United States 

Department of 

Agriculture

Forest Service

Pacific Northwest 

Research Station

Research Paper

PNW-RP-583

January 2010

Reconstructed Old-Growth 

Forest Stand Structure and 

Composition of Two Stands 

on the Olympic Peninsula, 

Washington State

David H. Peter and Constance A. Harrington
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multiple use management of the Nation’s forest resources for sustained yields of wood, 

water, forage, wildlife, and recreation. Through forestry research, cooperation with the 

States and private forest owners, and management of the National Forests and National 

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Authors 

David H. Peter is an ecologist and Constance A. Harrington is a research 

forester, Forestry Sciences Laboratory, 3625 93rd Avenue SW, Olympia, 

WA 98512-9193.

Cover photo: A large Douglas-fir stump in a predominantly western hemlock stand 

in the study area suggests both structural and compositional differences between 

the previous and current stands.
Abstract

Peter, David H.; Harrington, Constance A. 2010. Reconstructed old-growth 

forest stand structure and composition of two stands on the Olympic Peninsula, 

Washington state. Res. Pap. PNW-RP-583. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 22 p.

We reconstructed the stand structure and composition for two western Washington 

old-growth forest stands harvested around 1930 (named Fresca and Rail) from 

field and historical data. Both old-growth stands had a codominant or dominant 

250-year-old Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco) overstory with a 

few scattered older Douglas-fir. Western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla (Raf.) Sarg.) 

was codominant at Rail but was predominantly in the mid-story and understory at 

Fresca. The Fresca site is now dominated by Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis (Bong.) 

Carr.) and western hemlock, whereas Rail has a composition similar to the previous 

old-growth stand. Events taking place early in succession are probably responsible 

for the differences between the modern and historical stands. Accelerated 

restoration of old-growth structural diversity may be possible at both sites through 

repeated creation of artificial gaps, but Fresca will remain different from its 

historical composition.

Keywords: Old growth, stand history, stand reconstruction, Douglas-fir, 

succession, tree stumps, restoration.
Summary

Finding relict stands to suggest an appropriate site-specific model for restoration 

of old-growth structure and composition can be difficult. However, stand legacies 

and historical information may indicate structural and compositional features of a 

previous stand. We used site vegetation, local fire history and General Land Office 

survey information with measurements and identifications of legacy stumps from 

two sites to reconstruct old-growth stands that had been clearcut 70 years before 

our measurements. We also described the modern stands using tree measurements 

made on 5.6-ha plots in each study area. These stands, named Fresca and Rail, are 

15 km apart and are on similar landforms located on the northwestern Olympic 

Peninsula in western Washington. Each stand followed a different successional 

pathway to an old-growth condition, and both modern stands are following different 

pathways. We suggest that the former stands were initiated by a stand-replacement 

fire, and that postfire Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco) dominance was limited by competition with other tree species. Stump diameter class 

frequency curves at Rail are similar for western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla (Raf.) 

Sarg.) and Douglas-fir suggesting coestablishment after the fire, but at Fresca, 

differing curves for these species suggest western hemlock entered the stand later 

than Douglas-fir. The stand at Fresca may have developed from initial codominance 

of red alder (Alnus rubra Bong.) and Douglas-fir. Later senescence of the red alder 

permitted entry of western hemlock. Fresca is now dominated by western hemlock 

and Sitka spruce with little Douglas-fir, so it would be impractical to restore the 

old-growth composition there. The composition at Rail is similar to that of the oldgrowth stand, so a more complete restoration of the old-growth character would be 

possible there. Our reconstructions suggest that old-growth restoration options are 

limited by events taking place early in succession.
Contents

1 Introduction

2 Methods

2 Study Area

3 Plant Communities

3 General Land Office Survey Data

4 Stump Survey at GLO Points

5 Stump Survey From 5.6-ha plots

5 Stump Diameter Calculations

5 Modern Stand

6 Results

6 GLO Data

9 Stump Surveys Around GLO Corners

9 Stump Surveys From 5.6-ha plots

9 Modern Stand Structure and Composition

11 Discussion

16 Conclusions

18 Acknowledgments

18 English Equivalents

18 Literature Cited

1

Reconstructed Old-Growth Forest Stand Structure and Composition of Two Stands on the Olympic Peninsula, Washington State

Introduction

Some forest managers are interested in accelerating development of old-growth 

characteristics in young stands. Although old-growth forests are unique products 

of historical events and not entirely reproducible (Franklin and Spies 1991), restoration based on an understanding of old-growth structures and their developmental 

processes is more likely to be successful than restoration based on more limited 

information (Franklin et al. 2002). But, old-growth forests suitable for site-specific 

management models often no longer exist. 

North Pacific coast old-growth forests are distinguished from second-growth 

forests by large trees, snags, down logs, deep irregular crowns, and multiple canopy 

layers (Franklin and Spies 1991). These older forests are habitat for unique assemblages of plant and animal species. Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) 

Franco) trees typically dominate these forests after fire, but gradually give ground 

to more shade-tolerant species during long fire-free intervals. The development of 

canopy-dominant Douglas-fir trees in many forest types and the relationship of the 

dominant Douglas-fir to associated shade-tolerant trees drive major changes in live 

and dead structures and the habitats they create for at least 500 years (Spies and 

Franklin 1988).

Owing to more recent disturbances, the historical stand structure may not be 

obvious, but there are several potentially useful sources of information. Information 

based on forest type or plant association is widely available but is not site specific. 

Such information suggests the combinations of species that are possible on a site, 

their likely growth rates, and thus size, at a given age. Early land survey records are 

often the best information available on premanagement forest structure and composition, but may be biased owing to individual surveyors and differences in intended 

use (Schulte and Mladenoff 2001). Old tree stumps are ubiquitous in western 

Washington, providing clues to former stand structure. Large Douglas-fir logs may 

take more than 300 years to decay (Means and Cromack 1985), but distinctive bark 

allows identification of even very old specimens. Slow decay rates permit fairly 

accurate estimates of diameter. Thus, structural and compositional insight can be 

obtained from historical records, knowledge of community successional potential, 

an understanding of past disturbance, and structural legacies including old stumps 

from prior stands. 

We used historical records and measurements of legacy stumps to reconstruct 

the former structure and composition of two stands clearcut around 1930. The stand 

legacies (stumps, logs, and snags) suggested important differences from current 

stands. We asked if it was possible with silvicultural manipulation for the two 

modern young stands to produce the kind of old-growth stand they replaced. 

We used historical 

records and 

measurements of 

legacy stumps to 

reconstruct the 

former structure 

and composition of 

two stands clearcut 

around 1930. We asked 

if it was possible 

with silvicultural 

manipulation for the 

two modern young 

stands to produce the 

kind of old-growth 

stand they replaced. 

Old tree stumps are 

ubiquitous in western 

Washington, providing 

clues to former stand 

structure.
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RESEARCH PAPER PNW-RP-583

Methods

Study Area

The Olympic Habitat Development Study is a 

project of the U.S. Forest Service Pacific Northwest 

Research Station and the Olympic National Forest 

on the Olympic Peninsula in western Washington. 

Established in 1994, its purpose is to evaluate the 

use of variable-density thinning and management of 

coarse woody debris to accelerate the development of 

stand structures and plant and animal communities 

associated with late-successional forests (Reutebuch 

et. al 2002). Two 5.6-ha plots established for the larger 

study were used for this analysis; these sites, named 

Fresca and Rail, are 15 km apart in the Soleduck River 

Valley on the Olympic Peninsula (fig. 1). 

Fresca receives about 2670 mm and Rail about 

2410 mm of precipitation falling mostly as rain 

(USDA NRCS and OSU 2005). Both sites are on a 

flat gravelly glacial outwash plain derived from the 

continental glacial retreat about 13,000 to 14,000 years 

ago (Mosher and Hewitt 2004). Elevation above sea 

level is 150 m at Fresca and 290 m at Rail. The soil at 

Fresca is a very deep moderately well-drained Pachic 

Fulvudand in the Emmiott Series. The soil at Rail is a 

very deep, well- to somewhat excessively well-drained 

Typic Udivitrand in a complex of the Bogachiel and 

Ishmael Series (series descriptions available at: http://

soils.usda.gov/technical/classification/osd/index.html). 

The entire area was mapped as a “recent cutover” in 

1931 (Harrington 2003).

Both sites appear to have originated after a 

stand-replacing fire around 1700, and both may also 

have been burned by fires around 1500 and 1300 

(Henderson et al. 1989). A 160-cm legacy stump from 

the circa 1930 clearcutting near Fresca had 250 to 270 

rings (Peter, unpublished data; uncertainty owing to 

decomposition; counted in 1995) suggesting a date of 

origin in the late 1600s.

Figure 1—Location of study areas: (A) Rail and Fresca in 

western Washington; (B) General Land Office (GLO) survey 

locations and 5.6-ha measurement plot at Rail; (C) GLO survey 

location and 5.6-ha measurement plot at Fresca. In B and C, 

scale is indicated by square sections, which are 1.6 km on a 

side. (Universal Transverse Mercator coordinates for 5.6-ha plot 

centers: Rail—420493, 5322709; Fresca—404576, 5321997).
3

Reconstructed Old-Growth Forest Stand Structure and Composition of Two Stands on the Olympic Peninsula, Washington State

Dodwell and Rixon (1902) reported forest statistics by township from the 

General Land Office (GLO) and other surveys on the Olympic Peninsula (see 

below). According to this report, most merchantable timber in the 1890s in the 

Rail area was Douglas-fir (217 yr, 104 cm diameter), and western hemlock (Tsuga 

heterophylla (Raf.) Sarg.) (145 yr, 53 cm diameter). They indicated that most of the 

timber in the Fresca area was western hemlock (151 yr, 66 cm diameter) followed 

by Douglas-fir (235 yr, 107 cm diameter), with small amounts of Sitka spruce 

(Picea sitchensis (Bong.) Carr.) (200 yr, 135 cm diameter) and western redcedar 

(Thuja plicata Donn ex D. Don). Thus, a late 1600s origin is also indicated by 

their data.

Plant Communities

The sites straddle the ecotone between the Sitka Spruce Zone and the Western 

Hemlock Zone (Henderson et al. 1989). In general, the Sitka Spruce Zone receives 

more precipitation and fog than the Western Hemlock Zone; however, in this 

ecotonal area, these differences are probably slight. Vegetation at Fresca is in the 

Sitka spruce/Oregon oxalis (Oxalis oregana) plant association (Henderson et al. 

1989). The most common plant association at Rail was western hemlock/salalswordfern (Gaultheria shallon–Polystichum munitum) (80 percent of the area), 

but western hemlock/swordfern–foamflower (Tiarella trifoliata L.) and western 

hemlock/Oregon oxalis associations (Henderson et al. 1989) are also present. In all 

of the associations at these sites, red alder is a potentially common seral species 

with a lifespan of 70 to 100 years; Douglas-fir is a common long-lived seral species; 

and western hemlock fills both seral and climax roles. Sitka spruce is a seral and 

climax species only in the Sitka Spruce Zone (Henderson et al. 1989).

General Land Office Survey Data

The GLO Survey, which was begun in 1812, covered most of the land area of the 

United States with a surveyed 1-mi (1.6-km) grid including maps and notes of major 

land features, settlements, and vegetation (available from: U.S. Department of the 

Interior, Bureau of Land Management, http://www.glorecords.blm.gov/). The GLO 

surveyors referenced survey monuments at grid (section) corners to witness trees, 

which were usually the closest trees to the survey monument. Witness-tree data 

from GLO surveys from 1891 and 1894 and descriptive information from the 1879 

township survey were extracted for our study sites. Most of the survey data we used 

came from 1891 and was the work of the same surveyor at both sites. Data were 

used from surrounding section-corners and quarter corners, which were similar in 

soils and topography to the Rail and Fresca 5.6-ha plots (described below). Species 

Witness-tree data from 

GLO surveys from 

1891 and 1894 and 

descriptive information 

from the 1879 township 

survey were extracted 

for our study sites.
4

RESEARCH PAPER PNW-RP-583

identifications and lower bole diameters were obtained for trees around seven 

section and quarter-section-corners surrounding Rail and from nine section and 

quarter-section-corners surrounding Fresca (fig. 1). 

The number of trees per hectare (tph) by species was calculated from the 

witness tree data using the distance from the monument to each tree with the 

point-quarter method (Krebs 1999) and averaged across all points. Surveyors were 

instructed to witness section-corners with four trees and quarter-section-corners 

with two trees. When only two trees are available, each tree is given twice the 

weight in the calculation of density, so quarter-section samples are less likely 

to provide an accurate description of the surrounding stand than section-corner 

samples. Accurate stand reconstruction based on witness trees assumes that the 

trees selected by the surveyors were the closest trees to the corner and that there 

was no size or species bias. Potential biases are discussed later.

Stump Survey at GLO Points

To provide a more complete picture of the larger trees in the historical stand, we 

supplemented the GLO survey data with recent interpretations of remaining legacy 

stumps. We surveyed legacy stumps around each of the 16 section or quartersection points from which GLO data had been obtained. The area around each 

point was quartered along cardinal directions. The closest legacy stump in each 

quarter was located. Then a plot radius was established, which completely included 

all four stumps. The radius of the average plot was 21.5 m (standard deviation = 

7.0 m) at Rail and 19.5 m (standard deviation = 13.2 m) at Fresca. This method was 

an efficient way to sample widely varying stump densities from point to point. A 

single small plot size might not sample any stumps at the wider spaced locations, 

whereas a single large plot size would require sampling large numbers of stumps at 

closer spaced locations. The negative relationship between plot size and the log of 

stumps per hectare had an r2 = 0.83. We recognize that our smaller plots might miss 

much of the spatial variation included in our larger plots, but our objectives were to 

produce a diameter distribution representative of the stand around each point and 

from general observations from each site, we believe that this was accomplished.

All legacy stumps in the plot were measured for height and diameter. It was 

not difficult to discern which stumps were from the stand harvested around 1930, 

but the certainty of identification to species differed. Douglas-fir stumps were 

easily identified based on their thick bark with its characteristic color and texture. 

Identification of western hemlock and Sitka spruce stumps was difficult because 

their thinner bark sloughs and decomposes more rapidly than Douglas-fir bark. 

We believe the unidentified stumps were mostly western hemlock because much 

We surveyed legacy 

stumps around each 

of the 16 section or 

quarter-section points 

from which General 

Land Office data had 

been obtained. 
5

Reconstructed Old-Growth Forest Stand Structure and Composition of Two Stands on the Olympic Peninsula, Washington State

western hemlock was found by the GLO surveyors, and it is still common in the 

modern stands. We were also sometimes able to identify western hemlock from 

bark on stumps, and it is the primary shade-tolerant tree expected on these sites 

(Henderson et al. 1989). We lumped the western hemlock and unidentified stumps 

into a group that we refer to as “western hemlock+” for analysis and discussion.

Stump Survey From 5.6-ha Plots

Stump and snag data were collected from one previously established Olympic 

Habitat Development Study 5.6-ha plot at each site (fig. 1). Stumps and snags of 

decay class 3 or higher were considered legacies of the previous stand (see Maser 

et al. 1979 for descriptions of decay classes). For each legacy stump or snag, we 

recorded species, diameter, height at the point of the diameter measurement, decay 

class, and estimated bark and wood erosion. Inside-bark diameter was measured if 

possible, otherwise it was estimated using portions of the stump that were complete, 

or nearly so. Diameters were recorded at 1.3 m or near the top for stumps shorter 

than 1.3 m. Species were identified by remnants of bark adhering to the stump (see 

discussion above).

Stump Diameter Calculations

Measurements of stump diameter from both stump surveys were converted to 

diameter at breast height (d.b.h. = 1.3 m). We used an equation for Douglas-fir, 

which accounts for lower bole taper and bark thickness (Kozak and Omule 1992). 

For all other stumps, we used an equation for calculating breast-height diameter for 

western hemlock (Demaerschalk and Omule 1982). This formula does not account 

for bark thickness, and none of the unidentified stumps had bark on them so we 

estimated it based on observations of live trees. Our estimates of bark thickness for 

western hemlock ranged from 2 cm for 40-cm stumps to 6 cm for stumps ≥ 200 cm. 

We used a bark thickness of 3 to 5 cm for four Sitka spruce stumps.

Modern Stand

The current stands at Rail and Fresca originated around 1930 after clearcut logging, slash burning, and natural seeding. Postclearcutting aerial photos (from 1939) 

show that clearcutting was complete with no residual trees visible in either area. 

Rail was lightly thinned in 1986 to salvage mortality from a recent bark beetle 

(Dendroctonus pseudotsugae) attack and increase tree growth; stand basal area 

was about 70 m2

/ha before thinning and about 60 m2/ha after thinning. Following 

thinning, a two-layered stand developed with a mature Douglas-fir overstory and 

a dense, patchy western hemlock understory. Fresca had not been thinned prior to 

The current stands 

at Rail and Fresca 

originated around 1930 

after clearcut logging, 

slash burning, and 

natural seeding. 
6

RESEARCH PAPER PNW-RP-583

its inclusion in the Olympic Habitat Development Study; it had a western hemlockSitka spruce overstory with almost no understory or midstory present.

A variable-density thinning prescription was implemented in 1997 at Rail and 

Fresca. The prescription called for thinning from below (leaving larger trees) to 

remove 20 to 25 percent of the mature stand basal area in the matrix, with areas 

in the stand designated as “skips” (no thinning, 10 percent of area) and “gaps” 

(removal of all merchantable trees of the dominant species, 15 percent of area). 

Hardwoods and less common conifers were retained in the gaps when present. 

The amount of basal area removed was low, and the size of the gaps was small to 

minimize the potential for windthrow. In the matrix, Douglas-fir and Sitka spruce 

were preferentially retained over western hemlock. One square 1.44-ha stemmapped subplot was established within each of the 5.6-ha plots at each site such 

that proportions of skips, gaps, and matrix were closely similar to the 5.6-ha plot as 

a whole. Trees in the 1.44-ha subplots were measured prior to (1996) and following 

(1997) thinning. All trees on the subplot large enough to have a diameter at breast 

height (1.3 m) were measured and species recorded. There was a large response of 

western hemlock regeneration following the thinnings. Field counts of trees taller 

than 1.3 m and less than 5 cm diameter in 2002 at Rail included 32,494 tph in the 

thinned matrix, 28,190 tph in gaps and 60,205 tph in skips. At Fresca the respective 

numbers were 829, 7,472, and 3,781.

Results

GLO Data

At Rail, the GLO surveyor’s notes for the section-corner nearest (265 m) to the 

plot include, “Timber a heavy growth of fir, hemlock, spruce, and alder, with a 

dense undergrowth of same and huckleberry, salmonberry, and devil’s club.” There 

was no mention of fire or other disturbance along section lines or corners near the 

plot. Although “fir” (Douglas-fir) was frequently the first tree mentioned in the 

section-corner descriptions, 17 of the 18 witness trees in the vicinity of Rail were 

western hemlock, and only 1 was Douglas-fir. The average tree density was 147 tph 

(table 1). The lone Douglas-fir (representing ~1 tph) had a d.b.h. of 183 cm, and the 

western hemlock ranged from 10 to 122 cm (mean = 66 cm). Based on the stand 

descriptions, Sitka spruce was a minor species. The Rail diameter distribution (fig. 

2) was dominated by trees in the 100- to 120-cm diameter size class but was nearly 

one-sided with most trees smaller than the dominant class.

A variable-density 

thinning prescription 

was implemented in 

1997 at Rail and Fresca.
7

Reconstructed Old-Growth Forest Stand Structure and Composition of Two Stands on the Olympic Peninsula, Washington State

Table 1—Sample sizes, mean diameters, and mean tree (or stump) densities for each site and survey method 

(± one standard deviation)

Rail Fresca

Stump surveys Stump surveys

Witness Witness

Variable trees GLO points 5.6-ha plot trees GLO points 5.6-ha plot

Total number of trees (or stumps) 18 65 415 25 55 513

Number of points or plots sampled 7 7 9 9

Percentage Douglas-fira 1 ± 32 55 ± 27 53 ± 20 27 ± 43 69 ± 22 68 ± 10

Tree nearest the survey point:

Distance (m) 5.2 ± 2.3 8.4 ± 7.1 5.6 ± 3.4 6.4 ± 6.0

Diameter (cm) 70 ± 37 98 ± 32 65 ± 43 113 ± 60

Mean tree diameters from plots (cm):

All trees on plot 73 ± 43 110 ± 25 113 ± 16 60 ± 33 135 ± 25 134 ± 13

Douglas-fir 183 153 ± 32 130 ± 32 108 ± 30 168 ± 27 151 ± 17

Western hemlock+ 66 ± 35 65 ± 19 95 ± 21 46 ± 19 66 ± 23 99 ± 22

Density (trees per hectare) 147 ± 152 75 ± 35 74 ± 24 150 ± 139 93 ± 65 92 ± 24

Note: GLO = General Land Office.

a Percentage of the sample trees that were Douglas-fir.

At Fresca, the nearest section-corner was 407 m from the 5.6-ha plot. The GLO 

survey has the following description: “Timber a heavy growth of fir, hemlock, 

spruce and alder with a dense undergrowth of same and vine maple, salmonberry, 

huckleberry, currant and devils club.” No mention of fire was made for any of the 

nearest section lines or corners. Another section-corner (342 m) description from an 

1879 township survey says: “Timber hemlock and fir of good quality...undergrowth; 

salal, huckleberry, salmonberry and briars.”

In the vicinity of Fresca, 5 Douglas-fir, 19 western hemlock and 1 Sitka spruce 

were used for a total of 25 witness trees (table 1). The average tree density was 150 

tph (Douglas-fir 58 tph). The average diameter of the Fresca witness trees was 60 

cm, and the average diameter of the trees nearest the survey points was 65 cm. All 

the Douglas-fir, but only two of the western hemlocks were larger than 53 cm. The 

only Sitka spruce measured had a diameter of 76 cm. The diameter distribution of 

trees at Fresca peaked in the 20- to 80-cm range (fig. 2).
8

RESEARCH PAPER PNW-RP-583

Figure 2—Diameter-class distribution by species for Fresca and Rail based on stand reconstructions from General Land 

Office (GLO) surveys (1890s), and modern stump surveys. Note: the y axis varies. The x axis labels denote the center of 

20-cm diameter-classes. tph = trees per hectare.
9

Reconstructed Old-Growth Forest Stand Structure and Composition of Two Stands on the Olympic Peninsula, Washington State

Stump Surveys Around GLO Corners

The stump survey plots at the GLO points near Rail included 32 Douglas-fir, 21 

unknown, 11 western hemlock, and 1 Sitka spruce stump representing an average 

of 75 tph (Douglas-fir 42 tph) (table 1). The average diameter of stumps on the Rail 

plots was 110 cm, and the mean diameter of the nearest stump to the plot center was 

98 cm. The diameter distribution peaked in the 40- to 60-cm diameter class, and 

was skewed to larger sizes up to about 360 cm (fig. 2). The western hemlock+ group 

dominated most size classes smaller than 130 cm, although Douglas-fir stumps 

were common in these classes. All stumps larger than 130 cm were Douglas-fir, and 

most stumps with residual bark had bark char from slash burning.

The nine survey plots near Fresca included 39 Douglas-fir, 10 western hemlock, 

5 unknown, and 1 Sitka spruce stump for a total of 55 stumps representing an 

average of 93 tph (Douglas-fir 51 tph) (table 1). The stump diameter distribution did 

not have a single clear peak (fig. 2). Douglas-fir stumps at Fresca were found in size 

classes from 20 to 260 cm in diameter, but were generally larger than those in the 

western hemlock+ group. There were very few trees in the western hemlock+ group 

in the upper half of the diameter distribution, and very few Douglas-firs in the 

lower half. Most stumps with residual bark were charred from slash burning. 

Stump Surveys From 5.6-ha Plots

There were 216 Douglas-fir, 198 unknown, and 1 western hemlock stump at Rail 

representing 74 stumps/ha (Douglas-fir 46 tph) (table 1). Douglas-fir, and the western hemlock+ group had similar stump size distributions that were skewed toward 

the larger size classes, but Douglas-fir extended furthest into the large size classes 

(fig. 2). The peak of the distribution was at 60 to 100 cm d.b.h. for both Douglas-fir, 

and the western hemlock+ group.

There were 348 Douglas-fir, 151 unknown, 10 western hemlock, and 4 Sitka 

spruce stumps at Fresca representing 92 stumps/ha (Douglas-fir 62 tph) (table 1). 

Douglas-fir diameters were symmetrically distributed about a peak in the 140- to 

160-cm size class with a mean of 151 cm. The western hemlock+ group was distributed around an 80- to 100-cm peak with a mean of 99 cm and was skewed to the 

larger size classes.

Modern Stand Structure and Composition

At Rail prior to the 1997 thinning, Douglas-fir were 33 cm larger in diameter on 

average than western hemlock (table 2). Douglas-fir was primarily in dominant 

or codominant crown positions, but western hemlock was mostly in lower crown 

class positions with most stems less than 20 cm d.b.h. The main effect of the 

The main effect of 

the variable-density 

thinning was to 

create small canopy 

gaps and to remove 

intermediate and 

smaller codominant 

western hemlocks and 

a few Douglas-fir.
10

RESEARCH PAPER PNW-RP-583

variable-density thinning was to create small canopy gaps and to remove intermediate and smaller codominant western hemlocks and a few Douglas-fir; the thinning 

did not appreciably change the shape of the diameter distribution. After thinning, 

the average Douglas-fir was 35 cm larger in diameter than the average western 

hemlock (table 2). The percentage of all trees > 40 cm d.b.h. went from 22 percent 

before thinning to 30 percent after thinning.

Table 2—Sample sizes, mean diameters and mean tree densities for each 1.44-ha subplot at Rail and Fresca 

before and after thinning

Rail Fresca 

Variable Prethinning Postthinning Prethinning Postthinning

Total number of trees 1,129 846 787 500

Mean diameter of all trees (cm) 20 22 36 42

Diameter of Douglas-fir 42 44 50 51

Diameter of western hemlock (cm) 9 9 32 36

Diameter of Sitka spruce (cm) — — 49 52

Tree density (trees per hectare) 784 588 546 347

Douglas-fir density (trees per hectare) 260 211 12 11

Percentage Douglas-fir 33 36 2 3

Percentage Sitka spruce 0 0 29 36

Tree density >40 cm diameter at breast height 173 176 239 197

Percentage Douglas-fir >40 cm diameter at breast height 82 82 4 5

— = none present.

At Fresca prior to the 1997 thinning, the diameter distributions of Sitka spruce 

and western hemlock were approximately bell-shaped with Sitka spruce centered at 

40 to 60 cm and western hemlock at 20 to 40 cm. There was very little Douglas-fir, 

and that which was present was similar in size to the Sitka spruce (table 2). Overall, 

the 1997 thinning reduced the stand density by 36 percent, but tree density >40 

cm only decreased by 18 percent (table 2). Because thinning was from below and 

Sitka spruce were favored as leave trees, the peak of the western hemlock distribution shifted from 20 to 40 cm to 40 to 60 cm, while the Sitka spruce distribution 

changed little. The percentage of all trees >40 cm d.b.h. went from 44 percent 

before thinning to 57 percent after thinning.
11

Reconstructed Old-Growth Forest Stand Structure and Composition of Two Stands on the Olympic Peninsula, Washington State

Discussion

Among several important characteristics of Pacific Northwest old-growth stands is 

a negative exponential distribution of shade-tolerant species with many small trees 

and fewer large trees (Huff 1995, Van Pelt and Nadkarni 2004, Winter et al. 2002). 

However, this distribution is not shown by the GLO survey or stump data that we 

used in our old-growth stand reconstruction. The most likely explanation in the 

case of the GLO survey lies in the needs of the surveyors for certain qualities in 

witness trees. The GLO witness trees were marked by chopping through the bark 

and inscribing reference information on the wood. We suspect that on these sites, 

surveyors avoided small trees (< ~10 cm diameter) that were impractical to inscribe 

or might not last as long as larger witness trees. A bias in favor of medium-sized 

trees has been reported in GLO data elsewhere (Bourdo 1956). Thus, we would not 

expect many small witness trees even though the GLO surveyors noted a “dense 

undergrowth” of trees and shrubs was present at both sites. It therefore seems likely 

that the historical stand had something resembling a negative exponential distribution of shade-tolerant trees at the time of the GLO survey. 

The stump data also has relatively few small stumps, probably because most of 

the smaller stumps were from shade-tolerant western hemlocks, which decay more 

rapidly than larger Douglas-fir stumps (Aho and Cahill 1984, Harmon et al. 1986). 

Also, slash burning after cutting in the 1930s would have burned small stumps 

more completely than large stumps. Thus, because we surveyed stumps ~70 years 

after clearcutting and slash burning, we did not expect to find many small stumps 

even if, as the surveyors suggested, they had been there.

The GLO witness-tree data are apparently also biased against large Douglas-fir 

trees, resulting in underestimating this species abundance in the Rail and Fresca 

old-growth stands by 40 to 60 percentage points (when compared with the stump 

surveys, table 1). We suspect that on these sites surveyors avoided large Douglasfir trees (> 130 cm) that were difficult to mark owing to the difficulty of chopping 

through the very thick bark, leaving mostly medium-sized western hemlocks. Had 

we not collected stump data around the same points surveyed in the late 1800s, we 

might erroneously assume from the witness tree data that these stands were dominated by small to medium-sized western hemlock trees. The stump data clearly 

show that larger Douglas-fir and western hemlock trees were common. We believe 

the stump and witness tree data are complementary based on our understanding of 

the biases of each data set, and also from the site potential (which suggests these 

species are often found together), successional theory (which suggest that western 

hemlock can grow in the shade of Douglas-fir trees, but not vice versa), and from 

We believe the stump 

and witness tree data 

are complementary 

based on our understanding of the biases 

of each data set.
12

RESEARCH PAPER PNW-RP-583

other regional studies that consistently have found shade-tolerant trees in the 

understory of older Douglas-fir-dominated stands (Spies et al. 1990, Van Pelt and 

Nadkarni 2004, Winter et al. 2002). 

Taken together, the surveys (GLO witness, GLO stump, 5.6-ha stump) suggest 

that both stands had overstories dominated by large, widely spaced Douglas-fir 

trees. The somewhat skewed bell-shaped Douglas-fir distributions from both 

stands suggest a single dominant age class (Agee 1993). The skewed tails of the 

Douglas-fir distributions suggest a smaller component of older trees with larger 

diameters was also present (especially visible in the 5.6-ha stump survey data of 

fig. 2). A large component of western hemlock in the mid- to understory was 

apparently present in both stands and, although not visible in our data, may have 

had a negative exponential distribution as previously discussed. Western hemlock 

was also codominant in the overstory at Rail, but not at Fresca. These reconstructions compare favorably with regional descriptions of lowland old growth. For 

example, coastal Douglas-fir old growth typically includes widely spaced dominant 

Douglas-fir and smaller western hemlock trees (Bailey 1996, Spies and Franklin 

1991) with high age and size variation (Franklin and Spies 1991, Tappeiner et al. 

1997). 

Conceptual models attempting to explain how the Rail and Fresca old-growth 

stands formed must include (1) low density of large overstory dominant conifers, 

(2) Douglas-fir canopy dominance, and (3) coestablishment of western hemlock at 

Rail. Tree establishment can be rapid on moist sites like those at Rail and especially 

at Fresca. Harcombe (1986) found that 83 percent of Sitka spruce and 68 percent of 

larger western hemlocks established within 20 years after fire. Given this possibility, the Fresca model must also explain (4) why western hemlock established mainly 

after the Douglas-fir. 

Forest species composition and stand structure has been profoundly influenced 

by fire in this region (Agee 1993). Large, stand-replacement fires burned in this 

portion of the Olympic Peninsula around 1500 and 1700 (Henderson et al. 1989). 

Two large fires on the Olympic Peninsula that burned around the time that the Rail 

and Fresca old growth established were dated to 1668 and 1701 by Henderson et al. 

(1989). Scattered tall and thick-barked Douglas-fir trees often survive fires providing a seed source for recolonization (Huff 1995). The diversity in Douglas-fir stump 

sizes at our sites suggests that our historical stands included larger diameter trees, 

which survived the fires of the late 1600s or early 1700s. For example, it is unlikely 

that the scattered Douglas-fir trees greater than 3 m in diameter originated after the 

same fire as the majority of trees that were 70- to 170-cm in diameter, so the larger 

Taken together, the 

surveys suggest 

that both stands had 

overstories dominated 

by large, widely spaced 

Douglas-fir trees. A 

large component of 

western hemlock in the 

mid- to understory was 

apparently present in 

both stands.

The diversity in 

Douglas-fir stump 

sizes at our sites 

suggests that our historical stands included 

larger diameter trees, 

which survived the 

fires of the late 1600s 

or early 1700s.
13

Reconstructed Old-Growth Forest Stand Structure and Composition of Two Stands on the Olympic Peninsula, Washington State

diameter trees are likely to have originated after an earlier event such as the fire that 

occurred ~1500. These scattered larger diameter Douglas-fir would have functioned 

as seed trees for the Douglas-fir in the stand following the late 1600s or early 1700s.

Tappeiner et al. (1997) suggested that many Douglas-fir old-growth stands were 

sparsely stocked and diverse in size owing to repeated partial burning rather than 

starting out densely and self-thinning as modern stands do. The age of a stump in 

the vicinity of Fresca (Peter, unpublished data) and ages provided by Dodwell and 

Rixon (1902) suggest stand origination in the late 1600s, but Douglas-fir trees in 

the northern Olympic Peninsula commonly date to the early 1700s (Henderson et 

al. 1989). A mixed-severity reburn in the early 1700s after a late 1600s fire might 

have extended the regeneration period similar to what Tappeiner et al. (1997) found 

in western Oregon, but this does not explain the coestablishment of fire-sensitive 

western hemlock with Douglas-fir at Rail. Also, Douglas-fir diameters in singleaged stands regenerating from fire usually form a bell-shaped curve (Agee 1993) 

similar to that at both sites. Thus, multiple fires around 1700 probably did not occur 

at Rail or Fresca.

Douglas-fir establishment after fire can require 10 to 100 years (Franklin 

and Hemstrom 1981, Huff 1984, Munger 1940, Tappeiner et al. 1997, Yamaguchi 

1986) owing to seed availability, site conditions (Huff 1995), and periodic reburns 

(Tappeiner et al. 1997). However, in the moist Sitka Spruce Zone and wetter parts of 

the Western Hemlock Zone, establishment tends to be rapid (Harcombe 1986) and 

often includes shade-tolerant species and shade-intolerant red alder (Alnus rubra

Bong.). Douglas-fir is less common than in drier parts of the Western Hemlock 

Zone because fires are smaller; fire-free intervals are longer; and red alder, western 

hemlock, and Sitka spruce establish more aggressively (Agee 1993, Henderson et 

al. 1989). However, once established, Douglas-fir can remain for centuries (Munger 

1940). Owing to its tolerance of shade and the lengthy fire cycle in these areas, 

western hemlock (and Sitka spruce at Fresca) will increase over time at the expense 

of shade-intolerant Douglas-fir or red alder (Franklin and Dyrness 1988, Henderson 

et al. 1989). Thus, fire and site interact to determine the initial stand stocking and 

composition with centuries-long consequences.

Old-growth characteristics often accrue through multiple local disturbances 

that open single to multitree canopy gaps from windthrow, disease, or agerelated senescence (Spies et al. 1990, van Pelt and Nadkarni 2004, Winter et al. 

2002). Thus, an initially dense and uniform Douglas-fir forest can become more 

open and also more diverse as shade-tolerant trees are recruited into the canopy 

gaps. Windstorms produce pulses of regeneration in scattered patches. Western 

Fire and site interact 

to determine the 

initial stand stocking 

and composition 

with centuries-long 

consequences.
14

RESEARCH PAPER PNW-RP-583

Washington has a history of large windstorms such as the relatively recent 1921 

Blow and the Columbus Day Storm of 1962 capable of extensive gap formation 

(Boyce 1929, Henderson et al. 1989, Morganroth 1991, Orr 1963). Winter et al. 

(2002) documented how structural diversity accrued in pulses (interpreted as 

windstorms) in a Western Hemlock Zone stand in the southern Washington 

Cascade Mountains resulting in a structurally diverse 500-year-old stand. The stand 

described by Winter et al. (2002), although older than our Rail and Fresca stands, 

had a similar overall stand density (91 tph), but only had 14 Douglas-fir tph. Our 

stump data indicated that there were 43 to 46 Douglas-fir tph at Rail and 51 to 62 

tph at Fresca. However, compared to a 280-year-old lowland old-growth stand near 

Mount Rainier in western Washington, which had 105 Douglas-fir tph (van Pelt 

and Nadkarni 2004), the Douglas-fir tree density at Rail and Fresca is quite low. 

Also, there is no evidence of repeated pulses of conifer regeneration, so we think it 

likely that another (or additional) mechanism contributed to gap formation and the 

evolution of stand structure at Fresca and Rail. 

It is important to recognize that some successional pathways are more likely 

than others owing to climate and site potential. For example, early red alder recruitment is only possible on moister sites in the Pacific Northwest where red alder 

aggressively competes with conifers after fires (Henderson et al. 1989) and multiple 

fire-mediated pathways are unlikely in many of these same areas, as fire tends to 

occur rarely in them (Agee 1993). Rail and Fresca are both moist maritime sites 

where early seral recruitment of red alder is likely (Henderson et al. 1989). Red 

alder has light seed capable of widespread wind dissemination (Harrington 2006) 

from small refugia, such as riparian stands, so it is able to access considerable 

areas of landscape as it becomes available for colonization after disturbances such 

as fire. When established simultaneously with red alder on moist sites, Douglas-fir 

is often overtopped and killed (Newton et al. 1968), but mixed stands result when 

some Douglas-fir establishes a few years before most of the red alder (Stubblefield 

and Oliver 1978). Henderson et al. (1989) suggested that initial canopy codominance by red alder in the plant associations present on these sites may commonly 

be responsible for an initial low density of conifers. After 60 to 80 years, red alder 

dies, which creates gaps that permit recruitment of shade-tolerant species such as 

western hemlock. 

The species distributions of stumps at our two sites suggest somewhat different stand histories. Douglas-fir was not only widely spaced, but western hemlock 

entry lagged behind that of Douglas-fir at Fresca. At Rail, however, Douglas-fir and 

western hemlock coestablished. This would seem to indicate that a considerable 

gap-forming event occurred sometime after the establishment of the Douglas-fir 

The species distributions of stumps at 

our two sites suggest 

somewhat different 

stand histories. 

Douglas-fir was not 

only widely spaced, 

but western hemlock 

entry lagged behind 

that of Douglas-fir 

at Fresca. At Rail, 

however, Douglas-fir 

and western hemlock 

coestablished. 
15

Reconstructed Old-Growth Forest Stand Structure and Composition of Two Stands on the Olympic Peninsula, Washington State

stand at Fresca, but not at Rail. Two likely candidates for this gap-forming event 

are a large windstorm or senescence of coestablished red alder. Either of these 

processes could account for the wide Douglas-fir spacing and the lag in western 

hemlock regeneration.

At Rail, which appears to date from the same stand-initiation fire as Fresca, 

the strong overlap of the Douglas-fir and western hemlock size distributions and 

low stand density suggest that Douglas-fir and western hemlock coestablished. 

Western hemlock also has light seed capable of widespread wind dissemination 

(Packee 1990), which may have facilitated its establishment. Having started from 

codominance, this stand probably continued to gradually open and diversify from 

local gap-forming processes. Both the GLO surveyors and Dodwell and Rixon 

(1902) mentioned smaller and younger western hemlocks, so we assume that some 

established later in response to disease, wind disturbance, or red alder/conifer 

senescence. 

Because the distribution of western hemlock diameters at Rail is essentially 

the same as for Douglas-fir and certainly not bimodal, we do not believe a large 

windstorm affected the development of the stand at Rail. At this site, low Douglasfir density is explicable by partial exclusion of Douglas-fir by western hemlock 

during stand establishment. Because Rail is only 15 km from Fresca over flat land 

and Rail does not appear to have been affected by a windstorm, we think a partial 

competitive exclusion by red alder is a better explanation for the low Douglas-fir 

tree density at Fresca than a windstorm. 

The modern 70-year-old stands at Fresca and Rail are younger, denser, have 

smaller diameter trees, and less size variation than the historical stands had, and 

because of shade suppression also have sparse herb and shrub understories. They 

are similar to other densely stocked modern stands with low age and size variation 

(Bailey 1996, Curtis et al. 2004, Franklin and Spies 1991, Oliver and Larson 1990). 

We believe the uniformity of Fresca and Rail is due to four factors: (1) the area was 

uniformly clearcut and slash burned, (2) progressive cutting allowed uniform and 

heavy seeding from remaining old-growth stands, (3) no postestablishment fires 

or large windstorms caused significant gap formation, and (4) there is no indication that red alder was an important species at either site in modern times. Higher 

modern stand densities probably limit diameter growth compared to historical 

stands, especially if historical stands were fertilized by red alder (Bormann 1977). 

A legitimate question managers have about these kinds of stands is how to change 

the successional trajectory to increase structural and compositional diversity for the 

benefit of wildlife species associated with late-successional stands.

The modern 70-yearold stands at Fresca 

and Rail are younger, 

denser, have smaller 

diameter trees, and 

less size variation 

than the historical 

stands had, and 

because of shade 

suppression also have 

sparse herb and shrub 

understories.
16

RESEARCH PAPER PNW-RP-583

One way to change successional trajectory is by thinning the stand. At Fresca, 

where the overstory density is almost 40 percent greater than at Rail, the thinning 

treatments made only small changes in overstory tree density. Rail received an 

additional thinning in 1986 that explains much of the difference in overstory density between these two stands. The difference in density may also explain the large 

amount of western hemlock regeneration at Rail, but not at Fresca and possibly 

faster tree growth at Rail than at Fresca (contrary to what would be predicted based 

on their respective plant associations). Thus, differences in thinning, combined with 

differences in site potential have elicited different successional trajectories.

Thus far, our discussion has assumed that no change in climate has or will 

occur. However, this is not the case; climate changed continuously throughout 

development of the old-growth and modern stands, raising the possibility that species composition has been affected. Most of the succession of the old-growth stands 

occurred during the cooler The Little Ice Age climate, which is generally thought 

to have been at its greatest expression around the time these old-growth stands 

established (Cook et al. 2004, Gavin and Brubaker 1999, Heusser 1957). The Little 

Ice Age ended and a warm period began in the mid-1800s. Thus, both Fresca and 

Rail were initiated in a period thought to have been cooler than the present climate. 

Because large fires occurred on the Olympic Penisnsula in the late 1600s and early 

1700s, the summer climate may have been drier at that time as well (Henderson 

et al. 1989). Thus, the relative lack of Sitka spruce in the old-growth Fresca stand 

and the abundance of it in the modern stand may relate to drier conditions during old-growth stand establishment and moister conditions during modern stand 

establishment. Our data do not permit a definitive statement on this matter, but it 

is important to consider that climate change is an ongoing phenomenon that could 

alter future successional trajectories making only very general restoration objectives practical.

Conclusions

Because the overstory species composition of Rail is similar to that of the previous 

historical stand, restoration approximating the historical stand structure and composition may yet be possible and might be accelerated by appropriate silvicultural 

manipulation. This would require additional thinning treatments to diversify stand 

structure. In addition, diversification of the shrub and herb layers would require 

control of western hemlock regeneration after thinning. One difference between the 

modern stand and historical stands not restorable with silvicultural manipulation 

is the older age classes of large Douglas-fir trees that were present in the historical 

stand.
17

Reconstructed Old-Growth Forest Stand Structure and Composition of Two Stands on the Olympic Peninsula, Washington State

It is not possible, even if it were desired, to reestablish the historical stand 

composition at Fresca since Douglas-fir is now a minor species there and of only 

one age class. If our reconstruction is correct and the historical conifers established 

at wider spacing while benefiting from red alder nitrogen fertilization, the higher 

stand density of the modern stand may limit diameter growth if there is no additional thinning.

Based on plant community potential, fire history information, and inference 

from our reconstructed stands, we suggest that the modern stands are following different successional pathways than the old-growth stands and can only be partially 

restored with silvicultural manipulation. However, the stand histories that we reconstructed hold keys to diversifying these and other forests. Thinning when the stand 

was younger, particularly releasing individual trees would have facilitated earlier 

development of large trees, while allowing the development of a variable understory. But, for the current stands, larger and more diverse tree sizes might develop 

more rapidly by the creation of larger openings that would reduce the overstory tree 

density to levels more in line with the historical overstory density and facilitate the 

logging operations necessary to create them. Planting these openings with red alder 

would delay occupation by shade-tolerant conifers. The natural fertilization from 

the red alder trees would further encourage conifer size diversification. Shrub and 

herb understory development under red alder is greater and more diverse than under 

conifers (Franklin and Pechanec 1968), and conifer replacement of red alder is 

relatively sparse and slow (Newton et al. 1968) facilitating shrub and herb retention. 

These sites appear to have multiple developmental pathways determined by 

events early in their stand histories that affect stand structure and composition for 

hundreds of years. This has implications for the possibilities of, and methodologies 

for, restoration of old-growth structure and function. But, naturally or through 

silvicultural manipulation, diversification in at least these plant associations is 

encouraged by lower early conifer density, patchy spacing of dominant trees, and 

prevention of immediate conifer occupancy of openings.

Scientific name Common name

Alnus rubra Bong. red alder

Gaultheria shallon Pursh salal

Oxalis oregana Nutt. redwood-sorrel

Picea sitchensis (Bong.) Carr. sitka spruce

Polystichum munitum (Kaulf.) C. Presl western swordfern

Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco Douglas-fir

Tiarella trifoliata L. threeleaf foamflower

Tsuga heterophylla (Raf.) Sarg. western hemlock

The modern stands 

are following different 

successional pathways 

than the old-growth 

stands and can only 

be partially restored 

with silvicultural 

manipulation. However, 

the stand histories that 

we reconstructed hold 

keys to diversifying 

these and other 

forests. 
18

RESEARCH PAPER PNW-RP-583

Acknowledgments

We thank our field crews for plot establishment and measurement and the Olympic 

National Forest for implementing the variable-density thinning. We thank Stan 

Graham for volunteering to assist with field work. This work was supported in part 

by funding from the Pacific Northwest Research Station’s Wood Compatibility 

Initiative. We also thank the reviewers of this paper for many constructive 

suggestions.

English Equivalents

When you know: Multiply by: To find:

Millimeters (mm) 0.0394 Inches

Centimeters (cm) 0.394 Inches

Meters (m) 3.28 Feet

Kilometers (km) 0.621 Miles

Hectares (ha) 2.47 Acres

Square meters per hectare (m2

/ha) 4.37 Square feet per acre

Trees per hectare (tph) 0.405 Trees per acre

Degrees Celsius (°C) 1.8 °C + 32 Degrees Fahrenheit 

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22

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Pacific Northwest Research Station

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