Review of 

Log Sort Yards 

John Rusty Dramm

Gerry L. Jackson

Jenny Wong 

United States

Department of 

Agriculture

Forest Service

Forest

Products

Laboratory

General

Technical

Report

FPLGTR132
Abstract

This report provides a general overview of current log sort yard

operations in the United States, including an extensive literature 

review and information collected during on-site visits to several 

operations throughout the nation. Log sort yards provide many

services in marketing wood and fiber by concentrating, merchandising, processing, sorting, and adding value to logs. Such 

operations supply forest products firms with desired raw materials, which helps improve their bottom line by reducing the 

number of marginal logs processed. Ultimately, sorting logs 

leads to better use of the available timber resources. Successful 

log sort yards are self-sufficient and have well-established 

markets and a steady supply of wood. Log sort yard concepts 

and analyses described in this report have broad applications. 

Keywords: log sort yard, small diameter, underutilized species, 

value-added, sorting, log scaling, log grading, log 

merchandising

Cover Photograph 

Libby Log Sort Yard, Libby, MontanaóLogs from small timber

producers and private landowners are purchased and sorted for 

various log products and concentrated for more efficient shipping to mills by truck. The essentials of the small log sort yard

are shown: log decks, yard office, and utility hookups. Small log 

sort yards such as this may hold the key to effective forestland 

restoration and fuels reduction treatment while providing rural 

jobs and opportunities for value-added options for smalldiameter and underutilized trees. 

October 2002 

Dramm, John Rusty; Jackson, Gerry L.; Wong, Jenny. 2002. Review of log 

sort yards. Gen. Tech. Rep. FPL-GTR-132. Madison, WI: U.S. Department

of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory. 39 p.

A limited number of free copies of this publication are available to the 

public from the Forest Products Laboratory, One Gifford Pinchot Drive,

Madison, WI 53726ñ2398. This publication is also available online at 

www.fpl.fs.fed.us. Laboratory publications are sent to hundreds

of libraries in the United States and elsewhere. 

The Forest Products Laboratory is maintained in cooperation with the

University of Wisconsin. 

The use of trade or firm names is for information only and does not imply

endorsement by the U.S. Department of Agriculture of any product or

service.

The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of race, color, national 

origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political beliefs, sexual orientation, or 

marital or familial status. (Not all prohibited bases apply to all programs.)

Persons with disabilities who require alternative means for communication

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Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 1400 Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250ñ9410, or call (202) 720ñ5964 (voice and TDD). USDA is 

an equal opportunity provider and employer.

About the Authors 

John Rusty Dramm is a Forest Products Utilization Specialist in 

the Technology Marketing Unit located at the USDA Forest 

Service, Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, Wisconsin.

Current focus of Mr. Drammís work is on potential applications 

of log sort yards to improve the viability of forestland restoration and fuels reduction activities on public and private forests. 

He is a recognized expert in sawmill efficiency and quality and 

productivity improvement. In addition to his tenure with the 

USDA Forest Service, he has a total of 20 years experience in 

lumber manufacturing quality control, hardwood forest management and harvest operations, and wood treating plant management. He holds a Master of Forestry Degree from Oregon 

State University and a Bachelor of Science Degree in Forest 

Management, from University of WisconsinñStevens Point. 

Gerry Jackson is a Forest Products Marketing Specialist with

the Technology Marketing Unit in Madison, Wisconsin.

Mr. Jackson provides marketing assistance to state and community groups engaged in rural community assistance as well as 

the forest products industry. His industrial experience includes 

Weyerhaeuser Companyís management trainee program in the 

southeastern United States. He received his Masterís Degree in 

Forest Products Marketing from Virginia Tech and a Bachelor 

of Science Degree in Marketing from Alabama A&M

University.

Jenny Wong is a summer student with the Forest Products 

Laboratory. She compiled the extensive literature review of log 

sort yards. She is working toward a pre-law undergraduate 

degree at the University of Minnesota.

Acknowledgments

Coordination of log sort yard site visits was made possible by

efforts of Federal and state utilization and marketing specialists 

throughout the country. We especially recognize the efforts by

Peter Lammert, Maine Department of Conservation; Dean 

Huber, USDA Forest Service, Northeastern Area; and Bill von 

Segen, USDA Forest Service, Region 6, State & Private Forestry. The authors also thank several individuals, companies,

and organizations who contributed their insights into log sort 

yard operations. We are most grateful for contributions from the 

following individuals and organizations:

Terry Larimer, Libby Log Yard; Roger Jaegel, Watershed Research and 

Training Center; Mark Stella, Rogue Institute; Terry Mace, Wisconsin

Department of Natural Resources; Dr. Robert Govett, University of WisconsinñStevens Point; Chris Edwards, Western Wood Products, Inc.; Bob

McCarty, Weyerhaeuser Company; Carl Henderson, Huber Resources

Corporation; Peter Honey, Champion International; Norm Steve, Prentiss 

and Carlisle; Ed Kimball, Penley Corporation; George Parke, Northeast 

Bio Recovery, Inc.; Ray Emery, Emery Forest Products; Earl Pelletier,

Oak Brokers, Inc.; Dick Pierce, Timber Resources Group, LLC; Scott

Thomas, GT&S Logging, Inc.; Howard Miller, Jackman Lumberó

Somerset Log Yard; Bruce Edwards, E.D. Besse & Son; Peter Holman,

Maxiwood; Reiny Krause, Algoma Lumber Company; Byron Hawkins,

Webster Lumber Company; Jamie Barbour, USDA Forest Service, Pacific

Northwest Research Station; Dean L. Parry, USDA Forest Service, Pacific

Northwest Research Station; Steve Schmieding, USDA Forest Service, 

Forest Products Laboratory.
Contents

 Page

Introduction........................................................................... 1

Log Sort Yard Project ....................................................... 1

Types of Log Yards .......................................................... 3

Origins of the Log Sort Yard ............................................ 3

Benefits of Sorting Logs ................................................... 4

Log Sorting Alternatives................................................... 5

Advantages of Log Sort Yards.......................................... 6

Log Sort Yard Goals and Objectives ................................... 7

Log Sort Yard Operations..................................................... 7

Materials Handling............................................................ 8

Log Processing.................................................................. 9

Sorting............................................................................. 11

Log Storage and Inventory.............................................. 11

Log Sort Yard Equipment and Sorting Systems ................ 11

Front-End Loaders .......................................................... 12

Log Stackers ................................................................... 12

Log Loaders .................................................................... 13

Sorting Systems and Log Merchandisers........................ 13

Timber Processors and Cut-To-Length Systems............ 14

Sorting Bunks ................................................................. 14

Selection of Log Sort Yard Equipment........................... 15

Log Sort Yard Layout ......................................................... 15

Log Sort Yard Economics and Productivity ...................... 17

Economics....................................................................... 17

Productivity..................................................................... 18

Keys to a Successful Log Sort Yard .................................. 18

Log Sort Yard Business Plan .......................................... 19

Barriers to Successful Log Sort Yard Operations.......... 20

Concluding Remarks........................................................... 20

References........................................................................... 21

Page

Appendix: Selected Bibliography of Log Sort Yard and 

Related References.............................................................. 22

Categories ....................................................................... 22

Log Sort Yards................................................................ 22

Log Rules and Scaling .................................................... 23

Log Grading.................................................................... 23

EconomicsñCostsñProductivity ...................................... 24

Marketing........................................................................ 25

Exporting ........................................................................ 26

DebrisñDisposal and Use of Residues ............................ 27

Bucking and MerchandisingóGeneral........................... 28

Optimal Softwood Bucking ............................................ 29

Hardwood Bucking ......................................................... 30

Log Manufacture............................................................. 31

HarvestingñLoggingñTimber Sales ................................ 31

TransportationóLoading and Unloading ....................... 32

Log Allocation ................................................................ 33

Log Procurement............................................................. 34

Inventory Control and Storage........................................ 35

Protection and Insect Control.......................................... 35

Debarking, Chipping, Hogging and Grinding................ 37

Miscellaneous ................................................................. 38

Review of Log Sort Yards 

John Rusty Dramm, Forest Products Utilization Specialist

Gerry L. Jackson, Forest Products Marketing Specialist

Jenny Wong, Summer Student

Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, Wisconsin

Introduction

The forest products industryís interest in log sort yards has 

increased during the past several years in response to a 

decline in timber resource quality and availability, changes

in wood and fiber markets, and the need to recover more

value from available resources. In addition, forest-dependent

rural communities, affected by changes in the timber supply 

situation, are searching for ways to build diversified and 

sustainable local forest products businesses. For this to

happen, a dependable supply of raw material is crucial.

At the same time, land managers need economical ways to

reduce the forest fuel load in the West and must find ways to

market low value material from thinning operations and 

forest restoration projects. Furthermore, current land management strategies indicate that the USDA Forest Service 

will harvest significant amounts of small-diameter material

and biomass during the next several decades. Dense, overstocked small-diameter stands require mechanical treatment

(that is, thinning), followed by prescribed burning to reduce 

the fuel load, improve forest vigor, and restore landscapes to

desired presettlement conditions. Because of insufficient 

funding to achieve wide-scale forest restoration and fuel

reduction, an economical outlet (or market) for smalldiameter material and biomass is needed. These changes in 

land management strategies, primarily from watershed restoration projects and fuel reduction work, will result in smalldiameter mixed species sales, which will differ from the

large-diameter, single species commercial timber sales of the 

past.

In addition to the traditional commercially run log sort yard,

possible log sort yard scenarios include small communitybased and government-run log yards. In general, yards operating other than for profit (for example, community and 

government-run yards) have not had much success (marginal

at best) for a number of reasons. In Canada, however, the

Ministry of Forestry has successfully operated a government

log sort and sales yard since 1995 in Lumby, British Columbia (Wallowa Resources 1997). Similar pilot projects could

be pursued in the United States. The Watershed Research 

and Training Center in Hayfork, California, is also pursuing

a community-based log sort yard project to help overcome

previous barriers to success (Roger Jaegel, Watershed Research and Training Center, personal communication, 1999). 

Log sort yards could potentially improve utilization and

value recovery of underutilized species, small-diameter

material, and biomass resources. Consequently, the USDA 

Forest Service is investigating opportunities for using log 

sort yards to improve raw material supply for small wood, 

specifically for businesses in rural community economies

(Dramm and Jackson 2000). This report reviews several

points about successful log sort yard operations. Selected log 

sort yard and related references with abstracts (where available) are listed in the Appendix.

Log Sort Yard Project 

The USDA Forest Service log sort yard project (Dramm and 

Jackson 2000) seeks to identify and overcome barriers to

successful operations and to improve utilization and marketing of logs. This project will help sustain timber-dependent

rural communities by improving the supply of small quantities of logs for local businesses. Also, providing viable

outlets (markets) for the material produced from forest r

ration projects will facilitate these restoration efforts, thereb

assisting in the decrease of forest fuels and biomass. Project

findings are applicable to a wide range of situations from the

traditional commercially run log sort yard to new concepts i

community and government-run yards.

estoy

n

In researching log sort yards, the authors visited 18 log sort

yard (and related) operations in the United States. Visits 

ranged from traditional commercially operated log sort yards

to community and government-run yards. Related site visits

included concentration and mill log yard operations and a 

business that makes soil amendment products from log sort

yard debris. The site visits provided valuable insights into

log sort yard design, operation (for example, log sorting and 

transporting), log procurement, and marketing.

An extensive literature search uncovered additional sources

of log sort yard information. This report covers the basic

concepts and general information discovered during site

visits and in researching the extensive literature review.

(Log sort yard identification and specific operations, marketing information, photographs, and especially sensitive business information are confidential, and direct reference to 

them has not been included in this report.)
Background

Beginning in the mid-1990s, the USDA Forest Service,

Forest Products Laboratory (FPL), and State and Private

Forestry (S&PF) conducted a series of technical assistance

visits to various USDA Forest Service regions throughout

the nation. The primary purpose of the visits was to learn the

issues affecting the National Forests and their forestdependent rural communities and industries (Dramm 1999). 

Key needs identified during these visits include the

following:

x Stable and consistent timber supply to sustain a viable

forest products industry

x Alternative methods to Federal timber sales to sustain

small local wood-using businesses

x Value-added options for small-diameter trees and

underutilized hardwoods 

x Economical small-diameter thinning and harvesting

systems, including design and layout

x Economical stand treatments for ecosystem management

and watershed restoration

x Long-term contracts to encourage business investment in

small-diameter utilization opportunities 

x Economical utilization and marketing of small-diameter

timber

During the past several decades, Federal fire suppression 

efforts implemented to provide public safety and protect our 

nationís natural resources as well as personal property (for 

example, homes in the wildlandñurban interface) have contributed to excessive forest fuel buildup. In addition, limited

funding for forest management, such as forestland restoration and timber stand improvement projects, and reductions

in timber sales on public lands during the last decade have 

contributed to the forest fuel buildup, leading to dangerously

high levels.

Poor timber harvest strategies (for example, selectively 

cutting and removing the best trees in a stand) and lack of 

good forest management practices have contributed to less

desirable species with poorer stand quality and composition.

Log quality has generally declined, especially in the hardwood timber resource of nonindustrial forestlands, found 

primarily in the eastern United States. 

Consequently, millions of forest acres are at risk from wildfire, disease, and insect attack. Lack of adequate forest management (silvicultural operations) and lack of sufficient

funding for forest fire prevention efforts (fuel reduction

work) have resulted in many acres of western forests changing from open or moderately well stocked stands of large

conifer trees (for example, ponderosa pine) to dense stands

with overstocked, mixed species of small-diameter trees. 

Similarly, the quality and composition of forest stands has

declined because of lack of disturbance (fire) and lack of 

good land management practice. Many stands at risk require

treatments such as thinning to help reduce the fuel load and 

restore forests to a healthy vigor. The types of materials to

be removed are currently of little or no value, and thinning

operations are costly; therefore, restoration and forest management activities are limited (Dramm 1999). 

Creating economic incentives and readily available markets

for low-value small-diameter material would help return our 

public and private forests to healthy conditions. Incentives

might be achieved through improved utilization and marketing of material from thinning operations and fuel reduction

projects. This in turn could supplement limited funding for 

forest and watershed restoration, fuel reduction, and forest

management prescriptions.

Increasing the industrial capacity for these forest products

could provide the necessary outlet for small-diameter material and underutilized species. Industrial capacity also provides manufacturing jobs, an important economic engine for 

rural communities.

Unfortunately, the kinds and quality of the material available

possess severe utilization and marketing challenges. The

small size and low grade of such material results in greater

manufacturing costs and decreased wood product market

values compared with the more traditional large-diameter,

high-quality logs. In some regions in the United States, the

forest products industry lacks the appropriate technology

necessary to achieve the highest value from this traditionally

low- to no-value resource. 

There is a declining outlet (market) for Forest Service timber

and biomass in some parts of the Intermountain West as a 

result of closures of forest product plants. The current timber

supply situation is causing a shift to fewer, smaller, and less

permanent plants. In some areas of the West, distance from

large markets and lack of infrastructure are problems. In the 

eastern United States, where forest product infrastructure

still exists, the need is to retool the industry to economically

handle a low-value resource. 

Currently, we need to focus on the existing industry so that it

remains viable. Establishing new mills in todayís competitive forest products industry requires heavy capital investment. Such investment is unlikely given the uncertainty of a 

continuous and consistent timber supply. For existing sawmills, capital investment and improved log conversion efficiency are needed to remain competitive in the market place 

as well as in procuring logs. However, it is unlikely that

current mill owners will make further heavy capital investment until there is a more secure and stable timber supply 

(Dramm 1999). 

Poor transportation infrastructure also limits economical

options to move wood products to market. Proper plant

siting is vital to successfully establishing and maintaining

a forest products industry, of which transportation

2
infrastructure is a crucial consideration. Transportation

corridors, terminal facilities (rail reload facilities), and processing centers (sawmills) need to be identified. For underutilized species and small-diameter material, raw material

transportation costs would be minimized by first using the

material in areas as close as possible to potential manufacturing facilities. 

Locally run small wood products firms typically depend on a 

secure supply of small quantities of logs with special characteristics. Ways to consistently offer these types of logs in

small volume to small operators are needed. Similarly, larger

primary mills (for example, softwood dimension sawmills)

depend on a specific log mix to maximize mill efficiency and

remain viable. The forest products industryís log specifications and required log mix continue to tighten as logprocessing requirements become more demanding. Sometimes, high-quality logs are not processed to achieve their

full value. This happens in pulpmill operations, where a 

wide range of logs (including sawlogs and veneer peeler

blocks as well as pulpwood) are often needed to meet pulpwood procurement demands. These examples show the need 

for better log utilization and marketing. Log sort yard operations could accomplish this. 

Log Sort Yard Concept 

The log sort yard concept may provide an economical way to

supply wood and fiber. Log sort yards (1) process, merchandise, and sort logs into higher value products, (2) provide a 

market for multiple log products for both large and small

timber producers, and (3) supply primary processing forest

products firms with desired raw materials, thereby improving their log mix.

Log sort yards may provide options for effective marketing

of underutilized and small-diameter material. The goal for 

this project is to improve rural economies and ecosystem

recovery by providing utilization options and identifying

potential market opportunities for forest products using log 

sort yards. This goal would contribute to the rebuilding and 

retooling of forest products infrastructure and to the use of 

small-diameter softwoods as well as low-quality underutilized hardwoods. 

The benefits of sorting logs may include the following:

x Higher prices and less fluctuation in prices for log sales

can be generated through a strategically positioned log

sort and sales yard. 

x The desired log mix (species, grade, and length) that will 

best meet processing needs can be supplied to individual

wood-using businesses, instead of the broad mix (woods 

run) of logs typically supplied from a timber sale.

x Specialty and character wood logs could be sold when 

markets exist. 

x The small timber producer could sell small quantities,

regardless of grade. 

x The small wood-using business could purchase small

quantities, regardless of grade.

x Log inventory control and fiscal accounting of available

log resource would be improved.

There are also opportunities for log merchandising at the log 

sort yard, for example, upgrading sawlogs to veneer or 

bucking for grade and products from long logs, rather than

bucking at the landing. This helps reduce site disturbance at

the landing, reduces landing size requirements, and provides

for more sorting opportunities not otherwise possible when 

bucking occurs at the landing.

One advantage of using log sort yards rather than other

sorting schemes (for example, sorting logs at the landing) is

that at yards, logs can be more easily merchandised (bucked 

for best available markets) and sorted by quality characteristics (species, size, and grade) for allocation to their highest

value use. Mill operators and forest products industries can 

bid on logs in small (truckload or even individual logs) to

large lots (entire log decks), purchasing those logs best

suited for their mill design and reducing the number of

marginal logs (logs whose value is equal to or less than their

cost) processed. 

Types of Log Yards 

There are several different types of log yards serving many

purposes, including mill yards, concentration yards, log

reload yards, remote log processing yards, and log sort

yards. The traditional mill log yard receives and stores logs 

for several weeks or months of inventory to feed the mill.

Concentration log yards provide a central point for accumulating logs for long-distance shipment to mill yards (Wallowa Resources 1997). Log reload yards provide transfer

points between truck, rail, or barge transportation. Remote

processing log yards feed satellite chip mill and log merchandiser operations. A log sort yard takes advantage of a 

diversified log market and serves several objectives by

sorting logs for the available markets. To some extent, all 

types of log yards do some log sorting for various reasons 

such as to improve log procurement, increase log value, take

advantage of available log markets, and provide a better log

mix to consuming mills.

Origins of the Log Sort Yard 

Sorting logs is not new. Hampton (1981) reports that log sort

yards trace their history back to river log drives of the white 

pine era in New England and the Lakes States. Lumbering

companies cut and skid white pine logs, storing them at

landings or skidways on riverbanks during winter months.

Mill stamps, identifying log ownership were hammered into

the ends of each log (Fig. 1). Logs were dumped into the 

rivers after spring thaw and driven downriver (Rosholt

1980). Later, logging railroads transported logs directly to

3
Figure 1óA mill stamp (near the scalerís forehead)

was hammered into the ends of logs to identify log 

ownership at water sorting grounds.

Figure 2óWater sorting logs was done manually

using a pike pole.

Figure 3óScaling logs in a log raft ready for shipment

down river to the mill. 

water sorting grounds. Logs were accumulated downstream

in booming grounds (water sorting yards) and sorted by log

ownership (Fig. 2). Sorted logs were built into rafts, scaled

(Fig. 3), and shipped by water to the mill, typically pulled by

a tugboat. Dryland log sort yards were first used in the 1960s 

in the Pacific Northwest and British Columbia. Sinclair and

Wellburn (1984) reported that development of dryland sort

yards resulted from the need to reduce log losses in water 

sorting grounds because of sinkers (water-logged logs); the 

need for more accurate grading, scaling, and sorting; and the 

need to reduce environmental impact to wetlands and waterways used in water transportation and sorting. Log sort

yards have gained in popularity in other parts of the United

States in more recent years. 

Benefits of Sorting Logs 

High log cost, changing resource (large old growth to small

second growth to even smaller thinnings), and increased

competition for available timber resource has resulted in

increased specialization of solid wood processing equipment

and mill design. Todayís softwood sawmills are specialized 

and generally not designed to handle a wide range of mixed

species and products from timber sales, commercial thinning

operations, and forest restoration projects. The typical softwood mill operates with a low profit margin and high volume throughput. Processing lines are designed to handle a 

nearly uniform wood resource and need specific log requirements to be efficient and profitable. Consequently, the

manufacture of primary softwood products requires tight raw 

material specifications to optimize log utilization. Control of

the log mix feeding a sawmill operation is crucial.

For the hardwood sawmill and pine board mill, lumber

appearance (that is, appearance grades for factory lumber)

determines lumber value. A general decline in log quality

challenges the ability of these mills to economically use the 

available timber resource from thinnings and harvest operations. To remain competitive, mills must forego processing

marginal logs unsuited to their operations and then sell or 

trade them in the log market (Hallock 1964). Having a uniform log resource (quality and size distribution) to supply 

todayís forest products industry would be of great advantage. This could be partially achieved by log sorting.

Sorting logs prior to processing helps ensure that each log is 

used for its most economical use. Logs can then be marketed

to diverse markets rather than to a single use. For example,

more value can be obtained by sorting out sawlogs and 

veneer peelers from a pulpmillís wood supply under the 

right market conditions (pulp market prices and demand are 

lower than lumber and veneer market prices and demand).

Log scanning and computer optimization processing equipment has dramatically increased product recovery from logs

during the last several decades (Forest Products Laboratory 

2000). The Forest Products Laboratory pioneered the Best

Opening Face (BOF) computer-optimized log breakdown 

technology in the early 1970s and continues to provide the

basis for geometric sawing solutions to optimize lumber

recovery from small softwood logs. Such optimization

4
technology is relatively expensive and has been adopted by

large forest products firms that capitalize on high production

rates (economies of scale) to recover equipment costs. This

leaves the small sawmill at a disadvantage with lower lumber recovery and production rates. Based on the authorís

experience and that of others (Terry Mace, Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, 2001, personal communication) in sawmill efficiency, such small mills may be 10% to

20% less efficient in converting logs than large optimized

computer sawmills. Therefore, sorting is necessary to improve utilization of logs at small sawmills.

An alternative to expensive optimization equipment is to sort

logs prior to processing into diameter classes based on optimal sawing patterns. This method has been employed in

Scandinavian countries for several decades to process smalldiameter material (Williston 1988). In this alternative, likesized logs are first sorted and then processed in batches. Log 

breakdown systems (sawing machine centers) use fixed set

saws to process logs efficiently (that is, higher production

rate with good lumber recovery). Similar approaches are 

being explored in the United States (Roger Jaegel, Watershed Research and Training Center, personal communication, 1999). This simplifies and reduces the time required for 

log breakdown decision making (for example, what sawing

pattern to use) as well as the time to reset saws. Increased

sawmill efficiency results from presorting logs.

Log Sorting Alternatives 

Log sorting alternatives should also be considered (Dramm

and Jackson 2000). Economics and processing limitations

should be considered for each alternative. Alternatives include (1) using a log sort yard, (2) sorting at the landing,

(3) presorting, (4) sorting at the mill log yard, and (5) not

sorting.

Log Sort Yards 

Log sort yards capture more log value than other sorting

alternatives. They are efficient at processing logs of varying

quality and products for various markets (for example, sawlogs, hardwood veneer logs, softwood peelers, poles, and 

pulpwood). This can help the primary manufacturer (sawmill) recover more value per unit, with an improved log mix,

and improve business performance. Log sort yards encourage more accurate grading, scaling, and sorting and offer an 

opportunity to merchandise logs into higher value products

(bucking long logs into various short log products like sawlogs, peelers, poles, and pulpwood).

Sorting at the Landing 

An alternative is sorting at the woods landing. Sorting at the

landing is justified when there are few sorts (for example,

species and products) and a large percentage of high-value

logs in the harvest operation. In this case, the logger can 

afford to take extra effort to sort logs to increase revenue 

from sale of logs to the mill. Limitations include lack of

space at the landing to sort and not enough high-quality logs 

(volume or percentage wise) to justify sorting at the landing.

Logs are sorted by log loaders, skidders, pulpwood forwarders, or log trucks with hydraulic loaders at the landing.

Presorting

A variation of sorting at the landing is presorting where only

major sorts are pulled at the landing. This helps reduce extra

handling at the sort yard of large-volume sorts. Presorting

generally works to the benefit of the log sort yard when

harvesting and log sort yard operations are integrated, such 

as when a logging company owns a log sort yard. With

independent operations, major sorts are moved from the

landing to the consuming mill. Unsorted material can then be

processed at a log sort yard more efficiently.

Sorting at the Mill 

Low volumes of high-value logs are often sorted at the mill

yard. This is true in both the softwood and hardwood industries. A classic example of this is the sorting out of veneer 

logs from factory lumber logs at hardwood sawmills (Fig. 4). 

The low volume and high value of these sorts cannot justify

a log sort yard alone. Generally, a hardwood veneer log has 

substantially more value than the factory lumber that could

be produced from it. Simply put, a hardwood sawmill cannot 

afford to saw expensive veneer logs. Veneer logs are sold to

a veneer buyer. Mill yards whose primary purpose is to store

log inventory for processing can bear the cost of making

low-volume sorts and selling logs to high-value markets.

No Sorting 

As with any set of alternatives, one option is to do nothing.

Any log sorting is predicated on multiple markets for the

available log resource. This generally means that a diversified forest products infrastructure is available within the

working circle. Without diversified industrial infrastructure

Figure 4óHardwood sawmillís log yard with logs outspread. Veneer buyer is marking and scaling logs.

5
and markets, there is little need to sort logs. No sorting is a 

viable option when (1) there is only a single market for logs;

(2) no markets exist for high-quality logs; (3) logs are of

uniform quality, size, and value; (4) there is too little overall

value to justify sorting; (5) not enough high-quality logs are 

in the log mix to justify sorting; or (6) high-value logs need 

to be diverted to low-value uses to meet contractual obligations (for example, a timber producerís pulpwood contract to

deliver specified monthly volumes).

Advantages of Log Sort Yards 

Log sort yards provide better utilization and marketing with

improved value recovery of currently available timber resources in North America (Dramm and Jackson 2000). There 

are perhaps several specific reasons to build a log sort yard.

These might be generalized into the following:

1. Improve log procurement

2. Improve resource utilization

3. Improve log grading, scaling, and sorting

4. Improve log merchandising

5. Capture additional value at satellite processing yards

6. Concentrate logs for shipment

Log Procurement 

Log sort yards can help supplement a timber harvesting

program of a wood-using business helping to smooth out log

supply flow to larger mills. Procuring a wood supply from

small, fragmented, nonindustrial private forestland (primarily the case in eastern United States) provides considerable

challenges. Sort yards can also provide smaller quantities of

logs to small businesses that are not able to purchase large 

volumes of timber. A good example of this type of yard is

the Canadian Ministry of Forestryís log sort yard in Lumby,

British Columbia (Wallowa Resources 1997). 

Resource Utilization

Sorting logs is a crucial process in Scandinavian small log

sawmill operations. Logs are sorted into specified diameter

classes and then sawn with the best sawing pattern to optimize lumber volume recovery for each diameter class. Sorting helps Scandinavian sawmills achieve better lumber

recovery from a given log resource. North American small

sawmill designs also require presorting logs by diameter and

length to take full advantage of optimal sawing patterns for 

high-volume recovery of lumber. The Watershed Research

and Training Center in Hayfork, California, is developing

small-scale mechanized log sorting systems to help reach 

higher lumber recovery rates (Roger Jaegel, Watershed

Research and Training Center, personal communication,

1999).

Log Grading, Scaling, and Sorting 

Proper log grading and scaling are important so that the right

logs get to the right mill. This is also necessary for selling 

logs in the log market. Grading and scaling logs before 

sorting improves the accuracy of sorting (Sinclair and Wellburn 1984). When log grading, scaling, and sorting are 

improved, mills require fewer logs to produce the same

economic return. Improved utilization and product recovery 

are also possible. 

Log Merchandising 

Bucking long logs into multiple high-value log products 

(called merchandising) is an important function of some log

sort yards. The log sort yard can merchandise logs into

higher quality products more efficiently than the logger can 

at the landing. However, as log market prices fluctuate,

merchandising may or may not increase the value of treelength or long logs. If for example, pulp logs are only

slightly less valuable per unit than sawlogs, recovering the

cost of bucking and sorting sawlogs from the pulpwood

would be difficult. In other cases, as with veneer logs, it is

critical to merchandise high-value products from quality 

hardwood timber.

Value-Added Satellite Processing 

Log sorting is sometimes incorporated with satellite primary

processing yards. For example, the trend to incorporate 

sorting with satellite chipmills (Fig. 5) offers opportunities 

to merchandise high-value logs (sawlogs and peelers) from

low-grade long logs (pulpwood). Other value-added log sort

yard operations include post and pole peeling mills (Fig. 6),

where sawlogs and pulpwood are sorted out and sold to

other primary processors. With a trend toward smaller sawlogs, some operators have captured a unique market opportunity in debarking stud logs (Fig. 7) in the log sort yard

(Chris Edwards, Western Wood Products, personal communication, 1999). In a studmill (a small log sawmill producing

Figure 5óSatellite chipmill yard chips low-grade

pulpwood into higher value chips for shipment to 

pulpmill by chip van.

6
nominal 2- by 4-in. (standard 38- by 89-mm) studs), debarking is often a processing bottleneck. A supply of debarked 

logs helps the sawmill operator reduce this bottleneck and

smooth out production flow, thereby improving mill productivity (Chris Edwards, Western Wood Products, personal

communication, 1999). Similar reasons are given for satellite 

chipmills, which improve pulpmill raw material flow and

reduce processing noise (noise pollution) at the pulpmill site. 

Logs Concentrated for Shipment 

Efficiency in transporting log products to multiple markets is 

improved by concentrating and shipping larger quantities of

logs for more cost-efficient transport by truck, rail, or barge. 

A modification of the log sort yard is the concentration yard

where mixed loads of logs are sorted by products. This helps

reduce overall log transportation costs by moving logs to

various users directly rather than reloading at the primary

manufacturerís (sawmill, plywood plant) mill yard. Concentration yards serve as a central satellite terminal for logs

consolidating loads to take advantage of transportation

efficiencies.

Log Sort Yard Goals

and Objectives 

Figure 6óUtility pole yard and peeling mill provides

another value-added option. 

Figure 7óDouglas-fir debarked stud logs loaded and

ready for shipping, but no market for hemlock blocks.

The goal of a log sort yard is the efficient procurement,

concentration, sorting, utilization, marketing, and distribution of logs. Log sort yards should be established using

clear, well-defined log procurement, processing, marketing,

and financial objectives (Sinclair and Wellburn 1984). Log 

procurement objectives most often aim to secure a stable log 

supply at a reasonable cost. Processing objectives of a log

sort yard are generally to improve the productivity and quality of log sorting. Log sort yard marketing objectives center

around improving the movement (or distribution) of sorted

logs to the best available markets to realize the best price for 

the available log resource. A log sort yard must also be 

justified on a financial basis. Financial objectives are to

achieve cost savings or additional value (that is, profit center) from the available log supply.

Log procurement, processing, marketing, and financial

objectives must be balanced to achieve good overall log sort

yard performance. The authors cannot overstress the importance of meeting these objectives. Failure in one or more of 

these areas often leads to failure of the venture. Log sort

yards must pay their way by economically supplying a ready

market with the additional value captured by log sorting.

Meeting all four objectives is challenging.

Trying to achieve only financial objectives (for example,

cutting log procurement and operational costs or increasing

log production through the yard) may result in poorer scaling

and grading quality. While reduced operating costs and

increased production rates might be achieved, lost revenue 

may be experienced through lost market share as a result of 

inaccurate grading and scaling. Overall financial performance then also suffers. Similarly, focusing on only processing objectives may lead to poor financial performance. For 

example, while stick scaling may help improve log scaling

accuracy, the additional yard costs associated with stick 

scaling could easily outweigh any additional value realized

(for example, stick scaling low-value small-diameter logs 

rather than weight scaling). Ultimately, all four objectives

are bound by the economics of log sort yard operations and 

the character of the available log resource. (Refer to the 

section on log sort yard economics for more information.)

Log Sort Yard Operations 

Sinclair and Wellburn (1984) and Hampton (1981) provide

good discussions of log sort yard operations and productivity

principles and general recommendations. All log sort yards

share the same basic operational functions. These are materials handling (unloadñreload and transport), log processing

(for example, log grading, scaling, and sorting), and log

storageñinventory. Additional value-added processing

7
(for example, log merchandising, debarking, and peeling) is

also found in some yards.

Figure 8óRubber-tire-mounted hydraulic loader

unloading and spreading logs for grading and scaling.

Materials Handling 

A log sort yard involves material handling (that is, unloadñ

reload and transport) with inspection, processing, and inventory functions. Every material-handling move involves a 

ìpickî where a load is picked up, transported, and then set

down (Mason 1998). There are two prime rules in material

handling: (1) the shorter the distance traveled, the cheaper 

the cost, and (2) the greater the weight per move, the cheaper 

the cost per unit.

The principles of material handling applied to log sort yards

are (Sinclair and Wellburn 1984) as follows:

x Reduce or eliminate unnecessary movements and combine

movements

x Increase the size, weight, or quantity of material moved

wherever possible 

x Standardize types and sizes of equipment

x Use equipment that can perform multiple tasks unless

specialized equipment is needed 

x Select equipment to match all aspects of material and

flow in the system

x Minimize the ratio of dead weight to total weight on all 

moves

x Maximize the load and minimize the distance on

high-intensity moves

x Make low-intensity moves, if long distances must be

covered

x Pick up and set down whole loads

A heavy load moved a short distance is the least expensive 

move. The most expensive move is a light load moved a 

long distance. Log sort yard layout should focus on maximizing loads transported within the yard and minimizing

distances they are moved. Light loads should be combined if

possible. Frequency of light loads transported long distances

should be minimized.

Extra handling decreases log sort yard productivity and 

increases costs and risks of log degrade and damage. Handling does nothing to add value to logs. Unnecessary picks

(that is, process of picking up, transporting, and setting

down a log or load of logs) and handling of low-value material should be minimized. Logs should be handled in

bunched loads to take full advantage of log handling machine capacity. The section on log sort yard equipment and 

sorting systems discusses more details on materials handling

equipment.

UnloadñReload

Logs are generally transported to and from log sort yards by

log trucks. To a lesser degree, rail and barge transportation

are also used. In small log sort yards, front-end loaders with 

lifting capacity of 30,000 to 50,000 lb (13.6 to 22.7 Mg) do 

all the functions and truck unloading is generally by multipass lift unloading. In the Northeast and the Lake States,

self-contained, rubber-tire mounted hydraulic log loaders are 

used in smaller log sort yards (Fig. 8) for unloading, reloading, spreading logs for grading and scaling, and sorting. In 

large log sort yards, log stackers with lifting capacity of

80,000 to 110,000 lb (36.3 to 50.0 Mg) are most often used 

for transporting and unloading trucks in one pass, where the

whole load is lifted off the log truck or rail car. Logs are 

transported and spread out in a sorting bay or inventoried in

a temporary storage deck. This greatly reduces the truck

waiting time during unloading compared with multipass

methods. Other unloading methods include pushing and 

pulling the loads off trucks. Large log sort yards and yards

serviced by barges incorporate log cranes for unloading. The 

same equipment is used to reload trucks, rail cars, and barges 

for shipment to the mill.

Transport

Logs are handled and transported between each of the other 

yard functions. In general, log handling and transportation

occur between (1) unloading, (2) grading and scaling,

(3) sorting, (4) storage, and (5) reloading. It is most efficient 

to transport logs using the full capacity of forwarding

machines (Fig. 9). Logs are sometimes transported a few at

a time or individually. While this is inefficient use of machine availability, at times it is unavoidable. A successful log 

sort yard often depends on using the right machine for the

type, weight, size, and production rates of logs processed. 

8
Figure 9óFront-end loader using full machine capacity

to transport logs in the yard. Front-end loaders are 

good multipurpose machines for unloading and

reloading, transporting, spreading, and sorting logs.

Figure 10óWorkers determining whether birch sawlog

could be upgraded to a veneer log if it were bucked. 

Log Processing 

Processing functions in a log sort yard include log grading,

scaling, and sorting activities. Efforts are concentrated on

improving log value at minimum cost. While other functions

such as materials handling and log storage are necessary 

costs, the success of a log sort yard falls on its ability to

increase log value during grading, scaling, and sorting production phases. Additional processing functions may include

log merchandising and value-added operations (previously

described).

Grading

In log sort yards, grading or marking a log designates what

sort the log should be put into. This differs somewhat from

the traditional sense of log grading, where logs are assigned

a log grade for commodity markets. Logs are spread out in a 

sorting bay (Fig. 4) for efficient grading and scaling. Graders 

mark logs for sorting by product or market. Graders may

also indicate logs to be upgraded by bucking back (cutting 

back the length of a high-quality sawlog to veneer log specifications (Fig. 10). The sort and where to buck logs are 

usually indicated on the log with spray paint, a paint gun, or 

a log marking stick. Other marking systems include color

tags or crayon marks. Graders also assume quality control

duties for the log sort yard, watching for mismanufactured

logs (Fig. 11) and excessive log damage (Figs. 12 and 13). 

Scaling

Two methods of scaling are generally used in log sort yards,

stick scaling and weight scaling. Two other possible scaling

methods for low-value material (such as pulpwood) are 

cords and cunits. Scalers normally stick scale logs after 

grading and bucking but before sorting. Several basic manual and computerized log scale accounting and inventory

systems are available. Log tag or deck cutoff inventory

systems are typically used when logs are sold in the open log

market (Sinclair and Wellburn 1984). High-value logs (for 

example, hardwood veneer logs) may be individually tagged,

and grade and scale information is recorded for each log. 

Many log sort yards use a log deck cutoff inventory system.

In this system, sorted logs are accumulated in storage decks. 

When a deck is full, it is closed or ìcutoffî and the accumulated scale tickets are tallied to show the total volume (or

estimated volume if weight scaled) and grade of logs in the

deck.

Stick scaling uses a log rule to determine the net volume

after deductions for defects and grade of the log. Measures

include board foot log scale, cubic log scale, and cubic

meters. The accuracy associated with stick scaling is important for high-value logs such as veneer peelers and highquality sawlogs. Because stick scaling is relatively expensive, it is not recommended for low-value material such as 

pulpwood. Exceptions to this are when there are no other

scaling alternatives (for example, small log sort yard without

a truck scale) or when required by log buyers. The log scale

9
10

Figure 14óLoaded truck at a large sort yard gets

weighed in. After unloading, the truck is reweighed

empty and the net log weight is calculated.

Figure 11óPistol buttóa poor log-making practice.

Proper log making in the woods goes a long way

to recovering highest value for the log sort yard

operator. This log may be no value because it was

mismanufactured.

Figure 12óLog fork damage from a front-end loader

caused by carelessness or excessive log handling.

Figure 13óTimber processor damage on a sawlog.

Harvesting damage such as splits results in poorer

lumber recovery and loss of log value.

and grade of each log are recorded for accounting purposes 

(Fig. 4). Data can be recorded manually with a hand-held

data recorder or computer.

Weight scaling is preferred for material handling efficiency

and productivity because it greatly reduces scaling time

compared with stick scaling. Check scaling (stick scaling a 

sample of a weight-scaled load of logs) is often used to

determine volume-to-weight ratios and provide an estimate

of grade mix. Weight scaling involves weighing a loaded

truck on a truck scale (Fig. 14), then unloading and reweighing the empty truck. The tare weight (empty truck weight) is

subtracted from the loaded truck weight to determine weight

of the load.

For low-value logs, using weight scaling rather than stick

scaling increases productivity and reduces costs of operating

a log sort yard. Efficiency is improved by processing logs in

bulk rather than individually. With weight scaling, only a 

small portion of log loads are check scaled (sample stick 

scaling) to confirm log volume and quality. Stick scaling

should be reserved for high-value logs such as hardwood 

veneer logs (Fig. 4), softwood peelers, and high-quality 

sawlogs.

While more efficient than stick scaling, weight scaling has

some disadvantagesóprimarily that weight varies with log

moisture content and species density and logs will also vary

to some degree from season to season. Logs stored on the

landing for a period of time weigh less per volume (due to

moisture loss) than logs recently harvested. To overcome

these problems, a sample of the load may be check scaled 

(stick scaled) to estimate grade mix and establish a weightto-volume relationship.

Measuring in cords is a popular alternative for scaling pulpwood and saw bolts in the Lakes States. One cord equals

4 by 4 by 8 ft or 128 ft3

 (3.62 m3) of wood, bark, and air
space. Although the authors are not aware of any log sort 

yards using cords, this scaling scheme would be of benefit

for low-value, high piece counts per volume logs (for example, small-diameter material). Other measures of logs (for 

example, cunits, cubic feet, cubic meters) can also be used as 

scaling systems.

Cords are calculated from the average load height and 

length. Using cords as a measure results in similar problems

as weight scaling. Here, the problem is that of accurately 

estimating the solid wood volume in a load. Pulpwood is

often transported by truck or open top railcar loads. As in

weight scaling, check scaling is used to determine the volume of wood in a measured cord, which averages about 79 

ft3

 (2.24 m3) for pulpwood in the Lakes States (Terry Mace, 

Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, personal communication, 2001). 

Sorting

Log sorting accuracy is improved when logs are graded and 

marked prior to sorting. Sorting involves separating individually graded and scaled logs into groups of logs with the

same end-use. Logs are generally sorted by species, product

(for example, pulpwood, sawlogs, peelers), and market. Logs 

are then bunched (accumulated) and transported to sorted log 

inventory decks or reloaded directly.

The number of sorts may vary from just a few to perhaps 

40 or more. Log size distribution, daily production rate, and 

number of sorts determine the type and number of sorting

machines required for sorting logs. These same factors affect 

log sort yard productivity. The number of sorts also influences the choice of sorting system.

Determining the number and types of log sorts is an economic problem. Given available markets, log sorting improves the overall value of the log resource. This is realized

by the sale of logs in a diversified log market. However, the

fewer the number of sorts made in the log sort yard, the

lower the cost per unit (fewer sorts decreases costs and 

volume of logs in inventory). There must be a sufficient

added benefit (that is, increased log value created by the 

sorting) to justify each sort. When considering additional 

sorts, the added benefits must offset added costs. Refer to the

section Log Sort Yard Equipment and Sorting Systems for a 

detailed discussion of log sorting equipment and systems.

Log Storage and Inventory

Inventories perform four functions to improve the efficiency

of log sort yards (Sinclair and Wellburn 1984):

x Provide surge leveler or buffer 

x Decouple log yard functions

x Smooth out fluctuations in log flow through the yard

x Accumulate loads

While log inventory should be kept to a minimum, it may be 

necessary to temporarily store unsorted and sorted logs.

Most log sort yards do not store sorted logs unless they must

be accumulated for reload. Unsorted storage is used to decouple production phases in a log sort yard to improve work 

flow. Decoupling means to separate production flow from

one process to the next. This is accomplished by providing 

temporary storage or a surge area in the log sort yard. D

coupling through storage also improves safety by sep

mobile equipment away from graders, scalers, and other yard 

workers (Sinclair and Wellburn 1984). Some log sort yards

store unsorted logs to balance daily and seasonal surges in

log production. This may reduce investment in equipment

and overtime costs and increase the working year of the 

crew, but it may also reduce efficiency, increase investm

in land, and subject the logs to degrade. Some log storage i

unavoidable, but the inventory should be controlled. Lar

log inventories in log sort yards are a concern, and every

effort should be made to reduce the inventory.

earating

ent

s

ge

rocesLog storage also reduces productivity, increases costs, and 

increases log damage (as caused by log forks and breakage) 

(Fig. 12) and loss from insects and stain. Sometimes, there is 

no alternative to log storage, and without it, productivity

would be lower and costs higher. Yards with extreme variations in log input require log storageñsurge areas to smooth

out log yard flow. Yards that store a large amount of logs

have lower productivity than yards that store smaller

amounts. Minimizing log inventories and shortening turnaround times help reduce log yard costs and improve p

ductivity. Every effort should be made to minimize unne

sary log storage. First inñfirst out (FIFO) inventory control

should be used to reduce losses from degrade. 

Log Sort Yard Equipment

and Sorting Systems 

Material-handling equipment can be divided into transport

and sorting functions (Sinclair and Wellburn 1984). In large

log sort yards, crawler-mounted heel-boom log loaders are 

used primarily for sorting and log stackers and large frontend loaders are used for transporting. In small log sort yards,

front-end loaders are used for both sorting and transporting

logs. Wherever possible, logs should be bunched before they

are moved to use the full capacity of the transport machines.

It is inefficient to use a front-end loader or log stacker to 

transport just a few logs from one end of the yard to the

other. Other types of equipment (for example, forklifts and 

skid steer type farm loaders) are not well suited to log sort

yard requirements for performance and efficiency (Hampton

1981).

11
There are several basic sorting systems (Sinclair and Wellburn 1984, Hampton 1981). Front-end loaders and both

mobile and stationary log loaders are the primary machines

used for sorting. Sorting tables, linear log-sorting systems,

and log merchandisers are also used to a lesser extent but are 

gaining in popularity. Small yards use front-end loaders or 

rubber-tire truck-mounted hydraulic loaders to perform all

machine functions. Sorting systems with front-end loaders

have more flexibility than other sorting systems because 

front-end loaders can perform many log sort yard functions

(such as unloading, spreading, reclaiming, sorting, transporting). Large log sort yards use log stackers, front-end loaders,

and log loaders in various combinations; specific job functions are often assigned to each machine. Log loaders can 

sort small pieces and build a better bundle of logs than can 

front-end loaders. Stationary log loaders achieve high sorting production rates, but more time is needed for handling

(transporting) material compared with that required by

mobile log loaders.

Front-End Loaders 

The front-end loader with a log fork (Fig. 9) is a general

purpose machine used in log sort yards. The front-end loader

performs unloading, transporting, and sorting functions but

is not as efficient as other specialized log handling machines

(for example, log stackers, log loaders, sorting tables, merchandising systems) in performing any of these functions.

The front-end loader performs well for sorting large logs and 

transporting them short distances. For the small yard, frontend loaders unload and reload trucks. Because the front-end 

loader can do several functions, it is a good backup machine.

A small front-end loader is good for sorting because of its 

size, speed, and capacity, but its load and lifting capacity 

limits its suitability for efficiently transporting logs in the

yard. A large front-end loader is best for transporting

bunched logs and truck unloading and reloading. A mediumsized loader is a good multipurpose machine for sorting, 

transporting, loading, and unloading. This loader is a good 

backup machine.

Two systems are used when sorting logs with front-end

loaders. The first is where a front-end loader works from the 

end of the grading and scaling bay and sorts the logs into

piles. In the other system, the front-end loader moves along

the side of the deck and pulls out the logs, generally pulling

the large-volume sorts first. Sorted logs are bunched and 

forwarded to sorting bunks or storage bays or reloaded

directly onto trucks.

Log Stackers 

Large West Coast and southeastern U.S. mill log yards and

medium to large log sort yards use log stackers (Fig. 15) for 

unloading and transporting large loads. Log stacker lifting

Figure 15óOverview of a paved log sort yard. Note sorting bay, log truck approaching truck scale, and log stacker 

ready to unload the truck in a single pass, lifting the entire load off.

12
13

capacity ranges from about 80,000 to 110,000 lb (36.4 to

50.0 Mg). These machines are capable of unloading a log 

truck and over-the-road semitrucks in a single pass. Railcar

and off-highway truckloads can be unloaded in two or three 

passes. Log stackers efficiently spread logs for scaling and 

grading and stack logs in storage decks. 

Figure 16óLog-truck-mounted loader typical of 

hardwood logging trucks. 

Figure 17óStationary log loader with sorts laid out on 

three sides of a square for efficient sorting. Front-end

loaders feed logs to the loader for sorting on the

fourth side of the square.

Log Loaders 

Hydraulic log loaders are used for sorting logs. Other uses 

include unloading and reloading trucks and building log

storage decks. Mobile log loaders range from heel-boom

crawler-mounted loaders and rubber-tired knuckle-boom

machines to log-truck-mounted loaders. Stationary log loaders are also used for sorting or in combination with a sorting

table or log-merchandising system. The sorting system (that

is, mobile equipment and sorting procedures) used will 

depend on the log size, number of sorts, and time available

for transporting logs in the yard.

On the West Coast and in the southeast United States, highcapacity mobile crawler-mounted heel-boom log loaders sort

logs in the yard. A crawler-mounted mobile log loader typically works its way in a travel corridor adjacent to a grading 

and sorting bay of spread logs. The loader sorts and bunches 

logs of the same grade, placing them in the travel corridor 

behind the machine as it works its way along the sorting bay.

A front-end loader will then accumulate the sorted logs and 

transport to the sorting bunks, sorted log storage, or reload

directly onto trucks.

Less expensive rubber-tire-mounted (Fig. 8) or log-truckmounted (Fig. 16) knuckle-boom loaders are used predominately in the hardwood industry in the northeastern United

States. These machines are well adapted to 8- to 16-ft-

(2.44- to 4.88-m-) long logs of a wide range of diameters (4 

to 32 in. (10 to 81 cm) or more) and may have good potential

for small log sort yards in the West. Logs are unloaded and 

spread for grading directly from the log truck. Logs are 

graded, sorted, and bunched by the mobile loader or a frontend loader. Pregraded logs (for example, veneer and sawlogs

graded at the landing) coming into the yard may be sorted by

the truck driver as logs are off loaded. 

Stationary hydraulic loaders are also used in some large 

yards. Logs are fed by a front-end loader or log stacker.

Unsorted logs are spread out in front of the loader on one 

side. The stationary loader then sorts the logs into six to nine

bunks located around the other three sides of the loader

(Fig. 17). Sorted logs are accumulated and moved to a storage deck or reloaded on trucks. This system works best 

when the average log size is relatively large and there are 

few sorts. Stationary log loaders are also used in conjunction

with mechanical log sorting tables and log merchandisers

(Fig. 18). Generally, these are crawler-mounted. However, 

pedestal-mounted loaders are also used in some large yards

that employ a sorting table or log merchandiser system for 

processing small-diameter logs.

Sorting Systems and Log 

Merchandisers

Log-sorting tables and linear systems were pioneered in

Scandinavia for sorting logs into diameter classes at small

log sawmills (Williston 1988, Sinclair and Wellburn 1984). 

Such systems consist of stationary log transport chains and 

transfer chains moving each log to one of several sorting 

bays. Sorting tables transport logs transversely, whereas 

linear systems move logs end to end. These systems have 

gained in popularity in North America. For system efficiency

and high production rates, logs must be relatively small and 

uniform with little sweep. Under the right conditions, logsorting tables and linear systems improve productivity in

large log sort yards (Hampton 1981). 
Figure 18óLog loader sorting sawlogs and stud bolts from a transverse log merchandiser. Note the typical layout of 

sorts within easy reach of the loaderís boom and grapple. 

Log merchandisers were first pioneered by Weyerhaeuser

Company (Tacoma, Washington) in the 1970s as a result of 

the need to recover more value from tree length and long

logs (Hollis McNully, Perceptron, Inc., personal

communication, 1996). These systems are similar to logsorting tables and linear systems with the addition of a 

bucking saw. Originally used at large softwood sawmills,

merchandisers buck tree length and long logs into various

short log products (for example, veneer peelers, grade sa

logs, small sawlogs, pulpwood) for recovering higher value.

When first introduced, the merchandiser operator determine

bucking decisions. Todayís merchandisers incorporate log

scanning and optimization technology (Fig. 19) to determine

the best utilization of long logs. From an infeed deck, l

are scanned and the optimal bucking solution and produ

designation are determined by optimization software. Next,

the optimized bucking solution bucks the log into products

and routes to appropriate sorted log bay (Figs. 20 and 21) 

where logs accumulate for transport to temporary storage or 

reloading. Log merchandisers have been adapted to log sort

yards in the last 10 years to efficiently process smalldiameter logs. 

wd

ogs

ct

Timber Processors and

Cut-To-Length Systems

As an alternative to large log merchandisers, mechanized

logging equipment has been incorporated in some small- to

medium-sized sort yards. This equipment is helping these

yards to handle small-diameter logs with success. Tree 

length logs are bucked accurately with computer-controlled

processing heads. Such equipment provides flexibility for

the logger-operated log sort yard, where such equipment is

also used in harvest and thinning operations. Logs are sorted

and transported with front-end loaders or rubber-tire

mounted hydraulic loaders.

Sorting Bunks 

Sorting bunks are used to accumulate sorted logs (Fig. 22) 

for transport by large-capacity machines (for example, a log 

stacker) to reload trucks or log storage decks. The designs

and materials used for bunks depend on the volume of logs

processed through the yard. Bunks are generally made of

I-beams, steel plates, pipe, reinforced concrete, or wood 

pilings.

14
Figure 19óLaser scanning and computer-controlled

bucking at a high production log sort yard. The

merchandiser bucks logs into various sawlog

products, railroad tie logs, and pulpwood.

Figure 20óAfter it leaves the bucking station,

pulpwood is routed by chain conveyor to the satellite

chipmill (left). Cross-tie logs and sawlogs are 

transported to the grading station by transverse chain

(building on right). Logs are then sorted by product

into four sorts where a hydraulic loader bunches logs

for transport for loading or temporary storage. Photo 

taken from the operatorís station.

Figure 21óThe four sorted log bays as viewed from the

log merchandiser grading station.

Figure 22óLog sorting bunks to accumulate sort logs 

for transport by larger machines like a large-capacity

front-end loader. 

Selection of Log Sort Yard Equipment 

The log-sorting system influences the type and size of machines needed (Sinclair and Wellburn 1984, Hampton 1981). 

The type and size of equipment employed is influenced by

log sort yard size and production rate (that is, number of 

pieces processed per day). Each sorting system and layout 

requires certain machine performance for various log sort 

yard functions described earlier. One way to determine

whether a machine will satisfy the demands is to visit

existing log sort yard operations. Log-handling equipment

manufacturers also supply information on machine specifications and performance. Table 1 is a guide to selection of log

sort yard equipment.

Log Sort Yard Layout 

The best log sort yard design depends on the volume of logs

to be processed, site restrictions, and capital available for

material-handling systems (Hampton 1981). Figure 23 

shows one example log sort yard layout. Large log sort yards

have flexibility in their design. Three grading, scaling, and

sorting bays should be able to handle most surges and should

protect yard workers from mobile equipment by separating

grading and scaling functions from transport functions. A 

large log sort yard can be 10 or more acres in size. For the 

small log sort yard, high construction costs and low log

volume dictate that these yards be as simple and small as 

possible. Typically, in medium-sized log sort yards (Fig. 15), 

the area for sorting will be 5 acres, and in some small yards,

the sorting area might only be a half acre. Log storage is

limited to accumulating enough logs to make loads to be 

reloaded on trailers. 

15
16

Table 1ó Log sort yard equipment selection guidea

Function and yard sizeb

Load and unload logs Transport and spread logs Sort logs 

Large Medium Small Large Medium Small Large Medium Small

Machine equipment

Front-end loader, largec ó ● ● { ● ● óó ó

Front-end loader, mediumd ó ó { ó ó { ó ó {

Front-end loader, smalle ó ó { ó ó { ó { ●

Log stacker ● { ó ● { óó ó ó

Log loader, tracked ó ó { óóó ● ● {

Stationary log loader ó ó ó ó ó ó ● ● ó

Log loader, wheeled ó ó ●f ó ó óó ó ●

Log loader, truck mounted ó ó { ó ó óó ó ●

Sorting system

Linear sorting systemg óó óó ó ó ● ● {h

Transverse sorting tablei óó óó ó ó ● ● {

Log merchandiser, linear ó ó ó ó ó ó ●j ●j {k

Log merchandiser, transverse ó ó ó ó ó ó ●l { ●m

a

Adapted from Sinclair and Wellburn (1984) and Hampton (1981), and information collected from interviews with

 log sort yard operators. 

b

● recommended equipment or system; { acceptable equipment or system; ó unsuitable equipment or system or not

 applicable. Small yard is <25 million board feet (MMBF)/year; medium is 25 to 100 MMBF/year; large is >100 MMBF/year.

c

For example, CAT988G with log forks (Caterpillar Corp., Peoria, IL). 

d

For example, CAT980G with log forks, good backup machine (Caterpillar Corp., Peoria, IL). 

e

For example, CAT966G with log forks (Caterpillar Corp., Peoria, IL). 

f

In the eastern United States, rubber-tire-mounted log loaders are preferred machines (For example, Prentice 210). 

g

Generally for small-diameter, straight, and uniformly sized logs only.

h

Less expensive linear sorting systems are available for low volume log sort yards.

i

Typically for larger grade logs in combination with a stationary grapple boom loader to pull sorts from table. 

j

Typically employs optical or laser scanning with computer-optimized bucking systems.

k

Less expensive manual merchandising (that is, manual bucking decisions) systems for small uniform logs. 

l

Very high production small-log softwood computer-optimized merchandising. 

mSmaller hardwood log merchandising generally with manual bucking decisionmaking.

The area required for sorting logs increases with the volume

sorted, the number of sorts, and the number of pieces processed per shift. Small log sort yards with fewer sorts and 

minimal log storage have high machine productivity, the

lowest capital investment per unit, and lower than average

total costs per unit and piece. Small yards achieve some

efficiencies with reduced transport distances and lower

construction costs compared with larger yards. Large yards

that have the most sorts and little log storage have the highest machine productivity, higher than average productivity,

the lowest total cost per unit and piece, and lower than average investment costs per unit. Large yards have an advantage

with economies of scale.
17

Figure 23óExample of a basic log sort yard layout: (A) log truck waiting in the queue for unloading;

(B) log truck unloading with a front-end loader or log stacker; (C) spreading logs in the sorting bay

for grading and scaling; (D) grading and scaling functions are decoupled from mobile equipment

operations (for example, spreading and sorting logs) for safety; (E) sorting logs with a heel-boom 

loaderólogs are accumulated and transported to temporary storage or reloaded directly onto

trucks; (F) temporary sorted log storage for accumulating full truck loads; (G) truck loading with a 

front-end loader; (H) office, shops, fuel, and mobile equipment deadline.

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

Not to scale

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

Log Sort Yard Economics

and Productivity 

Economics

Assuming a good supply of logs and markets, the economics

of log sort yards is determined by

x log procurement costs (as reflected by stumpage, harvest,

and haul costs),

x log market prices (freight on board (FOB)), 

x per unit (volume) yard processing costs,

x dollar value recovery of log products sold (as a function of 

raw material cost), and 

x log yard inventory cost, overhead charges, depreciation,

and business taxes and fees. 
Every consideration should be driven by the need to procure 

logs and process them at the lowest unit cost possible and 

minimize inventory and overhead costs (Mason 1998). At

the same time, it is essential to recover the highest value

from the logs processed in the yard. Focus should be on 

merchandising and sorting logs for highest net value products and negotiating the highest possible product prices in

the log market to obtain the highest value.

Optimizing log making and sorting are keys to achieving the

greatest overall potential value for logs. Consequently, optimizing overall potential value requires a sufficient volume of 

high-value logs in the total log mix processed through a log

sort yard. The submarginal log is an economic problem for 

log sort yards (Hallock 1964). A submarginal log is one 

whose value is less than log procurement and variable processing costs. This is a major stumbling block in using smalldiameter trees from forest fuels reduction and restoration

projects proposed by the USDA Forest Service.

Effort expended processing logs should be in proportion to

the value of the product. It makes no sense to spend $5 

grading, scaling, and sorting a $4 log. Low-value, smalldiameter logs need to be handled and processed quickly and 

efficiently. It is not critical that individual low-value logs be

graded and scaled with great accuracy. Weight scaling 

(Fig. 14) and scaling stacked wood by cords is much less

expensive than individually stick scaling (Fig. 4) every log.

This helps control unit processing costs of low-value, highpiece-count, small-diameter wood, leading to improved

efficiency and productivity.

Sorting tables, linear sorting systems, and log merchandisers

in large log sort yards have also been effective in reducing

unit cost of grading, scaling, and sorting low-value logs.

Presorting low-value logs before they reach the log sort yard 

(for example, truckloads of pulpwood) also helps improve a 

yardís productivity and efficiency. Tracking measurement

costs and productivity by piece rather than by volume further 

helps identify the marginal log.

For high-quality large logs, the opposite is true. Too often, 

too little time is spent grading, scaling, and sorting highvalue logs. Value is lost at the expense of cost control to

improve log sort yard operational efficiency. Opportunities 

to remanufacture and upgrade high-quality sawlogs (for 

example, merchandising sawlogs by bucking them into

veneer logs) (Fig. 10) are also lost when insufficient effort is 

spent. This is even more important in specialty logs (for

example, Sitka spruce music wood log and birdís eye and 

tiger stripe maple logs) whose value may be from one to

several thousand dollars each.

The key to minimizing costs and recovering the highest

value is log sort yard efficiency. The most important factor 

to reducing log-handling costs is to reduce the number of 

unnecessary moves in the log sort yard (Mason 1998). 

Productivity

The log sort yard must carefully choose the measurement

units that reflect log sort yard performance. Industryís traditional measure of log sort yard performance has been volume

production. However, log sort yard productivity is much

more sensitive to the number of pieces processed per day 

than the volume of logs processed per day. Volume production is really a function of log sort yard system design and 

materials-handling machine capacity. Performance should be 

based on the number of pieces processed per machine hour 

rather than on volume production.

Consequently, processing small logs (small diameter and 

short lengths) results in substantially lower volumes per day

than larger and longer logs given the same log sort yard

design and equipment. For example, it takes about four times

as many 6-in. (15.2-cm) small end diameter (SED) logs to

equal the same volume found in 12-in. (30.5-cm) SED logs

of the same length (Barbour 1999). 

A log sort yard that processes short small-diameter logs will 

be less productive than one of similar design processing

longer large-diameter logs. Machinery requirements and 

number of employees are determined by the number of logs

to be processed through a log sort yard. Volume as it relates

to weight of logs processed per day identifies lifting and 

transporting capacity requirements of log handling equipment. Volume of wood is important for accounting purposes 

and valuation but is not a good measure for tracking log sort

yard productivity.

Keys to a Successful

Log Sort Yard 

A successful log sort yard must not only meet its quality and

productivity goals but always be striving to improve them.

At the same time, the successful log sort yard must pay its 

way and be justified on a financial basis operating within

available markets.

Establishing a successful log sort yard venture requires a 

well-conceived and researched business plan. One of the 

benefits of the business planning process is developing the

strategic thinking used to determine the various controlling

criteria and purposes of log sort yard functions. It furthers

the thought process and helps make decisions about the

goals of the log sort yard and how they will be achieved. The

business plan includes a market and financial feasibility

analysis, which helps avoid marginal investments and helps

the prospective business owner carefully consider a number

of critical factors for success. Effort here is well spent because it will reduce the risk of failure in the long term.

Success also depends on a reliable source of raw material,

product diversity, matching product to markets, and transportation infrastructure.

18
Log Sort Yard Business Plan 

A business plan is essential for a log sort yard to gain financing, and it greatly increases the chances of success. Prior to a 

business plan, a feasibility study is done to look at potential 

viable business opportunities. Business plan development

starts with a well-executed marketing and financial feasibility analysis to identify viable log sort yard opportunities. A 

business plan is generally required to secure venture capital.

Several critical factors deserve consideration in formulating

the business plan (Eugene Davis, International Resources

Unlimited, personal communication, 1995):

x Raw material resource (availability, price, location,

quality, mix)

x Products (mix, differentiation, added value)

x Markets (share, competition, distance to markets, projected growth, specialty and commodity markets)

x Processing (technology, equipment, physical plant,

automation, and manufacturing methods)

x Community (business-friendly, workforce skills,

work ethic, school system, quality of life) 

x Management (experience, knowledge, and understanding

of business of log sort yards)

x Financing (financial statements, venture capital, fees, 

business taxes, incentives)

x Environment, health, and safety (regulations and licensing)

Raw Material Resource 

Of primary interest to forest industry is raw material availability. Such things as the timber resource inventory, stumpage price, location in relation to manufacturing facilities, 

transportation infrastructure, availability of a sufficient and

consistent timber supply, quality, and quantity of raw material (logs), the physical properties of the material, as well as 

any unique attributes can influence the product and its

markets.

Products

Material properties help determine suitable products. In 

addition, such things as trends in the market place for various products, existing product shortages, (as well as resource 

shortages of a desired quality), and new technological developments can also provide options for potential products. An 

important consideration for a product is to meet the end-use 

performance requirements. Careful consideration of product

mix and differentiation are crucial in todayís markets.

Markets

In addition to raw material supply, markets, marketing, and 

market feasibility are important considerations to be looked 

at when evaluating business investment opportunities. Such 

things as market size and segmentation, as well as trends, 

competition, potential customers, potential market share,

projected growth, specialty compared with commodity markets, and pricing all need to be carefully analyzed and evaluated. Market considerations also include a critical look at the

industry itself: type of industry, competitors, wages and 

number of jobs, growth, and stability. Critical to the log sort

yard is a diversified log market for consuming the various

products produced from the available timber resource. 

Transportation infrastructure (truck, rail, and barge) as well

as distance to markets are also crucial considerations.

Processing

Material processing is also a critical consideration for successful ventures. This includes available technology and 

equipment, physical plant and automation with high piece 

counts. In many cases, different raw materials have different

processing technology requirements. In addition, appropriately scaled technologies for a particular product and application will be important for economic considerations. Some

cases may require application of entirely new technologies.

Community

Community and workforce deserve some consideration in

siting a log sort yard. Considerations include zoning, taxes,

licenses, and tax incentives. Workforce aspects to consider 

include skills, school systemñtraining, related experience 

(for example, heavy equipment or logging equipment operation), and work ethic.

Management

As with any business venture, the management teamís abilities, knowledge, and practical experience are crucial. Individuals considering a log sort yard should take inventory of 

their own personal abilities as well as those of their management team with respect to running a log sort yard. This

begins with an honest assessment of assumptions used in

developing the business plan and carries through to the dayto-day operations.

Financing

In addition to a market feasibility study, a financial analysis

of the potential business investment will assess profitability.

The financial feasibility of the business investment involves 

the preparation of financial statements that cover all aspects 

of the financials, such as working capital requirements and 

after tax net cash flow (Robert Govett, University of WisconsinñStevens Point, personal communication, 2001). 

19
Environment, Health, and Safety

Environmental, health, or safety issues could limit an otherwise successful venture. For example, concerns could arise 

about log yard debris (Fig. 24), log yard surface water runoff, safety issues, meeting standards and codes, etc. Regulations and permits are also important considerations.

All these factors are critical to successful log sort yard business ventures. The business plan must address all these

factors before a venture capitalist will even consider investing in a business. The business plan provides your banker 

with a basis to evaluate your venture startup or expansion

plans. Weaknesses and deficiencies will be pointed out in the

business plan. A business plan is essential for a firm to gain

financing, and it greatly increases the odds of success. The 

process begins with a well-executed feasibility analysis to

identify viable opportunities for economic development.

Barriers to Successful Log Sort

Yard Operations 

In addition to lack of a well-conceived business plan and 

poor log yard management, there are four main challenges

facing log sort yards. These are lack of (1) reliable source

of raw material, (2) diversity of log products from woodsrun logs, (3) diversified log markets, and (4) good transportation infrastructure.

Reliable Source of Raw Material 

Guarantee of consistent timber supply is the long-term major

overriding issue for establishing and maintaining a sustainable forest products industry. One primary objective of a log

sort yard is to help smooth out log flow problems for consuming mills by providing a more consistent supply of desired log supply. This means that the log sort yard itself must

have a good consistent supply of logs moving through its

operations.

Figure 24óLog sort yard debris makes up about 5%

of the log volume processed. The problem of

accumulation of log debris cannot be understated.

Note the good log sort yard practice of placing decked 

logs on stringers and off the mineral soil. 

Log Product Diversity

The available log supply must have enough value in a diversity of log products from woods-run logs. For example, there

must be enough high-value logs mixed with the low-value

pulpwood to financially warrant sorting. A certain percentage of high-quality logs is required in the general supply of 

logs available to the log sort yard. A log sort yard takes

advantage of sorting that is not possible at the log landing in

the woods. The opportunity for a log sort yard lies somewhere in between having enough value in woods-run logs to

justify a log sort yard and the motivation of the logger to sort

logs at the landing. For example, the Lumby log sort yard

(Wallowa Resources 1997) found that woods-run logs must

contain 20% to 35% high-value logs to justify a log sort

yard. This of course varies with economic conditions and 

markets.

Diversified Forest Products Industry Log Market 

A diversified forest products industry, with the ability to 

utilize and market a variety of species and size classes, is 

key to successful log sort yards. This includes markets for 

disposing of residues like yard debris. Successful log yards

service a range of forest products businesses using a variety

of log products from veneer peelers to pulpwood. Success is 

predicated on getting logs to the best available market and 

realizing the most net value from those logs. The purpose of 

the log sort yard is to provide a more stable wood supply of 

the right product mix to many industries. Markets must also

be matched up with products from the available timber

resources.

Transportation Infrastructure 

Distance to markets and lack of transportation infrastructure

are barriers to success. Transportation infrastructure is a 

crucial consideration in siting a log sort yard. Today, logs

are being moved greater distances from forest to mill. Poor

transportation infrastructure and high transportation costs

limit options to move products to market. Terminal facilities 

(such as truck and rail log-reload facilities) need to be

identified and established to improve transportation of logs

to market.

Concluding Remarks 

While commercial log sort yards both large and small have 

enjoyed success, sort yards operating other than for profit or 

as a commercial venture (for example, community and government run yards) have not had much success for a number

of reasons. The Libby, Montana, log sort yard struggled with

low log procurement volumes, and the Rogue Institute in 

southern Oregon was unable to get sufficient support for 

their proposed nonprofit log sort yard. Beyond the four 

20
specific barriers mentioned, additional specific barriers

confront applications of the log sort yard concept. There are 

perhaps several resource supply, technical, marketing, financial, and Forest Service policy barriers to overcome. At this

time, not much is known about these barriers. Some examples of these barriers are poor market prices, poor log quality, and too expensive to process. The USDA Forest Service

policies include chain of custody issues, inability to guarantee a long-term supply, and issues regarding stewardship

contracting (that is, combined forest restoration with timber

sale authorities).

In Canada however, the Ministry of Forestry has successfully operated a government log sort and sales yard since

1995 in Lumby, British Columbia. Similar pilot projects 

could be pursued in the United States. The Watershed Research and Training Center in Hayfork, California, is also

pursuing a community-based log sort yard project. They are 

working to overcome barriers to success for this project.

While the USDA Forest Service project is oriented toward

the small log sort yard to help timber-dependent rural communities recover from changes in timber supply, the information will apply to large commercial log sort yard operations as well. Our log sort yard project seeks to identify and

overcome barriers and document successes in an effort to

help meet the needs described in this report. Findings presented in this report have broad application to industry,

community, and government-run log sort yards. Future

publications will include a report on determining log sort

yard feasibility and another on the design, layout, construction, and operation of small-scale log sort yards.

Log sort yards should provide better utilization and marketing with improved value recovery of currently available

timber resources in North America. Log sort yards provide

many services in utilization and marketing wood and fiber 

by concentrating, merchandising, sorting, and adding value

to logs. Such operations supply forest products firms with a 

more desirable log mix suited to their operations. This can 

help the sawmill and plywood plant reduce the number of 

marginal logs processed in their operations, recover higher

value per unit, and improve bottom line performance. Benefits of log sort yards include the potential for more accurate 

grading, scaling, and sorting; the opportunity to merchandise

logs into higher value products; and the opportunity to

capture a higher value from otherwise low-grade woodsrun logs.

The goal of a log sort yard is to improve the quality and

productivity of log sorting and distribution through improved utilization and marketing. Ultimately, improvement

results in better timber resource utilization and better bottom

line business performance. The objective of a log sort yard is 

to help maximize the return of the investment through improved log merchandising, grading, scaling, sorting, adding

value, marketing, and distribution. When this objective is

met, the log sort yard achieves increased log value. 

Improved efficiency produces cost savings and results in

increased value per volume. Improved utilization and

efficiency lead to improved productivity and quality in the 

forest products industry.

References

Barbour, J.R. 1999. Relationship between diameter and 

gross product value for small trees. In: Proceedings from

Wood Technology Clinic and Show Conference, Portland,

OR. San Francisco, CA: Miller Freeman Publications.

Dramm, J.R. 1999. Small-diameter issues and opportunities. In: Proceedings from Wood Technology Clinic and 

Show Conference, Portland, OR. , San Francisco, CA: Miller 

Freeman Publications. 

Dramm, J.R.; Jackson, G. 2000. Is it time to revisit the

log-sort yard? In: Proceedings from Wood Technology 

Clinic and Show Conference, Portland, OR. , San Francisco,

CA: Miller Freeman Publications.

Forest Products Laboratory. 2000. Forest Products Laboratory research program on small-diameter material. Gen. 

Tech. Rep. FPLñGTRñ110 (rev.). Madison, WI: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products

Laboratory. 31 p. 

Hallock, H. 1964. Some thoughts on marginal sawlogs.

Forest Products Journal. 14(11): 535ñ539. 

Hampton, C.M. 1981. Dry land log handling and sorting:

Planning, constructing, and operation of log yards.

San Francisco, CA: Miller Freeman Publications, Inc. 215 p. 

Mason, H.C. 1998. Small log processing. In: Proceedings 

from Wood Technology Clinic and Show Conference, Portland, OR. San Francisco, CA: Miller Freeman Publications.

Rosholt, M. 1980. The Wisconsin logging book, 1839ñ

1939. Rosholt, WI: Rosholt House. 300 p. 

Sinclair, A.W.J.; Wellburn, G.V. 1984. A handbook for 

designing, building, and operating: a log sort yard. Vancouver, B.C., Canada: Forest Engineering Research Institute of

Canada. 285 p. 

Wallowa Resources. 1997. The potential of log sort yards:

Lessons from Libby, Montana and British Columbia. Wallowa Resources Rep. 2. Enterprise, OR: Wallowa Resources.

Williston, E.M. 1988. Lumber manufacturing: The design

and operation of sawmills and planer mills (rev.). San Francisco, CA: Miller Freeman Publications, Inc. 486 p. 

21
Appendix: Selected 

Bibliography of Log Sort Yard

and Related References 

Categories

Log Sort Yards 

Log Rules and Scaling

Log Grading

EconomicsñCostsñProductivity

Marketing

Exporting

DebrisñDisposal and Use of Residues

Bucking and MerchandisingñGeneral

Optimal Softwood Bucking

Hardwood Bucking

Log Manufacture

HarvestñLoggingñTimber Sales

TransportationñLoading and Unloading

Log Allocation

Log Procurement

Inventory Control and Storage

Protection and Insect Control

Debarking, Chipping, Hogging, and Grinding

Miscellaneous

Log Sort Yards 

Broad, L.R. 1989. Note on log sort yard location problems.

Forest Science. 35(2): 640ñ645. 

Sort yards placed either at forest locations or at locations 

between forest and utilization sites may be used to sort

logs into log types that are more consistent with their final form of utilization. This sorting procedure has the potential to increase returns from log scales. A formulation

of the inherent location problem as a Mixed Integer Linear Program (MILP) is presented.

Grace, L.A. 1993. Evaluating a prototype log sorting system

for use in pine sawmills. Rep. 237. Uppsala, Sweden: 

Sveriges Lantbruksuniversitet. Institutionen for virkeslara,

43 p. 

Hampton, C.M. 1981. Dry land log handling and sorting:

planning, construction, and operation of log yards. San 

Francisco, CA: Miller Freeman. 215 p. 

Oregon State University. 1977. Sort yards of the Northwest. Proceedings of a conference, Forestry Program, Oregon State University; 1977 April 4ñ6; Corvallis, OR. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University, Forestry Extension: 250 p. 

Paredes, G.; Sessions, J. 1988. A solution method for the

transfer yard location problem. Forest Products Journal.

38(3): 53ñ58. 

A procedure is presented to solve for the most efficient 

forest transportation system given alternative modes of 

wood transportation and choices in the location of wood 

transfer yards. The transfer yard location problem is a 

special case of the facilities location problem. It is generally solved for as a linear mixed-integer problem, but for 

large problems, that approach presents computational difficulties because of the many integer variables required to 

model yard locations. The procedure proposed here consist of a screening of the feasible location nodes, followed by a breakdown of the problem that exploits its

structure, and an efficient heuristic to solve for fixed

charge problems. The procedure greatly reduces the 

computational complexity of the problem and makes it

possible to solve for the most efficient design in largescale networks and transportation plans.

Sessions, J.; Garland, J.J.; Paredes, G. 1988. Identifying

sort yard locations with size dependent processing costs. In:

Kent, B.M.; Davis, L.S., eds. The 1988 symposium on systems analysis in forest resources; 1988 March 29ñApril 1;

Pacific Grove, CA. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMñ161. Fort Collins, 

CO: Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station:

245ñ250.

Sort yards placed at selected intermediate points between timber cutting sites and mills have the potential

for increasing the value of logs or trees destined for 

processing into different products. A two-phase modeling procedure is presented for identifying the efficient placement of sort yards using computations

much simpler than those in standard linear mixedinteger programming methods.

Sinclair, A.W.J.; Wellburn, G.V. 1984. A handbook for 

designing, building and operating a log sortyard. Vancouver, 

BC: Forest Engineering Research Institute of Canada. Ch. 7.

285 p. 

Winzler and Kelley Consulting Engineers. 1978. Tribal

log sorting facility and forest regeneration complex. Tech.

Assistance Rep. for the Hoopa Valley Business Council.

Hoopa, CA: Hoopa Valley Business Council. Eda Title IX 

Project No. 07ñ19ñ01796. Bibliography, P. (C11ñC12).

253 p.

22
Log Rules and Scaling 

Anderson, B. 1990. Video-assisted log scaling. Field Note,

General 14. Vancouver, BC: Forest Engineering Research

Institute of Canada, Western Division. 2 p.

Dilworth, J.R. 1981. Log scaling and timber cruising.

Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University. 468 p. 

Fahey, T.D.; Snellgrove, T.A.; Cahill, J.M.; Max, T.A.

1981. Evaluating scaling systems. Journal of Forestry.

79(11): 745ñ748. 

A proposed method of analyzing scaling systems consists of two parts. Part I applies only to sound logs and 

compares the precision of scaling systems using the

relationship between lumber recovery and scaled volume. Part II uses only defective logs to compare the 

abilities of scaling systems to adjust volume for

defect.

Freese, F. 1974. A collection of log rules. Gen. Tech. Rep.

FPLñ1. Madison, WI: U.S. Department of Agriculture,

Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory. 65 p. 

Presents a brief description of a number of log rules

that have been used in the United States and Canada.

Also describes some general volume formulae, lumber

measures, and foreign log rules.

Markstrom, D.C.; King, R.M. 1993. Cubic foot/weight

scaling of Rocky Mountain area sawtimber. Res. Pap.

RMñ31. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, 

Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 9 p. 

Cubic-foot/weight scaling of short ponderosa pine and 

white spruce logs required less than half the number of 

truckloads to be both weighed and stick scaled as 

compared with the number required for Scribner 

board-foot/weight scaling. Cubic-foot/weight scaling

of long Engelmann spruce and white fir logs resulted

in 19% fewer loads to be weighed and stick scaled as 

compared with the number required for Scribner 

board-foot/weight scaling. The study showed that ratio

weights need to be recalculated depending upon 

changes in timber size and woods storage time.

McKinney, C.; Lenhart, J.D.; Cook, D.F. 1992. Topwood 

component of truckloads of tree-length pine stems in east

Texas. Forest Products Journal. 42( 7/8): 29ñ30. 

The expected weight of the topwood component of 

truckloads of tree-length southern pine stems can be 

calculated using observed total weight of stems,

observed total number of stems, and predicted weight

of the sawlog proportion of the stems. By subtracting

the predicted weight of the sawlog portion of the

stems from the observed weight of the total stems, the

expected weight of the topwood component of the

stems can be obtained.

Plank, M.E.; Cahill, J.M. 1984. Estimating cubic volume

of small diameter tree-length logs from ponderosa and 

lodgepole pine. Res. Note PNWñ417. Portland, OR: Pacific

Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 7 p. 

A sample of 351 ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa

Dougl. ex Laws.) and 509 lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta Dougl. ex Loud.) logs were used to evaluate the

performance of three commonly used formulas for estimating cubic volume. Smalianís formula, Bruceís

formula, and Huberís formula were tested to determine which would provide the best estimate of cubic

volume when it was applied to tree-length logs.

Smalianís formula overestimated the volume by 19%, 

Bruceís formula underestimated by 16%, and Huberís 

formula underestimated by 2%. Huberís formula provided the closest estimate and is recommended. Accuracy and bias tests are shown. 

United States Forest Service. 1970. Log volume tables.

Scribner decimal C log rule, maximum scaling length 20 ft.

Tabulations include 2 to 21 ft logs, Diameters 3 to 120 in.,

22 to 80 ft logs, diameters 6 to 65 in. San Francisco, CA:

U.S. Forest Service, Region 5, Division of Timber Management. 62 p. 

United States Forest Service. 1973 National forest log

scaling handbook. Washington, DC: U.S. Government

Printing Office. 184 p. 

Van Deusen, P.; Watson, W.F.; Evans, J. 1981.Predicting

board foot volume from the weight of a load of logs.

Mississippi State, MS: Mississippi Agricultural and Forestry

Experiment Station. 14 p. 

Wiant, H.V. 1992. An inexpensive computer system for 

estimating the volume and value of logs. West Virginia

Forestry Notes. Circular 155. 14: 18ñ19. 

Log Grading 

Anderson, I.V. 1934. Log grades for ponderosa pine; a 

statement of specifications describing the four log grades 

and illustrated by photographs. Missoula, MT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northern Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 14 p. 

Hanks, L.F.; Gammon, G.L.; Brisbin, R.L.; Rast, E.D. 

1980. Hardwood log grades and lumber grade yields for 

factory lumber logs. Res. Pap. NEñRPñ468. Broomall, PA:

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station. 92 p. 

The U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service 

Standard Grades for Hardwood Factory Lumber Logs

23
are described, and lumber grade yields for 16 species 

and 2 species groups are presented by log grade and 

diameter. The grades enable foresters, log buyers, and 

log sellers to select and grade those logs suitable for 

conversion into standard factory grade lumber. By using the appropriate lumber grade yields, log buyers

and sellers can appraise the logs in terms of expected 

lumber grade volume and value. This report supersedes an earlier report on hardwood log grading, Forest Research Paper FPLñ63. 

Kenna, K.M. (ed.) 1981.Grading hardwood logs for standard lumber: Forest Service standard grades for hardwood 

factory lumber logs (Rev.). Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Region. 19 p. (Originally published as Publication D1737 ó At Forest Products

Laboratory, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service.) 

Kenna, K.M. 1991. Hardwood log grades. Management

Bull. R8. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Agriculture,

Forest Service, Southern Region, Cooperative Forestry. 2 p. 

Land, P.H.; Woodfin, R.O., Jr. 1977. Guidelines for log

grading coast Douglas-Fir. Res. Pap. PNWñ218. Portland,

OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific 

Northwest.14 p. 

This report is a photographic guide to the application

of the new four-grade system for cruising Coast

Douglas-fir. It is intended as both a training aid and

illustration of features that lower grades.

Northeastern Loggersí Association. 1991. Log rules and 

other useful information. Old Forge, NY: Northeastern

Loggersí Association. 28 p. 

Judging by the number of calls that the Northeastern

Loggersí Association has received in recent years regarding log scaling rules and conversions from English to metric, there is a vacuum in the information

available to people in the logging and lumber business. We consulted a number of sources and have attempted to put a lot of good information under this

one cover. 

Rast, E.D. 1973. A guide to hardwood log grading (Rev.).

Upper Darby, PA: Northeastern Forest Experiment Station.

32 p. 

Stump, W.G.; Ralston, R.A.; Arend, J.L. 1953. Log grading starts in the woods. St. Paul, MN: U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Forest Service, Lake States Forest Experiment

Station. 1 p. 

Wengert, E.M.; Meyer, D.A. 1994. Guidelines for grading

hardwood logs. Madison, WI: University of WisconsinExtension, Cooperative Extension Programs. 5 p. 

EconomicsñCostsñProductivity

Berndt, E.R. 1979. Estimation of logging costs and timber

supply curves from forestry inventory data. Resources Pap. 

39. Vancouver, BC: University of British Columbia. Department of Economics, 15 p. 

Bushman, S.P.; Olsen, E.D. 1988. Determining costs of 

logging-crew labor and equipment. OSU Forest Research

Laboratory Res. Bull. 63. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State

University. 22 p.

Gingras, J.ñF. 1996. The cost of product sorting during

harvesting. In: Proceedings of the meeting on planning and 

implementing forest operations to achieve sustainable forests. Gen. Tech. Rep. NCñ186. St. Paul, MN: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, North Central Forest 

Experiment Station: 130ñ135. 

Integrating harvesting with the sorting of multiple

products is a reality that many companies and their 

contractors must adapt to. This separation of products

can be performed at several stages during harvesting.

This report combines the results of published and unpublished studies to describe the advantages and disadvantages of separating two or more products using

the various machines in full-tree, tree-length and

cut-to-length harvesting systems. The cost of separating six products is simulated with three different

harvesting systems.

Heaps, T. 1988. Econometric analysis of log production in

coastal British Columbia. Forest Economics and Policy 

Analysis Project FEPA. FEPA Working Pap. 108. Vancouver, BC: University of British Columbia. 41 p.

Sinclair, A.W.J. 1980. Evaluation and economic analysis of 

26 log-sorting operations on the coast of British Columbia.

Vancouver, BC: Forest Engineering Research Institute of 

Canada. 47 p. 

Sinclair, A.W.J. 1982. Productivity of five coastal B.C. log

sorting systems. FERIC Technical Note TNñ64. Pointe

Claire, QC: Forest Engineering Research Institute of Canada

37 p. 

Withycombe, R.P. 1982. Estimating costs of collecting and 

transporting forest residues in the Northern Rocky Mountain

Region. Gen. Tech. Rep. INTñGTRñ81. Ogden, UT: U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain

Research Station. 12 p. 

A model is presented for computing the costs of harvesting forest residues, based on several key c

teristics of the residues and the logging area. Costs p

unit are presented in tabular form for several alternative harvesting methods.

haracer

24
Marketing

Anderson, S.; OíHara, T.J. 1995. Timber marketing 101:

the basics. Forest Farmer. 54(3): 42ñ48. 

Selling timber can be a rewarding experience for some

timberland owners while a traumatic experience for 

others. Landowners who do a thorough job of planning, preparation and marketing usually are satisfied

with a timber harvest from their property; and those

who did not prepare for a timber sale are likely to be 

dissatisfied with the harvest. They may receive a fraction of the timberís true value because they did not 

know what volumes or products they had or they did

not market it effectively. Many problems encountered

by landowners during a timber harvest can often be 

avoided by obtaining assistance from a professional

forester. This article presents guidelines to assist individuals in marketing timber from their woodlands. It

should not be a substitute for advice and assistance 

provided by a professional forester.

Berg, D.R.; Schiess, P. 1994. A procedure for estimating

logging costs associated with structural retention: a market

analysis approach. In: Proceedings of the meeting on advanced technology in forest operations: Applied ecology in

action; 1994 July 24ñ29;Corvallis, OR. PortlandñCorvallis, 

OR: Oregon State University: 58ñ69. 

Constantino, L.F. 1988. Sawlog prices and quality differences in Canadian and United States coastal log markets.

Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 18(5): 540ñ544. 

This paper introduces a methodology grounded on 

economic theory for comparing wood quality between 

regions. The methodology, which is based on index

numbers, is applied to data on volumes and prices of 

sawlogs traded in the Canadian and United States

Pacific Coastal Log Markets from 1957 through 1982. 

The quality of sawlogs traded was found to be higher 

on average in the United States than in Canada, but the

U.S. advantage declined over time. The measure of 

wood quality is then used to adjust average log market

prices for quality differences. Contrary to U.S. claims,

the U.S. industry enjoyed a wood cost advantage during most of the sample period. The lower price of 

wood in Canada could be explained by its lower

quality.

Kenna, K. 1994. Product quality and marketing. In: Southern hardwood management. Management Bull. R8; 67.

Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Region, Cooperative Extension Services:

87ñ101.

It is not the intent here to detail explicitly all hardwood product grading systems. Such a task could

cover volumes in itself. Since over half of all hardwood log production is destined for factory lumber,

this chapter will concentrate on describing a system of

grading for this product alone. This type of log is

adapted to the production of boards that later can be 

remanufactured so as to remove defects and yield

smaller strips of clear wood. An examination of almost

any piece of solid hardwood furniture will demonstrate how these strips have been further utilized by

edge-gluing to produce drawer fronts, table tops, chair

seats and bed rails. It is important to note that any log

suitable for sawing into factory lumber may also be

suitable for firewood, pulpwood, veneer, or specialty

products. It cannot be emphasized enough that a thorough investigation of local market conditions is necessary in order to know which log classification will 

generate the highest income and return on investment.

Olsen, R.A.; Terpstra, R.H. 1981. An application of capital

asset pricing to the spot market for softwood logs in Oregon. 

Forest Science. 27(1): 215ñ223. 

This study utilizes the Capital Asset Pricing Model to

analyze risk, return, and competition in a major spot

log market in Oregon for 1968ñ1978. Holding period

returns on thirteen individual log species and grades 

were calculated using actual log sales prices and storage costs. In general, the results suggest that the market is competitive and that log investors earn a return,

which approximates the yield on U.S. Treasury bills.

In addition, log returns do not appear to exhibit any

significant amount of systematic or ìmarket relatedî

risk.

Tooch, D.E. 1995. Create a market and then corner it.

Northern Logger and Timber Processor. 44(4): 20ñ22. 

Van Goethem, L. 1995. What happened to the markets?

What happened to the prices? Northern Logger and Timber

Processor. 44(3): 28ñ29. 

The logging industry got a nasty surprise from the

Easter Bunny last spring. After sailing along on the 

crest of historic high prices for pulpwood and sawlogs, the market got squishy and began to sink. It happened fast and has led to curtailed production and layoffs. The crunch was triggered by a glut of sawlogs

and pulpwood, but itís worse than that. While pulp

prices held fairly steady, the mills cut back on purchases while stumpage, at least in the Lake States, remain high.

Zhang, D.; Binkley, C.S. 1994. The informational efficiency of the Vancouver Log Market and the financial risk

of holding logs in storage. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 24(3): 550ñ557. 

Viewed on an annual or quarterly basis, the Vancouver Log Market appears to process price information

efficiently, but apparently does not do so for monthly

trading intervals. For the longer holding periods the

Vancouver Log Market passes one of the fundamental

tests for an efficient market, and as a consequence 

25
there are few gains to make by speculating in this

market on the basis of technical analysis of past price

movements. Explanations for lack of information

efficiency in the monthly returns requires further 

study. Holding logs does not appear to entail a significant amount of systematic or market risk if the holding

periods are one quarter or less. Producers can hold log

inventories in the Vancouver Log Market without increasing the financial risk of their enterprises. 

Exporting

Dean, W. 1993. Log exports: is the tide turning? American

Forests. 99(3/4): 49ñ52. 

Even after a century of intensive logging, the forests

of the Pacific Northwest contained astronomical volumes of old-growth timber in the 1950s. Large landowners, wanting to capture the value of the resource 

and restart the growing cycle with vigorous young

trees, found their best market in the export of logs, initially to Japan. For more than 30 years, log exports

have been an important source of revenue for the

landowners, and integral part of U.S. foreign trade

policy, and a source of often bitter controversy because many in this country believe the logs should be 

processed in the U.S. The importing nations were willing to pay 25% to 30% more for the logs than U.S. 

mills would. In recent years, this premium has often 

been around $150 per thousand board-feet. There was 

even a brief period when the export price was over 

66% more than domestic mills would pay. Since markets for western timber are driven by price, the logs

flowed naturally toward the fleets of ships specially

designed and built to carry them across the Pacific. In

most years, the log volume shipped across the Pacific 

exceeded 3 billion board-feet. It reached more than 

4.5 billion board feet in both 1988 and 1989. However, exports began to decline in 1990 and continued

to slip through 1992 as high U.S. prices drove the importing nations to other suppliers. Meanwhile, restrictions on logging in the federal forests imposed to protect the habitat of endangered species, most notably

the spotted owl-have resulted in severe wood shortages among domestic mills. As a result, sawlog prices 

are 35% to 50% higher than at the end of the 1980s, 

creating a domestic market that competes effectively 

with overseas buyers. In short, the northern spotted

owl and market forces may be achieving what decades 

of political activism could not.

Flora, D.F.; Anderson, A.L.; McGinnis, W.J. 1991.

Future Pacific Rim flows and prices of softwood logs, differentiated by grade. Res. Pap. PNWñRPñ433. Portland,

OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific 

Northwest Research Station. 22 p. 

By 2000, prices are expected to rise significantly for 

medium-grade logs and modestly for low-grade logs.

World economic cycles may obscure, however, the

upward price trends. Exports from the United States of 

medium grades are expected to remain stable, while

volumes of lower grades are projected to remain level 

through 1995 and then decline because of competition.

Flora, D.F.; Anderson, A.L.; McGinnis, W.J. 1991.

Pacific Rim log trade: determinants and trends. Res. Pap. 

PNWñRPñ432. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station.

72 p. 

Pacific Rim trade in softwood logs amounts to about

$3 billion annually, of which the U.S. share is about 

$2 billion. Log exporting is a significant part of the 

forest economy in the Pacific Northwest. The 10 major Pacific Rim log-trading client and competitor

countries differ widely in their roles in trade and in

their policies affecting the industry.

Flora, D.F.; McGinnis, W.J.; Lane, C.L. 1993. The export

premium: why some logs are worth more abroad. Res. Pap. 

PNWñRPñ462. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station.

18 p. 

For as long as logs have been exported from the

Pacific Northwest, they seem to have been worth more

offshore than in the domestic market. Five reasons for 

the export premium are the inconvenience of trade,

quality, extra ìhaul and hassle,î continuity in export 

arrangements, and export embargoes. A large and increasing differential remains between export and domestic prices for comparable logs in high grades. Logs 

of lower quality do not seem to have a dual price

structure, and there appears to be a declining premium

for logs overall. Year-to-year fluctuations in the premium can be considerable, however, and trade policy 

changes typically affect the export premium more,

proportionately, than they affect export volumes.

Gruenfeld, J.; Flynn, B. 1990. Log exports: an update.

American Forests. 96(9ñ10): 50ñ53, 74ñ76. 

Exporting unprocessed logs has been controversial in the

United States since the early 1960s. As timber-supply

shortages force some mills in the Pacific Northwest to

close because of higher log prices, the controversy grows 

even more rancorous. Are log exports to blame for the

timber shortage? Does exporting logs equate to exporting

jobs, or are log exports an important part of this nationís

timber industry? Here, in addition to explaining some of 

the characteristics of the log-export industry, weíll discuss some of the arguments for and against allowing this

practice to continue.

26
Luppold, W.G. 1994. The U.S. hardwood log export

situation: what is the problem? Forest Products Journal.

44(9): 63ñ67. 

The export of domestically produced hardwood logs

continues to be a divisive issue within the U.S. hardwood industry. Although many sawmill and veneer 

mill operators feel that log exports have increased log 

prices to unacceptable levels, others within the industry feel logs should continue to be sold to the highest

bidder. This paper discusses the hardwood log export

issue by examining changes in exports and the factors

that have caused these changes. 

Luppold, W.G.; Thomas, R.E. 1991. New estimates of 

hardwood-log exports to Europe and Asia. Res. Pap. NEñ

659. Radnor, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest

Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station. 24 p. 

Current and historic estimates of hardwood log exports to Europe and Asia are in error because of a 

combination of reporting errors and computer programming problems at the U.S. Department of Commerce. This paper discusses past problems with log

export data, explains how a new set of hardwood-log

export statistics were developed, and provides a detailed set of new hardwood-log export estimates for 

European and Asian markets.

USDA. 1994. Importation of logs, lumber, and other unmanufactured wood articles. Washington, DC: United States

Department of Agriculture. Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service Federal Register. 28 p. 

Warren, D.D. 1989. Log exports by port, 1987. Res. Note

PNWñRNñ492. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station.

26 p. 

Volumes and average values of log exports by port

have been compiled by quarter for 1987. The tables

show the four Northwest customs districts by ports,

species, and destinations. These data were received 

from the U.S. Department of Commerce too late to be 

published in the 1987 quarterly reports, ìProduction,

Prices, Employment, and Trade in Northwest Forest

Industries.î

DebrisñDisposal and Use of Residues 

Adams, T.C.; Smith., R.C. 1976. Review of the logging

residue problem and its reduction through marketing practices. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW ñ48. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest 

Forest and Range Experiment Station. 22 p. 

This study notes the increasing concern over logging

residue in forestland management and describes the

various administrative and technological means for 

accomplishing reductions of logging residue.

Alternative sales arrangements can include such things

as reduction of stumpage charges for low quality logs

or required yarding on utilized material to the landing

or to some stockpiling or disposal point. Improvements in materials handling can include use of logging

systems that create less breakage or that can handle 

small pieces more efficiently. Specialized chip mills

and increased chip markets, including chip exports,

can give added incentive for removal of formerly unutilized material. Other potentials for utilization are 

also indicated. 

Campbell, A.G.; Tripepi, R.R. 1992. Logyard residues:

products, markets, and research needs. Forest Products

Journal. 42(9): 60ñ64. 

Disposal of log yard residues is a critical problem facing the forest products industry, and new uses should

be examined. In the future, screening and classification of residues will commonly separate the rock,

bark, and fines (organic matter and soil) into useful

fractions. Composting processes will likely be used to

reduce volume and mass while creating a more stable 

material for horticultural and agricultural applications.

Composted and uncomposted residues could be used 

as cover for revegetating landfills, as soil amendments

to enhance productivity of marginal farmland, as 

mulch for landscape beds and walkways, and as soil

cover for mud and erosion control. Research is needed 

to develop a composting process, establish compost

quality standards, and create markets for classified

residue products. Research involving greenhouse and 

field growth of plants should evaluate composted and 

uncomposted residues as a substitute for bark and peat

moss in container media and as a mulch or soil

amendment for heavy-metal-contaminated soils and 

marginal farmland.

Forrester, P.D. 1991. Potential for separating logyard debris

in Alberta. FERIC Special Rep. SRñ80.Vancouver, BC:

Forest Engineering Research Institute of Canada. 20 p.

In November 1990, logyard debris at Weldwood Canada Limitedís operation at Hinton, Alberta, was assessed to determine the type and quantity of the material being generated. This report documents the

results, quantifies the amounts of reclaimable fibre and 

rock, and outlines the potential costs involved in reclaiming, rather than landfilling, the debris. This project was funded by: Forest Industry Development Division of Alberta Forestry, Lands and Wildlife;

Weldwood of Canada Limited (Hinton Division); and 

the Forest Engineering Research Institute of Canada

(FERIC).

Forrester, P.D. 1992. Systems for logyard debris separation

and product reclamation. Field Note Generalñ25.Vancouver,

BC: Forest Engineering Research Institute of Canada. 2 p.

27
Forrester, P.D. 1998. Observations of a Morbark Model

1200 tub grinder processing log sortyard residues for composting. Pointe Claire, QC: Forest Engineering Research

Institute of Canada. 4 p.

During April of 1997 the Forest Engineering Research

Institute of Canada (FERIC) observed a portable tub

grinder processing log sortyard residues in British

Columbia on the west coast of Vancouver Island. The 

resulting material was composted with fish-processing

residues and will be used in the rehabilitation of deactivated forest roads. FERIC observed the productivity

and costs associated with the grinding operation and 

transportation of the ground wood to the composting

site.

McWilliams, J. 1992. Log yard debris: the ultimate solution. Canadian Forest Industries. p. 16, 18. (Jan./Feb.).

Mitchell, P.; Spitler, M.; Buder, M. 1996. Description and 

performance of log yard debris separation systems. In: Proceedings of the 1994 Forest Products Society Southeastern 

Section workshop on environmental quality in wood processing. Proceedings 7295. Madison, WI: Forest Products

Society: 102ñ114. 

Sinclair, A.W.J. 1981. Utilization of coastal British Columbia log sortyard debris. Vancouver, BC: Forest Engineering

Research Institute of Canada. 68 p.

Sinclair, A.W.J.; Goater, G.H.; Wakefield, D.C. 1988. 

Disposal of logyard waste in a high-pressure, underfire pit

burner. Tech. Rep. TRñ78. Pointe Claire, QC: Forest

Engineering Research Institute of Canada. 18 p.

Smith, D.G. 1977. Log-sort yard debris: composition and 

source. FERIC Tech. Rep. TRñ14. Vancouver, BC: Forest

Engineering Research Institute of Canada. 14 p.

Bucking and MerchandisingóGeneral 

Grace, L.A. 1993. Exploring the potential of using optical

log scanners for predicting lumber grade. Forest Products

Journal. 43(10): 45ñ50. 

Swedish softwood sawmills have traditionally sorted 

logs into relatively homogeneous size classes to facilitate downstream production processes. Sorting is normally based on top-end diameter classes as determined

by optical log scanners. The purpose of this study was 

to determine the feasibility of using conventional optical log scanners to determine log quality. A total of

300 debarked Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) sawlogs delivered to a large sawmill in northern Sweden were 

scanned using the dual-axis scanner installed at the

mill. Log profiles, consisting of diameters measured in

two directions to the nearest millimeter every second 

centimeter along the log diskette. The scanned logs

were sawn and the resulting lumber graded. The 

scanned profile data were used to develop computer

algorithms describing various parameters of log geometry including: taper in different sections of the log,

surface roughness, sweep, and eccentricity. Parameters

describing the shape of each log were combined with 

the lumber grade information to determine which parameters indicated lumber quality. Taper in the large

end was found to be a good indicator of log position, 

which can indicate lumber within position classes, but

neither sweep nor eccentricity demonstrated any relationship with lumber grade. These results have been 

used to develop a log sorting algorithm to automatically identify and sort logs with the geometric features 

associated with grade recovery. 

Grondin, F. 1998. Improvements of the dynamic programming algorithm for tree bucking Wood and Fiber Science.

30(1): 91ñ104. 

Log bucking is one of the most important operations

in the transformation of trees into lumber. A bad decision at this stage can jeopardize the optimal recovery 

in volume or in value. The problem of optimizing the

recovery during the bucking process has been solved

using, among other things, dynamic programming.

This article describes the main approaches and suggests some improvements to the dynamic programming approach. By introducing certain assumptions

into the dynamic programming algorithm formulation,

this approach becomes both more realistic and more

efficient. The algorithm defined here is used in an

integrated bucking-breakdown model. Example

simulations demonstrate the computational speed improvements that result from the introduction of the

assumptions.

Hardison, L.D. 1995. Bucking takes on high-tech perspective. Southern Lumberman. 256(5): 31ñ37. 

Koch, C. 1978. Improving volume recovery in logging

operations using felling and bucking evaluations from the

improved harvesting program. Phoenix, AZ: Arizona State

Land Department. Arizona Landmarks. Vol. 8, Book 4.

49 p. 

Maness, T.C.; Adams, D.M. 1991. The combined optimization of log bucking and sawing strategies. Wood and Fiber

Science. 23(2): 296ñ314. 

Determination of optimal bucking and sawing policies

is linked in a common model. The core of this model

is a linear program (LP) that selects stem bucking and 

log sawing policies to maximize profits given an input

distribution of raw material. Product output is controlled by priceñvolume relationships that simulate

product demand curves. The model uses a three stage

solution process performed iteratively until identical

solution bases are obtained. A variation of the

DantzigñWolfe decomposition principle is used,

linking the three models through the use of the

28
Lagrange multipliers from the LP. The procedure is 

demonstrated for a sample sawmill. The revenue gain

from using the policies suggested by the integrated

model over those found by the bucking and sawing

programs working separately was found to be 26% to

36%.

Olsen, E.D. 1991. Evaluating timber sale bids using optimal

bucking technology. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University. 

Forest Engineering Department. 5 p. (Reprint from Applied

Engineering in Agriculture 7(1): 131ñ136). 

This study documented and field tested a method of 

using optimal bucking procedures to aid in cruising

and stand value appraisals. The CRUISE/BUCK

method can estimate the type of logs which should be 

cut from a stand and evaluate the potential revenue if

different sets of mills are chosen as the purchasers.

This type of pre-harvest analysis can aid managers in

how to ìmerchandizeî the stand. Alternative methods

of collecting diameter measurements were compared.

Olsen, E.D.; Pilkerton, S.; Garland, J. 1991. Questions

about optimal bucking. Res. Bull. 71. Corvallis, OR: Oregon 

State University, College of Forestry, Forest Research Laboratory. 18 p. 

Optimal Softwood Bucking 

Bowers, S. 1998. Increased value through optimal bucking.

Western Journal of Applied Forestry. 13(3): 85ñ89. 

Garland, J.; Sessions J.; Olsen, E.D. 1988. Optimal bucking at the stump. High technology in forest engineering. In:

Proceedings of the Council on Forest Engineering, 10th 

annual meeting; 1987 August 3 to August 6; Syracuse, NY. 

Syracuse, NY: College of Environmental Science and Forestry: p. 239ñ247. 

Garland, J.; Sessions J.; Olsen, E.D. 1989. Manufacturing

logs with computer-aided bucking at the stump. Forest

Products Journal. 39(3): 62ñ66. 

Computer-aided bucking of western Oregon oldgrowth and second-growth Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga

meziesii [Mirb.] Franco) was tested for the ability of

the computer to determine various log mixes. Techniques were developed to predict log grades from observed surface characteristics. The increase in log volume was negligible, but the computer solution shifted

a large percentage of volume from low-value to highvalue logs. Value increases were 14.2% for 50 oldgrowth trees and 11.9% for 100 second-growth trees.

Values were decreased by preferred-length restrictions.

Murphy, G.E.; Olsen, E.D. 1988. Value recovery from

trees bucked on a landing and at the stump. Forest Products

Journal. 38(9): p. 49ñ52. 

Comparison of the value of logs from a radiata pine

(Pinus raditata D. Don) plantation in steep terrain in

New Zealand indicated a significant difference in the 

performance of log manufacturers working at the

stump, but no difference in their performance on a 

landing. Value recovery on the landing was significantly better than value recovery at the stump for one 

log manufacturer. A major source of value loss came

from downgrading potential peeler logs to sawlog

grades, and sawlogs to pulpwood. Log manufacturers

working on the landing produced more logs that met

specifications than did those working at the stump.

Much of the reduction in out-of-specification logs resulted from improved accuracy in judging length. 

Olsen, E.; Stringham, B.; Pilkerton, S. 1997. Optimal

bucking : two trials with commercial OSU BUCK software.

Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University, College of Forestry, 

Forest Research Laboratory. 32 p. 

Olsen, E.; and others. 1991. Computer aided bucking on a 

mechanized harvester. Journal of Forest Engineering. 2(2):

25ñ32. (Jan.) 

Sessions, J. 1988. Making better tree-bucking decisions in

the woods. Journal of Forestry. 86(10): 43ñ45. 

Sessions J.; Garland, J.; Olsen, E.D. 1989. Testing computer-aided bucking at the stump. Journal of Forestry. 87(4):

43ñ46.

The possibility of improving log-value recovery

through improved bucking practices has motivated

much recent research (Briggs 1980, Geerts and Twaddle 1985, Lembersky and Chi 1987, Murphy 1987, 

Prevmaticos and Mann 1972, Threadgill and Twaddle 

1986). Weyerhaeuser has claimed to have saved more

than $100 million over a 7-year period through more

efficient bucking. Improvements in the processing

speed and memory capability of handheld computers

raises the possibility of these computers being used to

help make bucking at the stump more productive. In 

1987, Oregon State University tested the potential

gains in value with computer-assisted bucking in oldgrowth and second-growth Douglas-fir timber stands,

and then added the cost of using a computer. Both

types of stands were investigated because old-growth 

and second-growth stands have wide differences in

potential value. The old growth has more marketing

options and potential bucking patterns.

Sessions, J.; Olsen, E.D.; Garland, J. 1989. Tree bucking

for optimal stand value with log allocation constraints.

Forest Science. 35(1): p. 271ñ276. (Mar.)

Many log sellers in the western United States face 

price schedules requiring that a given percentage of 

the volume be delivered in logs of a specified length.

A simple heuristic procedure was developed for

29
deriving a set of log prices which, when used in making decisions for bucking individual trees, provides

nearly optimal stand value while meeting volumeñ

length restrictions.

Wang, S.J.; Giles, D.R. 1989. Effects of various factors on 

computer-optimized bucking system performance. Vancouver, BC: Forintek Canada Corporation. 4 p. (Reprint from

Forest Products Journal 39(11/12): 33ñ36). 

A simulation study of a computer-optimized transverse bucking system with a perfectly accurate scanner found that computer-optimized bucking with

sweep scanned in two planes outperformed that without scanning for sweep by 7.3% in terms of total

product value recovery. For one-plane sweep scanning, this uplift was reduced to 3.6%. For the same

sweep option, the value recovery uplift decreased as 

the scanner error increased. With 0.25-in. scanning error, two-plane sweep scanning did not result in statistically higher value recovery over single-plane sweep 

scanning. Inclusion of downstream log processing

costs and a minimum 12-ft log segment length recovery and number of log segments generated. Reduction

of saw spacing from nominal 4 ft to 2 ft increased

value recovery by 1.4% when diameter scanning error 

was 0.15 in. and two-plane sweep was considered. The 

increase was insignificant when the scanner error increased to 0.25 in. 

Hardwood Bucking 

May, D.M. and others. 1994. Impact of in-woods product

merchandizing on profitable logging opportunities in southern upland hardwood forests. Res. Pap. SOñ282. New

Orleans, LA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest

Service, Southern Forest Experiment Station.11 p. 

Procedures developed to assess available timber supplies from upland hardwood forest statistics reported

by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, 

Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) units, were modified to demonstrate the impact of three in-woods

product-merchandizing options on profitable logging

opportunities in upland hardwood forests in 14 Southern States. Product-merchandizing options ranged 

from harvesting a single, lower valued product to harvesting multiple higher valued products. Under the 

specific assumptions and conditions of the demonstration, two-fifths of the Southís reported upland hardwood forest, containing about three-fifths of the reported inventory, was estimated to be profitable

logging opportunities and profit margins. However, in 

specific situations defined by product prices, market

locations, and stand characteristics, merchandizing options harvesting fewer and lower valued products were 

shown too be most profitable, demonstrating that

multi-product harvesting cannot always be assumed to 

be an optimal merchandizing alternative.

Pickens, J.B. 1996. Methods to customize the HWñBUCK

software. In: Putting research to work for the hardwood 

industry: new technology available today. Proceedings of the 

24th annual hardwood symposium. Memphis, TN: National

Hardwood Lumber Association: 141ñ147. 

The HWñBUCK decision simulator is a computerized

training tool designed to help hardwood log buckers 

improve value recovery. The trainee plays the bucking

ìgameî by observing one of 150 actual hardwood 

stems, then selects their bucking cuts. The picture includes defects and sweep, and can be rotated to see 

stem shape and hidden defects. After the trainee has 

selected cuts, the software presents their results beside

the optimal bucking pattern for comparison. This paper emphasizes the flexibility of the system to use different prices and veneer grading rules, and presents

the process for including a userís trees. 

Pickens, J.B. and others. 1991. HWñBuck: a computerized

hardwood bucking decision simulator. In: Proceedings of the 

1991 symposium on systems analysis in forest resource;

1991 March 3ñ6; Charleston, South Carolina. Gen. Tech. 

Rep. SEñ74. Asheville, NC: Southeastern Forest Experiment

Station: 213ñ216. 

Recent research indicates that current field bucking 

practices in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan underachieve the possible value of hardwood logs produced 

by 39% to 55%. This paper describes a computerized

decision simulator for training buckers to improve

value recovery when bucking hardwood stems. The 

program presents the trainee with a picture of the 

hardwood log to be bucked, allows the trainee to select the sequence of cuts to buck the tree, and then

presents a side-by-side comparison of the traineeís 

bucking choices and the optimal bucking cuts.

Pickens, J.B.; Lee, A.; Lyon, G.W. 1992. Optimal bucking

of northern hardwoods. Northern Journal of Applied

Forestry. 9(4): 149ñ152. 

This paper describes the development and application

of a bucking (cross-cutting) optimization model developed for use with northern hardwood species. The 

model evaluates feasible bucking solutions using computer log grading and scaling procedures that closely

reflect industry-established rules. Optimal solutions

are found using dynamic programming. A study of 

166 trees bucked in Michigan indicates that the gross 

delivered values of optimal solutions are 39% to 55% 

higher than those chosen by the buckers. Possible approaches to improve value recovery during bucking

are discussed. 

30
Pickens, J.B.; Lyon, G.W.; Lee, A.; Frayer, W.E. 1993.

HWñBUCK game improves hardwood bucking skills.

Journal of Forestry. 91(8): 42ñ45. 

Several bucking optimization models have been developed to maximize the total value of logs produced 

from an individual tree, stand, or planning period.

However, all are for softwood species. This article describes a computerized bucking decision simulator that

has been developed at Michigan Technological

University specifically to improve hardwood log bucking skills.

Pickens, J.B.; Throop, S.A.; Frendewey, J.O. 1997. 

Choosing prices to optimally buck hardwood logs with

multiple log-length demand restrictions. Forest Science.

43(3): 403ñ413. 

The purpose of this article is to present a hierarchical 

optimization approach that selects prices which, when 

used in a single stem bucking optimization model,

produce a specified mix of logs by grade and length.

The model is developed to address the demand constrained optimal bucking situation for northern hardwoods. The demand constraints are minimum percentages needed in four log lengths [3.0 m (10 ft), 3.7 m

(12 ft), 4.3 m (14 ft), and 4.9 m (16 ft)] to meet order 

requirements from veneer buyers. There are two levels

in the hierarchical optimization system: at the lower 

level, a dynamic programming model is used to optimize the value of each individual tree, while the upper 

level is a linear programming model which finds one 

or more sets of prices, each used some portion of the 

time, that produce the required product mix in the

lower level model. The hierarchical model is solved iteratively until a single set of prices satisfies all demand constraints. This approach is distinctly different

than traditional approaches, which pass different information between the upper and lower level models

to solve two-level optimization problems. The parameters passed in traditional approaches are shadow prices

in one direction and production levels in the reverse 

direction. The model developed could be adapted to

other species and log grading rules whenever several

competing demand constraints exist. Furthermore, the

approach could be adapted to a wide range of hierarchical planning applications where inputs, and therefore the production possibilities curve, are fixed and 

constraints apply.

Log Manufacture 

Carino, H.F.; Foronda, S.U. 1987. Determining optimum

log requirements in lumber manufacturing. Forest Products

Journal. 37(11/12): 8ñ14. 

A systematic approach to the problem of determining

optimum log requirements in sawmilling is presented.

Linear programming is used to analyze various log

input size distributions, and profit contribution is used 

as the measure of effectiveness. The analytical approach was explained through the discussion of a case 

study involving a southern pine dimension mill. The 

analysis indicated that this mill would realize greater

profits by processing relatively smaller diameter logs.

It was found that the mill could attain the highest 

profit contribution ($1,285/hr.) from a sawlog distribution that included only those logs with top or smallend diameters of 8 in. to 16 in. inclusive.

Young, G.G. 1998. Mechanical and manual log manufacturing in coastal second-growth forests: a comparison of recovered value. Pointe Claire, QC : Forest Engineering Research 

Institute of Canada. 12 p.

In 1996 the Forest Engineering Research Institute of 

Canada compared the value of logs manufactured by

various systems at two sites in coastal second-growth

forests in British Columbia. At Site 1, the value recovered by a Timberjack 1270 single-grip harvester

manufacturing short logs at the stump was compared

to the theoretical maximum value as predicted by a 

grader. Also, the log value recovered by a conventional manual falling and bucking system was compared to that of a grader. At Site 2, the value recovered 

by a Steyr KP60 processor manufacturing conventional length logs from tree lengths at roadside was 

compared to the values as predicted by a grader, and 

by a bucker at roadside.

HarvestingñLoggingñTimber Sales 

Conway, S. 1976. Logging practices: principles of timber

harvesting systems. San Francisco, CA: Miller Freeman.

416 p. 

Logging Practices not only shows what happens during timber harvesting but also how and why it happens. The book gives an overall view of the systems,

equipment, and practices used in North America to 

harvest timber crops. Its thorough coverage includes

such essential subjects as forest resources, woods labor, operations planning, ground skidding, cable and 

aerial logging, safety management, and production

control. In addition it gives the small practical details

the industry needs in order to obtain maximum value

from timber and land resources. One of the major contributions of this book is its emphasis on the ìsystemsî

approach. To understand timber harvesting systems it

is necessary to see that they are made up of smaller

systems called components, and that these in turn are 

made up of subsystems called elements. It is also necessary to realize that timber harvesting is itself part of

the larger, dominant system, which includes manufacturing, marketing, transportation, sales and much else.

The book describes the basic components and elements and makes it clear that only by comprehending

31
the various hierarchical relationships among them will 

it be possible to meet both the short- and long-term

goals of the dominant system.

Ewart, J.M. 1990. Development of the west coast log processor. Special Rep. SRñ71. Vancouver, B.C. Forest Engineering Research Institute of Canada. 7 p.

Garland, J.; Jackson, D. 1997. Felling and bucking techniques for woodland owners (rev. ed.). Corvallis, OR:

Oregon State University Extension Service. 15 p. 

Gingras, J.ñF.; Godin, A. 1997. Sorting for quality with a 

cut-to-length system. Pointe Claire, QC: Forest Engineering

Research Institute of Canada. 6 p.

This study compared the productivity, cost and efficiency

of a single-grip harvester and a shortwood forwarder for 

sorting pulpwood. Three methods were analyzed: in the

first, two pulpwood grades were separated by the forwarder; in the second, this separation was conducted by

the harvester; and in the third, the harvester did a threeway pulpwood sort (for grade and species).

Hartsough, B.R.; Stokes, B.J. 1990. Comparison and feasibility of North American methods for harvesting small trees 

and residues for energy. In: Harvesting small trees and forest

residues. Proceedings of the International Energy Agency, 

Task VI, Activity 3 Workshop; 1990 May 28; Copenhagen,

Denmark. Auburn, AL: U.S. Department of Agriculture,

Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment Station: 31ñ40. 

Hoffman, B. 1991. How to improve logging profits. Old

Forge, NY: Northeastern Loggerís Association. 60 p. 

International Organization for Standardization. 1987.

Logging industry: products, terms and definitions. International standard ISO 8966. Geneva, CH: International

Organization for Standardization. 7 p. 

Johnson, L.R. 1989. Recovery of wood residues in the

intermountain region. In: Harvesting small trees and forest

residues. Proceedings of an international symposium, International Energy Agency/Bioenergy Agreement Task VIñ

Activity 3; 1989 June 5ñ7; Auburn University, AL. Auburn, 

AL: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service: 11ñ31. 

Macklin, R.R. 1982. The logging business management

handbook. San Francisco, CA: Miller Freeman Publications. 

176 p. 

Miyata, E.S. How to calculate costs of operating logging

equipment. St. Paul: North Central Forest Experiment

Station. 6 p. 

Pacific Logging Congress. 1977. Loggers handbook.

Vol. 37. Logging: a look at realities. Portland, OR: Pacific 

Logging Congress. 163, 78, 37 p. 

Shaver, J.R. 1994. What current harvest technologies are 

available to meet IRMP concerns and market economics?

Or, small log harvesting for future forests. In: Indian

forestry: changing perspectives of resource management.

Final proceedings, 18th annual national Indian timber symposium; 1994 April 25ñ29; Polson, MT. Portland, OR:

Intertribal Timber Council: 108ñ115. 

Stokes, B.C. 1992. Harvesting small trees and forest residues. In: Reports and reviews summarized from proceedings, International Symposium; 1992 June 5ñ7; Auburn, AL. 

Biomass and Bioenergy. 2(1/6): 131ñ147. 

Eight countries collaborated and shared technical information on the harvesting of small trees and forest

residues in a three year program. Proceedings and reports from workshops and reviews are summarized in

a review of activities and harvesting systems of the

participating countries. Four databases were developed for harvesting and transportation of these materials.

Wilton, W.C. 1981. Integrated logging for production of 

pulpwood and hog fue. Ottawa, ON: Northland Associates

Ltd. Canadian Forestry Service. (ENFOR project Pñ143 

DSS Contract 07SC.KL001ñ9ñ0057).

Workersí Compensation Board of British Columbia. 

1990. Fallersí & buckersí handbook: practical methods for 

falling and bucking timber safely. Richmond, BC: Workersí

Compensation Board of British Columbia. (9th ed. (rev.)

1998.)

TransportationóLoading and 

Unloading

Barnes, B.; Sullivan, E.C. 1980. Timber transport model,

version 2.0. Berkeley, CA: University of California, Institute

of Transportation Studies. 277 p. 

Bradford, H.D. 1970. Log truck traffic generation analysis.

San Francisco, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest

Service, Transportation System Planning Project. 29 p. 

Bradley, D.P. 1988. When you say harvest and transport

costs, youíve said it all (or nearly all)! In: Minnesotaís timber supply: perspectives and analysis. Proceedings of conference; St. Paul, MN. St. Paul, MN: University of Minnesota, Department of Forest Resources. Staff paper series no. 

64: 145ñ152. 

Bridge, D.R. 1989. Soft ground crossing. Washington, DC:

American Pulpwood Association, 2 p. 

Clark, C.J. 1977. A case study of the influence of log deck 

configurations on loading with a self-loading log truck.

Thesis (Master of Forestry). Corvallis, OR: Oregon State 

University. 83 p.

Clark, M.L. 1986. Highway hauling of tree-length logs in

the B.C. Cariboo. FERIC Tech. Rep. TRñ66. Pointe Claire,

QC. Forest Engineering Research Institute of Canada. 46 p.

32
Clark, M.; Giles, D.R. 1988. Orientation of log butts on 

highway trucks: an economic analysis. Pointe Claire, QC:

Forest Engineering Research Institute of Canada. 2: 34 p.

Cox, B. 1992. Swedish style shortwood logging truck.

Vancouver, BC: Forest Engineering Research Institute of 

Canada, Western Division. Field note. Loading and trucking.

30. 2 p. 

Cox, W.R.; Wong, P. 1977. A mathematical programming

approach for the analysis of transport-logging systems for 

timber sale. (U.S. Forest Service. Engineering Technical

Information System. Field Notes. 9(5): 3ñ12). 

Forest Engineering Research Institute of Canada. 1978. 

Long-distance off- and on-road transport. Vancouver, BC:

Forest Engineering Research Institute of Canada. 2: 46 p.

Jokai, R. 1994. A comparison of actual vs. simulated logging truck performance using OTTO software. Vancouver, 

BC: Forest Engineering Research Institute of Canada, Western Division. Field note. Loading and trucking. 34. 2 p. 

Koger, J.L.; Tenn, N. 1981. Transportation methods and 

costs for sawlogs, pulpwood bolts, and longwood:

TVA/ONR/LFRñ81/4. Tennessee Valley Authority, Division

of Land and Forest Resources. 34 p. 

Ljubic, D.A. 1985. Analysis of productivity and cost of 

forestry transportation: Pt. 3. Theoretical analysis of the 

impact of vehicle operating conditions. Tech. Rep. TRñ61.

Pointe Claire, QC: Forest Engineering Research Institute of

Canada, 71 p. 

Long, J. 1977. Computer-aided timber transportation analysis, five case studies. Berkeley, CA: University of California,

Institute of Transportation Studies. 49 p.

McMorland, B. 1983. Truck unloading in coastal B.C.

dryland sortyards. Tech. Note. TNñ70. Vancouver, BC:

Forest Engineering Research Institute of Canada. 5: 21 p.

Meyer, R.L. 1990. Nordic logging machinery transport

truck. Washington, DC: American Pulpwood Association,

1 p. 

Moll, J.E.; Copstead, R. 1996. Travel time models for 

forest roads: a verification of the Forest Service logging road 

handbook. San Dimas, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture,

Forest Service, Technology and Development Program.

40 p. 

Oakley, P.; Marshall, N.G. 1989. Optimal sizing of offhighway logging trucks. Pointe Claire, QC: Forest Engineering Research Institute of Canada. 20 p.

Overbee, P.D.; Shaffer, R.M.; Stuart, W.B. 1988. A lowcost program to improve log truck weight control. Forest

Products Journal. 38(6): 51ñ54. 

Truck weights are a focal point in log hauling. Loggers are penalized by the state, and sometimes by the

receiving mill, for overweight loads. But excessively 

underweight loads lose revenue for the logger. Mechanical and electrical devices are available for inwoods weighing, but these devices are expensive. A 

low-cost method utilizing feedback on load weights to 

heighten the awareness of loader operators regarding 

weight control was tested by loggers at two southern

papermills. The majority of loggers at both sites 

slightly improved their loading performance, resulting

in increased profits. 

Parker, S.P.S. 1995. Log-transportation requirements in

western Canada, 1992ñ2002 : a survey. Pointe Claire, QC:

Forest Engineering Research Institute of Canada. 13 p.

Poulton, M.C.; Hughes, J.R. 1980. Minimizing the costs

associated with sawlog transportation to the lower Fraser 

River. Vancouver, BC: Centre for Transportation Studies,

University of British Columbia. 80 p.

Salm, D. [and others]. 1988. Harvest scheduling and transportation analysis for an area of the Allegheny National

Forest using the Integrated Resources Planning Model.

TRANSHIP. In: High technology in forest engineering.

Proceedings of the Council on Forest Engineering, 10th 

annual meeting; 1987 August 3 to August 6; Syracuse, New 

York. Syracuse, NY: College of Environmental Science and 

Forestry: 127ñ147. 

Shaffer, R.M.; Keesee, J.M. 1991. Keeping mud off the

highway during wet-weather logging. Southern Journal of 

Applied Forestry. 15(1): 50ñ53. (Feb.) 

Sinclair, A.W.J. 1984. Recovery and transport of forest

biomass in mountainous terrain. Victoria, BC: Environment

Canada, Pacific Forest Research Centre. 31 p. 

Smith, D.G.; Tse, P.P. 1977. Logging trucks: comparison of 

productivity and costs. FERIC Tech. Rep. TRñ18. Pointe

Claire, QC: Forest Engineering Institute of Canada. 43 p.

Wong; T.B. 1990. REVHAUL: a revenue-tracking program

for log-hauling contractors. Pointe Claire, QC: Forest Engineering Research Institute of Canada. 13 p.

Log Allocation 

American Institute of Industrial Engineers. 1974.

LOCAL: location-allocation models for establishing facilities. In: Proceedings 1974 spring conference American

Institute of Industrial Engineers. Norcross, GA: American

Institute of Industrial Engineers: 391ñ400. 

Bare, B.B.; Briggs, D.G.; Mendoza, G.A. 1989. Log allocation and soft optimization: a de novo programming approach. Forest Products Journal. 39(9): 39ñ44. 

Describes how to efficiently allocate logs to a set of 

interdependent utilization facilities while simultaneously designing the optimal characteristics of the

33
production system. Using the external reconstruction

algorithm (a de novo algorithm), selected resource 

constraints are considered ìsoftî and are determined

through analysis.

This procedure facilitates the design of an optimal production system and is not limited to the solution of a 

prespecified problem wherein all constraints are taken

as fixed. The procedure is demonstrated by applying it

to a representative log allocation problem facing 

owners of a vertically integrated utilization complex.

Results illustrate the range of increased profits that can

be expected when the optimal set of resource inputs is

available.

Goetz, H.L. 1981. Allocation of raw materials to alternative

products. In: Harvesting and utilization opportunities for 

forest residues in the Northern Rocky Mountains. Gen. Tech. 

Rep. INTñ110. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture,

Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment

Station: 251ñ257. 

In traditional timber harvesting operations, the allocation of raw material to alternative products is most often made at the mill. However, in western Montana,

because there are no processing facilities equipped to 

utilize the full range of residue material, the landowner or land manager must make the allocation decision. The allocation process should also be an integral

part of sale preparation and not occur as an afterthought at the conclusion of harvest. This paper discusses the utilization of ponderosa pine residue created by a locally severe outbreak of mountain pine

beetle in the Blackfoot River drainage northeast of 

Missoula, Montana.

Mendoza, G.A. 1980. Integrating stem conversion and log

allocation models for wood utilization planning. Seattle, 

WA: University of Washington. Ph. D. dissertation.

Mercado, J.S.; Carino, H.F.; Biblis, E.J.; White, C.R.

1990. Optimizing log procurement and allocation in southern

pine dimension lumber manufacturing. Forest Products

Journal. 40(5): 31ñ36. 

The profitability of a southern pine dimension mill

operation was analyzed using linear programming.

Results indicate that the mill can maximize profit by

producing lumber from logs with a small-end diameter

ranging lumber from 6 to 21 in. and by selling smallsized logs as pulpwood. A maximum profit contribution of $564 per hour is attainable under current

conditions. Parametric analysis indicates that log and 

lumber prices significantly impact profit contribution

and log input mix. For example, a 10% price increase

for large-sized (e.g., 2 by 10ís and 2 by 12ís) lumber

would result in a 20% increase in profit contribution

with the optimum log input mix changing

significantly. Also, if there is an increase in log prices, 

the result would be a significant reduction in profit

contribution accompanied by a decrease in the sizes of 

input logs profitable to process into lumber. The study

also shows how a rational log pricing strategy in dimension lumber manufacturing can be developed

within the framework of maximizing profit.

Stokes, B.J.; Watson, W.F. 1988. Recovery efficiency of 

whole-tree harvesting. In: Harvesting whole trees with processing and log allocation in the forest to conventional and 

energy products. Proceedings of an A-1 technical group 

meeting; 1988 June 6ñ10; Garpenberg, Sweden. Rotorua,

New Zealand: Forest Research Institute, Forest Management

and Resources Division. Rep. 6: 186ñ200. 

Westerkamp, G.L. 1978. A linear programming approach 

to log allocation. Seattle, WA: University of Washington,

College of Forest Resources. 74 p. 

Log Procurement 

Ahrens, G.W. 1988. Sawmill procurement and harvesting.

In: Hamel, M.P. ed. Current challenges to traditional wood 

procurement practices. 1987 September 20ñ30; Atlanta, GA. 

Proc. 47353. Forest Products Research Society: 33ñ37. 

Brinker, R.W.; Jackson, B.D. 1991. Using a geographic

information system to study a regional wood procurement

problem. Forest Science. 37(6): 1614ñ1631. 

Burger, D.H.; Jamnick, M.S. 1991. Analysis of wood 

procurement strategies: supplying multiple mills from multiple sources. In: Proceedings of the 1991 symposium on 

systems analysis in forest resources; 1991 March 3ñ6;

Charleston, South Carolina. Gen. Tech. Rep. SEñ74. Asheville, NC: Southeastern Forest Experiment Station: 17ñ23. 

A linear programming wood procurement and d

bution model was developed to analyze a compl

wood distribution system. The model can be used to

measure trade-offs between the conflicting objectives

of minimizing total wood cost and maximizing

for a woodlands division that is a profit center. The 

model considers mill requirements, product revenues, 

and harvest, transportation and wood purchasing c

istriex

profit

osts.

Davis, S.R. 1988. Microcomputer software for timber procurement and harvest scheduling. In: Hamel, M.P. ed. Current challenges to traditional wood procurement practices.

1987 September 20ñ30; Atlanta, GA. Proc. 47353. Madison,

WI: Forest Products Research Society: 95ñ96. 

Fortson, J.C. 1988. Harvest scheduling/wood procurement

modeling using linear programming. In: Hamel, M.P. ed. 

Current challenges to traditional wood procurement practices. 1987 September 20ñ30; Atlanta, GA. Proc. 47353. 

Madison, WI: Forest Products Research Society: 85ñ86. 

34
Hokans, R.H.; Stuart, W.B. 1983. Yard-to-mill woodflow 

scheduling by microcomputer. Southern Journal of Applied

Forestry. 7(1): 50ñ53. 

Scheduling yard-to-mill woodflows requires the regular attention of wood procurement managers. While

the calculations are routine, they are sufficiently time

consuming to preclude evaluation of more than a firstguess schedule. A computer program implemented on 

a microcomputer provides a cost-effective means of 

doing the calculations and choosing an operationally

feasible least-cost solution to the scheduling problem.

Lee, E.C. 1988. Procurement strategies without land ownership. In: Hamel, M.P. ed. Current challenges to traditional

wood procurement practices. 1987 September 20ñ30; Atlanta, GA. Proc. 47353. Forest Products Research Society:

38ñ39.

Maass, D. 1991. Wood procurement strategies for the

1990s. Tappi Journal. 74(11): 66ñ67. 

Inventory Control and Storage 

De Groot, R.C. 1978. Save wood: end-treat stored maple

and birch logs. Research and Application Series. Madison,

WI: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service Forest 

Products Laboratory. 5 p. 

Important factors involved in storing bark and bark-free, 

whole log, and whole-tree chips. In: Proceedings 7th International FPRS industrial wood energy forum í83; 1983 

September 19ñ21; Nashville, Tennessee. Proc. 47337. 

Madison, WI: Forest Products Research Society:

189ñ202.

Ellisor, J. 1981. Log inventory controls. OSUSOB monograph 14. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University. 8 p. 

Yerkes, V.P. 1967. Effect of seasonal stem moisture variation and log storage on weight of Black Hills ponderosa 

pine. Res. Note RMñ96. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department

of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and 

Range Experiment Station. 8 p. 

The moisture content of ponderosa pine trees in the

Black Hills fluctuated enough from season to season 

to account for a significant portion of the variability 

that might be experienced in weight scaling. A difference in moisture content of trees on different growing

sites was also noted. Weight loss from logs left in

woods storage for up to 108 days was not great and 

could largely be ignored in weight scaling. Lumber

degrade during storage would probably be a more serious problem, and normally would be the main concern in log storage.

Zhang, D.; Binkley, C.S. 1994. The informational efficiency of the Vancouver log market and the financial risk of 

holding logs in storage. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 24(3): 550ñ557. 

Viewed on an annual or quarterly basis, the Vancouver Log Market appears to process price information

efficiently, but apparently does not do so for monthly

trading intervals. For the longer holding periods the

Vancouver Log Market passes one of the fundamental

tests for an efficient market, and as a consequence 

there are few gains to make by speculating in this market on the basis of technical analysis of past price

movements. Explanations for lack of information efficiency in the monthly returns requires further study.

Holding logs does not appear to entail a significant

amount of systematic or market risk if the holding periods are one quarter or less. Producers can hold log

inventories in the Vancouver Log Market without increasing the financial risk of their enterprises. 

Protection and Insect Control 

Canadian Forestry Service. 1972. Water misting for log

protection from ambrosia beetles in B.C. Victoria, BC:

Pacific Forest Research Center, Canadian Forestry Service.

34 p. 

Ambrosia beetles have long been a problem in coastal

British Columbia. Climate, extensive stands of mature

coniferous forests and methods of harvesting them all

favor these insects. Logging debris and stumps provide good beetle breeding sites, as do right-of-way

logs and other timber left too long after felling. One 

species, Trypodendron lineatum (Oliv.), which attacks

all commercial softwood species in this area, is by far 

the most abundant and damaging. The export of beetle-damaged lumber to certain overseas markets is restricted because of the possibility of accidental introduction of these insects. Logs felled during spring are 

relatively immune to attack; those felled the previous

autumn and winter are preferred by the beetles. Prevention of beetle damage by insecticide application is

not economically feasible. A serious problem remains

at times and under some conditions, particularly at 

dry-land log sorting and storage areas. Water sprinkling has been found to reduce deterioration of stored

logs and was recently tested in British Columbia. Discussions of the Pest Control Committee of the Council

of the Forest Industries of British Columbia led to a 

cooperative project to test the cost and effectiveness of 

water spray for preventing ambrosia beetle damage to

logs in dry-land storage.

Elowsson, T.; Liukko, K. 1995. How to achieve effective

wet storage of pine logs (Pinus sylvestris) with a minimum

amount of water. Forest Products Journal. 45(11/12): 36ñ42. 

Logs stored on land are protected by sprinkling with

water. It is important to minimize the period between

35
felling and the start of sprinkling. In Sweden, generous sprinkling has resulted in damage to the groundwater. Thus, it is necessary for the sprinkling program

too be designed in such a way as to prevent negative

effects on the environment. Three types of sprinkling

experiments were conducted: intensive (recirculation),

normal, and controlled sprinkling with successively

reduced amounts of water. Measurements were made

of the moisture content, waste-water flow, and the actual evaporation. A theoretical evaporation was calculated and a correlation was made between measured

and calculated evaporation. The results reveal that

(1) there was a rapid drying process before the start of 

the sprinkling; (2) reduced sprinkling that is adapted

to evaporation results in the same moisture content

development as intensive sprinkling; and (3) the buffering capacity in a log pile is low. Evaporation calculated in accordance with the PenmanñMonteith formula correlates with the measured evaporation at the 

0.1% level. Controlled sprinkling using this formula

will offer reliable protection to the logs while reducing

the amount of waste-water.

Feighl, O. 1978. Protection of veneer logs in storage in

eastern Canada (a survey of the literature). Inf. Rep.

OPñXñ196. Ottawa, ON: Canada Department of Forestry.

Forest Products Research Laboratory. 20 p. 

Gray, D.R.; Borden, J.H. 1985. Ambrosia beetle attack on 

logs before and after processing through a dryland sorting

area. Forestry Chronicle. 61(4): p. 299ñ302. 

Damage by ambrosia beetles was assessed on logs arriving at and leaving a northern Vancouver Island dryland sort. Damage on incoming logs was severe, indicating a high population of attacking beetles in the

forest. Although logs were processed rapidly through

the dryland sort, exposed portions of logs in booms

were subjected to additional attack by resident dryland

sort beetles, causing additional damage. Value lost to

degrade equaled $0.89/m3

 processed during the seven 

weeks of the study, 44.9% from attack by beetles in

the woods, and an additional 55.1% by beetles in the 

sort.

Kreber, B.; Byrne, A. 1996. Production of brown stain in

hemlock logs and lumber during storage. Forest Products

Journal. 46(4): 53ñ58. 

Hemlock brown stain is a discoloration that can develop in unseasoned logs and lumber of western hemlock and amabilis fir. This discoloration is a serious

problem for producers of high-value Canadian lumber.

Production of hemlock brown stain was monitored in

freshly felled western hemlock trees and after storing

the logs for 2 and 9 months. Saltwater and dry land

storage of logs were evaluated as conditions that influence colorations. Lumber sawn from the 9-monthold logs was also evaluated for color change following

storage for 2 months. This study demonstrated that

brown stain was associated with extended log storage,

particularly in saltwater. Fungi were isolated from

freshly felled trees and from logs after 2 months of 

storage. Dark-pigmented hyphae were associated particularly with areas showing brown stain. Information

gained from this study suggested that faster processing

of western hemlock logs into lumber could lessen the

extent of brown stain problems.

Lindgren, B.S.; Fraser, R.G.1994. Control of ambrosia

beetle damage by mass trapping at a dryland log sorting area 

in British Columbia. The Forestry Chronicle. 70(2):159ñ163. 

A mass trapping program for ambrosia beetles at the

Sooke dryland sorting area of Canadian Pacific Forest

Products in British Columbia captured close to

16.5 million beetles over 12 years. Spring weather

conditions influenced trapping of the main pest species, Trypodendron lineatum, the populations of which

fluctuated considerably. Gnathotrichus sulcatus populations declined gradually, presumably because of the 

trapping and improvements in inventory management.

A benefit/cost estimate, based on the assumption that

the number of beetles removed can be correlated with

degrade losses, yielded a benefit of 5 to 1 and an estimated saving of $400,000 over the 12 years. The

trapping program was concluded to have been o

tionally and economically successful. 

peraMcMullen, L.H.; Betts, R.E. 1982. Water sprinkling of log

decks to reduce emergence of mountain pine beetle in lodgepole pine. Forestry Chronicle. 58(5): 205ñ206. 

Water sprinkling of lodgepole pine logs infested by

mountain pine beetle with soaker-hoses on the surface 

of log decks, reduced survival of pupae and young

adults to 5% compared with 93% in control decks.

The technique provides a useful alternative to other

methods of reducing hazard from the insect to pine 

stands surrounding log storage areas. 

Miller, D.J. 1979. Deterioration of logs in cold decksóa 

survey of information applying to the Pacific Northwest.

Forest Products Journal. 29(1): 34ñ40. 

Logs left lying in the woods during warm weather are 

vulnerable to attack by insects and to infection by

stain decay fungi. As a result, infected logs may deteriorate sooner than expected during later storage in dry

decks, or that may appear to have deteriorated while

wet-decked under protective water sprays. In dry storage damage from stain, insects, and drying stress

(checks) may appear in a few months or less during

warm weather; decay usually is not evident until after 

a year or more of unprotected storage. The usual procedures for protecting logs are to process them as 

36
quickly as possible or to sprinkle them with water if 

decked storage is necessary. Sprinkling provides protection against insect, fungal, and drying damage if

water coverage is adequate to keep the log surfaces 

wetóparticularly the ends, which may be less accessible to wetting. Short on-off sprinkling cycles seem

as effective as continuous spraying. Sprinkling may

increase the permeability of sapwood but causes no 

important change in its strength or durability. Environmental restrictions on runoff water from wet decks 

usually have not prevented operators in the Pacific

Northwest from sprinkling decked logs. There is little 

information on the amount and value of losses incurred during storage in log decks.

Miller, D.J.; Swan, S. 1980. Blue stain in sprinkled log

decks and lumber piles of ponderosa pine. Forest Products

Journal. 30(2): 42ñ48. 

Ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa Laws.) logs decked 

under various water-spray conditions during summer

in central Oregon soon changed appearance. Sapwood 

of log ends sprayed with clean river water darkened 

within a few weeks; white resinous bloom and green 

slime appeared later. Logs sprayed with warmer, turbid pond water were quickly covered with dark slime.

Sapwood tended to be ~10qF warmer than sprayed 

water, usually ranging from 50qF to 66qF during warm

summer days, and in top logs, cooling 5qF to 10qF

during the night. Sapwood MC was usually >150% in

logs sprayed continuously or by brief on and off cycles, but fell to levels suitable for fungal growth if the

ìspray-offî part of the cycle was prolonged (6 min.

on, 34 min. off). Intermittently sprinkled logs also developed increasing amounts of blue stain from prolonged ìspray-offî periods. Blue stain in logs

amounted to <1% of surfaced lumber tally if spray 

was continuous or brief and intermittent (6 min. on, 

less than or equal to 10 min. off); however, the longest

ìspray-offî (34 min.) cycle increased log stain to 

3.6%. The amount of additional blue stain which developed in lumber close-piled outdoors for 4 weeks 

during November and December, despite cool air temperatures (highs usually 40qF to 55qF, lows usually

25qF to 40qF), seemed unrelated to sprinkling practices. Staining in lumber piles amounted to <2% of 

board footage. In some cases, more stain developed in

lumber than in decked logs. Total downgrade by blue

stain in both logs and piled lumber was greatest in logs

sprinkled the least (34 min. ìspray-offî period); 5.7% 

downgrade and a loss of $11.75 per thousand board 

feet. No loss resulted when logs were sprayed 6 min

on, 6 off, but absence of stain in that piled lumber

probably occurred by chance. Less than half the

stained surfaced lumber was actually downgraded, except if sprays were off 34 min.

Ostaff, D.; Shields, J.K. 1978. Reduction of losses to logs

and lumber caused by wood-boring insects. Inf. Rep. OPñXñ

218. Ottawa, ON: Canada Forest Products Research Laboratory. Eastern Forest Products Laboratory. 15 p. 

Rice, J.A.; Anderson, H.W.; Nyland, R.D.; Dey, D.C., 

eds. 1994. Logging damage: the problems and practical

solutions. Forest Research Inf. Pap. 117. Sault Ste. Marie,

ON: Ontario Forest Research Institute. 70 p.

Scheffer, T.C. 1969. Protecting stored logs and pulpwood in

North America. Material und Organismen. 167ñ199. 

Debarking, Chipping, Hogging

and Grinding 

Host, J.R. 1970. Portable debarking and chipping machines

can improve forest practices. Res. Note INTñ112. Ogden, 

Utah: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 4 p. 

Use of portable debarking and chipping machines may

be a suitable means of disposing thinnings, defective

overmature trees, and logging residues. Trial chipping

under five different field conditions produced chips 

suitable for pulping. Chip output per day varied considerably, depending upon the size of the average 

piece, stand volume per acre, and upon skidding conditions.

Pottie, M. 1981. A way to make pulp chips from logging

debris using a small drum debarker. FERIC Tech. Note

TNñ49. Pointe Claire, QC: Forest Engineering Research

Institute of Canada 18 p.

Thompson, M.A.; Sturos, J.A. 1991. Performance of a 

portable chain flail delimber/debarker processing northern

hardwoods. Res. Pap. NCñ297. St. Paul, MN: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, North Central Forest 

Experiment Station. 14 p. 

Whole-tree chipping in the woods is a cost-effective

method of producing chips for the forest products industry. A major disadvantage of this system, however, 

is the poor chip quality that results when leaves, bark, 

branchwood, and grit are included with the chipped

stem. The chain flail delimber/debarker is a recently 

reintroduced technology being used to improve the

quality of whole-tree chips. This machine consists of

two or more parallel shafts with many chains mounted

on the periphery of integral drums. The shafts are run 

at high speed as the whole tree is passed through the

field of rotating chains. Bark and limbs are removed

by the resulting mechanical interaction. This provides

relatively clean stems to the chipper, resulting in less 

bark and grit in the furnish. An assessment of the performance and cost of flail debarking was needed to determine the viability of using this concept to improve

the quality of chips produced in the woods. A survey 

37
of roundwood chipping facilities throughout the 

southeastern United States was undertaken, and the results pertaining to information collected on drum debarkers were summarized. The survey covered 76 

roundwood chipping installations including 53 mill

yards and 23 satellite mills. Drum debarkers are summarized by features such as drum size, rotation speeds, 

and manufacturer. Southern hardwoods did not debark 

as well as pines. Drum volume had an impact on 

hardwood debarking quality. 

Twaddle, A.A.; Watson, W.F. 1992. Survey of drum debarkers in roundwood chipping yards of southeastern United

States. Tappi Journal. 75(11): 105ñ107. 

Miscellaneous

Arola, R.A.; Sturos, J.B. 1982. A portable chunking machine. Res. Note WOñ11. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 4 p. 

A prototype, portable spiral-head shearing machine,

designed to operate from the power take-off of an agricultural tractor, was fabricated. This spiral-head 

chunking concept offers an alternative to regular chipping, enhancing the prospect of using small-diameter

wood for fiber or fuel. The potential exists for producing a commercial spiral-head chunking device patterned very closely after the prototype unit. 

Bassel, J.R. 1996. Voice data logger. San Dimas, CA: U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Technology and 

Development Program. Vol. 1. 

Cahill, J.M.; Cegelka, V.S. 1989. Effects of log defects on 

lumber recovery. Res. Note PNWñRNñ479. Portland, OR:

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific 

Northwest Research Station. 10 p. 

The impact of log defects on lumber recovery and the

accuracy of cubic log scale deductions were evaluated 

from log scale and product recovery data for more

than 3,000 logs. Lumber tally loss was estimated by

comparing the lumber yield of sound logs to that of 

logs containing defects. The data were collected at 

several product recovery studies; they represent most

of the major commercial softwood species in the

Western United States. Defects listed in order of decreasing effect on lumber recovery are: multiple defects, ring shake, soft rot and voids, weather check, 

firm rot, breakage, crook and sweep, and heart check. 

The accuracy of cubic log scale deductions was also 

analyzed. The rules were considered accurate for heart 

check, breakage, and crook and sweep; they underestimated the impact of ring shake and soft rots and 

voids on lumber tally, and overestimated the impact of 

weather checks, firm rot, and multiple defects.

Copithorne, R.; Young, G.; McNeel, J. 1994. Applying

statistical quality concepts to control log value recovery. In:

Proceedings of the meeting on advanced technology in forest 

operations: applied ecology in action; 1994 July 24ñ29;

PortlandñCorvallis, OR. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State

University: 256ñ263. 

Huyler, N.K.; Turner, T.L. 1993. Quality wood from

underutilized trees. Northern Journal of Applied Forestry. 

10(2): 95ñ97. 

Stand condition and current logging practices support

the idea that improved tree utilization, yielding more

high value material, could be attained through the use 

of sawbolt marketing. However, to assess the feasibility of such marketing and utilization practices, it is 

necessary to estimate the potential volume of sawbolts 

under various cutting methods and the associated costs 

and added value of incorporating this product into the

market place. The purpose of this study was to establish preliminary estimates of sawbolt volume and quality on logging contracts in Vermont. Reported are volumes and quality of sawbolts observed at the landings

on six harvesting sites in Vermont.

LeDoux, C.B. 1988. Impact of timber production and transport costs on stand management. Res. Pap. NEñ612 Broomall, PA: Northeastern Forest Experiment Station. 5 p. 

Decisions to manage immature eastern hardwood 

stands on steep terrain must be based on an understanding of the impact of timber production costs on 

optimal rotation length and present net worth. Planners

and managers can make improved decision by knowing how the interaction of timber production and 

transportation costs affect individual stand management. Simulations with a complete systems model indicate that managers and planners must consider cable

logging technology, transportation network standards,

and transport vehicles.

McCall, J.H. 1993.In the yard: log loaders and fork lifts

cross market lines. Southern Lumberman. 254(4): 21ñ28. 

Buying heavy equipment for in-yard use requires the

commitment of a considerable amount of money, and 

mill owners, particularly those with lower profit

margins-plan carefully for the wisest use of their dollars. Does it matter whether you buy a log loader of a 

forklift? Should you buy attachments for either piece 

of equipment: Whatever your need, most industry

experts agree there is a place in the market for the

variety of equipment presently available. 

Parrish, R. 1991. The changing resource, new technology,

and market opportunities for wood products. In: Waverly, S., 

ed. Proceedings of engineered wood products, processing 

38
and design; 1991 March 26ñ27; Atlanta, GA. Atlanta, GA:

Forest Products Research Society: 1ñ8. 

Ringe, J.M.; Hoover, W.L. 1987. Value added analysis: a 

method of technological assessment in the U.S. forest products industry. Forest Products Journal. 37(11/12): 51ñ54. 

In recent decades, rising price differentials between 

timber grades, relative to structural product prices,

have reduced the profit margin on traditional conversion processes, contributing to the development of 

new technologies. Value added analysis assesses the

difference between log costs and the value of the resulting products. Assessments were projected over 

time for different log grades used to produce structural

products through alternative conversion methods. The 

results obtained indicate that resource scarcity (as reflected by log prices) provides a strong impetus for 

development and adoption of improvements in log

conversion processes. For the traditional conversion 

processes of sawing and peeling, in which product size

and quality depends on log size and quality, value

added projections decreased. Although improvements

in these processes to increase yields resulted in higher

value added figures, they still decreased with time.

The value added in producing reconstituted panels, 

where size and quality do not depend on log size and

quality, was projected to increase. Because value 

added analysis enables the identification of marginal

log grades, it shows significant potential as a tool for 

assessing resource-driven technological change. The 

difficulties involved in basing decisions on trend extrapolations, however, indicate that this technique is

most useful when incorporated in a market model containing a feedback mechanism for trend line updating.

In such an application, value added analysis can aid in 

predicting regional industry migrations caused by resource-driven technological change. 

Ross, R.J.; Green, D.W.; McDonald, K.A.; Schad, K.C.

1996. NDE of logs with longitudinal stress waves. In:

Sandoz, J.L., ed. Proceedings, 10th international symposium

on nondestructive testing of wood; 1996 August 26ñ28;

Lausanne, Switzerland. Lausanne, Switzerland: Presses 

Polytechniques et Universitaires Romandes: 117ñ123. 

Past nondestructive evaluation (NDE) research efforts

have paved the way for the successful use of NDE for determining the quality of finished wood products. However, little effort has been expended on developing NDE 

techniques for use in grading or sorting logs for internal

soundness and structural quality. We recently conducted 

a study using longitudinal stress wave NDE techniques to

evaluate the quality of approximately 193 balsam fir and 

eastern spruce logs prior to processing into lumber. Longitudinal stress wave speed was used to determine the

modulus of elasticity (MOE) for each log. The MOE of 

each piece of structural lumber cut from the logs was 

then determined using transverse vibration NDE techniques. A strong relationship was observed between the

MOE of the logs and the lumber obtained from the logs.

Schuytema, G.S.; Shankland, R.D. 1976. Effects of log

handling and storage on water quality. Cincinnati, OH: 

Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory. 75 p. 

Wong, T. 1984. Dryland sortyard illumination with the 

Vortek high intensity argon lamp. Tech. Note TNñ78.

Vancouver, BC: Forest Engineering Research Institute of 

Canada. 14 p. 

39