 Third Follow-up DAS, contact:

Aurora D’Amico

NCES Longitudinal Studies Branch

555 New Jersey Ave., N.W.

Washington, D.C., 20208-5652

(202) 219-1365

Internet address: ADAMICO@INET.ED.GOV
109

Statistical Procedures

Comparisons that have been drawn in the text of this report have been tested for statistical significance to

ensure that the differences are larger than those that might be expected due to sampling variation. The statistical

comparisons in this report were based on the t statistic. Generally, whether the statistical test is considered

significant or not is determined by calculating a t value for the difference between a pair of means or proportions

and comparing this value to published tables of values at certain critical levels, called "alpha levels." The alpha level

is an a priori statement of the probability that a difference exists in fact rather than by chance.

To guard against errors of inference based upon multiple comparisons, the Bonferroni procedure<4> to

adjust significance tests for multiple contrasts was used. This method corrects the significance (or alpha) level for

the total number of contrasts made with a particular classification variable. For each classification variable, there are

(K*[K-1])/2 possible contrasts (or nonredundant pairwise comparisons), where K is the number of categories. For

example, if a classification variable such as race has five categories, k=5 and there are (5*4)/2=10 possible

comparisons between the categories. The Bonferroni procedure divides the alpha-level for a single t-test (in this

case, 0.05) by the number of possible pairwise comparisons (10) to derive a new alpha corrected for the fact that

multiple contrasts are being made. For all of the tables in this report, the Bonferroni adjustment is applied on a

variable by variable basis, adjusting for the number of possible comparisons among the subgroups defined by a

single row variable.

The t statistic between estimates from various subgroups presented in the tables can be computed by using

the following formula:

t = (X1-X2)/SQRT(SE1 +SE2 ) 2 2

where X1 and X2 are the estimates to be compared and SE1 and SE2 are their corresponding standard errors.

Nonresponse Bias Analysis

Comparisons were made between subgroups defined on the basis of whether the respondent had complete

data for the critical variables used in this report. The purpose of this analysis is to assess whether there is a

significantly greater proportion of missing cases in a particular subgroup which might account for apparent between

group differences. 

A case was classified as "valid" for a given variable if the respondent had an in-scope response code

(including "don't know"), and as "missing" if the response code corresponded to "missing" or "refused." 

Respondents classified as "legitimate skip" for a given variable were excluded from the analysis of that variable. 

The distribution of valid and missing cases was broken down by sex, race/ethnicity, socioeconomic status, school

type, and 1994 diploma status. 

The nonresponse bias analysis was conducted for 15 critical variables used in the Descriptive Summary

Report and was based on all NELS:88/94 respondents. The complete results can be found in Section 5.6 of the

NELS:88/94 Methodology Report. 

The results shown in Table A-2 below illustrate this analysis. The analysis is accomplished by comparing

the percentage "missing" to the percentage "valid" for a given subgroup. For example, for months unemployed in

1993 (UNEMPL93), public school students constitute a greater percentage of the missing group (97.5 compared to

91.1). The same is true for low SES respondents (41.7 percent compared to 24.5 percent) and for dropouts (20.8

percent compared to 7.3 percent). A higher percentage of valid respondents is accounted for by Catholic school

students and students of "other private" schools (this pattern was observed for a several of the variables in the

nonresponse bias analysis); the same was true for whites, respondents with diplomas, and high SES respondents. 

None of the other comparisons in this table are statistically significant. The differences observed in the

nonresponse bias analysis in, for example, 1992 high school sector, may indicate that differences in unemployment

between subgroups defined on high school sector may be due, at least in part, to differential response rates.
110

Table A-2 Bias analysis for months unemployed in 1993 

Standard Standard

Percent error for Percent error for 

valid valid missing missing t-value<a>

 Total 99.1 0.11 0.9 0.11 

Sex

 Male 50.6 0.63 55.9 5.78 -0.90

 Female 49.4 0.63 44.1 5.78 0.90

Race/ethnicity

 Asian/Pacific Islander 3.9 0.30 3.7 1.27 0.20

 Hispanic 11.3 0.83 14.3 3.47 -0.83

 Black 13.6 0.81 28.3 5.65 -2.58

 White 69.7 1.18 50.7 5.99 3.12

High school sector

 Public 91.1 0.64 97.5 1.09 -5.10

 Catholic 5.1 0.40 1.8 0.96 3.13

 Other private 3.8 0.50 0.6 0.50 4.51

High school diploma status (1994)

 High school diploma 81.1 0.66 58.4 5.62 4.01

 GED or equivalent 6.3 0.41 9.4 2.45 -1.24

 Working toward diploma 5.3 0.31 11.5 4.32 -1.41

 Dropout 7.3 0.43 20.8 4.61 -2.92

Socioeconomic status (1992)

 Lowest quartile 24.5 0.77 41.7 5.82 -2.93

 Middle two quartiles 50.3 0.75 46.8 5.93 0.58

 Highest quartile 25.2 0.91 11.5 3.84 3.47

Source: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-1994

<a> This t-value compares the percent valid to the percent missing for a given row variable.
111

Endnotes

<1> The process referred to here as "freshening" added students who were not in the base year sampling frame,

either because they were not in the country or because they were not in eighth grade in the spring term of

1988. The 1990 freshening process provided a representative sample of students enrolled in tenth grade in

the spring of 1990. The 1992 freshening process provided a representative sample of students enrolled in

twelfth grade in the spring of 1992. Section 3.3.3 of Ingels et al. (NELS:88 Second Follow-up Student

Component Data File Users' Manual) provides a detailed description of the freshening process.

<2> Frankel, M.R., Inference from Survey Samples: An Empirical Investigation (Ann Arbor: Institute for Social

Research, 1971).

<3> The NELS:88 sample is not a simple random sample, and techniques for estimating standard errors that are

appropriate for simple random samples will not produce accurate standard errors for these data. The DAS

takes into account the complex sampling procedures and calculates standard errors that are appropriate for

such samples. The method for computing sampling errors used by the DAS involves approximating the

estimator by the linear terms of a Taylor series expansion. This procedure is typically referred to as the

Taylor series method.

<4> For detailed discussion, see, for example, Hays, W.L. (1988). Statistics. (4th ed.) New York: Holt,

Rinehart, Winston.
Appendix B: Glossary
114

Glossary

This glossary describes the variables used in this report. The items were taken directly from the National

Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-1994 Data Analysis System (DAS), a NCES software application that

generates tables directly from the data files.

The variables and definitions are divided into five categories: demographic and status variables,

postsecondary education variables, labor force experience variables, family experience variables, and civic

participation, values, and personal time variables.

Personal Characteristics

Sex (F3SEX)

Female

Male

Race/ethnicity (F3RACE)

Asian or Pacific Islander A person having origins in any of the original peoples of the Far East, Southeast

Asia, the Indian subcontinent, or Pacific Islands. This includes people from

China, Japan, Korea, the Philippine Islands, Samoa, India, and Vietnam.

Hispanic regardless of race A person of Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, Central or South American, or other

Spanish culture or origin, regardless of race.

Black not of Hispanic origin A person having origins in any of the black racial groups of Africa, except those

of Hispanic origin.

White not of Hispanic origin A person having origins in any of the original peoples of Europe, North

Africa, or the Middle East (except those of Hispanic origin).

Current marital status (F3MARST)

Single, never married Respondent had never been married.

Married Respondent was married at the time of the interview.

Divorced/separated/widowed Respondent had been married but was either divorced or separated, or

the spouse had died.

In marriage-like relationship Respondent reported living with a partner but not being married.

Children (NUMCHILD)

None No children born to the respondent

One or more At least one child born to the respondent
115

Socioeconomic status in 1992 (F2SES1C)

The socioeconomic status (SES) index is a composite of five equally weighted, standardized components:

father's education, mother's education, family income, father's occupation, and household items. The terms high,

middle two, and low SES refer to the upper, middle two, and lower quartiles of the weighted SES composite index

distribution.

Lowest quartile Students in the first through 24th percentile 

Middle two quartiles Students whose percentile rank ranged from 25 to 74 percent.

Highest quartile Students whose percentile rank ranged from 75 to 99 percent.

Financial support for others (AMTSUPRT)

Respondents were asked if they contributed to anyone else's support, such as grandparents, aunts or other

relatives, regardless of whether they currently lived with that relative. Respondents were also asked to estimate this

contribution annually.

No No financial support for others

Yes Financial support for at least one other.

Alcohol consumption during lifetime in 1992 (F2S81A)

Respondents were asked in 1992 to report their lifetime consumption amount for alcohol.

No occasions

One or two occasions

Three to nineteen occasions

Twenty or more occasions
116

Cocaine or crack use during lifetime in 1992 (F2S84A)

Respondents were asked in 1992 to report their lifetime consumption amount for cocaine.

No occasions

One or two occasions

Three to nineteen occasions

Twenty or more occasions

Family characteristics

At risk of school failure factors in 1988 (BYATRISK)

This variable measures how many of the "at risk of school failure" factors were present for the sample

members in 1988. The factors include: parent is single, parent has no high school diploma, limited English

proficiency, income less than $15,000, sibling dropped out of high school, and home alone more than three hours a

day.

None No risk factors 

One One risk factor present

Two or more Two or more risk factors present

Education level of father as of 1992 (F2N8A)

High school or less The highest level of education completed by the father was a high school

diploma or equivalent or less.

Trade school after high school Father attended trade school after high school

College after high school Father attended college after high school.

Finished college Father attained a college degree.

Graduate degree Father attained a graduate degree.

Do not know Respondent did not know father's educational background.

Education level of Mother as of 1992 (F2N8B)

High school or less The highest level of education completed by the mother was a high school

diploma or equivalent or less.

Trade school after high school Mother attended trade school after high school.

College after high school Mother attended college after high school.

Finished college Mother attained a college degree.

Graduate degree Mother attained a graduate degree.

Do not know Respondent did not know mother's educational background.

Education Variables
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Last high school program type (F3HSPROG)

Three types of programs are distinguished: academic, vocational, and "other." An academic program is

designed to prepare students for continued study at a four-year college or university. A vocational program is

designed to prepare students for employment in one or more semi-skilled, skilled, or technical occupations. 

Programs classified as "other" are designed to provide students with the understanding and competence to function

effectively in society and usually represent a mixture of academic and vocational components. Also included in this

classification are personal use programs which provide students with general skills in areas such as health, religion,

and military science. For the purposes of NELS:88/94, the last two categories have been combined into a

"vocational/other" category.

The variable F3HSPROG (Last high school program type) was derived from the 1992 transcript data when

available. Otherwise, the self-reported high school program type was used.

Academic Academic program type

Vocational/Other Vocational or "other" program type

High school sector (F2SCHTYP)

Public An educational institution whose programs and activities are operated by

publicly elected or appointed school officials and which is supported primarily

by public funds.

Catholic A private school over which a Roman Catholic church group exercises some

control or provides some form of subsidy. Catholic schools for the most part

include those operated or supported by: a parish, a group of parishes, a diocese,

or a Catholic religious order.

Other private An educational institution controlled by a private individual(s) or by a

nongovernmental agency, usually supported primarily by other than public

funds, and operated by other than publicly elected or appointed officials.
118

1994 High school status (F3DIPLOM)

1994 Graduate Students who received formal recognition for the successful

completion of a prescribed program of studies before the 1994 data

collection.

Dropout Students are not in school and are not graduates.

GED or equivalent Students who obtained certification of high school equivalency by meeting state

requirements and passing an approved exam, which is intended to provide an

appraisal of the person's achievement or performance in the broad subject matter

areas usually required for high school graduation.

Enrolled in high school Students who have not yet completed a high school diploma, GED, or

equivalent, and were actively enrolled in high school.

Working towards equivalency Students who have not yet completed a high school diploma, GED, or

equivalent, and were actively engaged in the pursuit of a GED or

equivalent certificate.

1992 Test quartile (F22XCEN)

The source for this variable was the composite variable consisting of math and reading NELS Second Followup test scores. To create the derived variable, a ranking was created by first calculating a weighted frequency

distribution of test composite variables. Next, cutoff points were determined and numbered sequentially from 1 to

ninety-nine. The first cutoff point defined the lowest 1.5 percent of the population. Each subsequent cutoff point

defined an additional 1 percent. The final cutoff point (assigned the value of 99) determined the last 1.5 percent of

the population. 

For the purposes of this report, centile values were converted to quartiles. This set of cutoffs was intended to

produce an approximately symmetric division of the sample, with 50 percent in the middle grouping and 25 percent

in the upper and lower tails of the distribution. The actual breakdown deviates from this intention for two reasons. 

First, the underlying centile scores are expressed as integer values. Thus, any regrouping into quartiles will only be

approximate. Second, the centile ranking was constructed using the Second Follow-up questionnaire weight. Thus,

analyses using the Third Follow-up sample and weight will also produce a degree of asymmetry when quartiles are

defined. Nonetheless, the observed deviation was not dramatic, resulting in a lower quartile that is slightly more

exclusive (23.4 percent) and an upper quartile that is slightly more inclusive (26.5 percent).
119

Lowest quartile Students whose percentile rank ranged from 1 to 24 percent.

Middle two quartiles Students whose percentile rank ranged from 25 to 74 percent.

Highest quartile Students whose percentile rank ranged from 75 to 99 percent.

Type of First Institution (F3SEC2A1)

Private for profit A private for-profit institution is a postsecondary institution that is privately

owned and operated as a profit-making enterprise. Includes career colleges and

proprietary institutions.

Private not-for-profit A private not-for-profit institution offering a less-than-fourless than 4-year year degree and controlled by an independent governing board and

incorporated under section 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code.

Public less than 2-year A public less-than-two-year (vocational-technical) postsecondary institution

is supported primarily by public funds and operated by publicly elected or

appointed officials who control the school's program and activities.

Public 2-year A public institution offering a two- to three-year degree (i.e., associate's

degree).

Private not-for-profit A private not-for-profit college or university offering bachelor's

4-year degree or higher.

Public 4-year A public college or university offering a bachelor's degree or higher.

First postsecondary education intensity and timing (PSEBEGST)

This variable was constructed from respondents answers about their level of enrollment when they began

their postsecondary studies at their first institution.

Full-time before 9/92

Part-time before 9/92

Full-time 9/92-8/93

Part-time 9/92-8/93

Full-time after 8/93

Part-time after 8/93
120

Valid postsecondary education institutions attended (F3PSENUM)

This variable counts the number of postsecondary institutions named by the respondents excluding military

training programs.

None

One

Two or more

Highest level of education expected in 1988 (BYS45)

Highest level of education expected in 1992 (F2ASPIRE)

Highest level of education expected in 1994 (EDEXPECT)

This set of variables was coded as follows:

High school or less Student expected to complete high school or less.

Trade/vocational Student expected to complete trade or vocational school.

Some college Student expected to complete some college.

Finish college Student expected to attain a bachelor's degree.

Graduate degree Student expected to attain a graduate degree.

Do not know Student was unsure of expectations. 

However, for the purposes of the essay on access and choice, the categories were recoded (lumped) as

follows:

High school or less Student expected to complete high school or less.

Trade/vocational Student expected to complete trade or vocational school.

Some college Student expected to complete some college.

Bachelor's or more Student expected to attain at least a bachelor's degree.
121

Employment Variables

Labor force status in 1993 (LABFOR93)

Traditional postsecondary Respondent was a student in a postsecondary institution 

education student during the traditional school months (i.e., not including the summer months).

Part-time student Respondent was a student not employed during part but not all of the school

year and was not employed during the year.

Primarily postsecondary Respondent was both a student during part of the school

education student, also year and employed during the year but indicated that he or 

employed was primarily a student.

Primarily employed, Respondent was both a student during part of the school 

also student year and employed during the year but indicated that he or she was

primarily employed.

Employed six months or more Respondent was employed for at least six months and not a student

during the year.

Employed one to five months Respondent was employed for at least one and less than six months and

not a student during the year.

Unemployed Respondent was not a student and unemployed or out of the work force

throughout the year.

Out of work force Respondent was not a student and out of the labor force (i.e., never

unemployed) throughout the year. This category includes homemakers and

discouraged workers who are not looking for work.

To define populations for analysis in section 2 of the table compendium, the above categories were combined

as follows:

Employed in 1993 Includes respondents in the categories: primarily employed, also student;

employed six months or more; and employed one to five months.

In labor force in 1993 Includes respondents in the categories: primarily employed, also

student; employed six months or more; employed one to five months;

and unemployed.
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Industry of longest held 1993 job (INDCODE2)

To arrive at these categories, respondents' verbatim answers were coded during the interview using

abbreviated industry codes.

Agriculture or forestry

Mining

Construction

Manufacture of durable goods

Manufacture of nondurable goods

Transport or communication or utility

Wholesale trade

Retail trade

Finance or insurance or real estate

Business and repair services

Personal services

Entertainment or recreation

Professional and related services

Public administration

Military

Total earnings from jobs in 1993 (TOTLEAR2)

Respondents were asked how much they earned from all jobs they held between January and December 1993.

None Respondent had no income in 1993.

Lowest quartile Respondent's reported income percentile rank ranged from 1 to 24

percent.

Middle two quartiles Respondent's reported income percentile rank ranged from 25 to 75

percent.

Highest quartile Respondent's reported income percentile rank ranged from 76-99

percent.

Postsecondary Education Variables

Number of applications to postsecondary institutions (NUMAPL)

Zero Student applied to no postsecondary education institutions.

One Student applied to one postsecondary education institution.

Two or more Student applied to two or more postsecondary education institutions.
123

Importance of college expenses (F2S59A)

Importance of financial aid (F2S59B)

Importance of attending college and living at home (F2S59F)

Importance of low crime environment (F2S59I)

Importance of college reputation (F2S59L)

For the preceding five variables, students were asked to rate each for how important a consideration it was in

choosing a postsecondary institution. Response categories included "not important," "somewhat important," and

"very important." For the purposes of this report these ratings were collapsed into "very important" and "less than

very important."

Very Important Student responded this factor was very important in choosing a

postsecondary institution.

Less than very important Student responded this factor was "somewhat important" or "not important" in

choosing a postsecondary institution.

Number of postsecondary institutions attended (NUMATND1)

This variable was derived from respondents' answers about attendance spells at their first postsecondary

education institution. If no attendance spells were reported for this "first institution," the respondent was coded as

never having attended a postsecondary institution. If there was at least one attendance spell, then the respondent did

attend a postsecondary institution at least once. Note that this variable does not index the duration of the attendance

spell(s), nor does it index the number of institutions a respondent attended.

No postsecondary education No attendance spells at first PSE institution

One postsecondary institution One or more attendance spells at first PSE

In state at first postsecondary institution (PSEFIRIO)

In state Student attended first postsecondary institution in home state.

Different state Student attended first postsecondary institution outside of home state.

Still at first institution (F3STILL)

This variable was derived from respondents' answers about start and end dates at first postsecondary

institution.

Not still enrolled in first institution

Still enrolled in first institution

Enrollment status (ENRLSTA1)

Full-time Student was enrolled in postsecondary institution full-time.

Half-time Student was enrolled in postsecondary institution half-time.

Less than half-time Student was enrolled in postsecondary institution less than half-time.

Labor Force Experience Variables

Number of jobs held in 1993 (NUMJOBS2)
124

Respondents who indicated they were employed in 1993 were asked to enumerate the number of jobs they

had held. For the tables presented in this report, means were calculated.

Months unemployed in 1993 (UNEMPL93)

Respondents who indicated they were unemployed in 1993 were asked to enumerate the number of months

they were unemployed. For certain tables presented in this report, means were calculated.

1994 expectations for job at age 30 (OCCFUTCD)

Respondents were asked to describe their job expectations at age 30 and their responses were recoded into the

following occupation codes.

Clerical

Craftsman

Farmer or farm manager

Laborer

Manager/administrator

Military

Skilled operative

Professional

Proprietor

Protective service

Sales

School teacher

Service

Technical

Homemaker/not working outside home

Do not know
125

Expected income at age 30 (EXPTINCM)

Respondents were asked what income they expected to earn by age 30. For the tables presented in this report,

averages were calculated.

Employer Provided Benefits and Training Opportunities Variables

For each of the following, respondents were asked whether the job they held the longest in 1993 offered the

indicated benefit or training opportunity (response categories for all, Yes/no).

Medical benefits (EMPBMED)

Dental benefits (EMPBDENT)

Life insurance (EMPBLIFE)

Sick days with pay (EMPBSICK)

Paid vacation (EMPBVAC)

Paid maternity or paternity leave (EMPBLEAV)

Unpaid maternity or paternity leave (UNPDLEAV)

Pension plan (EMPBPENS)

Child care assistance (EMPBCHLD)

Unpaid leave to care for others (UNPADOTH)

On-site formal training received (EMPTRAN1)

Informal on-the-job training received (EMPTRAN2)

Off-site formal training received (EMPTRAN3)

Employer-provided tuition assistance received (EMPTRAN4)

Total weeks training was attended in 1993 (NUMWKSTN)

Respondents were asked to count the total number of weeks they spent in training in 1993.

Hours per week training was attended in 1993 (HRSPWKTR)

If respondents attended training in 1993, they were asked to report the average number of hours per week

they spent in this training.

Employee Satisfaction Variables

Respondents were asked to indicate their satisfaction with the following variables using the following

response categories: very satisfied, somewhat satisfied, not satisfied.

Pay and benefits (PAYFRNGE)

Importance (IMPRTCHA)

Working conditions (WRKCNDT)

Opportunity for advancement (OPROMOT)

Opportunity to use education (OUSTRAIN)

Job security (JOBSECTY)

Opportunities for education (FURTHED)
126

Family Characteristics Variables

Age of first child (DOBCHLD1)

This variable was derived from the respondents' answers about the month and year their first child was born.

Less than 12 months

From 12 months to 23 months

From 24 months to 47 months

48 months or older

Sexual Experience Variables

First sexual intercourse (FIRSTSEX)

Respondents were asked about their first sexual intercourse. The categories were derived from questions

about year, month, and age.

Date unknown Respondents indicated they did not know the date of their first sexual

intercourse.

Never Respondents indicated they had never engaged in sexual intercourse.

Before high school Respondents whose first sexual intercourse occurred before they enrolled in high school.

During high school Respondents whose first sexual intercourse occurred while they were enrolled in high

school. 

After high school Respondents whose first sexual intercourse occurred after attending high school.

Use of birth control during first sexual intercourse (USEBIRCN)

Respondents who had sexual intercourse by the time of the 1994 interview were asked whether they used

birth control during their first sexual intercourse to prevent pregnancy or sexually transmitted disease.

Did not use birth control Respondent reported not using birth control during first sexual intercourse.

Did use birth control Respondent reported using birth control during first sexual intercourse.

Use of birth control during last sexual intercourse (BC1M1)

Respondents who had sexual intercourse by the time of the 1994 interview and were not married were asked

whether they used birth control during their last sexual intercourse to prevent pregnancy or sexually transmitted

disease.

Did not use birth control Respondent reported not using birth control during last sexual intercourse.

Did use birth control Respondent reported using birth control during last sexual intercourse.

Civic Participation Variables

Number of volunteer organizations (F3VOLUNT)

Respondents were given examples of volunteer organizations and the number of organizations at which the

respondents indicated having volunteered over the past year was coded.
127

None

One

Two

Three

Four or more

Personal Values

Respondents were asked to indicate how important the following variables were using the scale: very

important, somewhat important, not important.

 Professional employment success (SUCSLWRK)

 Having a lot of money (LOTSMONY)

 Having strong friendships (STRGFRND)

 Providing children with a 

 better opportunity (CHLDOPTY)

 Being able to find steady work (STDYWORK)

For the purposes of this report these ratings were collapsed into "very important" and "less than very

important."

Very Important Student responded this factor was very important.

Less than very important Student responded this factor was "somewhat important" or "not important."

Personal Time Variables

Respondents were asked to indicate whether in an average week they participated in the following activities

one or more times.

Working on hobbies (HOBBIES)

Participating in sports (PARSPORT)

Reading for pleasure (READING)

 Religious activities (RELIGION)

Talking to or doing things with parents (TALKPARN)