Final Environmental Impact 

Statement for the Revised 

Land and Resource 

Management Plan

United States

Department of

Agriculture

Forest Service

Southern Region

Management Bulletin R8-MB 114B January 2004

Cherokee National Forest
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Supervisor’s Office

P.O. Box 2010

Cleveland, TN 37320

2800 N. Ocoee Street.

Cleveland, TN 37312

Office: (423) 476-9700

Fax: (423) 339-8650

Ocoee/Hiwassee Ranger District Nolichucky/UnakaRanger District

Rt. 1, Box 348-D 4900 Asheville Highway, SR70

Benton, TN 37307 Greeneville, TN 37743

Office: (423) 338-5201 Office: (423) 638-4109

Fax: (423) 338-6577 Fax: (423) 638-6599

Tellico Ranger District Watauga Ranger District

250 Ranger Station Road P.O. Box 400 (4400 Unicoi Drive)

Tellico Plains, TN 37385 Unicoi, TN 37692

Office: (423) 253-2520 Office: (423) 735-1500

Fax: (423) 253-2804 Fax: (423) 735-7306
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 

 

Abstract

The Forest Service proposes to revise the Land and Resource Management Plan 

(1986) for the Cherokee National Forest. The proposal updates the management 

goals, objectives, standards, and monitoring requirements for the ten-year planning 

period beginning when the revised LMP is approved. Revised management direction 

is developed for all of the lands resources on the Cherokee National Forest and is 

coordinated with that of the National Forests in Alabama, Chattahoochee-Oconee 

National Forests, Jefferson National Forest in Virginia, and the Sumter National 

Forest in South Carolina. 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT I

 

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Table of Contents ............................................................................................................................................i

List of Figures ................................................................................................................................................iii

List of Tables..................................................................................................................................................iv

Chapter 1: Purpose and Need ..................................................................................................................... 1

Introduction................................................................................................................................................ 1

Proposed Action......................................................................................................................................... 2

Need to Change Forest Plans ................................................................................................................... 2

Forest Plan Decisions................................................................................................................................ 4

Forest Profile.............................................................................................................................................. 5

Public Involvement .................................................................................................................................... 7

Preliminary Issues ...................................................................................................................................10

Significant Issues.....................................................................................................................................10

Planning Process .....................................................................................................................................12

Draft EIS...................................................................................................................................................13

Planning Process Records ......................................................................................................................13

Chapter 2: Alternatives...............................................................................................................................14

Introduction..............................................................................................................................................14

Consistency Across Forests/State Lines................................................................................................14

Alternative Development.........................................................................................................................15

Consistency with Renewable Resource Planning Act............................................................................16

Alternatives Considered but Eliminated from Detailed Study...............................................................16

Alternatives Considered in Detail ...........................................................................................................20

Changes to Alternative I ..........................................................................................................................27

Comparison of Alternatives.....................................................................................................................28

Chapter 3: Affected Environment and Environmental Consequences....................................................43

Introduction..............................................................................................................................................43

Physical Elements....................................................................................................................................43

Biological Elements .................................................................................................................................91

Resource Management Programs....................................................................................................... 304

Social and Economic Environment...................................................................................................... 398

Unavoidable Adverse Effects ............................................................................................................... 432

Relationship between Short-term Uses and Long-term Productivity................................................. 433
 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

II ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

 

Irreversible/Irretrievable Commitment of Resources......................................................................... 434

Incomplete or Unavailable Information............................................................................................... 435

Environmental Justice .......................................................................................................................... 436

Chapter 4: Preparers............................................................................................................................... 437

Core Interdisciplinary Team ................................................................................................................. 437

Interdisciplinary Team Members ......................................................................................................... 437

Leadership Team.................................................................................................................................. 438

Other Specialists................................................................................................................................... 439

Chapter 5: Distribution List..................................................................................................................... 441

Individuals............................................................................................................................................. 441

Associations, Businesses, Federal Agencies, State, City, and County Agencies, and Organizations

............................................................................................................................................................... 442

Chapter 6: Glossary................................................................................................................................. 445
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT iii 

 

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1- 1. Cherokee National Forest vicinity map with Ranger Districts. 7

Figure 3-1. Fifth level watershed within the CNF 54

Figure 3-2. Total nitrogen oxide emission (tons) in 1990 and location of point sources of nitrogen 

oxides greater than or equal to 10,000 tons per year (SAMI, 2002). 82

Figure 3-3. Area that could possibly be designated nonattainment for the 8-hour ozone standard 

based upon using 1998 through 2000 data. 83

Figure 3-4. Changes in total nitrogen oxide emission (tons) in 2040 and location of point sources of 

nitrogen oxides greater than or equal to 10,000 tons in 1990 (SAMI, 2002). 83

Figure 3-5. Predicted trend acid neutralizing capacity (ANC) with implementation of current laws, 

rules, and regulations (SAMI, 2002). 84

Figure 3-6. Visual representation at Joyce Kilmer-Slickrock Wilderness using the 1988 through 1995 

IMPROVE data. The image on the left shows visibility on a low fine particle mass day (90 miles), 

while the image on the right shows a high fine particle mass day (16 miles). Relative humidity 

was set at 80 percent when using the WinHaze model. 86

Figure 3-7. Growth Curves for Southern Appalachian Site Types Showing the Difference Between the 

Highest Quality (Cove – Site 1a) and Lowest Quality (Ridge - Site IIIb) sites (Frothingham 1921). 96

Figure 3-8. Current distribution of mesic deciduous forests, south end CNF, 2002 99

Figure 3-9. Current distribution of mesic deciduous forests, north end CNF, 2002. 100

Figure 3-10. Distribution of eastern hemlock forests on the southern districts of the CNF. 111

Figure 3-11. Distribution of eastern hemlock forests on the northern districts of the CNF. 112

Figure 3-12. Current Distribution of Oak and Oak-pine forests, South end CNF, 2002. 117

Figure 3-13. Current Distribution of Oak and Oak-pine forests, North End, 2002. 118

Figure 3-14. Distribution of yellow pine forests on southern districts of the CNF 125

Figure 3-15. Distribution of yellow pine forests on the northern districts of the CNF 126

Figure 3-16. Composite map of percent forested land cover within 75,000-acre circles surrounding 

each 90-meter square grid cell on and near the northern CNF, based on 1990 National Land 

Cover Data (US EPA 2002) and CISC ownership data (USFS December 2002). 176

Figure 3-17. Relationship of variables used to rate the risk to viability resulting from a species’ 

relationship with a habitat element. 263

Figure 3-18. Applying the Scenery Management System in CNF’s Plan Revision Process 343
iv ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

 

LIST OF TABLES

Table 2-1. Management prescriptions with respective titles used in mapping each of the alternatives

..............................................................................................................................................................28

Table 2-2. Comparison of Alternatives by Prescriptions .........................................................................29

Table 2-3. Issue 1 - Terrestrial Plants and Animals and Their Associated Habitats...............................31

Table 2-4. Issue 2 – Threatened, Endangered, and Sensitive/Locally Rare Species ............................33

Table 2-5. Issue 3 – Old Growth ................................................................................................................34

Table 2-6. Issue 4 – Riparian Area Management, Water Quality, and Aquatic Habitats .......................35

Table 2-7. Issue 5 – Wood Products .........................................................................................................35

Table 2-8. Issue 6 – Aesthetics/Scenery Management...........................................................................36

Table 2-9. Issue 7 – Recreation Opportunities/Experiences...................................................................37

Table 2-10. Issue 8 – Roadless Areas and Wilderness Management ....................................................39

Table 2-11 - Issue 8 – Roadless Areas Recommended for WSAs............................................................39

Table 2-12. Issue 9 – Forest Health..........................................................................................................40

Table 2-13. Issue 10 – Special Areas and Rare Communities................................................................41

Table 2-14. Issue 11 – Wild and Scenic Rivers........................................................................................41

Table 2-15. Issue 12 – Access and Road Management..........................................................................42

Table 3-1. Hydrologic unit watersheds (8-digit sub basin) encompassing the CNF ...............................51

Table 3-2. Acreage of NFS land within 5th level watersheds....................................................................51

Table 3-3. 303d Listed Rivers within CNF.................................................................................................56

Table 3-4. 5th Level Watershed..................................................................................................................57

Table 3-5. Existing Impoundments with Adjacent CNF Lands .................................................................58

Table 3-6. Estimated Average Annual Sediment Yield (Tons) by Alternative and 10-Year Period Due to 

Timber Harvest and Prescribe Burning Treatments ..........................................................................60

Table 3-7. Estimated Percent Increases in Sediment Yield Above a Baseline Condition Due to Land 

Uses on NFS Lands Within Each 5th Level Watershed by Alternative .............................................61

Table 3-8. Estimated Percent Increase in Sediment Yield Above the Current Condition Due to Land 

Uses on NFS Lands Within Each 5th Level Watershed ......................................................................63

Table 3-9. Water Use of Counties That Contain CNF Ownership (million gallons per day) ....................71

Table 3-10. Estimated Percent Increases in Sediment Yield Above Baseline Condition Due to Land 

Uses on Public and Private Lands Within Each 5th Level Watershed...............................................72

Table 3-11. Estimated Percent Increases in Sediment Yield Above Current Condition Due to Land Uses 

on Public and Private Lands Within Each 5th Level Watershed ........................................................74

Table 3-12. Percent Forested Riparian Area (1990) by 5th Level Watershed.........................................80
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT v 

 

Table 3-13. Monitoring results for particulate matter 2.5 microns (PM2.5) and smaller in size for the 

year 1999 through 2001*..................................................................................................................87

Table 3-14. Estimated fine particulate emissions for each of the Alternatives using EPA emission 

factors (U. S. EPA, 1996).....................................................................................................................88

Table 3-15. Percentage of CNF Affected by Each Alternative..................................................................90

Table 3-16. Historic Data For Major Forest Tree Species for the Southern Appalachians. ...................92

Table 3-17. Current acreage (and percent) of mesic deciduous forest by successional class, the 

percent of total mesic deciduous forest acreage in mid-late-old successional stages, and the 

percent of total forest acres in mid- late-old successional mesic deciduous forests for the CNF, 

2002.....................................................................................................................................................98

Table 3-18. Proportion of current mid-late-old successional mesic deciduous forest in each 

successional stage option by alternative ........................................................................................ 103

Table 3-19. Expected population trend1 of the hooded warbler on the CNF under EIS alternatives 10 

and 50 years following plan adoption. Population trend estimates are based on expected trends 

in habitat quantity and quality. ........................................................................................................ 104

Table 3-20. Acres of spruce-fir forests by successional stage and percent of total forested acres, 

October 2002 ................................................................................................................................... 107

Table 3-21 Acres of eastern hemlock and white pine forests by successional stage and percent of total 

forested acres, 2002........................................................................................................................ 113

Table 3-22. Expected acres of existing white pine plantations to be restored to diverse native 

communities by alternative, 2002 .................................................................................................. 114

Table 3-23. Percent of Existing White Pine Plantations in Each Vegetation Management Level by 

Alternative......................................................................................................................................... 114

Table 3-24. Current acreage (and percent) of oak1 forest by successional class, the percent of total 

oak forest acreage in mid- and late-successional stages, and the percent of total forest acres in 

mid- to late-successional oak forests, 2002................................................................................... 116

Table 3-25. Successional stage distributions (in %) for oak and oak-pine forests across several 

ownerships in the SAA Area. ............................................................................................................ 119

Table 3-26. Expected Activity Levels related to the maintenance and restoration of oak forests by 

Alternative. ........................................................................................................................................ 120

Table 3-27. Proportion of Oak and Oak-Pine Forest in Management Opportunity Level by Alternative

........................................................................................................................................................... 121

Table 3-28. Expected population trend1 of scarlet tanager on CNF under EIS alternatives 10 and 50 

years following plan adoption. Population trend estimates are based on expected trends in 

habitat quantity and quality. ............................................................................................................ 122

Table 3-29. Current acreage of Southern Yellow Pine forest types for the CNF.................................. 124

Table 3-30. Successional stage distributions (in %) for southern yellow pine forests across several 

ownerships in the SAA Area. ............................................................................................................ 127

Table 3-31. Expected activity levels related to the maintenance and restoration of southern yellow 

pine forests on the CNF.................................................................................................................... 128

Table 3-32. Proportion of existing mid and late-successional southern yellow pine forests on the CNF 

in each management opportunity level by alternative. .................................................................. 129

Table 3-33. Expected population trend1 of pine warblers on the CNF under forest plan revision 

alternatives 10 and 50 years following plan adoption. Population trend estimates are based on 

expected trends in habitat quantity and quality. ............................................................................ 130
 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

vi ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

 

Table 3-34. Expected annual acres of maintenance and restoration activities for woodland, savanna, 

and grasslands complexes on the CNF........................................................................................... 132

Table 3-35. Expected Activity Levels related to the maintenance and restoration of Table Mountain 

pine forests for the CNF by Alternative............................................................................................ 141

Table 3-36. Proportion of existing Table Mountain pine forests on the CNF in each management 

opportunity level by alternative........................................................................................................ 141

Table 3-37. Proportion of existing Table Mountain pine-oak forests on the CNF in each management 

opportunity level by alternative........................................................................................................ 142

Table 3-38. The Distribution of Rock Outcrop and Cliff Rare Communities By State For The Southern 

Appalachian Area (after SAMAB 1996:188) ................................................................................... 148

Table 3-39. Balds and High Elevation Meadows Known to Occur on the CNF .................................... 149

Table 3-40. Forest age (years) corresponding to successional stages for each forest community type 

coinciding with CNF SPECTRUM analysis........................................................................................ 157

Table 3-41. Current acres and percentages of forested acreage by community type on the CNF in 

each successional stage by forest community type. Source: CNF GIS database, November 2002, 

sorted by Old Growth Community; Utilized in SPECTRUM modeling. ............................................ 159

Table 3-42. Targeted percentage of forested acreage in early-successional, mid- and latesuccessional, and late-successional/old growth forest by successional mix options allocated to 

NFS lands.......................................................................................................................................... 161

Table 3-43. Percent of total forest acres allocated to successional stage options 1, 2, 3, and 4, by 

alternative, and projected percentages of total forested acreage to be maintained in early 

successional forest, mid-and late-successional forest, and late-successional forest, if option 

objectives are met. ........................................................................................................................... 162

Table 3-44. Expected percent of forested acreage in early-successional forest conditions on the CNF, 

after 10 and 50 years of implementing forest plan alternatives. (derived from SPECTRUM models 

November 22, 2002) ....................................................................................................................... 163

Table 3-45. Expected percent of forested acreage in mid- and late--successional forest conditions on 

the CNF, after 10 and 50 years of implementing alternatives. (derived from SPECTRUM models 

November 22, 2002) ....................................................................................................................... 163

Table 3-46. Expected percent of forested acreage in late-successional forest on the CNF, after 10 and 

50 years of implementing alternatives. (derived from SPECTRUM models November 22, 2002)

........................................................................................................................................................... 164

Table 3-47. Expected population trend1 of prairie warbler on the CNF under each alternatives 10 and 

50 years following plan adoption. Population trend estimates are based on expected trends in 

habitat quantity and quality. ............................................................................................................ 164

Table 3-48. Expected acreage of NFS land above 3000 feet maintained in high option, early 

successional habitats by alternative for the CNF ........................................................................... 167

Table 3-49. Expected range of acres of early successional habitat over 3000 feet in elevation 

allocated to each successional stage option by alternative on the CNF....................................... 168

Table 3-50. Acres of NFS land over 3000 feet in elevation allocated to prescriptions as rated for likely 

level of vegetation management by alternative on the CNF.......................................................... 168

Table 3-51. Expected population trend1 of chestnut-sided warbler on the CNF under alternatives 10 

and 50 years following plan adoption. Population trend estimates are based on expected trends 

in habitat quantity and quality. ........................................................................................................ 169

Table 3-52. Current acreage of permanent maintained openings on the CNF ................................... 171
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT vii 

 

Table 3-53. Acres of Existing Permanent Openings in each Permanent Opening Option and Proportion 

of Total CNF Acres, by Alternative.................................................................................................... 172

Table 3-54. Percentage of mid- and late-successional mesic deciduous forest acreage allocated to 

prescription objectives for early-successional forest by alternative, CNF, 2002......................... 177

Table 3-55. Acres of mid-late successional mesic hardwood forests within forest cover contours of > 

70% forested landscape setting assigned to early successional stage options 1 (0-4% of area) or 

2 (4-10% of area), by Alternative, for the CNF, 2002..................................................................... 178

Table 3-56. Projected increase, people per square mile, from 1990 -2010 in counties in proximity to 

the CNF.............................................................................................................................................. 180

Table 3-57. Occurrence and acreage of old growth types for the CNF ................................................ 183

Table 3-58. Preliminary Old Growth Inventory ....................................................................................... 184

Table 3-59. Amount of possible old growth by old growth community type for the CNF (All Rx’s)...... 185

Table 3-60. Future Old Growth Acres by Compatible Mg.Rx ................................................................. 186

Table 3-61. Acres by OG Community by Alternative for Possible and Future OG ................................ 186

Table 3-62. Expected population trend1 of the Acadian flycatcher on the CNF under alternatives 10 

and 50 years following plan adoption. Population trend estimates are based on expected trends 

in habitat quantity and quality. ........................................................................................................ 191

Table 3-63. Expected population trend1 of pileated woodpecker on the CNF under 10 and 50 years 

following plan adoption. Population trend estimates are based on expected trends in habitat 

quantity and quality.......................................................................................................................... 195

Table 3-64. Managed aquatic habitats that occur on CNF................................................................... 196

Table 3-65. Several large rivers and reservoirs flow across or are within the CNF proclamation 

boundary. No viability goals are established for aquatic species that are dependent on these 

habitats except threatened, endangered, and sensitive species.................................................. 196

Table 3-66. Five aquatic groups have species tracked in the CNF database. Crayfish have not been 

surveyed and are not tracked but will be added in the future....................................................... 197

Table 3-67. The Watershed Condition Ranks for each of the 24 5th level watersheds evaluated is 

displayed. .......................................................................................................................................... 200

Table 3-68. The Distribution of White Fringeless Orchid (Platanthera integrilabia) Populations by State 

Throughout it’s Range. ..................................................................................................................... 210

Table 3-69. Applicable Prescriptions at Platanthera integrilabia Sites by Alternative (first prescription 

is the actual site, second prescription is the surrounding area – Rx 11 is unmapped)............... 211

Table 3-70. Acres allocated to Prescriptions with Early Successional Habitat or Timber Objectives of at 

least 8% by Alternative for the CNF ................................................................................................. 249

Table 3-71. Expected acres of unroaded habitat for forest plan alternatives on the CNF, October 30, 

2002.................................................................................................................................................. 252

Table 3-72. Forest Ranks (F Ranks) and definitions used to define status of species on the CNF as 

part of species viability evaluation for LMP, 2002. ........................................................................ 264

Table 3-73. Habitat elements and number of associated viability concern species (SA Ecoregion) 

used to plan for, and assess risk to, viability of terrestrial species during forest plan revision, CNF

........................................................................................................................................................... 265

Table 3-74. Values used to categorize projected abundance of each habitat element after 50 years of 

implementing each alternative........................................................................................................ 268
 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

viii ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

 

Table 3-75. Values used to categorize projected distribution of each habitat element after 50 years of 

implementing each alternative........................................................................................................ 269

Table 3-76. Likelihood of habitat limitation (High, Moderate, and Low) to associated species as 

derived from habitat abundance and distribution values.............................................................. 269

Table 3-77. Viability risk ratings for species/habitat interactions as a function of a species’ F Rank 

and likelihood of habitat element limitation variables................................................................... 270

Table 3-78. Values used to categorize the effect of national forest management in minimizing or 

contributing to species viability risk associated with each habitat element by alternative ......... 270

Table 3-79. Number of species/habitat relationships rated as of very high, high, and moderately high 

risk to terrestrial species viability for each habitat element by alternative .................................. 275

Table 3-80. Number of species/habitat relationships rated as of very high, high, and moderately high 

risk to terrestrial species viability for each category of management effect by alternative......... 279

Table 3-81. Number of species/habitat relationships rated as of very high, high, and moderately high 

risk to terrestrial species viability for each category of species status by alternative. ................ 281

Table 3-82. Data layers were used to display and develop stressors that caused degradation to 

aquatic habitats in the 5th level watersheds................................................................................... 283

Table 3-83. Four habitat stressors were assessed in each 5th level watershed. Those watershed 

having a high viability risk are highlighted. ..................................................................................... 284

Table 3-84. Federally threatened and endangered and CNF sensitive and locally rare aquatic species ( 

Status – E = federally listed as endangered; T = federally listed as threatened; S = CNF sensitive; 

LR = CNF locally rare) were evaluated for their sensitivity to the four stressors – sediment (S), 

point source pollution (P), temperature (T), and altered flow (A)................................................... 285

Table 3-85. All of the watersheds stressed by temperature alterations, support TES-LR aquatic 

species that are sensitive to elevated water temperatures........................................................... 287

Table 3-86. Displays acres by community type with pine component that could be harvested in the 

first period......................................................................................................................................... 289

Table 3-87. Projected harvest acres per year by Alternative ................................................................ 292

Table 3-88. Species preference for Gypsy Moth Defoliation (Fosbroke and Hicks 1989)................. 293

Table 3-89. Acres by community types most susceptible to GM damage for the CNF....................... 294

Table 3-90. Current Conditions for gypsy moth vulnerability................................................................ 294

Table 3-91. Gypsy Moth Vulnerability in year 2017 .............................................................................. 295

Table 3-92. Percent of community Acres Regenerated in first decade by Alternative........................ 297

Table 3-93. Upland hardwood acres for CNF within 4 Oak Decline Risk categories........................... 299

Table 3-94. Projected harvest acres for Oak community types, by alternative for the first planning 

period (10 years). ............................................................................................................................. 299

Table 3-95. SPB Host types by community, CISC forest types, acres, and percent of total forested 

acres for CNF .................................................................................................................................... 301

Table 3-96. Acres of proposed pine restoration/reforestation by alternative per decade ................. 302

Table 3-97. Projected harvest acres per year by Alternative ................................................................ 303

Table 3-98. Baselines for Recreation Use on CNF ................................................................................ 306

Table 3-99. Number of People (in millions) over 16 years old Participating in Recreation Activities in 

the CNF Market Area with Projected Increase over next 50 years ................................................ 306

Table 3-100. Current Distributions of ROS Classes on the CNF........................................................... 309
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT ix 

 

Table 3-101. Current Capacities of Day-Use Developed Areas on CNF ............................................... 310

Table 3-102. Current Capacities of Overnight-Use Developed Sites on CNF....................................... 310

Table 3-103. Developed Access Points for Dispersed Recreation on CNF.......................................... 311

Table 3-104. Miles of Non-Motorized Trails on CNF.............................................................................. 312

Table 3-105. Miles of Motorized Multiple Use Trails on CNF................................................................ 312

Table 3-106. Acres of Current Fish and Wildlife Habitat Emphasis Areas........................................... 312

Table 3-107. Estimated Distributions of ROS Classes by Alternative (Area presented as acres) ...... 314

Table 3-108. Estimated Increase in Capacity of Developed Recreation Areas by Alternative............ 315

Table 3-109. Estimated Increase in Non-Motorized Trails by Alternative............................................ 317

Table 3-110. Acres of Off-Highway Vehicle Use Areas, 7.C Prescription by Alternative ...................... 317

Table 3-111. Percent of Estimated Change in Motorized Trails by Alternative ................................... 317

Table 3-112. Estimated Total Acres of Big & Small Game Emphasis Areas by Alternative ................ 320

Table 3-113. Existing Designated Wildernesses ................................................................................... 321

Table 3-114. Roadless Areas studied during 1986 Planning Process................................................. 322

Table 3-115. SAA Roadless Area Inventory, CNF................................................................................... 325

Table 3-116. Forest types communities within existing wilderness areas. ......................................... 327

Table 3-117. Summary of Roadless Area Allocations by Category by Alternative ............................... 328

Table 3-118. Numbers of Areas and Acres Allocated to Recommended Wilderness Study (1.B) by 

Alternative......................................................................................................................................... 330

Table 3-119. Ecosystems represented by Wilderness or Wilderness Study Areas by Alternative...... 330

Table 3-120. Bicycle and motorized trail closures in 1.B areas by alternative ................................... 332

Table 3-121. Miles of interior roads to be closed in 1.B Areas by Alternative..................................... 332

Table 3-122. Acres of Potential Timber Management and Resource Extraction affected by 1.B Areas 

by Alternative .................................................................................................................................... 332

Table 3-123. Wildlife, Fisheries and Plants Potentially Affected by 1.B Areas, by Alternative. .......... 333

Table 3-124. Visual Quality Objectives................................................................................................... 340

Table 3-125. VQO/SIO Crosswalk........................................................................................................... 342

Table 3-126. Numbers of Special Places............................................................................................... 342

Table 3-127. SIO Acres by Alternative.................................................................................................... 344

Table 3-128. Special Areas: Scenic Areas and Scenic Byways............................................................. 349

Table 3-129. Special Areas: Appalachian National Scenic Trail.......................................................... 351

Table 3-130. Special Areas: Designated Scenic Areas, Scenic Byways and Appalachian National 

Scenic Trail, Allocations by Alternative............................................................................................ 352

Table 3-131. River Segments Studied for Wild and Scenic River Eligibility......................................... 359

Table 3-132. Prescription Allocations of Eligible/Recommended Rivers by Alternative..................... 361

Table 3-133. Total acreage by prescription and alternative in which prescribed ground-disturbing 

activities will potentially occur. ........................................................................................................ 367

Table 3-134. Comparison of Offered Timber Sales with 1986 LMP Goal (ASQ) of 34.5 MMBF ........ 374

Table 3-135. Acres sold by method of cut form FY86-2001 ................................................................ 374
 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

x ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

 

Table 3-136. Allowable Sale Quantity and Long Term Sustained Yield in MCF/Year.......................... 374

Table 3-137. Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) inventory, growth and mortality.............................. 375

Table 3-138. Total suitable acres and suitable acres with early successional objectives.................. 375

Table 3-139. ASQ and LTSYC by Alternative .......................................................................................... 376

Table 3-140. Projected acres and volume harvested for first 10 year period by alternative ............. 376

Table 3-141. Projected acres and volume harvested for first 10-year period by alternative adjusted for 

SPB mortality .................................................................................................................................... 376

Table 3-142. Percent of proposed early successional by management Prescription for first decade377

Table 3-143. Projected product harvested by percent of total harvest volume by alternative........... 377

Table 3-144. Comparison of total volume harvested from the 9 county area for the period 1989-1999 

to projected harvest volumes .......................................................................................................... 378

Table 3-145. Percent of projected harvest level for the first period versus growth from 1989-1999378

Table 3-146. Distribution of Major Special Use Permits....................................................................... 380

Table 3-147 Historical Accomplishments for the Cherokee NF............................................................ 388

Table 3-148 Fire Adapted Communities with Fire Regime Designation .............................................. 390

Table 3-149 Estimated annual prescribed fire activity by alternative: ................................................. 394

Table 3-150. Total NFSR Mileage........................................................................................................... 395

Table 3-151. Four road options would be used in the various prescription allocations ranging from 

unroaded interior to increase in open road density. Acres to which the four road options would be 

1 among the alternatives................................................................................................................. 395

Table 3-152. Miles of Timber Road Construction/Reconstruction....................................................... 397

Table 3-153 Arterial/Collector Reconstruction Non-timber Roads ...................................................... 398

Table 3-154. Minority and Percent Population Change ........................................................................ 399

Table 3-155. Population Density ............................................................................................................ 399

Table 3-156. Percentage Rural............................................................................................................... 400

Table 3-157. Per capita Income ............................................................................................................. 401

Table 3-158. Unemployment Rate ......................................................................................................... 402

Table 3-159. Poverty Rate ...................................................................................................................... 402

Table 3-160. Female Head of Households ............................................................................................ 402

Table 3-161. Density of Households...................................................................................................... 403

Table 3-162. Housing Units .................................................................................................................... 403

Table 3-163. Housing Value ................................................................................................................... 404

Table 3-164. Economic Diversity............................................................................................................ 404

Table 3-165. Economy Dynamics........................................................................................................... 406

Table 3-166. Exporting Industries .......................................................................................................... 406

Table 3-167. SHANNON-WEAVER ENTROPHY INDICIES........................................................................ 408

Table 3-168. PILT Funds......................................................................................................................... 409

Table 3-169. Land Use............................................................................................................................ 409
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT xi 

 

Table 3-170. Percentage of local residents 16 or older by personal or household characteristic for the 

CNF and the Southern Appalachian Region, 2002. ....................................................................... 414

Table 3-171. Percentage of local and regional residents 16 or older indicating the stated value is 

important (left of /) and percentage indicating extremely important (right of /) to emphasize in 

management of national forest lands, by CNF, Southern Appalachian Region and the U.S.A .... 418

Table 3-172. Employment by Program by Alternative (Average Annual, Decade 1)............................ 423

Table 3-173. Labor Income by Program by Alternative (Average Annual, Decade 1; $1,000,000)... 424

Table 3-174. Employment by Major Industry by Alternative (Average Annual, Decade 1).................. 425

Table 3-175. Labor Income by Major Industry by Alternative (Average Annual, Decade 1; $1,000,000)

........................................................................................................................................................... 426

Table 3-176. Forest Service Revenues and Payments to Counties (Annual Avg, Decade 1; 

$1,000,000) ..................................................................................................................................... 427

Table 3-177. Current Role of Forest Service-Related Contributions to the Area Economy................. 427

Table 3-178. Cumulative Decadal Present Values of Costs and Benefits in Thousands of Year 2000 

Dollars ............................................................................................................................................... 429

Table 3-179. Cumulative Economic Impacts in 2015........................................................................... 432

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 1

CHAPTER 1: PURPOSE AND NEED

INTRODUCTION

The USDA Forest Service (USDA FS) has prepared this Environmental Impact 

Statement (EIS) in compliance with the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) and 

other relevant federal and state laws and regulations. This EIS discloses the direct, 

indirect, and cumulative environmental impacts that would result from the proposed 

action and alternatives. The document is organized into five chapters: 

CHAPTER 1. PURPOSE AND NEED FOR ACTION: This chapter includes information on the 

history of the project proposal, the purpose of and need for the project, and the 

agency’s proposal for achieving that purpose and need. This section also details 

how the USDA FS informed the public of the proposal and how the public 

responded. 

CHAPTER 2. ALTERNATIVES, INCLUDING THE PROPOSED ACTION: This chapter provides a 

more detailed description of the agency’s proposed action as well as alternative 

methods for achieving the stated purpose. These alternatives were developed 

based on significant issues raised by the public and other agencies. This 

discussion also includes mitigation measures. Finally, this section provides a 

summary table of the environmental consequences associated with each 

alternative. 

CHAPTER 3. AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES: This chapter 

describes the environmental effects of implementing the proposed action and 

other alternatives. 

CHAPTER 4. PREPARERS: This chapter provides a list of preparers and agencies 

consulted during the development of the environmental impact statement. 

Chapter 5. DISTRIBUTION LIST: This is a list of individuals and organizations that 

have been sent a copy of the EIS and Revised Land and Resource Management 

Plan. 

Appendixes: The appendixes provide more detailed information to support the 

analyses presented in the EIS. 

INDEX: The index provides page numbers by document topic. Additional 

documentation, including more detailed analyses of project-area resources, may 

be found in the project planning record located at the Forest Supervisors office. 

The national forests in the southern Appalachian area have applied several efforts to 

begin their revisions. The main objective was to do the analysis leading to a proposal 

to change forest management direction. A key part of that analysis, for significant 

portions of each of the forests, has been the Southern Appalachian Assessment 
CHAPTER 1 CHEROKEE NATIOANL FOREST 

2 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

(SAA). On February 24, 1995, a Notice of Intent (NOI) was placed in the Federal 

Register (Vol. 60, No. 37) that identified the relationships between the SAA and the 

forest plan revisions of the National Forests in Alabama, Chattahoochee-Oconee 

National Forests, Cherokee National Forest, Jefferson National Forest, and Sumter 

National Forest. Since then, preparation of an Analysis of the Management Situation 

(AMS) for each forest has included updating resource inventories, defining the 

current situation, estimating supply capabilities and resource demands, evaluating 

the results of monitoring, determining the “need for change” (36 CFR 219.19(e)(5)), 

reviewing previous public comments, and participating in public meetings or other 

outreach. 

PROPOSED ACTION

The purpose of this proposed action is to revise the 1986 Cherokee Land and 

Resource Management Plan (1986 LMP). The revised LMP guides all natural 

resource management activities on the Cherokee National Forest (CNF) to meet the 

objective of federal law, regulations, and policy. The proposed action would also 

affect a wide range of socioeconomic factors as they relate to natural resources. The 

existing LMP for the CNF was approved April 1, 1986. As of September 30, 2002, 

there are 27 amendments to the existing LMP. Revision of the LMP is now needed to 

satisfy legal requirements and to address new information about the forest and 

forest uses. 

The regulations implementing the National Forest Management Act (NFMA) instruct 

the Regional Forester to make periodic revisions to the LMP and to provide the basis 

for any revision. The instructions to revise forest plans and the basis for revision, are 

found in Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) 36 CFR 219.10(g). 

The Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) describes the analysis of several 

alternatives for revising the LMP of the CNF and discloses the environmental effects 

of the alternatives. The EIS is guided by the implementing regulations of the National 

Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) found in the Council of Environmental Quality (CEQ) 

Regulations, Title 40, CFR 1500. The companion document to the EIS is the Revised 

Land and Resource Management Plan (LMP)—a detailed presentation of the selected 

alternative. 

The following section describes the need to change the 1986 LMP and presents the 

basis for the proposed changes within the context of the regulatory requirements. 

NEED TO CHANGE FOREST PLANS

The need to revise these plans is driven by the changing conditions identified in the 

SAA and in individual forest assessments, as well as the changing public values 

associated with the national forest. These conditions and values make it appropriate 

that all of these southern Appalachian LMP revisions be done simultaneously. The 

Forest and Rangeland Renewable Resources Planning Act (RPA), as amended by the 

NFMA of 1976, requires that each national forest be managed under a LMP. The 

purpose of a LMP is to provide an integrated framework for analyzing and approving 

future site-specific projects and programs. Regulations require that LMPs be revised 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 1 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 3 

on a 10-to-15-year cycle, or sooner if conditions or the areas covered by the plan 

change significantly. 

Southern Appalachian Assessment 

In the southern Appalachian area, various reports have been completed which 

provide information with regards to ecological analysis and management 

recommendations. One report is the SAA. 

Information from the previous analyses along with the individual national forests 

efforts to update their Analysis of the Management Situation (AMS), was used by the 

national forests to determine what decisions should be reanalyzed or changed in 

LMP revision. The main objective of the AMS has been to do the analysis leading to a 

proposal to change forest management direction. A key part of that analysis, for 

significant portions of each of the forests, is the SAA. 

The SAA includes National Forest System (NFS) lands and private lands in the George 

Washington and Jefferson, Nantahala and Pisgah, Cherokee, and Chattahoochee 

National Forests; and parts of the Sumter and Talladega National Forests. The SAA 

also involves the National Park Service lands in the Great Smoky Mountains National 

Park (GSMNP), Shenandoah National Park, and Blue Ridge Parkway. 

The SAA facilitated an interagency approach to assessing conditions in the southern 

Appalachian area. The SAA is organized around four themes: (1) Terrestrial 

Resources (including Forest Health and Plant and Animal Resources), (2) Aquatic 

Resources, (3) Atmospheric Resources, and (4) Social/Cultural/Economic Resources 

(which includes the Human Dimension, Roadless Areas and Wilderness, Recreation, 

and Timber Supply and Demand). The SAA is culminated in a final summary report 

and four technical reports, which are now available to the public. The SAA was 

prepared by the USDA FS (the Southern Region of the NFS and the Southern Forest 

Experiment Station) in cooperation with the other Federal and State agencies that 

are members of Southern Appalachian Man and the Biosphere (SAMAB) Cooperative. 

The SAA supports the revision of the LMP by describing how the lands, resources, 

people, and management of the national forests interrelate within the larger context 

of the southern Appalachian area. The SAA, however, is not a “decision document,” 

and it did not involve the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) process. As 

broad-scale issues were identified at the subregional level (southern Appalachian 

Mountain area) in the SAA, the individual national forest’s role in resolving these 

broad-scale issues becomes a part of the “need for change” at the forest level. 

Public involvement has been important throughout both of these processes. 

Continuing public involvement leading to formulation of alternatives for the LMP 

revision was conducted through the “scoping” period that followed the issuance on 

August 1, 1996, of the Notice of Intent (NOI). 

Analysis of the Management Situation 

The Analysis of the Management Situation for the CNF determined the need for 

revision based on results of monitoring, other policy and direction since 1986, the 

mandated five year review ((36 CFR 219.10(g)), the current condition of the 

resources, and supply and demand factors. This analysis also determined the ability 

of the planning area covered by the LMP to supply goods and services in response to 
CHAPTER 1 CHEROKEE NATIOANL FOREST 

4 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

society’s demands and provided a basis for formulating a broad range of reasonable 

alternatives. 

A summary of the major findings that reflect the need for revision of the LMP follows: 

The LMP needs to provide managers with the flexibility to determine and 

implement an appropriate suppression strategy ranging from prompt 

suppression to allowing fire to function in its natural ecological role. 

The LMP needs to address the role that the forest would play in 

wildland/urban interface fires. 

The LMP needs to develop qualitative and quantitative measures of recreation 

experiences in terms of economic values. 

The LMP needs to supply an adequate spectrum of recreation settings and 

opportunities. 

The LMP needs to provide for implementation of a comprehensive program for 

inventory of cultural resources not only qualitatively but also quantitatively. 

The LMP needs to clarify the direction of the soils program for riparian areas. 

Specifically, the interpretation of watercourse protection strip guides and 

the activities that are permitted within the watercourse protection strip. 

The LMP needs active management in various ecological communities 

utilizing appropriate silvicultural techniques to achieve forest health 

objectives while responding to commodity and other resource needs. 

The LMP needs to validate the integration of landscape data, stream and 

riparian habitat, instream biological integrity, water chemistry and stream 

classification into a system that can be used to assess overall watershed 

and stream health. 

The LMP needs an inventory of roads that are located in riparian areas. Once 

identified water quality problems associated with the roads can be 

evaluated and possible mitigation work determined. 

FOREST PLAN DECISIONS

National Forest System resource allocation and management decisions are made in 

two stages. The first stage is the LMP level decisions, which allocates lands and 

resources to various uses or conditions by establishing management areas and 

management prescriptions for the land and resources within the plan area. The 

second stage is approval of project level decisions. 

Land and Resource Management Plans do not compel the agency to undertake any 

site-specific projects; rather, they establish overall goals and objectives (or desired 

resource conditions) that the individual national forest strives to meet. Land and 

Resource Management Plans also establish limitations on what actions would be 

authorized, and what conditions would be met, during project level decision. 

The primary decisions made in a LMP include: 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 1 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 5 

Establishment of the forestwide multiple-use goals and objectives (36 CFR 

219.11(b)). 

Establishment of forestwide management requirements (36 CFR 219.13 to 

219.27). 

Establishment of multiple-use prescriptions and associated standards for 

each management area (36 CFR 219.11(c)). 

Determination of land that is suitable for timber production (16 U.S.C. 

1604(k) and 36 CFR 219.14). 

Establishment of allowable sale quantity for timber within a time frame 

specified in the plan (36 CFR 219.16). 

Establishment of monitoring and evaluation requirements (36 CFR 

219.11(d)). 

 Recommendation of roadless areas as potential wilderness areas (36 CFR 

219.17). 

Where applicable, designate lands administratively available for oil and gas 

leasing; and when appropriate, authorize the Bureau of Land Management 

(BLM) to offer specific lands for leasing (36 CFR 228.102 (d) and (e)). 

The authorization of site-specific activities within a plan area occurs through project 

decision making, which is the implementation stage of forest planning. Project level 

decision requires compliance with NEPA procedures and a determination that the 

project is consistent with the LMP. 

Supporting Environmental Impact Statements 

The following Environmental Impact Statements contain environmental analyses that 

are not repeated in this EIS, but provide supporting documentation for some of the 

forest plan decisions. 

Final Environmental Impact Statement for the Gypsy Moth Management in 

the United States: A Cooperative Approach (USDA, Forest Service and 

APHIS, Washington, DC, November 1995) 

Final Environmental Impact Statement for the Suppression of the Southern 

Pine Beetle (USDA Forest Service, Southern Region, February 1987) 

Final Environmental Impact Statement for Vegetation Management in the 

Appalachian Mountains (USDA Forest Service, Southern Region, July, 

1989) 

Final Environmental Impact Statement for Forest Service Roadless Area 

Conservation (USDA Forest Service, Washington Office, November 2000) 

FOREST PROFILE

The CNF is the largest wildlife management area and single largest tract of public 

land in Tennessee. It is the only national forest in Tennessee. The only other USDA 
CHAPTER 1 CHEROKEE NATIOANL FOREST 

6 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

FS unit in the state is Land Between the Lakes National Recreation Area located on 

the Tennessee/Kentucky border. The CNF covers approximately 640,000 acres and 

is located in ten east Tennessee counties along the border with North Carolina. In 

addition, the GSMNP divides the CNF creating a north and south end respectively 

(Figure 1). 

The Tennessee valley and surrounding southern Appalachian mountains have and 

continue to experience considerable growth in recent years. For the most part 

communities within the CNF proclamation boundary are small and rural in nature. 

Major cities adjacent to the CNF include: Johnson City, Elizabethton, Bristol, 

Kingsport, Newport, Greeneville, Knoxville, Athens, Cleveland, and Chattanooga. The 

CNF is within a day’s drive of approximately 20 million people. Interstate highways 

81 and 75 run parallel to the CNF’s western boundary from Virginia to Georgia. 

Interstate Highway 40 enters the CNF east of Newport, TN from North Carolina. 

Numerous state highways traverse the CNF at various locations. 

The CNF ranges in elevation from approximately 1,500 feet to over 5,000 feet. 

Forest canopy composition is pine and hardwood mix, with over 70 species of trees 

represented. The climate throughout the CNF is typical of the southern Appalachians 

with four distinct seasons. No one season is particularly harsh. Average rainfall is 

approximately 60-65 inches. 

The CNF is divided into four ranger districts: Ocoee-Hiwassee Ranger District and 

Tellico Ranger District located south of GSMNP, and Nolichucky-Unaka Ranger 

District and Watauga Ranger District located north of GSMNP. Each unit consists of 

approximately 160,000 acres. 

Approximately 90 developed recreation sites and more than 600 miles of trails are 

scattered throughout the CNF. Approximately 150 miles of the A.T. passes through 

the north end of the CNF. There are 66, 389 acres of Congressionally-designated 

wilderness in 11 individual areas, and 85, 195 acres of SAA-inventoried Roadless 

Areas (CNF portions). The CNF is home to 500 miles of cold-water streams, 72 

species of trees, 43 species of mammals, 55 species of amphibians and reptiles, 55 

fish species, and at least 156 species of insects. Popular recreation activities include 

hiking, camping, driving for pleasure, whitewater boating, mountain biking, hunting 

and fishing. The CNF provides all or part of the source water area for several 

community water systems. It also contains a portion of the Conasauga River 

watershed that is one of fifteen community based large scale watershed initiatives, 

that exist nation-wide. This initiative is designed to demonstrate innovative ways to 

improve watershed, forest, range, water, and habitat conditions at a river-basin scale. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 1 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 7 

Figure 1- 1. Cherokee National Forest vicinity map with Ranger Districts. 

PUBLIC INVOLVEMENT

Five National Forests in the Southern Appalachians, including the Cherokee, worked 

concurrently to revise their current Forest Land & Resource Management Plans 

(LMP). The five national forests took a consistent approach to revising their plans. 

The overall process was the same for each national forest and public participation 

activities were conducted in close coordination and similar approach. The public was 

included throughout the process. The national forests developed Alternative I, often 

referred to as a "rolling alternative." Alternative I continued to incorporate public 

comments throughout the process. Regularly scheduled planning team meetings 

were open to the public throughout the process until the release of the Draft Revised 

Pan & EIS. 

In October 1995 the Cherokee National Forest began notifying the public through a 

LMP newsletter that it would begin revising its LMP in early 1996. This newsletter 

was sent to the Forest mailing list consisting of approximately 4,200 individuals, 

groups, agencies and organizations. 

The newsletter, correspondence, news releases, meetings, and personal contacts 

have been utilized to keep the public informed and to provide them with a variety of 

opportunities to be involved with the revision process. All of the CNF planning team 

meetings were open to the public. The public had the opportunity to interact with the 

team on a regular basis. 
CHAPTER 1 CHEROKEE NATIOANL FOREST 

8 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

One of the first steps in the revision process was to analyze the current management 

situation to determine the need for change in forest management. On February 22, 

1996 a public meeting was conducted in Alcoa to provide the public the opportunity 

to discuss the AMS and the need for change. A total of 45 people attended this 

meeting. Written comments were solicited and accepted. 

Notice of Intent: 

The Notice of Intent (NOI) to begin the revision process and formal public comment 

period (scoping) was published in the Federal Register on August 2, 1996. Through 

the Federal Register, the Forest mailing list and widespread media coverage a series 

of public meetings was announced. These meetings were conducted in October 

1996 to provide information about the revision process and to solicit public 

comment. 

Initial Scoping Efforts: 

In order to provide the public with information about the scooping process and how 

to provide comment two meetings were conducted in each of the following cities: 

Elizabethton, Greeneville, Alcoa, Tellico Plains, Ducktown Cleveland, and Nashville. A 

total of 130 people attended these sessions. 

The formal public comment period was August 2 – December 2, 1996. Written public 

comments were received and logged in at the Forest Supervisor’s Office in Cleveland 

during this period. A total of 1,224 cards and letters of input were received. 

It was extremely important that all public comments received during the NOI scoping 

be carefully reviewed and analyzed. The public response analysis is defined in the 

FSM1626.05 as “the objective and systematic description of the content, nature, 

and extent of public comments transformed into data that can be summarized and 

compared.” 

Issue Development: 

A public content analysis team consisting of Forest specialists and technicians from 

various resource disciplines was assembled to read every comment and identity 

issues and concerns submitted during the initial scooping public comment period. 

The primary issues identified were used to help develop and address various 

management alternatives. The Southern Region Office worked with the five southern 

Appalachian national forests to develop a standard set of 12 common issues. 

Alternative Development: 

Initially the five southern Appalachian national forests developed four themes for 

resource management and direction. Along with the description of the current 

management situation these themes became the focal point for alternatives to be 

analyzed. 

In October and November 1999 three series of meetings were conducted in 

Etowah, Unicoi, Greeneville, Tellico Plains and Benton. The first series of 

meetings informed the public of the status of the LMP revision process and 

presented Altenative I. The second series of meetings consisted of facilitated 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 1 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 9 

group sessions. Each group identified items of concern and presented possible 

improvements to Alternative I. The final series of meetings was held to “finetune” the management alternative. A total of approximately 1,000 people 

attended these meetings.

In concert with the Regional Office and the other Appalachian national forests 

involved with revising their LMP’s two workshops were conducted in Knoxville on 

August 22, 2002. The intent was to provide the public with an update of the 

status of the revision process, provide an update of Alternative I, provide an 

opportunity for the public to meet with the planning team, and to document “red 

flag” issues in the process. A total of 81 people attended the workshops. 

The planning team reviewed the comments documented at the meetings and 

presented them to the Forest Leadership Team for consideration. It was 

determined that no issues or red flag issues were identified that had not already 

been addressed. 

Release of the Draft Revised Plan & EIS: 

The formal public comment period for the Draft Revised Plan & EIS began on March 

22, 2003 after The Notice of Availability was published in the Federal Register on 

March 21. The public comment period was March 22 – July 3, 2003. 

Copies of the Draft Revised Plan & EIS or the summary documents were mailed to 

approximately 3,500 people on the CNF mailing list. In addition, the documents were 

posted to a web site, placed in numerous public libraries, and were available upon 

request at all CNF offices. 

Public meetings (two at each location) were conducted on April 14, 2003 in 

Cleveland, TN and on April 15, 2003 in Gray, TN (Johnson City area) to provide 

general information and to explain information in the draft EIS and draft Revised 

LMP. The intent was to help reviewers understand how to use and understand the 

contents of the documents. More than 100 people attended these meetings. 

Approximately one month prior to the end of the public comment period a news 

release was issued as a reminder with information re: the comment period ending 

date, and information re: how to provide comment. In addition, a notice with similar 

information was mailed to the CNF mailing list. 

Content Analysis: 

An agency public content analysis enterprise team (CAET) based in Salt Lake City, 

Utah was used to receive and identify issues and concerns for the five southern 

Appalachian national forests involved with revising their draft LMPs & EIS’s. 

Approximately 12,000 written comments were received for the five national forests. 

Summary reports of comments received were provided to each national during the 

public comment period. At the end of the comment period a final report of all 

comments received was provided to each national forest. The Southern Region 

Office and the five southern Appalachian national forests worked together to 

determine which issues were national forest specific and which ones were multi-
CHAPTER 1 CHEROKEE NATIOANL FOREST 

10 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

forest in nature. The need to be consistent in responding to issues was a high 

priority. Each comment was grouped with similar comments/issues and addressed 

in the Final Environmental Impact Statement. 

PRELIMINARY ISSUES

Issues submitted by the public, as well as from within the USDA FS, guided the need 

to change current management strategies. The preliminary issue list, which follows, 

is the result of nine years of public response to the implementation of the 1986 plan: 

1. Biodiversity (includes fragmentation; old growth; forest type conversion; 

riparian areas; management indicator species (MIS); threatened, endangered, 

and sensitive species; and unique natural communities). 

2. Below cost sales (includes efficiency of timber sale program; rural 

development; suitability; and allowable sale quantity). 

3. Forest access (includes system roads; non-motorized trails; and fees). 

4. All-terrain vehicles. 

5. Roadless area management. 

6. Special area management (includes wilderness; rivers; important scenic and 

recreational areas; fisheries; and black bear). 

7. Aesthetics (includes user expectations). 

8. Vegetation manipulation. 

9. Resource sustainability (includes ecosystem management; extirpated species; 

soil productivity; water quality; vegetation management; herbicides; and air). 

10. Minerals. 

11. Forest health. 

12. Adequacy of revision (includes implementation and monitoring). 

13. Mix of goods and services (includes developed recreation; dispersed 

recreation; wildlife; and land ownership). 

In addition to the preliminary issues, the need for change was identified through an 

AMS. A detailed account of the public involvement process is in Appendix A, 

“Summary of Public Involvement.” 

Collectively, public comments expressed in letters and appeals and preliminary 

issues, the Chief’s directives, and concerns of USDA FS professionals are contained 

in the 12 southern Appalachian national forests issues. These issues guide the 

direction of the LMP and are a collaboration of efforts from the public, state and 

federal agencies, and national forests. 

SIGNIFICANT ISSUES

The following issues are common to the National Forests in Alabama, 

Chattahoochee-Oconee National Forests, Cherokee National Forest, Jefferson 

National Forest, and Sumter National Forest. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 1 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 11 

The issues and planning questions are summarized in the following questions, which 

were used to develop alternatives for the LMP revision process. 

1. Terrestrial Plants and Animals and Their Associated Habitats. How should 

the national forests retain or restore a diverse mix of terrestrial plant and 

animal habitat conditions, while meeting public demands for a variety of 

wildlife values and uses? 

2. Threatened, Endangered, and Sensitive/Locally Rare Species. What levels of 

management are needed to protect and recover the populations of federally 

listed threatened, endangered and proposed species? What level of 

management is needed for USDA FS sensitive and locally rare species? 

3. Old Growth. The issue surrounding old growth has several facets, including: 

(1) How much old growth is desired? (2) Where should old growth occur? (3) 

How should old growth be managed? 

4. Riparian Area Management, Water Quality and Aquatic Habitats. What are 

the desired riparian ecosystem conditions within national forests, and how will 

they be identified, maintained and/or restored? What management direction 

is needed to help ensure that the hydrologic conditions needed for the 

beneficial uses of water yielded by and flowing through National Forest 

System lands are attained? What management is needed for the 

maintenance, enhancement, or restoration of aquatic habitats? 

5. Wood Products. The issue surrounding the sustained yield production of 

wood products from national forests has several facets, including: What are 

the appropriate objectives for wood product management? Where should 

removal of wood products occur, given that this production is part of a set of 

multiple use objectives, and considering cost effectiveness? What should be 

the level of outputs of wood products? What management activities 

associated with the production of wood product are appropriate? 

6. Aesthetics/Scenery Management. The issue surrounding the management of 

the visual quality has two facets: What are the appropriate landscape 

character goals for the national forests? What should be the scenic integrity 

objectives for the national forests? 

7. Recreation Opportunities/Experiences. How should the increased demand 

for recreational opportunities and experiences be addressed on the national 

forests while protecting forest resources? This includes considering a full 

range of opportunities for developed and dispersed recreation activities 

(including such things as nature study, hunting and fishing activities, and trail 

uses). 

8. Roadless Areas and Wilderness Management. Should any of the roadless 

areas on National Forest System lands be recommended for wilderness 

designation? For any roadless areas not recommended for wilderness, how 

should they be managed? How should areas that are recommended for 

wilderness designation be managed? How should the patterns and intensity 

of use, fire, and insects and disease be managed in the existing wilderness 

areas? 
CHAPTER 1 CHEROKEE NATIOANL FOREST 

12 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

9. Forest Health. What conditions are needed to maintain forest capacity to 

function in a sustainable manner as expected or desired? Of particular 

concern are the impacts of exotic or nonnative species, and the presence of 

ecological conditions with a higher level of insect and disease susceptibility. 

10. Special Areas and Rare Communities. What special areas should be 

designated, and how should they be managed? How should rare 

communities, such as those identified in the SAA, be managed? 

11. Wild and Scenic Rivers. Which rivers are suitable for designation into the 

National Wild and Scenic Rivers System, and how should rivers that are 

eligible, but not suitable, be managed? 

12. Access and Road Management. How do we balance the rights of citizens to 

access their national forests with our responsibilities to protect and manage 

the soil and water resources, wildlife populations and habitat, aesthetics, 

forest health, and desired vegetative conditions? 

PLANNING PROCESS

Forest planning occurs within the overall framework provided by implementing the 

regulations of NFMA and NEPA. National, regional, and forest planning form an 

integrated three-level process. This process requires a continuous flow of 

information and management direction among three USDA, FS administrative levels. 

Information from forest planning flows upward to the national level for use in the RPA 

program where, in turn, information flows back to the forest level. In this structure, 

regional planning is the principal process for conveying information between forest 

and national levels. 

Planning actions required by the NFMA and used in this planning process are: 

1. Identification of issues, concerns, and opportunities 

2. Development of planning criteria 

3. Inventory of resources and data collection 

4. Analysis of the Management Situation 

5. Formulation of alternatives 

6. Estimation of effects of alternatives 

7. Evaluation of alternatives 

8. Recommendation of preferred alternative 

9. Approval and implementation 

10. Monitoring and evaluation 

The results of planning steps 1­8 are described in this document. Refer to Appendix A 

and Appendix B, “Analysis Process,” for more detail on the results of these steps. 

This document will be used in future environmental analyses through tiering. Tiering

means that environmental analyses and documents prepared for projects arising 

from the LMP will refer to the Final Environmental Impact Statement (FEIS) and LMP. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 1 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 13 

DRAFT EIS 

A draft EIS was released in February, 2003. More than 3000 copies were distributed 

for review. The review period closed in July, 2003. Comments on the draft were 

received and organized by the USDA, Forest Service, Content Analysis Enterprise 

Team in Salt Lake City, Utah. Analysis and response to comments was provided by 

the CNF planning interdisciplinary team. The responses are found in Appendix H of 

the EIS. An open house was held in Johnson City and Cleveland Tennessee during 

the review period tp provide additional access for the publc to the interdisciplinary 

team members and CNF personnel. 

PLANNING PROCESS RECORDS

The forest’s Interdisciplinary Team (IDT) is responsible for developing the revised 

LMP. Efforts were made to provide detailed explanations of each step of the revision 

in the form of process (or planning) records. This EIS contains summaries of the 

process records and includes references to the parent records. Process records are 

on file in the Forest Supervisor’s Office. To review these records, contact: 

Forest Supervisor’s Office 

PO Box 2010 

Cleveland, TN 37320 

Telephone: 423-476-9700 
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 14 

CHAPTER 2: ALTERNATIVES

INTRODUCTION

This chapter summarizes and compares the alternatives that were developed as 

potential management strategies for the CNF. It explains the alternative 

development process, provides reasons why some of these alternatives were later 

eliminated from detailed study, describes the alternatives that are considered in 

detail, and lastly compares how the alternatives respond to the significant issues 

identified in Chapter 1. 

CONSISTENCY ACROSS FORESTS/STATE LINES

In an effort to have a consistent approach to the development of revised forest plans 

across the southern Appalachian national forests, various teams were assembled 

and actions taken. In addition to the individual forest IDTs, the following teams 

comprised of individuals from the five forests worked on coordinating, developing 

and analyzing the forest plan alternatives: 

The Steering Team is comprised of the Forest Supervisors of the five national 

forests and the Director of Planning. They provided oversight and direction 

to the overall planning effort. 

The SAP (Southern Appalachian Planners) Team included the Forest Planners 

from the five national forests and the Regional Planners. This group held 

numerous meetings, most of which were open to the public, to develop and 

implement a coordinated approach to developing and analyzing the 

alternatives. 

The FWRBE (Fisheries, Wildlife, Range, Botany, and Ecology) Team was 

comprised of various specialists (wildlife, fisheries, etc.) from the forests 

and the region. This team developed a consistent approach to addressing 

those issues relating to terrestrial and aquatic species and their habitats 

including threatened, endangered, and sensitive species (TES); species of 

viability concern; and rare communities. Most of these meetings were also 

open to the public. 

The SARRWAG (Southern Appalachian Recreation, Rivers, Wilderness Advisory 

Group) included recreation specialists from the forests and the region and 

developed a consistent approach to addressing recreation-related issues, 

evaluating roadless areas, managing Wilderness areas, studying Wild and 

Scenic Rivers, and where applicable – the management of the A.T. 

The Riparian Team, comprised of hydrologists, soil scientists, and aquatic 

biologists, worked on developing a consistent approach to addressing 

water- and riparian-related issues. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 2 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 15 

In addition to the team efforts described above, some specific actions were taken to 

achieve a consistent approach to the planning process. They included: 

All the forests working on the same schedule/timeline, starting with the 

issuance of a Notice of Intent to revise the forest plans for the five forests 

(on August 2, 1996), continuing on through the publication of this 

Environmental Impact Statement, and eventually will include the 

publication of the Final Environmental Impact Statement. 

Developing a common set of significant issues, which are described in 

Chapter 1. 

Developing a common set of Management Prescriptions. A team of 

representatives from the five forests and the regional office held a series of 

meetings, some of which were open to the public, to develop a common set 

of “generic” management prescriptions. First, different “categories” of 

prescriptions were identified and then “emphasis” statements were 

developed to address the various issues. Descriptions of the “desired 

conditions” that would result from implementing the management 

prescriptions were then developed. Later, the Forest IDTs took these 

“generic” descriptions of the management prescriptions and “localized” 

them to meet local conditions. The Management Prescriptions used on the 

CNF are listed in Table 2-1. 

A coordinated approach to developing the alternatives, which is described 

below. 

ALTERNATIVE DEVELOPMENT

The alternative development process consisted of four different phases. The process 

involved a coordinated effort of the staffs of the five national forests of the southern 

Appalachian area, with frequent meetings that were open to the public. 

Phase I identified different ways the significant issues could be addressed. 

Phase II developed four alternative themes using the information developed in Phase 

I. These alternative themes were the “starting points” for developing alternatives. 

The four themes were: 

Produce high levels of goods and services compatible with local economies 

and communities. 

Priority is given to restoring natural resources and processes. 

Nature operates in conjunction with minimal human intervention. 

Provide vigorously growing trees, commercial wood products and a variety of 

wildlife habitats in a generally naturally-appearing setting. 

Phase III involved mapping the four alternative themes and “Current Direction”. The 

Phase III maps showed the land allocations, with each allocation consisting of a 

management emphasis, desired condition, and applicable management direction. 
CHAPTER 2 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

16 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

The objectives of Phase IV of the alternative development process were to analyze 

the four alternative themes to determine whether modifications were needed, 

whether other alternatives needed to be developed, and whether there were any 

areas of consensus. Public participation in both Phases III and IV was extensive and 

critically important to the overall process of developing alternatives. A description of 

public meetings and public involvement activities is available in Appendix A. 

Based on input from all five southern Appalachian national forests and the public on 

the five forests, changes were made and additional alternatives were developed to 

address a variety of issues and to provide a spectrum of alternatives to analyze and 

consider. The original four alternative themes (with some modifications) became 

Alternatives A-D, the Current Direction (No-Action) Alternative became Alternative F, 

and three new alternatives (Alternatives E, G and H) were developed. 

Later, it was decided to develop a ninth alternative (Alternative I). A set of “design 

criteria” was developed for this alternative which incorporated those parts of 

Alternatives A-H where there appeared to be some general agreement from our 

publics. Also, as a part of the design of Alternative I, it was meant to “roll” through 

different iterations of coordinating efforts with our publics. As a result of this 

development strategy, this alternative was often referred to as the “Rolling 

Alternative”. 

CONSISTENCY WITH RENEWABLE RESOURCE PLANNING ACT

National Forest Management Act regulations at 36 CFR 219.12(f)(6) require the 

LMPs to respond to and incorporate the Renewable Resource Planning Act (RPA) 

Program objectives. The last RPA Program was developed in 1995. Currently the 

Forest Service Strategic Plan (2000 Revision) provides broad overarching national 

guidance for forest planning and national objectives for the agency as required by the 

Government Performance and Results Act. All of the alternatives in this EIS 

incorporate these broad strategic objectives. 

ALTERNATIVES CONSIDERED BUT ELIMINATED FROM DETAILED STUDY

As was described above, there were originally nine different alternatives. However, 

as the planning process proceeded, it was determined that two of the alternatives 

that were developed did not need to be further evaluated in greater detail. 

Descriptions of those two alternatives and the reasons they were not studied further 

are explained below. 

Alternative C 

Alternative C would emphasize resource management with minimal human 

intervention to the natural resources. Management would be for the protection of 

resources, for meeting legal requirements, and for maintaining current recreation 

opportunities. 

Potential old-growth areas would, within a few decades, come to represent the 

majority of the forest as a result of minimal management activity. There would be no 

regular, periodic harvest of green timber; therefore, no “suitable” forest land. The 

landscape character would change, moving toward high scenic integrity. Emphasis 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 2 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 17 

would be on dispersed and non-motorized recreation opportunities. No new 

developed recreation facilities would be constructed. 

All inventoried roadless areas would be recommended for wilderness designation. 

Risk of loss of critical habitat for threatened and endangered species, danger to 

forest visitors, risk of damage to private property through Forest Service inaction, or 

introduction of an exotic pest would be considered unhealthy forest conditions 

requiring human intervention. Human intervention would also be used to maintain or 

increase existing rare communities. The majority of the eligible wild and scenic rivers 

would be recommended for inclusion to the National Wild and Scenic Rivers System. 

Roads not needed for legal requirements and other resource needs would be closed 

or obliterated. 

Reasons Alternative C Eliminated From Detailed Study 

The management prescriptions applicable to this alternative were allocated and 

mapped, and preliminary estimates of the impacts of this alternative were made. 

After considering this preliminary information, it was determined that Alternative C 

did not need to be further evaluated in detail in this EIS. The reasons are: 1) From 

further analyses it was determined that this alternative, as originally envisioned, 

would not meet all the legal requirements of the National Forest Management Act of 

1976 (NFMA), the Multiple-Use Sustained-Yield Act of 1960 (MUSYA) and the 

Endangered Species Act of 1973 (ESA); 2) Alternative C only addresses some, but not 

all, of the forest planning issues that have been identified by the public; 3) Other 

alternatives considered in detail provide for relatively low levels of management 

activities; and 4) Alternative C is similar to the “Minimum Level Benchmark” 

discussed in Appendix B. 

The 219 regulations specify that the planning team should “formulate a broad range 

of reasonable alternatives according to NEPA procedures” (36 CFR 219.12(f)). With 

respect to meeting NEPA procedures, the alternatives developed need to respond to 

the “purpose and need”. The “purpose and need” of revising the LMP is to address 

the changing conditions that were identified in the Southern Appalachian 

Assessment, the CNF Analysis of the Management Situation, and the changing public 

values as represented by the 12 common issues. Alternative C, with its emphasis on 

“minimal human intervention” would not address all these issues, and would not 

meet the “purpose and need” as required by NEPA. 

Another expression of the “purpose and need” of the LMP is in the NFMA regulations 

where it states that the “resulting plans shall provide for multiple use and sustained 

yield of goods and services from the National Forest System in a way that maximizes 

long term net public benefits in an environmentally sound manner” (36 CFR 219.1). 

The Multiple-Use Sustained Yield Act states that the Secretary of Agriculture should 

“develop and administer the renewable surface resources of the national forests for 

multiple use and sustained yield of the several products and services obtained there 

from” (Section 2). Again, with its focus on “minimal human intervention”, Alternative 

C is not an alternative that would provide “for multiple use and sustained yield of 

goods and services”. 
CHAPTER 2 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

18 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Additionally, the requirement to “maintain viable populations of existing native and 

desired non-native vertebrate species in the planning area” (36 CFR 219.19) would 

not be met. When this alternative was originally developed, it was thought that 

relatively few acres would need to be “actively managed” in order to meet this 

requirement. However, after more analysis was conducted on the habitat needs of 

various species, it was determined that there are a number of species that depend 

on ecological communities that can only be maintained by frequent levels of 

disturbance. As is explained in Chapter 3 of this EIS, a significant level of 

management is needed (at least over the next 10 to 50 years) to restore and 

maintain these disturbance-dependant communities. A certain amount of “human 

intervention” is needed to get these communities into the desired conditions of 

composition and structure, so that in the future, natural disturbances along with 

appropriate prescribed fire levels could maintain these communities. However, the 

levels of management activities that would be needed over the next 10 to 50 years to 

create these conditions would be inconsistent with the overall goal of Alternative C to 

have “minimal human intervention”. 

To further illustrate the need for a certain level of active management, Chapter 4 of 

the Southern Forest Resource Assessment (Effects of Forest Management on 

Terrestrial Ecosystems) states: 

• “The exact nature and condition of these forests and disturbance regimes are 

unknown, but the presence of large grazing herbivores and fire-adapted forest 

communities suggests that much of this forest land was relatively open and 

subject to regular disturbances” (p. 92). 

• “Today there are more forested acres in the South than in the early 1900s. 

These forests, however, are greatly altered from forests encountered by 

European settlers. ... The common theme for the last 10,000 years is that 

forests were managed to meet human needs, including those of Native 

Americans” (p. 93). 

• “We should recognize, however, that removal of all human disturbances will 

have profound effects on the region’s biota” (p. 93). 

• “To avoid regional population declines and species losses, land managers 

must have the flexibility to promote active management. This region’s biota 

does not thrive in a static system, and intentional neglect does nothing but 

promote additional extinctions and endangerment to species at risk... This 

flexibility should not extend to the other extreme of promoting intensive 

forestry for wildlife conservation, but it does suggest that some level of active 

management will be necessary to maintain many still extant but imperiled 

species, including many found on present or set-aside lands” (p. 93). 

With respect to the agency’s “Healthy Forests Initiative”, a management emphasis of 

the agency is to change the situation where forests, overloaded with fuels, are 

vulnerable to severe wildland fires. Minimizing “human intervention” would increase 

susceptibility of the forest to insect and disease outbreaks, which would create 

increased fuel-loading problems, and increase the risks to other resources and to 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 2 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 19 

adjacent private lands. Alternative C would not address these problems and areas of 

concern. 

Apart from the low levels of human intervention, the other aspects of this alternative 

such as large acreages in old-growth or late–successional conditions, maintaining 

roadless area characteristics, and providing for an emphasis on dispersed recreation 

activities, etc., are similarly represented in Alternatives E and G. 

While Alternative C would address some of the issues, there are other management 

issues that have been raised by the public that this alternative does not address. In 

addition to the forest health and wildlife habitat management concerns expressed 

above, Alternative C does not address the issue that there are demands for various 

forest products such as high-quality sawtimber, which are of limited supply from 

private lands, but are available from National Forest lands. 

Lastly, the Minimum Level Benchmark is “the minimum level of management which 

would be needed to maintain and protect the unit as part of the National Forest 

System together with associated costs and benefits” (36 CFR 219.12(e)(1)(i)). This is 

essentially the same management emphasis as Alternative C and a further 

description of this level of management can be found in Appendix B. 

As a result of all these factors, it was determined that further study of this alternative 

was not needed. 

Alternative H 

Alternative H would provide for active resource management to achieve multiple-use 

objectives with all lands classified as unsuitable for timber production. There would 

be some timber harvest, but not under a sustainable harvest schedule as is done on 

suitable forest land. The resource management activities would focus on providing a 

wide diversity of wildlife habitats. Small human-made openings would be made to 

mimic natural gap openings. Emphasis would be on forest interior species habitats 

and these areas would be managed for high to very high scenic integrity. 

Old-growth allocation and management would be primarily on lands already 

withdrawn from the suitable timber base. Restoration of degraded watersheds would 

be emphasized to improve aquatic habitats and water quality. Highways and roads in 

the forests, trail and river corridors, and recreation-use areas would have forest 

stands with few, if any, broken views to support enhancements in tourism and local, 

rural economies. Recreation areas and opportunities would be increased throughout 

a variety of settings. 

Inventoried roadless areas adjacent to existing wilderness would be recommended 

for wilderness designation. Exotic pests and/or undesirable species would be 

controlled. All wild and scenic rivers would be recommended for inclusion into the 

National Wild and Scenic Rivers System (WS&R) if they do not conflict with other 

resources. Eligible wild and scenic rivers not recommended for inclusion into the 

WS&R would be allocated to a management prescription that protects these rivers 

and manages them similarly to congressionally designated rivers. Public access 

(travelways, use corridors, waterways, and trails including off-highway vehicles) would 

be increased in high-use areas and/or improved to provide for more opportunities for 

recreation. 
CHAPTER 2 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

20 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Reasons Alternative H Eliminated From Detailed Study 

When the management prescriptions applicable to this alternative were allocated 

and mapped, there ended up being virtually no difference between this alternative 

and Alternative G. The allocations were essentially the same, and therefore, the 

environmental effects would be essentially the same. The only significant difference 

between Alternative G and Alternative H was that in Alternative G, the majority of 

those acres being managed through silvicultural harvesting methods were classified 

as acres “suitable for timber production”, while in Alternative H, those same acres 

and same management activities would be classified as “unsuited for timber 

production”. The timber harvesting levels planned for in Alternative H are close to 

the levels of harvesting planned for in Alternative G. Since the main difference is 

primarily an administrative classification change, and there would be no differences 

in the overall outputs and environmental effects, it was decided that this alternative 

did not need to be considered further in detail in this EIS. 

ALTERNATIVES CONSIDERED IN DETAIL

Alternative A 

Emphasize goods and services to local economies. 

Manage timber for sustained yield of high quality sawtimber. 

Manage wildlife for public demand game and non-game species. 

Enhance developed and dispersed recreation opportunities. 

Enhance high-quality scenery. 

Increase public access to the forest enhance recreation opportunities. 

Increase watershed restoration to improve fisheries. 

Withdraw old growth lands from the suitable land base. 

Manage vegetation actively to reduce the risk of insects and diseases. 

Alternative A would emphasize production of goods and services beneficial to local 

economies and communities. Local communities include any community that 

benefits economically from forest visitors and forest products. Timber management 

would provide sustained yield of wood products with emphasis on high-quality 

sawtimber and public-demand species including game and other species. Developed 

and dispersed recreation opportunities and high-quality scenery would be provided in 

a variety of settings both natural and managed. These would include both 

commercial recreation and increased public access. 

Restoration opportunities in watersheds would be emphasized to improve aquatic 

habitats and water quality. Old growth allocation and management would be 

primarily on lands already withdrawn (in current LMP) from the suitable timber base. 

Highways and roads in the forests, trail and river corridors, and recreation-use areas 

would have forest stands with few, if any, broken views to support enhancements in 

tourism and local, rural economies. Southern Appalachian Assessment inventoried 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 2 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 21 

roadless areas adjacent to or in close proximity to wilderness areas that are high-use 

areas also would be recommended for wilderness designation. Vegetation would be 

actively managed to reach and maintain a condition of low risk of insect and disease 

problems, especially in those areas where timber production would be the emphasis, 

or vegetation management would be permitted. Public access (travelways, use 

corridors, waterways, and trails including off-highway vehicles) would be increased in 

high-use areas and/or improved to provide for more recreation opportunities. 

This alternative responds to the President’s Healthy Forests Initiative by allowing for 

the management of forest vegetation and fuels, thus decreasing fuel-loading 

problems, the risks to other resources and to adjacent private lands and the 

potential for severe wildland fires. Prescribed fire will be utilized to reduce fuelloading and to maintain fire dependant communities. 

Alternative B 

Biologically driven to emphasize restoring the natural resources and 

processes. 

Emphasize creating and maintaining wildlife habitats. 

Mimic natural process in a natural landscape pattern. 

Create large and small openings. 

Variety of recreation opportunities available if compatible with restoration. 

Manage timber to enhance wildlife. 

Emphasize old growth with goal to create pre-settlement conditions. 

Emphasize riparian ecosystems. 

Enhance scenic qualities over time (may be short-term impacts). 

Roadless areas with high value wildlife needs are not recommended to 

wilderness. 

The role of insects and disease in ecosystem would be accepted except in 

epidemic conditions. Exotic pest would be controlled where feasible. 

Generally, amount of long-term permanent access would be reduced. Access 

in the short-term, may increase as needed to achieve management goals. 

Alternative B would be biologically driven, emphasize restoring the natural resources 

and processes, and creating and maintaining wildlife habitats. Emphasis would be 

on restoration of vegetation to potential natural vegetation (plant associations) based 

on the ecological potential and capability of the land and providing a mix of the 

wildlife habitats for game and non-game species. Restoration activities would occur 

in areas where technology is available to implement. When possible, natural 

processes would be mimicked in a natural landscape pattern. Restoration activities 

would produce both large and small openings. Long-term restoration goals would be 

established for areas where technology is not currently available or for areas where 
CHAPTER 2 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

22 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

restoration activities cannot be implemented or completed within the life of the 

revised LMP. A variety of recreation settings would occur in areas compatible with 

restoration activities and in areas non-restoration areas. Management for wood 

products would only occur in concert with restoration and creating wildlife habitats. 

Timber sales would become a by-product of restoration management and wildlife 

habitats. 

The long-term goal would be to provide old-growth conditions by old-growth 

community types within the ecological province or section similar to that existing 

before large-scale, extensive pioneer settlement and land uses. Riparian ecosystems 

would be managed to maintain water quality and aquatic ecosystems and to restore 

proper functioning condition to degraded areas. Timber production would be a result 

of management activities to restore and maintain specific impaired or degraded 

resources, natural processes, communities, and wildlife habitats. In some areas of 

the forests, scenic resources would move gradually toward high to very high scenic 

integrity. Restoration of areas would result in short-term, low to moderate scenic 

integrity but with a long-term goal of high scenic integrity. A wide variety of recreation 

opportunities would be provided. Roadless areas with identified restoration needs or 

wildlife habitat needs in conflict with wilderness designation would not be 

recommended for wilderness; other roadless areas could be recommended for 

wilderness study. The role of native insects and disease would be accepted, except 

that epidemics would be suppressed to reduce large-scale catastrophic tree 

mortality. Exotics such as beech scale, gypsy moth, hemlock woolly adelgid, 

Japanese privet, and kudzu would be controlled where feasible. Any restoration 

needs would be made compatible with W&SR classification and its outstandingly 

remarkable values. Access to degraded resources, areas in need of restoration, or 

areas where wildlife habitat needs occur could be temporarily provided to maintain or 

restore desirable ecological conditions. Access would be reduced as needed to 

restore and protect aquatic systems, soils, and plant/animal communities. 

This alternative responds to the President’s Healthy Forests Initiative by allowing for 

the management of forest vegetation and fuels, thus decreasing fuel-loading 

problems, the risks to other resources and to adjacent private lands and the 

potential for severe wildland fires. Prescribed fire will be utilized to reduce fuelloading and to maintain fire dependant communities. 

Alternative D 

All suitable lands available for sustained yield management. 

Major forest types have a specific target “rotation” age. Harvest ensures that 

forest types are harvested and replaced with a new forest. 

Forest management ensures approximate equal areas in each age class. 

Age classes are distributed across the forest in 15-40 acre blocks. 

Production of wood products and a variety of aquatic and wildlife habitats is 

emphasized. 

Provide developed and dispersed recreation opportunities. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 2 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 23 

Provide old growth forest on unsuitable lands. 

Maintain and increase forest access to facilitate alternative goal. 

Alternative D would be to reach and maintain a balanced age class. All suitable 

lands would be available for sustained-yield management. On suitable lands, each of 

the major forest groups pine, mixed, and hardwood would have a specific target 

“rotation age” or age at which it would be harvested and replaced with a new forest. 

There would be an approximately equal number of acres within each 10-year age 

class up to that rotation age. This “balance of age classes” would occur on lands 

identified as suitable and would be distributed in 15- to 40-acre blocks throughout 

the lands being managed for sustained-yield timber production. Pine, mixed, and 

hardwood forests older than the rotation age also would occur on large blocks of land 

already withdrawn from sustained-yield timber production. Production of both 

commercial wood products and a variety of aquatics/wildlife habitats would be 

emphasized. Developed and dispersed recreation opportunities would be provided in 

a variety of settings both natural and managed. Water quality and riparian areas 

would be protected through BMPs, streamside management zones, and standards 

and restored if needed. Streamside management zones would be included in the 

suitable timber base, with minimum widths based on applicable regulations. 

Large- and medium-sized blocks of old growth would be provided only on unsuitable 

land. Small blocks would occur scattered throughout the suitable lands on steep 

slopes, streamside management zones, or similar areas. The forests would appear 

highly variable in tree sizes and openings in the canopy would be seen from roadways 

and vista points. Potential for roaded natural experiences would increase as access 

roads for timber harvest are built or improved. The semi-primitive experiences would 

be primarily on unsuited lands. Only those roadless areas that are already withdrawn 

from sustained-yield timber production by Congress, the Secretary of Agriculture, or 

the Chief of the Forest Service would be recommended as wilderness. Insects, 

diseases, and exotic plant and animal species on suitable lands would be actively 

controlled and prevented where feasible. Some of the eligible wild and scenic rivers 

would be recommended for inclusion to the WS&R. Access would be developed, 

maintained, and used as needed to meet the goal of balanced age classes, wildlife 

habitats, and production of timber products. 

This alternative responds to the President’s Healthy Forests Initiative by allowing for 

the management of forest vegetation and fuels, thus decreasing fuel-loading 

problems, the risks to other resources and to adjacent private lands and the 

potential for severe wildland fires. Prescribed fire will be utilized to reduce fuelloading and to maintain fire dependant communities. 

Alternative E 

Resource management designed to attract recreation users. 

Maintain a forest canopy over most forested areas. 

Maintain large blocks of the forest in roadless condition to provide remote, 

backcountry recreation. 
CHAPTER 2 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

24 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Increase a variety of developed and dispersed recreation opportunities. 

Increase the opportunity for Off-highway vehicle (OHV) use. 

Maintain a variety of wildlife habitats across the landscape. 

Focus timber management on production of high quality large diameter trees. 

A natural setting and concentrated facilities would be provided that could attract a 

variety of recreation users. Resource management activities would be concentrated 

in certain locations and supports recreation use and visual quality. Most areas would 

maintain a forested canopy. Large blocks of the forest would be maintained in a 

roadless condition to provide remote, backcountry recreation. Dispersed and 

developed recreation areas and opportunities would be increased. A variety of 

recreation experiences would occur including concentrated use and OHV use. A 

variety of different wildlife habitats would be maintained in blocks across the 

landscape. Habitat for early successional species would be maintained in a manner 

that would be unnoticeable to most forest visitors. A substantial amount of the forest 

would be allocated to providing old growth for biological and aesthetic settings in 

large, medium, and small patches. 

Riparian ecosystems and streamside management zones would be designated, 

through allocation or standards, to provide water-quality protection and 

improvement. The overall long-term timber product objective would be largediameter and high-quality sawtimber for species capable of reaching that objective. 

Highways and roads in the forests, trail and river corridors, view sheds, and 

recreation-use areas would have forest stands with few, if any, broken views to 

support enhancements in tourism and local, rural economies. Many insect and 

disease impacts would be tolerated as part of a functioning natural ecosystem. Most 

wild and scenic rivers would be recommended for adding to the WS&R, with primary 

emphasis on protecting the resources. Public access (travelways, use corridors, 

waterways, trails including OHV) would be increased in high-use areas and/or 

improved to provide for more recreation opportunities. 

This alternative responds to the President’s Healthy Forests Initiative by allowing for 

the management of forest vegetation and fuels, thus decreasing fuel-loading 

problems, the risks to other resources and to adjacent private lands and the 

potential for severe wildland fires. Prescribed fire will be utilized to reduce fuelloading and to maintain fire dependant communities. 

Alternative F 

No Action Alternative - Current Management 

Provide for threatened, endangered, and sensitive species management 

Provide a variety of developed and dispersed recreation opportunies 

Maintain a variety of wildlife habitats across the landscape 

Riparian area management would continue with emphasis from standards 

Emphasize high quality sawtimber 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 2 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 25 

Maintaining a closed canopy would not be required 

Roadless Areas and Wilderness Areas would folllow guidance of new roads 

policy 

Protect existing rare communities 

Protect all outstandingly remarkable values for eligible rivers 

Number of open roads would remain essentially as is now. 

Alternative F would continue with current management. Timber managmenet would 

provide high quality sawtimber. Developed and dispersed recreaiton opportunities 

would be provided in a variety of settings. Roadless and wilderness areas would 

follow guidance of new roads policy. The number of open roads would remain under 

current management standards. All outstandingly remarkable values for eligible 

rivers recommended for designation under WSR would be protected. A variety of 

wildlife habitats would be maintained across the landscape. Protection of rare 

communities would continue. Species management and protection for threatened, 

endangered, and sensitive species management would continue. Riparian area 

management would continue with emphasis from standards. 

Alternative G 

Link large undisturbed areas together with corridors. 

Provide threatened and endangered (T&E) species management, species 

reintroduction and watershed restoration 

Emphasize forest interior species habitat as well as a wide variety of other 

native plants and animals, particularly late successional species. 

Emphasize nature oriented non-motorized recreation opportunities. 

Recommend roadless areas for wilderness. 

Emphasize high quality timber production outside the sensitive species 

habitat, movement corridors and large undisturbed areas. 

Accept without intervention the effects of native insects and disease. 

Use fire to restore natural ecosystem processes. 

Redude the road network. 

Maintain roadless areas as un-fragmented habitat. 

Alternative G would emphasize linking together through land allocations movement 

corridors and large undisturbed areas, T&E species, species reintroduction, and 

watershed restoration. National Forest System lands would provide habitat for forest 

interior species and a wide diversity of native plants and animals, particularly latesuccessional species. Habitats on private lands would be considered. Backcountry, 

late-successional wildlife species, and nature-oriented nonmotorized recreation 

opportunities would be emphasized. Most roadless areas would be recommended 
CHAPTER 2 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

26 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

for wilderness. Old growth restoration areas around clusters of existing old growth 

and mature forests with old growth characteristics would provide natural old growth 

dynamics across the landscape of the Southern Appalachians. High-quality timber 

would be produced in long rotations in areas outside forest interior species habitat, 

movement corridors, and large undisturbed areas and would be accessed from 

existing roads. Effects of native insects and diseases would be accepted. Emphasis 

would be on establishing a naturally resilient forest that would avoid large outbreaks 

of forest pests. Fire would be used to restore natural ecosystem processes. Road 

network mileage would be reduced through closure and obliteration of roads not 

needed for ecosystem stewardship or restoration. 

Emphasis would be on inventory, monitoring, conservation, and recovery of proposed, 

threatened, endangered, sensitive (PETS), and locally rare species. Riparian areas 

would be maintained as old growth for habitat and connectivity. Riparian area 

protection and restoration would be emphasized through watershed assessments 

and establishment of riparian corridors and reference watersheds. Naturally evolving 

and naturally appearing landscapes would be pre-dominant. Recreation would take 

place within a context set by habitat needs and ecosystem function. 

Semi-primitive, wildlife, and nature-oriented recreation opportunities would be 

emphasized. Developed facilities would occur where they do not detract from 

ecosystem function and landscape connectivity. Roadless areas would be 

maintained as un-fragmented wildlife habitat, landscape linkages, old growth 

restoration areas, wilderness designation or proposed wilderness that would 

maintain their un-fragmented habitat and ecosystem function. Exotic pests would be 

controlled by means that least impact ecosystem function and un-fragmented habitat 

across the landscape. Eligible rivers that have outstanding botanical, ecological, fish, 

aquatic, or wildlife values would be recommended for inclusion to the WS&R. 

This alternative responds to the President’s Healthy Forests Initiative by allowing for 

the management of forest vegetation and fuels, thus decreasing fuel-loading 

problems, the risks to other resources and to adjacent private lands and the 

potential for severe wildland fires. Prescribed fire will be utilized to reduce fuelloading and to maintain fire dependant communities. 

Alternative I (Selected Alternative) 

Emphasize ecosystem restoration and maintenance. 

Emphasize watershed restoration. 

Maintain and restore riparian areas. 

Emphasize sustainability of diverse ecosystems. 

Promote and maintain a variety of old growth communities. 

Prioritize maintenance of forest health. 

Provide high quality nature-based recreation opportunities. 

Emphasize non-motorized settings with natural appearing landscapes. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 2 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 27 

Reduce road system. 

Alternative I was developed with extensive public input to address the Forest 

Service’s Natural Resource Agenda (Watershed Health, Recreation, Sustainable 

Forest Ecosystem Management, and Forest Roads) and the Regional Forester’s 

Emphasis Areas (watershed health/water quality, habitat for wide-ranging species, 

T&E recovery plan, old growth, semi-primitive/remote recreation opportunities, 

roadless areas, and lands suitable for timber production). 

This alternative emphasizes the restoration and maintenance of forest ecosystems to 

provide high-quality water and diverse, resilient, self-reproducing aquatic populations. 

Riparian areas would be managed to retain, restore and/or enhance the inherent 

ecological processes and functions of the associated aquatic, riparian, and upland 

components within riparian corridors. 

Also emphasized would be the sustainability of diverse ecosystems that support 

viable plant, wildlife and fish populations including habitats for those species 

needing large contiguous forested landscapes. There would be a variety of old 

growth communities to meet biological and social needs. Forest health would be a 

priority to ensure a forest that is resistant to large-scale, catastrophic plant mortality 

from insects or disease, especially from non-native organisms. 

This alternative would provide high quality, nature-based recreation opportunities, 

emphasizing non-motorized settings with natural appearing landscapes and those 

that are not widely available on non-Federal lands. Inventoried roadless areas, 

outstandingly remarkable river values, and high scenic areas, including scenic views 

at a range of distances, would be protected. 

The USDA FS road system would be managed at the minimum level needed to 

implement this alternative and achieve the management objectives of the 

alternative. 

This alternative responds to the President’s Healthy Forests Initiative by allowing for 

the management of forest vegetation and fuels, thus decreasing fuel-loading 

problems, the risks to other resources and to adjacent private lands and the 

potential for severe wildland fires. Prescribed fire will be utilized to reduce fuelloading and to maintain fire dependant communities. 

CHANGES TO ALTERNATIVE I 

Alternative I is referred to as the “Rolling Alternative.” Alternative I was conceived 

with the intent to change in response to public comment and management concerns. 

It was presented at a number of public open houses and briefings with the intent of 

uncovering additional opportunities to address needs and concerns. Alternative I as 

presented in the draft EIS has been modified or “rolled” again as a result of public 

input and management concerns expressed during the draft review period. 

The proposed wilderness boundary involving the Big Laurel Branch Addition roadless 

area was modified in order to provide continued access to an existing powerline right 

of way. The change involved approximately 700 acres being shifted from proposed 

wilderness to either the A.T. prescription or remote backcountry prescription. 
CHAPTER 2 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

28 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Adjustments were made to the proposed wild river corridor on the Conasauga River. 

A section of the river is proposed for “wild” status and section for “scenic.” 

Objectives were added to the alternative concerning restoration of spruce-fir forest 

type restoration (100 acres) and high elevation early successional habitat (1000 

acres). 

Streamside filter zones replace streamside management zones. SFZs are a band 

around streams, lakes and other water bodies where significant disturbance is 

avoided. 

The analysis presented in this EIS represents the latest land allocation and 

forestwide desired condition, goals, objectives and standards for Alternative I. 

COMPARISON OF ALTERNATIVES

This section compares the management alternatives from several different 

perspectives. The acreage allocated to each management prescription for each 

alternative is shown. The issued identified in Chapter 1 are discussed in detail, and 

the impact of each alternative on the issue is summarized. Table 2-1 provides a 

description of the management prescriptions. Table 2-2 shows the CNF acres that 

would be allocated to each management prescription for each alternative. The 

acreage of existing designated Wilderness (Prescription 1.A) does not vary between 

the alternatives contrary to the figures in Table 2-2. Prescription allocations were 

mapped for each alternative using GIS applications. Acreage discrepancies reflect a 

margin of error created by the digital representation of conceptually based 

alternatives. Alternative F represents Wilderness acres prior to the designation of 

some existing Wildernesses. 

Table 2-1. Management prescriptions with respective titles used in mapping 

each of the alternatives 

Rx Management Prescription Title 

0 Custodial Management 

1.A. Designated Wildernesses/Wilderness Study Areas 

1.B. Recommended Wilderness Study Areas 

2.B.1 Wild Rivers 

2.B.2 Scenic Rivers 

2.B.3 Recreational Rivers 

4.A Appalachian Trail Corridor 

4.B.2 Proposed Research Natural Areas 

4.E.1 Cultural/Heritage Areas 

4.F. Scenic Areas 

5.A Administrative Sites 

5.B. Designated Communication/Electronic Sites 

6.A. Natural Process 

6.B Areas Managed to Restore/Maintain Old-Growth Characteristics 

6.C Old-Growth Areas Managed with a Mix of Natural Processes and 

Restoration Activities 

6.E. Core Areas of Old-Growth Surrounded by Areas Under Uneven-Aged 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 2 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 29 

Table 2-1. Management prescriptions with respective titles used in mapping 

each of the alternatives 

Rx Management Prescription Title 

Management 

7.A Scenic Byway Corridors 

7.B Scenic Corridors and Sensitive Viewsheds 

7.C OHV Use Areas 

7.D. Concentrated Recreation Zones 

7.E.1 Dispersed Recreation Areas 

7.E.2 Dispersed Recreation Areas with Vegetation Management 

8.A.1 Mid- to Late-Successional Forest Habitats 

8.A.2 Area-Sensitive, Mid- to Late Successional Forest Habitats 

8.B Mix of Successional Habitats –Early Successional Habitat Emphasis 

8.C Black Bear Habitat Management 

8.E.1 Ruffed Grouse Management 

9.A.1 Source Water Protection Watersheds 

9.A.2 Reference Watersheds 

9.A.3 Watershed Restoration Areas 

9.A.4 Aquatic Habitat Areas 

9.B.1 General High-Elevation Forest Habitats 

9.B.2 High-Elevation Balds 

9.C Restoration and Maintenance of Oak Forests: Maintain Existing Oak 

and Oak-Pine Mixed Stands 

9.C.1 Dry and Xeric Oak and Oak-Pine Forests 

9.E. Maintenance and Restoration of Pine and Pine-Oak Forests 

9.F. Rare Communities 

9.H Management, Maintenance, and Restoration of Plant Associations to 

their Ecological Potential 

10.A Sustained-Yield Timber Management 

10.B High-Quality Forest Products 

12.A Remote Backcountry Recreation—Few Open Roads 

12.B Remote Backcountry Recreation--Nonmotorized 

Table 2-2. Comparison of Alternatives by Prescriptions 

 Units: Acres 

Prescription Alt-A Alt-B Alt-D Alt-E Alt-F Alt-G Alt-I 

1.A 67,750 67,837 67,755 68,109 34,928 68,262 66,661

1.B 27,972 1,290 49,881 33,743 73,667 20,265

2.A.3 32,416 

2.B.1 1,253 1,253 1,253 1,253 1,110

2.B.2 1,253 51 757

2.B.3 2,579

4.A 35,574 38,137 36,458 33,425 24,078 30,747 36,076

4.B.2 608 566 575 397 397 

4.D 1,629 
CHAPTER 2 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

30 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Table 2-2. Comparison of Alternatives by Prescriptions 

 Units: Acres 

Prescription Alt-A Alt-B Alt-D Alt-E Alt-F Alt-G Alt-I 

4.E.1 290 467 1,085

4.F 11,127 17,257 9,341 17,662 11,984 17,579 20,946

4.I 4,843 4,799 4,892 

4.K 4,331 4,468 4,468 4,468 4,468 4,601

5.A 1,427 1,427 1,427 1,427 1,427 1,524

5.B 377 377 377 377 377 604

6.A 10,991 50,367 * 15,798 * 19,015 * 

6.B * * * 6,518 * 6,518 * 

6.C 2,094 * * * * * * 

6.E 7,891 * * 6,097 * 6,097 * 

7.A 37,080 6,652 35,424 40,932 58,458 17,536

7.B 1,896 11,045 14,209 223 41,441

7.C 3,472 3,472 11,139

7.D 2,019 2,652 2,019 5,515 3,256 1,845 2,043

7.E.1 184,299 11,692 

7.E.2 84,721 20,850 484 484 97,021

8.A.1 28,6284 68,091 28,999

8.A.2 19,309 9,212 

8.B 18,010 56,517

8.C 56,135 43,776 117,073 48,367 51,400 94,948

8.E.1 2,615 2,608 3,029 79,950 

9.A.1 23,858 23,858 

9.A.2 18,118 18,081 

9.A.3 86,755 154,577 34,457 

9.A.4 23,517 23,545 7,967 8,184 

9.B.1 1,114 286 

9.B.2 1,403 1,323 1,074 48 

9.C 484 

9.C.1 58,281 

9.C.2 6,189 

9.E 16,697 

9.F 9,843 9,856 9,848 9,840 6,995 6,591

9.H 26,063 125,378 72,669

10.A 45,534 273,200 98,488 

10.B 29,779 

12.A 7,841 45,525 116,859 15,714 

12.B 16,656 39,166 31,545 22,486 38,652

Total 639,774 639,755 639,731 639,796 639,847 639,745 639,958

* No allocation to old-growth management prescriptions 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 2 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 31 

Comparison Of Alternatives By Issue 

This section compares how the alternatives address the issues identified in Chapter 

1. 

Issue 1 - Terrestrial Plants and Animals and Their Associated Habitats 

In addressing this issue, management activities would strive to accomplish: 

Maintain or increase habitats for those species needing large, contiguous 

forested landscapes, and where the management of NFS lands can make a 

difference in their populations and viability. 

Provide habitat conditions necessary to maintain viable populations of all 

species native to the planning area, and to support desirable levels of 

selected species (e.g., species with special habitat needs, locally rare 

species, species commonly trapped/hunted, or species of special interest). 

Table 2-3 shows the comparison of Issue 1 by alternative. This table 

shows/describes projected successional stages for selected levels of all acres for 

Mesic Deciduous communities, high elevations, and acres with early successional 

habitat objectives, greater than four percent.This table shows that Alternatives D and 

F would provide most early successional habitat for both short and long-term 

implementation, including high-elevation early successional habitat; as well as 

highest proportion of mesic deciduous forest allocated to young age classes. 

Alternatives E and G would provide most mid- and late-successional habitat for both 

short-term and long-term. Alternatives E and G would provide most forest interior 

habitat with low early successional habitat objectives; Alternatives D and F would 

provide least. Alternatives B and F would provide highest acreage allowing new 

wildlife opening development; Alternatives D and G would be most restrictive on 

opening development. No clear trends for MIS populations are apparent across 

alternatives. 

Table 2-3. Issue 1 - Terrestrial Plants and Animals and Their Associated Habitats 

Alternative/Units of 

Comparison A B D E F G I 

Successional Forest 

Habitats Percent of Forested Acres 

Early Successional 

Habitat – 1st Decade 3 3 5 <1 5 1 3 

Early Successional 

Habitat – 5th Decade 4 4 6 <1 8 2 5 

Mid-, Late-, OldSuccessional Habitat 

–1st Decade 

83 83 81 86 81 84 83 

Mid-, Late-, OldSuccessional Habitat 

–5th Decade 

85 84 76 97 73 91 83 

Late- to Old 

Successional Habitat 

– 1st Decade 

46 46 43 48 44 47 46 

Late- to Old 

Successional Hbitat – 70 69 57 82 54 77 67 
CHAPTER 2 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

32 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Table 2-3. Issue 1 - Terrestrial Plants and Animals and Their Associated Habitats 

Alternative/Units of 

Comparison A B D E F G I 

5th Decade 

 Acres 

Acres Maintained in 

high-elevation earlysuccessional habitat 4,870 5,905 12,575 1,412 12,516 1,977 5,682 

Mid-, Late-, and OldSuccessional Mesic 

Deciduous* Forests in 

a Landscape with 

great than 70% cover 

and with Early 

Sucessoinal Habitat 

Objectives of 4-10% 

139,881 173,478 92,825 218,169 75,891 186,681 121,841 

 Percent of Forested Acres 

Proportion of Mid-, 

Late- and Old Mesic 

Deciduous* Forests 

Allocated to Mgt. 

Prescriptions with an 

Early-Sucessional 

Habitat Objective of 

greater than 4% 

28 29 63 10 68 23 50 

Permanent Openings, 

Old Fields and Balds Percent of Total Acres 

Acres in Mgt. Pres. 

Allowing New 

Permanent Openings 

60 70 32 53 62 41 56 

MIS – Community 

Indicators Trends** 

Pine warbler 1st

Decade = = ++ = ++ = + 

Pine warbler 5th

Decade = = ++ = ++ = ++ 

Acadian flycatcher 1st

Decade + + + + + + + 

Acadian flycatcher 5th

Decade ++ ++ ++ ++ + ++ ++ 

Scarlet tanager 1st

Decade = = = = = = = 

Scarlet tanager 5th

Decade + + - + - + + 

Hooded warbler 1st

Decade + + - + - + - 

Hooded warbler 5th

Decade ++ ++ -- ++ -- ++ - 

Pileated woodpecker 

1st Decade + + - + - + + 

Pileated woodpecker 

5th Decade + + - ++ - ++ + 

Praire warbler 1st

Decade = = + - + - = 

Praire warbler 5th

Decade = = + - ++ - = 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 2 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 33 

Table 2-3. Issue 1 - Terrestrial Plants and Animals and Their Associated Habitats 

Alternative/Units of 

Comparison A B D E F G I 

Chestnut-sided 

warbler 1st Decade = = + - + - = 

Chestnut-sided 

warbler 5th Decade = = ++ - ++ - = 

*Includes CISC Forest Types 13, 41, 46, 50, 51, 53-56, 58, 61-65, 68, 69, 72, 75 

**Population trend expressed as expected change from current levels: 

“++” relatively large increase; “+” increase; “=” little to no change; “-“ decrease; 

“—“relatively large decrease 

Issue 2 - Threatened, Endangered, and Sensitive/Locally Rare Species 

In addressing this issue, management activities would strive to accomplish: 

Conserve and recover threatened, endangered, and sensitive species and 

their habitats. 

Table 2-4 shows the comparison of Issue 2 by alternative. This table shows that 

Alternatives D and F would result in highest number of species/ habitat relationships 

at risk, and Alternatives B and A would result in lowest number of species/ habitat 

relationships at risk. Numbers do not reflect the ability to mitigate these effects 

through management. The number of species relative to the number of watersheds 

for aquatic species does not vary by alternative. For a thorough comparison see the 

Terrestrial Viability Section an Aquatic Viability Section in Chapter 3. 

Table 2-4. Issue 2 – Threatened, Endangered, and Sensitive/Locally Rare Species 

Alternative/Units of Comparison A B D E F G I 

Total Terrestrial Species Status Categories Number of Species/Habitat 

Relationships 

Species/Habitat Relationships Rated as Very High 

Risk 156 139 175 158 231 158 139 

Species/Habitat Relationships Rated as High Risk 172 179 225 173 166 173 210 

Species/Habitat Relationships Rated as Moderately 

High Risk 221 223 205 219 209 219 219 

Total 549 541 605 550 606 550 568 

Issue 3 - Old Growth 

In addressing this issue, management activities would strive to accomplish: 

A variety of large, medium, and small old growth patches will be managed 

(through restoration, protection, or maintenance activities) to meet 

biological and social needs. These patches could include stands of either 

"existing old growth" or "future old growth". 

For biological needs there are no known species or species groups identified 

as being obligate to old-growth forest communities. However, old-growth 

forest communities may serve as optimal habitat for some species 

associates. Much is still not known about species associated with old 

growth. To provide for these unknowns, the argument to provide 
CHAPTER 2 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

34 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

representative old-growth forest communities in order to maintain all 

components of the system has merit. The approach of providing a 

representation of different old-growth forest communities will help to 

address overall biological diversity goals and to provide a biological safety 

net. 

For social needs old-growth provides for recreation opportunities, research 

and science, education, and cultural and spiritual values. 

Table 2-5 shows the comparison of Issue 3 by alternative. This table 

shows/describes acres of allocated old growth and future old growth by alternative. 

Future old growth includes all lands in old growth compatible management 

prescriptions, riparian area and unsuitable lands within suitable management 

prescriptions. Some of the lands included in the future old growth category will need 

to be examined to determine if they are appropriate for management as old growth. 

The amount of existing old growth on the CNF is not known at this time, but is 

anticipated to be low.

Table 2-5. Issue 3 – Old Growth 

Alternative/Units of Comparison A B D E F G I 

Old Growth Acres in Thousands 

Acres of Existing Old Growth Protected 0 0 0 0 N/A 0 0 

Acres of Allocated Old Growth (Rx 6’s) 21 50 0 28 N/A 32 0 

Total Acres Future Old Growth 385 373 320 528 N/A 467 359 

Issue 4 - Riparian Area Management, Water Quality, and Aquatic 

Habitats 

In addressing this issue, management activities would strive to accomplish: 

Watersheds are managed (and where necessary restored) to provide resilient 

and stable conditions to ensure the quality and quantity of water necessary 

to protect ecological functions and support intended beneficial water uses. 

Riparian ecosystems, wetlands and aquatic systems are managed (and where 

necessary restored) to protect and maintain their soil, water, vegetation, 

fish and wildlife associated resources. 

Table 2-6 shows the comparison of Issue 4 by alternative. This table shows the 

average percent increase in sediment over the existing condition that would result 

from Forest Service management activities for each alternative in period 1. 

Alternative D would result in the largest percent increase (0.63%) while Alternative G 

would result in the smallest (0.30%). The table also indicates the number of forest 

acres allocated to watershed restoration prescriptions (9.A’s) by alternative.
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 2 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 35 

Table 2-6. Issue 4 – Riparian Area Management, Water Quality, and Aquatic Habitats 

Alternative/Units of Comparison A B D E F G I 

Soil and Water Percent Increase 

Average Percent Increase in 

Sediment Yields from FS Activities 

over Existing Levels for Period 1 

(Across 24 Watersheds) 

0.5 0.44 0.63 0.2 0.4 0.3 0.48 

Acres in Watershed Restoration 

Prescriptons Acres in Thousands 

Acres Allocated to Mgt. Pres. 9.A’s 152 220 8.0 34.5 0 8.2 0 

Issue 5 – Wood Products 

In addressing this issue, management activities would strive to accomplish: 

Where forest management activities are needed and appropriate to achieve 

the desired composition, structure, and function of forest ecosystems; a 

result of such activities will also be to provide a sustainable supply of wood 

products for local needs. 

Provide supplies of those wood products where the Forest Service is in a 

unique position to make an impact on meeting the demand for those 

products. 

Table 2-7 shows the comparison of Issue 5 by alternative. This table shows acres 

suitable for timber production, Allowable Sale Quantity (ASQ), and projected sale 

quantities for first and fifth decades. 

Table 2-7. Issue 5 – Wood Products 

Alternative/Units of 

Comparison A B D E F G I 

Timber Management Acres 

Land Classified as Suitable 

for Timber Production 395,527 400,125 496,583 157,565 464,722 249,522 420,047* 

 MCF / MMBF 

Allowable Sale Quantity 

(First Decade) 36,113 38,969 67,767 8,143 71,096 19,500 39,968 

Timber Sale Program 

Quantity (Total First Decade 

36,113/ 

199 

38,969/ 

214 

67,767/ 

384 

8,143/ 

45 

71,096/ 

391 

19,500/ 

107 

39,968/ 

220 

Timber Sale Program 

Quantity (Total Fifth 

Decade) 

64,383/ 

354 

66,225/ 

364 

111,341/ 

612 

14,583/ 

80 

127,028/ 

699 

37,757/ 

208 

81,491/ 

448 

*suitable with early successional objectives is 278,849 acres 

Issue 6 - Aesthetics/Scenery Management 

In addressing this issue, management activities would strive to accomplish: 

Protect and enhance the scenic and aesthetic values of the NFS lands in the 

Southern Appalachians. 

The national forests will be managed to provide a variety of Landscape 

Character Themes with the predominant themes being Natural Appearing, 

Natural Evolving, and variations of these themes. 
CHAPTER 2 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

36 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Table 2-8 shows the comparison of Issue 6 by alternative. This table shows the 

range of Scenic Integrity Objectives (SIOs) and compares percentages across 

alternatives. SIOs are assigned by Management Prescription and define the different 

levels of acceptable alteration to the forest’s scenery. In contrast to Alternative F, all 

other alternatives would potentially increase the number of acres assigned with SIO’s 

of Very High, High, and Moderate. Scenic and aesthetic values are given the most 

protection and enhancement potential in Alternative G, with an emphasis on 

Wilderness, Wilderness study areas, remote backcountry recreation and old growth. 

Negative impacts to scenery from road construction vegetation management, insect 

and disease control, special use utility rights-of-way (ROW) and other activities would 

be the greatest in Alternative F. Alternative F also includes an SIO of Very Low on 36 

percent of the total forest acreage. 

Existing designated Wilderness is classified with an SIO of Very High and is 

considered naturally evolving. This acreage remains the same across all alternatives. 

The majority of forest acres are considered natural appearing; however, with a 

greater amount of acreage allocated to Wilderness study areas in Alternatives G, E, A, 

and I there could be a shift from natural appearing to natural evolving on 

approximately 14 percent to 23 percent of the forest. 

Table 2-8. Issue 6 – Aesthetics/Scenery Management 

Alternative/Units of Comparison A B D E F G I 

Scenic Integrity Objectives Percent of Total Forest Acres 

Very High 23 23 13 30 11 32 24 

High 25 21 27 27 14 37 23 

Moderate 41 39 31 40 13 17 34 

Low 9 16 28 < 1 26 13 19 

Very Low 36 

Note: In each alternative, approximately 1 to 3% of the total forest acres currently has no 

assigned SIO; these lands include uninventoried land acquisitions: recent A.T. acquisitions, 

tract on Starr Mountain, etc. 

Issue 7 - Recreation Opportunities/Experiences 

In addressing this issue, management activities would strive to accomplish: 

Provide a spectrum of high quality, nature-based recreation settings and 

opportunities which are not widely available on non-Federal lands. 

Strive to meet the following recreation needs within the capabilities of the 

land: 

Hiking, biking, and equestrian trail systems, especially in nonmotorized settings with high quality landscapes. (Provide separate-use 

trails where necessary to reduce user conflicts or to improve the 

quality of recreation experiences.) 

Designated OHV routes (which will occur primarily in RN1 settings). 

The high priority improvements, expansions, or additions of facilities 

providing developed recreation opportunities. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 2 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 37 

Hunting, fishing, and non-consumptive wildlife opportunities. 

Improved interpretive opportunities or other special recreation needs 

locally identified. 

The national forests will manage areas to provide for the "backcountry" (semiprimitive/remote) recreation experiences that are not available on other 

land ownerships. 

Although the opportunities for outdoor recreation are extensive and the public 

demand for these opportunities is seemingly endless, the CNF capability to 

meet these demands is neither static nor endless. Visitor preferences can 

shift over time, and both changing financial limitations and environmental 

impacts must be considered. In order to maximize value to the public with 

the limited resources available, the CNF will focus on providing those 

recreation opportunities which are unique or of exceptional long-term value 

in a manner that focuses on maximizing visitor satisfaction within financial 

and environmental limitations. 

A goal is to provide a spectrum of high quality nature-based recreation 

settings and opportunities that reflect the unique or exceptional resources 

of the CNF and the interests of the recreating public on an environmentally 

sound and financially sustainable basis. Adapt management of recreation 

facilities and opportunities as needed to shift limited resources to those 

opportunities. 

Table 2-9 shows the comparison of Issue 7 by alternative. This table shows the 

alternative distributions of the Recreation Opportunity Spectrum (ROS) across the 

CNF. Total acreage of prescription areas that emphasize recreation is also compared 

as well as estimated changes in the supply of developed recreation, motorized and 

non-motorized trails. Trends in animal species are relative to big and small game 

hunting opportunities. 

Table 2-9. Issue 7 – Recreation Opportunities/Experiences 

Issue/Units of Comparison A B D E F G I 

Recreation Opportunity 

Spectrum Acres in Thousands 

Primitive (Rx’s 1.A, 1.B, & 2.A.1) 95 68 67 117 67 140 87 

Semi-Primitive Non-Motorized 68 93 75 73 75 53 70 

Roaded Natural 2 189 198 190 195 167 237 195 

Roaded Natural 1 288 281 308 255 230 210 288 

Rural/Urban <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 

Recreation Management 

Allocations Acres in Thousands 

Acres with a Recreation 

Emphasis (Rx 7’s) 127 113 69 249 4 73 169 

Acres with a Backcountry 

Recreation Emphasis (Rx 12”s) 25 0 0 85 31 140 54 

Developed/Dispersed 

Recreation Percent Increase (Range) 

Estimated Increase in Capacity 6-25 0-5 0-5 6-25 0-5 0-5 6-25 
CHAPTER 2 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

38 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Table 2-9. Issue 7 – Recreation Opportunities/Experiences 

Issue/Units of Comparison A B D E F G I 

of Developed Recreation Areas 

Estimated Increase in NonMotorized Trails 6-25 0-5 0-5 >26 0-5 6-25 6-25 

Off-Highway Vehicle Roads and 

Trails Acres in Thousands 

Acres of Off-Highway Vehicle 

Use Areas (Rx 7.C) 3 0 0 3 <1 0 11 

 Percent Increase (Range) 

Estimated Change in Motorized 

Roads and Trails 

11-

50 Decrease 11-50 11-50 0-10 decrease 11-50 

Alternative G secures the greatest combined acreage of Primitive (P) and SemiPrimitive Non-Motorized (SPNM) recreation settings on the forest. To some extent, all 

alternatives convert a portion of the existing supply of Roaded Natural (RN1) to more 

primitive or remote ROS settings. Alternatives E, A and I provide the most similar 

distributions of ROS classes across the forest, but there are thematic differences 

between these alternatives. Alternative A is primarily focused on recreation 

development linked to commercial opportunities, so facility improvements would 

accommodate popular activities that generate money for local economics. 

Alternatives E and I would maintain and provide facilities and settings that 

accommodate a broader range of developed and dispersed recreation activities. 

Alternatives B and D would place the least emphasis on recreation in comparison to 

the other alternatives. 

Issue 8 - Roadless Areas and Wilderness Management 

In addressing this issue, management activities would strive to accomplish: 

Wilderness, roadless and other unroaded areas are managed to provide their 

full range of social and ecological benefits. 

Table 2-10 and Table 2-11 show the comparison of Issue 8 by alternative. These 

tables show how inventoried Roadless Area acreage is allocated by management 

prescriptions to Wilderness study areas or other prescriptions in which Roadless 

character is maintained. The acreage of existing Congressionally-designated 

Wilderness remains the same across all the alternatives. Inventoried Roadless Areas 

currently total approximately 85,195 acres in CNF. (This figure does not include an 

additional 2,366 contiguous acres in four Roadless Areas crossing boundaries into 

Jefferson and Pisgah National Forests, nor does it include acreage in the Pisgah NF 

portion of Bald Mountain Roadless Area that will be evaluated in a separate planning 

period.) The acres of inventoried Roadless Areas recommended for Wilderness Study 

are shown by alternative in Table 2-11 and are described by name across 

alternatives. A separate acreage figure that represents inventoried Roadless Areas 

assigned by alternative to management prescriptions where Roadless character is 

maintained (other than in Rx 1.B) is shown also in Table 2-10. The acreage total for 

Alternative F is the total of Management Area 14 acreage deferred from timber 

harvest and road construction, based on Amendment 6 of the 1986 LMP. Combining 

both WSA recommendations and other areas in which the Roadless character is 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 2 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 39 

maintained, the total acreage is greatest in Alternative G, I, and E, and lowest in 

Alternative D. 

Table 2-10. Issue 8 – Roadless Areas and Wilderness Management 

Alternative/Units of Comparison A B D E F G I 

Wilderness/Roadless Acres in Thousands 

Acres of Existing Wilderness 66.4 66.4 66.4 66.4 66.4 66.4 66.4 

Recommended for Designation as 

WSAs 27.7 1.4 0 49.2 0 73.1 19.4 

Roadless Character Maintained 30.7 45.8 13.6 30.2 46.6 11.7 62.7* 

* With Roadbuilding direction included in Rx 4.F for Management Areas 8, 12, 15. 

Table 2-11 - Issue 8 – Roadless Areas Recommended for WSAs 

Alt Roadless Areas Recommended for Designation as Wilderness Study 

Areas 

A Big Laurel Branch Addition, Joyce Kilmer-Slickrock Addition, and portions 

of Bald Mountain, Bald River Gorge Addition, Big Frog Addition, Little Frog 

Addition NE, Sampson Mountain Addition, Upper Bald River 

B Joyce Kilmer-Slickrock Addition 

D No areas recommended for WSAs 

E Bald Mountain, Bald River Gorge Addition, Big Frog Addition, Big Laurel 

Branch Addition, Devil’s Backbone, Joyce Kilmer-Slickrock Addition, Little 

Frog Addition NE, Little Frog Addition NW, Sampson Mountain Addition, 

Slide Hollow, Upper Bald River, and a portion of Flint Mill Gap 

F No areas recommended for WSAs 

G Bald River Gorge Addition, Beaverdam Creek, Big Frog Addition, Big 

Laurel Branch Addition, Brushy Ridge, Devil’s Backbone, Joyce KilmerSlickrock Addition, Little Frog Addition NE, Little Frog Addition NW, 

London Bridge Branch, Sampson Mountain Addition, Slide Hollow, Stone 

Mountain, Sycamore Creek, Upper Bald River, and portions of Bald 

Mountain, Flint Mill Gap, and Rogers Ridge 

I Big Frog Addition, Joyce Kilmer-Slickrock Addition, Little Frog Addition NE, 

Little Frog Addition NW, Sampson Mountain Addition, Upper Bald River 

and a portion of Big Laurel Branch Addition 

Issue 9 - Forest Health 

In addressing this issue, management activities would strive to accomplish: 

Forest ecosystems are managed, either through restoration or maintenance, 

to provide the desired composition (species mix), structure (age class 

distribution), function (resulting benefits), and productivity over time. 

Management activities will reduce the impacts from exotic or non-native 

invasive species. 

Table 2-12 shows the comparison of Issue 9 by alternative. This table shows of the 

management prescription on risk of damage by the associated forest health 

community. 
CHAPTER 2 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

40 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Table 2-12. Issue 9 – Forest Health 

Issue/Units 

of 

Comparison 

A B D E F G I 

Forest Health 

Concerns Ranking 

Gypsy Moth stable stable reduced increased reduced increased stable 

Southern Pine 

Beetle stable stable reduced increased reduced increased stable 

Oak Decline stable stable reduced increased reduced increased stable 

Beech Bark 

Disease none none none none none none none 

Littleleaf 

Disease N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 

Non-native 

Invasive 

Plants 

Moderate 

increase 

Moderate 

increase 

High 

increase 

Low 

increase 

High 

increase 

Low 

increase 

Moderate 

increase 

Storm 

Damage none none none none none none none 

Dogwood 

Anthracnose 

Moderate 

reduction 

Moderate 

reduction reduced Low 

reduction reduced Low reduction 

Moderate 

reduction 

Prescribed 

Fire Acres 

Estimated 

Acres 

Prescribed 

Burned 

(Total) 

16,000 16,000 16,000 10,000 16,000 16,000 20,000 

Restoration Acres 

Acres with a 

Restoration 

Emphasis 

(Rx’s 9.C, 9.D, 

9.E, 9.G, 9.H) 

17,377 114,935 0 0 0 46,093 56,737 

Issue 10 - Special Areas and Rare Communities 

In addressing this issue, management activities would strive to accomplish: 

Protect or restore the rare communities found on NFS lands. 

Those areas with special geological, paleontological, botanical, zoological, 

cultural, or heritage characteristics will be managed (or where feasible 

restored) to protect those characteristics. 

Table 2-13 shows the comparison of Issue 10 by alternative. This table shows rare 

communities will be protected across all alternatives expect for Alternative F. The 

potential acres treated vary based upon how permissive the prescription allocations 

are to those activities under each alternative. For Special Areas, this table shows the 

number of acres allocated to management prescriptions specific to the A.T., cultural 

and heritage areas, designated scenic areas, and Roan Mountain. The acreage total 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 2 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 41 

for Alternative F was based on acreage form 1986 Forest Plan for Management Area 

4 (national trails), Management Area 9 (Roan Mountain), Management Area 10 

(balds), and Management Area 11 (cultural areas), as well as current scenic area 

acreage. The number of acres where these Special Areas are managed to protect 

their unique characteristics is greatest in Alternatives I, E, B, and G, and lowest in 

Alternatives D and F. Botanical and zoological areas are addressed as Rare 

Communities. 

Table 2-13. Issue 10 – Special Areas and Rare Communities 

Issue/Units of Comparison A B D E F G I 

Special Areas Acres in Thousands 

Acres Allocated to Special Areas (RX 4’s) 57 61 51 61 48 59 62 

Rare Communities 

Rare Communities Managed According to the 

Rare Community Mgt. Pres. (9.F) Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes 

 Potential Acres Treated per Year 

Xeric pine and oak forest restored per year to 

open woodlands, savannahs, grasslands 485 485 600 520 600 485 570 

Average annual acres of table mountain pine 

forest to be restored 40 45 50 40 55 45 50 

Issue 11 - Wild and Scenic Rivers 

In addressing this issue, management activities would strive to accomplish: 

Wild, Scenic and Recreation Rivers which are designated by Congress, 

recommended for designation, or are eligible for designation, will be 

managed to protect their outstandingly remarkable values. 

Table 2-14 show the comparison of Issue 11 by alternative. This table shows the 

miles of rivers currently eligible for Wild and Scenic designation and the protection of 

their outstandingly remarkable values across alternatives. 

Table 2-14. Issue 11 – Wild and Scenic Rivers 

Alternatives/Units of Comparison A B D E F G I 

Wild and Scenic Rivers Miles 

Miles of Rivers Currently 

Designated 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

Miles of Rivers Eligible 40.6 40.6 40.6 40.6 40.6 40.6 40.6 

Miles of Rivers Managed to Protect 

their Outstanding Remarkable 

Values (ORVs) 

40.6 40.6 40.6 40.6 40.6 40.6 40.6 

 Miles of Rivers Recommended for 

W&SR Designation 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 

In Table 2-14, the miles of rivers eligible for Wild and Scenic designation only 

represent river miles located on the CNF. Under all alternatives, management 

emphasis for the eligible rivers and their corridors is focused on protection and 

enhancement of the values for which they were established, without limiting other 

uses that do not substantially interfere with public use and enjoyment of those 

values. The free flowing condition and outstandingly remarkable values (ORV’s) 
CHAPTER 2 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

42 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

determined for the eligible rivers would be protected under all alternatives regardless 

of recommendations from future suitability studies. Miles of rivers recommended for 

Wild and Scenic designation include 1.3 river miles of the Nolichucky River, which 

was recommended to Congress in 1991. 

Issue 12 - Access and Road (Travelway) Management 

In addressing this issue, management activities would strive to accomplish: 

Provide a transportation system that supplies and improves access for all 

forest road users within the capabilities of the land. 

Accelerate the pace of decommissioning unneeded roads (classified and 

unclassified). 

Provide better quality access by upgrading highly used forest roads; and any 

roads that are needed but are adversely affecting surrounding resource 

values and conditions. 

Table 2-15 shows the comparison of Issue 12 by alternative. This table compares 

acres of land allocated to the four FWRBE road options. 

Table 2-15. Issue 12 – Access and Road Management 

Alternative/Units of Comparison A B D E F G I 

Transportation System Acres in Thousands 

Construction and Reconstruction 

Prohibited 113 70 69 158 100 165 127 

Density of Open Roads and 

Motorized Trails Should Decrease 

Over Time 

181 174 149 136 0 219 122 

Density of Open Roads and 

Motorized Trails Should Remain 

Near Existing Levels 

337 390 420 334 444 254 378 

Density of Open Roads and 

Motorized Trails May Increase Over 

Time 

8 5 2 12 82 2 13 
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 43 

CHAPTER 3: AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT AND ENVIRONMENTAL 

CONSEQUENCES

INTRODUCTION

This chapter summarizes the physical, biological, social, and ecnomic environments 

of the project area and the effects of implementing each alternative on that 

environment. This chapter presents the scientific and analytical basis for the 

comparison of alternatives presented in Chapter 2, Alternative Development. 

PHYSICAL ELEMENTS

The physical environment is the non-living portion of the environment upon which the 

living organisms depend—air, soil, water, geology, and climate. This section begins 

with a description of the ecological classification of the CNF. Ecological classification 

is a system which classifies land and water at various scales through integrating 

information about climate, geology, landform, soils, water, and vegetation. This 

classification is a tool to provide a more ecological and scientific basis in land and 

resource management planning. 

Ecological classification is useful for: 

Evaluating the inherent capability of land and water resources. 

Predicting changes occurring over time. 

Evaluating effects of management. 

Allocating land to management areas. 

Selecting appropriate management indicators. 

Discussing and analyzing ecosystems and biodiversity at multiple scales. 

DESCRIPTION OF ECOLOGICAL UNITS 

The National Hierarchical Framework of Ecological Units is a classification and 

mapping system for dividing the Earth into progressively smaller areas of increasingly 

similar ecology. Ecological units are mapped based on patterns of climate, soils, air 

quality, hydrology, geology, landform and topography, potential natural communities 

and natural disturbances. 

These various components take on greater or lesser importance as the mapping 

scale changes. Conditions dominant at broad scales such as climate and geology are 

continually related to conditions more important at finer scales such as biologic 

communities and soil characteristics. Refer to the CNF web site 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

44 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

(www.southernregion.fs.fed.us/cherokee) for more information on Land Type 

Associations (LTA’s) that are located on the forest. 

The CNF generally lies within the Hot Continental Division of the Humid Temperate 

domain. Within this division, all but westernmost fringe of the south end of the CNF is 

in the Central Blue Ridge Mountain Section of the Central Appalachian Broadleaf 

Forest - Coniferous Forest – Meadow Province. The westernmost fringe of the south 

end of the CNF is located in the Sandstone hills Subsection of the Central Ridge and 

Valley Section, Eastern Broadleaf Forest Province. 

The south end of the CNF includes the Ocoee/Hiwasse and Tellico Ranger Districts 

and is underlain by metamorphic rocks and by highly deformed sedimentary rocks. 

These rock units range in age from Pre-Cambrian to Cambrian. Rocks on the CNF 

have been greatly altered by periods of metamorphism and tectonism. 

Deposits of metamorphosed slate, graywacke shale, sandstone and conglomerate 

make up the Ocoee series of Pre-Cambrian age. These Pre-Cambrian metasedimentary rocks form most of the Great Smoky Mountains and large parts on the 

south end of the CNF. Rocks of the Ocoee series have been complexly folded and 

faulted internally and have been metamorphosed to varying degrees by heat and 

pressure. The Ocoee series is extensive on the south end, where it can be divided 

into the Walden Creek Group and Great Smoky Group. A intervening belt of ranges 

form a transitional zone between the Blue Ridge and the Valley and Ridge provinces. 

It is a belt in which the linear structural pattern of the Valley and Ridge is 

predominant, but it is underlain by formations that are more characteristic of the 

Blue Ridge. The formations are part of the Conasauga and Chilhowee Groups. Rock 

Units consists of conglomerate, arkoses, shale, siltstone and quartzite. 

On the north end of the CNF, most of the Nolichucky/Unaka Ranger District falls in 

the Central Blue Ridge Mountains Subsection. However, a portion of district and most 

of the Watauga Ranger District falls within the Southern Blue Ridge Mountain 

Subsection of Blue Ridge Mountain Section of the Central Appalachian Broadleaf 

Forest - Coniferous Forest-Blue Ridge Mountain Section. 

Northern Ridge and Valley Section (Ridge and Valley Subsections) 

The Ridge and Valley sections are in the Watauga Ranger District and are 

characterized by long belts of parallel mountains and valleys, the landforms being 

closely related to the lithology and structure of the bedrock. 

The ridges consist of shale, siltstone and sandstone with the occasional rock 

outcroppings. The lower flanks and valleys are composed of deposits of limestone, 

dolomitic limestone and shale. Plunging folds, anticlines and synclines unite 

otherwise parallel ridges. Agriculture and urban areas dominate the valleys, while 

forestry is the primary use on the oak-hickory covered ridges. These Appalachian oakhickory and oak-pine forests were strongly influenced by fire prior to the 18th 

century. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 45 

Blue Ridge Mountains Section (Northern and Southern Blue Ridge Subsections) 

The Blue Ridge Mountains Section is the oldest on the CNF. These tectonic uplifted 

mountain ranges are composed of Proterozoic-Paleozoic igneous and metamorphic 

rock, forming many high gradient, deeply incised streams. These crystalline rocks are 

part of the Eastern overthrust belt which overlays the sedimentary rocks of the Valley 

and Ridge Sections. Extensive areas of metamorphosed sedimentary rocks occur on 

the western flank. Deeply weathered bedrock, called saprolite, occurs in some areas 

of the Blue Ridge. Mesic oak forests predominate, but large pockets of northern 

hardwoods and spruce-fir can also be found at the highest elevations. Ice, wind and 

fire are major natural disturbances throughout this section. 

1.0 SOILS 

1.1 Affected Environment 

Soil is a non- living system that represents a finite resource. It develops slowly from 

various parent materials and is modified by time, climate, macro- and microorganisms, vegetation and topography. Soils are complex mixtures of minerals, 

organic compounds and living organisms. The distinct surface geology and 

topography of each Ecological Section are important factors in the formation of soils 

on the forest. 

The distinct surface geology and surface topography of each section are important in 

the soil formation process on the forest. The majority of the forest lies in the Blue 

Ridge Mountains Province and the remainder either in the Central Ridge and Valley 

Subsection on the Northern Ridge and Subsection on the westernmost edge of the 

forest. 

Soils in the planning area developed under a temperature range of 4oF to 74oF, a 

rainfall range from 48 inches to 54 inches and a variety of forest vegetation. There a 

few areas at very high elevations that exceeds 70 inch rainfall. They formed in 

sandstone, phyllite, and shale parent materials that dominate the mountainous 

relief. Minor soil areas developed from other kinds of rocks, including limestone, 

granite, quartzite, gneiss, conglomerate, schist, and slate. 

Due to the great difference in slope, the kind of parent material, and the length of 

time the material has been in place, there are some differences among the soils. In 

general, soils are moderately acid to strongly acid, although some drains are slightly 

acid to medium acid. To large extent the soils of the forest are low in fertility and 

organic matter. However, a fairly large acreage of soils that is over high grade 

limestone are in coves has a relatively high and moderate to high organic matter. 

The majority of the forest is located within this section. They consists mainly of 

rugged mountainous terrain with narrow valleys and ridge tops, some narrow flood 

plains and steep side slopes. The soils are developed from sandstone, phyllite, shale, 

limestone, granite, quartzite, gneiss, conglomerate, schist and slate. They are dry to 

droughty and range in texture from to clay. These soils generally have moderate 

fertility for brose, mass and forage production; and moderate to low productivity for 

pine production; and low productivity for hardwood production. The primary 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

46 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

conditions that effect most management activities are soil erosion potential and 

steepness of slope. 

Meta-sedimentary subsection 

The majority of the Ocoee/Hiwassee and Tellico Ranger Districts are located within 

this section. The area is characterized by parallel low gently sloping valleys are 

generally dry and range in texture from loam to clay. This area similar to the Blue 

Ridge Province in productivity and soil erosion on steep slopes is still the main 

management concern. The remainder of the Districts are located in the Central Ridge 

and Valley Section. 

The majority Nolichucky/Unaka Ranger Districts are located with this section. The 

Watauga District is located partly in the Southern Blue Ridge and Northern Ridge and 

Valley Section. 

The slope range of soils on the forest is nearly level to very steep and the degree of 

erosion ranges from none to slightly eroded. The land varies in productivity from 

exceptionally good in the coves to very poor on the shallow rocky soils of the steep, 

south facing slopes. 

GEOLOGY 

The geologic setting is the foundation for a variety of ecologic elements. Geologic 

materials and geologic processes control or influence a host of ecological factors, 

such as slope aspect; slope steepness; the areal extent of landforms and associated 

vegetation; the distribution and composition of soil parent material; the structure and 

composition of vegetation; the physical character of wetlands, riparian area and 

stream substrates; the quantity and quality of stream water and ground water; and 

the natural disturbance regime. 

Surface geologic processes are an important part of the natural disturbance regime 

in the CNF. These processes include: the erosion, transport and deposition of 

sediment; mass wasting or landsliding; flooding; changes in stream channels; 

groundwater flow; the formation of caves, sinkholes and other karst features. These 

processes have been part of the natural disturbance regime in the mountains for the 

past several hundred thousand years and affect the CNF in varying degrees every 

year. 

The interaction of the surface geologic processes with the different geologic 

formations and geologic structures produced different landforms. The forest, within 

the Appalachian Highlands physiographic region, is subdivided into physiographic or 

geomorphic provinces based on landform, rock types and geologic structure. 

Ridge and Valley Geomorphic Province 

The Ridge and Valley Geomorphic Province, which is a long belt of parallel mountain 

ridges and valleys. The forest's ridges and valleys are long, linear landforms, trending 

in a northeast direction across westernmost Virginia.

Geologic forces squeezed the originally flat-lying sedimentary layers and folded them 

into a series of arches (anticlines) and troughs (synclines). Erosion of these folds over 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 47 

millions of years has produced a distinctive repeating landscape of ridges and 

valleys. Most of the CNF in this Province is located on strike ridges. 

A strike ridge is a linear, asymmetric ridge formed by the differential erosion of 

inclined Bed rock layers. One flank of the strike ridge is a steep slope cutting across 

several Bed rock layers (antidip or scarp slope). In contrast, the other side of the 

ridge is a less steep slope conforming to the slope of the underlying bedrock layer 

(dip slope). 

Resistant sandstone or conglomerate forms the top of strike ridges and much of the 

dip. Slopes In contrast, the lower flanks of the ridges are underlain by shale, and in 

some places, carbonate bedrock (limestone and dolomite). The valleys are also 

underlain by shale and carbonate bedrock. In some limestone areas, caves, 

sinkholes, and other karst features have developed. 

Blue Ridge Mountains Geomorphic Province 

The southern portion of the CNF is underlain by metamorphic rocks and by highly 

deformed sedimentary rocks. These rock units range in age from Pre-Cambrian to 

Cambrian. Rocks on the CNF have been greatly altered by periods of metamorphism 

and tectonism. 

Deposits of metamorphosed slate, graywacke shale, sandstone and conglomerate 

make up the Ocoee series of Pre-Cambrian age. These Pre-Cambrian metasedimentary rocks form most of the Great Smoky Mountains and large parts on the 

south end of the CNF. Rocks of the Ocoee series have been complexly folded and 

faulted internally and have been metamorphosed to varying degrees by heat and 

pressure. The Ocoee series is extensive on the south end, where it can be divided 

into the Walden Creek Group and Great Smoky Group. An intervening belt of ranges 

from a transitional zone between the Blue Ridge and the Valley and Ridge provinces. 

It is a belt in which the linear structural pattern of the Valley and Ridge is 

predominant, but it is underlain by formations that are more characteristic of the 

Blue Ridge. The formations are part of the Conasauga and Chilhowee Groups. Rock 

Units consists of conglomerate, arkoses, shale, siltstone and quartzite. 

The eastern portion of the CNF is located in the Blue Ridge Geomorphic Province, in 

which the northeast-trending Blue Ridge Mountains rise above the eastern border of 

the Ridge and Valley Geomorphic Province. Granite and other igneous rocks 

dominate the upper slopes of the Blue Ridge Mountains. Quartzites, sandstones, 

limestone and shales are found on many of the western slopes. 

However, most of the CNF in this Province is located not on this incised plateau 

terrain, but rather on strike or monoclinal ridges (Pine Mountain, Stone Mountain and 

Powell Mountain), more characteristic of the Ridge and Valley Province. 

In general, the CNF has not developed interpretive sites and interpretive brochures 

for geologic resources. Except for a small portion of the Upper Ocoee River. As a 

result, the public is generally unaware of these geologic resources. 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

48 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Geologic Hazards 

A geologic hazard is a natural event or condition which involves geologic processes 

that harm or interfere with human activity. Mass movement, earthquakes, flooding 

and development of Karts features are examples of geologic hazards. 

It should be noted that numerous rock units of the Ocoee Series contain 

disseminated iron sulfides, notably pyrite. Pyrite in various percentages have been 

cited on the south and southeast end of the Ocoee/Hiwasseee Ranger District and 

the north, northeast and southeast end of the Tellico Ranger District. 

Also, on the north end of the forest in the Watauga Ranger District some small 

pockets in the extreme northeast corner can be found. 

1.2 Direct/Indirect Effects 

Geologic hazards associated with these units involve chemical weathering of the 

sulfur bearing minerals upon exposure to the atmosphere and weathering process. 

Upon weathering, sulfuric acid and ferric sulfate are produced, which may enter the 

aquatic ecosystem, causing considerable increase in stream acidity. Almost every 

formation within the Great Smokey Group contains observable sulfide minerals. 

Generally, the dark colored slates and schists, which are variably distributed 

throughout the group, carry significant amounts of sulfides. 

The primary management activities that could affect the soil resource (refer to the 

Watershed Section for more information on Soil Resources (Erosion and 

Sedimentation)): 

Timber Harvest 

Site Preparation and Timber Stand Improvement 

Effects of Fire Management 

Effects of Recreation Management and Use 

Effects of Transportation System Management 

Minerals Management 

Compaction 

Soil compaction is dependent upon soil texture, soil structure, soil moisture, ground 

cover, rock content and the type of activity. Soils are most susceptible to compaction 

when moisture content is high. Fine textured soils without rock fragments are more 

at risk. Research has shown that biomass production (a measure of soil productivity) 

is reduced on compacted soils in the early stages of site recovery. Rutting, increased 

runoff, erosion and reduced root/plant growth can occur on severely compacted 

soils. Large areas of the forest have surface soil characteristics that reduce their 

susceptibility to compaction. Low clay content and high rock content of the surface 

soil layers help reduce impacts to soil productivity from compaction. If topsoil 

removal occurs, generally compaction is more likely, since the subsoil layers of many 

soils on the forest have higher clay content and have less rockiness. However, if 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 49 

topsoil removal has occurred, then soil productivity has already been reduced on the 

area. Compaction is considered a short term (less than 100 years) effect on soil 

productivity, since research has shown even severely compacted soils may recover in 

ten to sixty years where mitigation measures of tilling and reestablishing vegetation 

have been used. Depth of compaction does not usually exceed six inches with the 

kinds of equipment being used on the forest. Actions that can produce soil 

compaction associated with EIS alternatives are skid trail (unbladed access routes) 

use, dispersed recreation use, timber harvesting, and trail use. 

Land Use Change 

If a soil on the forest has the ability to produce biomass, it then has soil productivity. 

If this same soil, for example, is converted to a parking lot, building site, paved road 

or into some other use that prevents it from producing biomass, then it has lost some 

or all of its productivity for some time, probably a long time (greater than 100 years). 

Land use change is considered a long-term impact to soil productivity. 

Displacement (Topsoil Removal) 

Topsoil removal is considered a long-term effect to soil productivity because it 

involves the loss of the most fertile part of the soil. The organic layer and the Ahorizon beneath it are where most of the feeder roots are located for plants and 

where many of the macronutrients needed for soil organisms to grow are found. 

Many of the forest’s soils are formed in sandstones and shales that are naturally low 

in nutrients used by plants. Many are also acidic (low in soil pH). This means the 

upper layers of soil, where most of the organic material and microorganisms are 

found, are very important in maintaining the soil’s productivity. Many years are 

needed for the soil to recover its original productivity when the upper layers are 

removed. Soil formation typically occurs at a rate of one inch per 200-1000 years

and depends on many local environmental factors. 

However, areas where topsoil is disposed will be enriched with this added soil 

material and organic matter. Productivity on these topsoil disposal areas will be 

improved by increasing soil depth, rooting depth, moisture holding capacity and 

organic matter. Actions which can produce topsoil removal associated with LMP 

alternatives are temporary and skid road construction, log landing construction, 

developed recreation use, new trail construction and relocation, fire dozer line 

construction, special use development and wildlife opening establishment. 

Soil Improvement 

The forest works to improve soil conditions and reduce soil movement on about 40-

50 acres per year. An inventory of areas on the forest needing treatment to reduce 

soil movement, reduce compaction and increase vegetative cover is updated 

annually. Special emphasis is given to riparian areas to help reduce sediment 

delivery to stream channels, floodplains and wetlands. Some watersheds may be 

targeted for this work to tie in with large-scale watershed partnerships, special 

concerns with species habitats and public water sources. The effects of soil 

improvement will be considered a long-term positive effect on soil productivity and an 

improvement of existing soil conditions. Soil improvement work will help these 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

50 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

treated soils toward recovery of their inherent soil productivity. Actions which would 

be considered soil improvement associated with EIS alternatives would include slope 

stabilization, erosion control structures and vegetation, road and trail closure, illegal 

traffic use areas treated for compaction and erosion. 

Prescribed Fire Use 

Prescribed burning impacts soils two ways. One way the fire itself burns up portions 

of the soil’s organic layer, an important part of soil productivity. Hotter fires with large 

fuel loads will burn up more of the organic matter than cooler fires. A few soils on the 

forest, with thin organic layers, can lose their entire organic layer when a fire burns 

hot. Typically, these would be shallow, rocky soils at or near ridge tops on steep 

slopes. In most cases, on this forest, the effects of fire on the soil are a short-term 

effect. Organic layers are replenished by leaf fall and native vegetation takes 

advantage of a temporary increase in available nutrients, and an existing root system 

to recover over. 

Erosion/Soil Movement 

An indirect effect of removing a soil’s vegetative cover and its organic layer to create 

bare mineral soil is erosion, meaning soil movement. An undisturbed soil with soil 

layers intact and growing biomass is not very susceptible to erosion. When soils are 

disturbed in some way to expose bare mineral soil (A-horizon and lower), then soils 

on slopes become susceptible to raindrop impact, displacement and overland flow 

with water. These forces can cause soil to move down slope, sometimes into stream 

channels, where it then becomes sediment and is incorporated into the bed load of 

the stream channel. Exposed slopes with low clay soils and soils without many rock 

fragments are most susceptible to soil movement. 

Erosion is considered here as soil movement and not soil loss. Soil material may or 

may not move from a site or to a stream channel. Many factors influence soil 

movement and when soil moves, it is deposited somewhere. Depositional areas may 

benefit from the addition of this eroded soil. Gully erosion is the extreme case of soil 

movement and would be considered a long-term effect to soil productivity. 

Vegetation Removal/Nutrient Cycling 

When vegetation is removed from a site, a portion of the potential organic matter and 

its available nutrients to the soil is removed with it and the resulting condition of a 

reduced canopy (shade) can have an effect on soil temperature, soil moisture and 

nutrient cycling. This situation will normally occur with a timber harvest. The bole of 

the tree is removed from the site and the forest canopy opens up to allow more 

sunlight and moisture to reach the soil surface. Other parts of the tree will remain 

onsite to recycle into the soil system over time. Loss of trees will reduce 

evapotransporation and increase soil moisture. Loss of canopy will increase soil 

temperature in the topsoil. These conditions will increase soil organic matter 

decomposition and increase available nutrients on the treated area. Much of this 

increase in plant available nutrients will be taken up by the stump sprouting of 

hardwood trees and the by the root systems of the remaining vegetation on the 

treated area. Some nutrients may be leached from the site and reach local streams. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 51 

This leaching effect is short term and literature has shown that removal of the tree 

main stem alone will not reduce long-term soil productivity. These short-term losses 

are made up by leaf fall, atmospheric additions and weathering of parent material. 

Any increased leaching of nutrients from the soil would be very short term (less than 

5 years). Long-term productivity can be reduced with whole tree harvesting on short 

rotations, which is not prescribed for the CNF. 

1.3 Cumulative Effects 

There would be no known cumulative effects to soils. 

2.0 WATERSHED 

2.1 Affected Environment 

Several large rivers flow through the CNF. The following table displays the 

major river basins that encompass the CNF. 

Table 3-1. Hydrologic unit watersheds (8-digit sub basin) encompassing the CNF 

Hydrologic 

Unit Code 

Number 

River Basin Subbasin Area of Subbasin 

(acres) 

Portion of Subbasin 

that is Cherokee 

National Forest (%) 

03 South Atlantic-Gulf 

Watersheds 

03150101 Conasauga 224,000 6.5% 

06 Tennessee River 

Watersheds 

06020003 

06020002 

06010204 

06010106 

06010105 

06010108 

06010103 

06010102 

Ocoee 

Hiwassee 

Little Tennessee 

Pigeon 

French Broad 

Nolichucky 

Watauga 

South Fork Holston 

408,960 

1,728,000 

1,681,280 

440,960 

1,203,840 

1,123,840 

556,160 

1,310,720 

17.5% 

5.3% 

7.2% 

2.3% 

4.9% 

8.1% 

19.3% 

5.5% 

Note: A very small portion of the Cherokee National Forest is located within the Ohio 

River Basin, Upper New River Subbasin (05050001). 

Table 3-2 indicates the acreage of national forest lands located within each of the 5th 

level watersheds. Some of the watersheds include acreage from national forests 

located in more than one state. For example, the Hiwassee River 5th level watershed 

includes NFS lands in Georgia, North Carolina and Tennessee. 

Table 3-2. Acreage of NFS land within 5th level watersheds 

5th Level Watershed Watershed Code National Forest Acreage 

 

Big Laurel Creek 06010102010 99,008 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

52 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Table 3-2. Acreage of NFS land within 5th level watersheds 

5th Level Watershed Watershed Code National Forest Acreage 

Conasauga River 03150101010 61,878 

South Holston Lake 06010102030 34,778 

Roan Creek 06010103010 11,627 

Watauga River 06010103020 16,768 

Elk River 06010103030 8,971 

Doe River 06010103040 36,303 

Stone Creek 06010103050 24,267 

Lower Watauga River 06010103060 12,659 

French Broad River 06010105070 40,560 

Big Creek 06010105080 21,991 

Pigeon River 06010106010 10,348 

North Carolina Streams 06010108010 27,756 

North Indian Creek 06010108030 43,167 

South Indian Creek 06010108031 16,698 

Camp Creek 06010108050 19,672 

Nolichucky River 06010108060 6,645 

Little Tennessee River 06010204020 55,856 

Tellico River 06010204040 73,836 

Hiwassee River 06020002030 118,201 

Conasauga Creek 06020002040 10,458 

Lower Ocoee River 06020003020 61,098 

Upper Ocoee River 06020003040 29,252 

Note: A very small portion of the Upper New River 5th level watershed (0505000101) is 

located in Tennessee. 

Climate 

The CNF can be characterized as having a humid, continental climate with hot, humid 

summers and cool winters. Weather can be highly variable across the forest and 

throughout the year. The average annual temperature is 55oF. January is usually the 

coldest month with an average temperature of 34oF, while July is usually the hottest 

month with an average temperature of 76oF. 

Average precipitation in the project area is about 50 inches annually, which is 

distributed fairly evenly throughout the year. Average annual precipitation varies 

from 40 inches at lower elevations to over 75 inches at higher elevations. July is 

usually the wettest month with an average of 5.5 inches of precipitation, while 

October is usually the driest with an average of 2.7 inches of precipitation. 

The length of the growing season varies from 150 days per year on the north end of 

the CNF to over 200 days per year on the south end of the CNF. 

Climate related events such as micro-wind-bursts, tornadoes, ice/snow storms, 

floods and lightening caused fires can result in disturbance to the CNF at various 

spatial scales. Most often, however, they affect relatively small areas. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 53 

Surface Water Yield 

The larger subbasins identified in Table 3-1 have been further subdivided into 

watersheds. Twenty-four of these “fifth level watersheds” (Figure 3-1) contain CNF 

ownership. These lands typically are in the mountainous headwaters of the 

watersheds. As such, national forest streams are usually high-gradient, high energy 

systems. An estimated 6,500 miles of perennial and intermittent stream exist on the 

forest, producing an average annual runoff of about 31 inches. This equates to an 

average, annual, surface water yield of 1.6 million-acre feet. This surface water yield 

results from the interaction of several processes and conditions. Weather, 

vegetation, land use, and soils and geomorphology are the primary determinants of 

water yield. For example, current forest water yield is affected by an epidemic of 

southern pine beetle (SPB) tree mortality. Thousands of acres of pine have been 

killed during a three-year epidemic. In some cases, almost pure pine stands were 

killed, while in others, pine in mixed hardwood-pine stands has been killed. This 

epidemic has undoubtedly resulted in increased water yield potential in areas of the 

forest that have been severely impacted, especially those areas where pine was the 

majority of the overstory. Despite the potential for water yield increase due to pine 

mortality, the forest has also been in a moderate drought over the past several years. 

The drought has resulted in abnormally low flow conditions on the forest throughout 

the past couple of years. 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

54 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT 

STATEMENT

Figure 3-1. Fifth level watershed within the CNF 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 55 

Ground Water 

Ground water resources vary with each of the two ecological regions represented on 

the CNF. The vast majority of the CNF is located in the Blue Ridge Mountains 

Ecoregion. Ground water in this ecoregion typically occurs in small, localized 

reservoirs rather than in large aquifers. Ground water is mainly found in fractures 

and joints in crystalline rock and in alluvial deposits found along larger streams. The 

expected yield of wells from this region varies from three to 25 gallons per minute. 

The western edge of a portion of the CNF is located within the Central Appalachian 

Ridges and Valleys Ecoregion. Limestone and other carbonate rocks produce 

cavernous and karst features within some areas of this ecoregion. Where these 

exist, large quantities of high quality water can be found. The geology of much of this 

ecoregion consists of sandstones and shales, which are poor producers of ground 

water. The expected yield of wells from this ecoregion varies from five to 200 gallons 

per minute depending upon the geology. 

Floods and Droughts 

Flooding is a natural phenomenon that occurs periodically on the CNF where steep 

topography and high precipitation rates can produce rapid runoff. Small watersheds 

on the forest can produce extreme flood peaks that approach 1000-cubic feet per 

second (cfs) per square mile of watershed. Larger watersheds, (5th level or larger) 

can produce maximum flood peaks that approach 100 cfs per square mile. Most 

often, flooding occurs during the winter and early spring months when soils are 

saturated and heavy rains provide immediate runoff to stream systems. Localized 

flooding can also occur during summer months, when intense thunderstorms can 

result in several inches of rain in a short period of time. Considerable economic 

damage and even the loss of life can occur in flooded areas when human 

development has encroached onto floodplain areas. Most development on the forest 

is limited to roads and recreation facilities. These types of facilities have been 

severely damaged by floods in the past. Some flood control is provided on major 

rivers such as the Ocoee, Hiwassee, Little Tennessee, Watauga and South Fork 

Holston by the presence of TVA dams and reservoirs. 

Low flows typically occur during the late summer and fall when precipitation is low 

and soil moisture is utilized by growing vegetation. Base flow and low flow is 

primarily sustained by the release of ground water. Low flow discharges are typically 

less than 1.0 cfs per square mile of drainage area, and are often in the range of 0.1 

cfs to 0.3 cfs per square mile of drainage area. Variations in low flow stream 

condition result from differences in geology, soils and topography within the 

watershed. 

Water Quality 

Water quality in streams and reservoirs is typically very good when the source area is 

NFS lands. These water bodies generally meet or exceed all water quality criteria 

established by the state of Tennessee for their use classification. Reaches of some 

streams may not meet specific criteria such as pH due to natural or human-caused 

exposure of acid bearing rock (Anakeesta, for example), and due to acid deposition 

that is particularly acute in high elevation streams. 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

56 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Several of the large rivers flowing through the CNF are listed on the Tennessee 303d 

list of impaired streams as “partially supporting” or “not supporting” water quality 

criteria for its designated use(s). In addition, several impaired streams are located in 

5th level watersheds that contain national forest ownership. The impaired segments 

of these streams are located on private ownership downstream from national forest 

lands, or are in subwatersheds that contain no national forest ownership. Table 3-3 

summarizes pertinent information related to the 303d status of these rivers: 

Table 3-3. 303d Listed Rivers within CNF 

River Use Support Cause Source 

Ocoee Not Supporting Siltation Metals Flow 

Alteration 

Resource Extraction, 

Contaminated 

Sediments, Upstream 

Impoundment 

Hiwassee Partial Supporting Flow Alteration Upstream 

Impoundment 

Pigeon Not Supporting Dioxins 

Sources Outside State 

Contaminated 

Sediments 

Nolichucky Partial Supporting Pathogens, Siltation Sources Outside State 

Agriculture 

Doe Partially Supporting Habitat Alteration Channelization 

North Indian 

Creek Partially Supporting Siltation Urban Runoff, Storm Sewers 

Scioto 

Creek Partially Supporting Siltation Land Development 

Martins 

Creek Partially Supporting Habitat Alteration Urban Runoff, Storm Sewers 

Roan Creek Partially Supporting Siltation Municipal Point 

Source, Pasture 

Trail Fork & 

Gulf Fork 

Big Creek 

Partially Supporting Pathogens Septic Tanks 

Ballplay 

Creek Partially Supporting Nitrates, Pathogens Pasture 

Water quality concerns can result from natural events such as floods and landslides, 

land uses associated with private lands and national forest management activities. 

Sediment is the primary water quality concern related to national forest management 

activities. Access systems are acknowledged as being the primary source of 

accelerated erosion and sediment to national forest streams, although timber 

harvest, prescribe burning and developed and dispersed recreation activities and 

uses can also result in non-point source pollution. 

A sediment model (Clingenpeel, 2002) has been utilized to estimate existing 

sediment yields within the 5th level watersheds that contain NFS ownership. Table 3-

4 displays the estimated, current sediment yield within these watersheds from 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 57 

private and NFS ownerships, and sediment resulting from roads within the 

watersheds. 

Table 3-4. 5th Level Watershed 

Sediment Yield (tons/year) 

Watershed 

Pvt. NFS Roads* 

Upper New River 14,127 8 

Big Laurel Creek 60,107 879 8,680 

Conasauga River 24,954 215 3,968 

South Holston Lake 50,092 1,233 8,645 

Roan Creek 25,274 375 4,690 

Watauga River 24,931 705 7,385 

Elk River 9,579 338 2,763 

Doe River 14,146 1,301 4,020 

Stony Creek 9,207 1,050 1,100 

Lower Watauga River 69,950 586 9,183 

French Broad River 22,394 1,163 4,204 

Big Creek 2,981 699 1,761 

Pigeon River 25,402 448 5,598 

North Carolina Streams 7,328 724 1,735 

North Indian Creek 25,803 1,767 4,512 

South Indian Creek 4,668 511 1,379 

Camp Creek 55,856 751 4,507 

Nolichucky River 68,180 179 5,480 

Little Tennessee River 3,044 1,295 3,038 

Tellico River 13,837 1,591 7,013 

Hiwassee River 30,805 1,148 13,300 

Conasauga Creek 20,457 276 3,962 

Lower Ocoee River 10,450 1,292 3,993 

Upper Ocoee River 36,991 190 10,405 

* Roads data base used did not allow distinction 

between NFS and private roads. Sediment is cumulative 

total. 

Watershed Assessment 

A general assessment of watershed condition and vulnerability was completed on the 

forest in Fiscal Year (FY) 2000. This “rapid characterization” process comparatively 

rated and ranked each of the 24 fifth level watersheds that occur on the forest in 

terms of their condition and vulnerability. The rating considered public and private 

lands within the watersheds. In general, the watersheds that ranked poorest in 

condition (Lower Watauga River, South Fork Holston Lake and Nolichucky River) have 

a low percentage of national forest, a relatively high percentage of urban/agricultural 

land use, and a high number of point sources of pollution. The watersheds that 

ranked best in overall watershed condition (Conasauga River, Tellico River, Big Creek, 

North Carolina Streams) have a high percentage of forest land, few point sources of 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

58 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

pollution and relatively little hydrologic modification. The watersheds that ranked 

highest in vulnerability to impact (North Indian Creek, Little Tennessee River, Pigeon 

River) were those that have a high number of Proposed, Endangered, Threatened, 

and Sensitive (PETS) species, endemic species, impaired waters, source waters or a 

combination of these. 

Water Uses 

Water originating on and flowing through the forest provides for many uses. The vast 

majority of this is instream, non-consumptive use, especially recreational activities 

such as fishing, paddling sports and scenic viewing. The water also provides habitat 

for a wide variety of aquatic dependant species. Instream flow needs to support 

these uses and habitats have not been quantified. Water withdrawal for out-ofstream use has not been an issue on the forest, however, with the exception of 

historic and present-day withdrawal of water from the Ocoee and Hiwassee Rivers for 

power generation. These withdrawals partially dewater a significant section of these 

rivers before the water is returned to the channel. 

An estimated 123 million gallons of consumptive water use occurs on the forest each 

year for administrative needs or to supply the needs associated with special uses (i.e. 

spring-boxes/transmission lines) administered by the forest. In addition, thirteen 

source water areas providing domestic water supply have been inventoried on the 

CNF. These source water areas contain a large percentage of NFS lands. National 

forest system lands are also located within the watersheds of several rivers (Ocoee, 

Hiwassee, Tellico, Little Tennessee, French Broad, Nolichucky, South Fork Holston, 

Watauga, Doe) that are classified for domestic water supply by the state of 

Tennessee. The quantity of consumptive withdrawal is estimated to be less than one 

percent of the forest’s annual surface water yield. 

Existing Impoundments, Transmission Facilities, Wells, and other Man-Made 

Developments 

The CNF contains several large TVA impoundments, as well as, several small 

recreation reservoirs (Table 3-5). Other reservoirs are within the CNF proclamation 

boundary, but these are surrounded by private ownership. The acreage shown in 

Table 3-5 is based on the normal maximum pool. 

Table 3-5. Existing Impoundments with Adjacent 

CNF Lands 

Impoundment Surface Area 

(Acres) 

Ocoee # 3 480 

Ocoee # 1 (Parksville Lake) 1,900 

Watauga 6,430 

South Holston 7,580 

Wilbur 72 

Indian Boundary 97 

McKamy 7 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 59 

Special use permits have been issued for eighteen water transmission pipelines on 

the CNF. Most of these have been issued to municipal utility companies to transport 

water to urban areas and rural communities. Several have also been issued to 

individuals for their domestic water supply needs. Water transmission pipelines are 

also in use at NFS administrative and recreation sites and at a fish hatchery site on 

the Tellico River to supply the needs for these facilities. 

TVA withdraws water from the Ocoee and Hiwassee Rivers for power generation 

needs. The Ocoee River is partially dewatered from river mile 29.2 to 19.7 by a 

hydroelectric tunnel and a wooden flume. The Hiwassee River is partially dewatered 

from river mile 66.0 to 53.6 by a hydroelectric tunnel. 

Special use permits have been issued for seventy-two wells and springboxes on the 

CNF. Most of these have been issued to individuals for single family domestic water 

supply needs. Several have also been issued to water development associations to 

supply water to rural communities. Wells are also in use at recreation sites to supply 

the needs for these facilities. 

2.2 Direct/Indirect Effects 

Watershed condition and the water resource would potentially be affected by a 

variety of forest management activities and uses. Activities that disturb the land 

surface, decrease forest canopy or otherwise alter land surface cover would 

potentially affect water yield (quantity and timing) and potentially degrade water 

quality. Soil particles detached and transported (erosion) from disturbed sites would 

potentially reach streams as sediment affecting aquatic systems and water quality. 

The risk of adverse water quality impacts increases as the distance between a 

ground disturbing activity and a stream or other water body decreases. 

Those activities and uses that have the highest potential to affect watershed 

condition, and water quality and quantity on the CNF include prescribe fire, wildland 

fire along with suppression activities, timber harvest, silvicultural treatments, 

dispersed and developed recreation, and road maintenance, reconstruction and 

construction. The existing system of forest roads and trails is considered the 

greatest source of non-point source pollution to forest streams and other water 

bodies. Best management practices associated with these activities and uses are 

designed to reduce, to the extent possible, the amount of erosion that takes place 

from disturbed sites, and minimize soil movement from disturbed sites to aquatic 

systems. 

Water Quality Effects from Management Activities and Forest Uses 

Geologic Erosion 

Even in minimally disturbed, forested watersheds geologic (herinafter referred to as 

baseline) erosion takes place. Erosion rates on the order of 0.05 to 0.3 tons per acre 

per year and sediment rates of 0.01 to 0.10 tons per acre per year have been 

observed and documented (Patric, 1994). Very little of this erosion takes place on 

the hillside except for occasional debris/soil avalanches. The major source of 

sediment is from within the channel due to fluctuating stream-flows, especially from 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

60 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

major storm-flows that result in channel scour, bank erosion and sediment transport 

and deposition. Table 3-6 and Table 3-7 compare potential land use-related (Forest 

Service), accelerated sediment yields with the baseline erosion and sediment yields 

that takes place even in pristine, forested watersheds. 

Timber Harvest 

The act of cutting trees has very little direct effect on soil erosion and sediment 

production (Ursic and Douglas, 1978). In so far as water yields would potentially be 

temporarily increased due to tree harvest; however, sediment yields into forest 

streams would be indirectly affected. Forest soils remain wetter after tree harvest, 

and more soil moisture would be available to stream channels. For this reason, 

intermittent drains would potentially be somewhat wetter during the growing season 

and perennial channel systems would potentially expand slightly upslope into hollows 

that would be usually dry before cutting takes place. This effect would be temporary 

usually lasting no more than two or three years before returning to a pre-cut 

condition. 

Possible water quality effects from timber harvest primarily result from soil 

disturbance caused by removing trees from the woods. Each alternative would lead 

to ground disturbance and increased soil loss and sediment yields from three main 

sources--skid trails, constructed temporary and/or permanent roads, and log 

landings. While subject to many variables, an estimate of approximately ten percent 

of a given area harvested by conventional equipment (chainsaws/rubber tired 

skidders) would be impacted by skid trails, access roads and log landings. Table 3-6 

displays the estimated sediment yield that would potentially result from the 

implementation of timber harvest treatments along with associated road 

construction for each alternative and 10-year planning period. The sediment 

estimates also include predicted yields associated with prescribe burning. 

Table 3-6. Estimated Average Annual Sediment Yield (Tons) by Alternative and 

10-Year Period Due to Timber Harvest and Prescribe Burning Treatments 

Alternative Planning 

Period 1 

Planning 

Period 2 

Planning 

Period 3 

Planning 

Period 4 

Planning 

Period 5 

A 2,228 2,646 2,437 2,528 2,841 

B 1,861 2,329 2,576 2,558 2,493 

D 2,775 3,741 3,605 3,886 3,612 

E 843 850 816 932 1,060 

F 1,751 1,856 1,668 1,789 1,856 

G 1,243 1,575 1,366 1,587 1,727 

I 2,097 2,836 2,551 2,947 3,041 

To put these yields into a frame of reference, the annual tons of sediment per 

alternative could potentially be distributed across the forest to determine the 

accelerated sediment yield on an annual per acre basis. Using the highest estimated 

annual sediment yield of 3,886 tons per year (Alternative D, Planning Period 4) the 

annual increase in sediment yield would be about 0.006 tons per acre, or about 12 

pounds per acre. In reality, sediment yield would not be proportioned across the 

entire forest, but would be more appropriately examined on a watershed scale. Table 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 61 

3-7 displays estimated percent increases in sediment yield above a baseline 

condition that would occur in each 5th level watershed from the implementation of 

each alternative (CNF activities only). Table 3-8 displays estimated percent increases 

in sediment yield above the current (existing) condition that would occur in each 5th

level watershed from the implementation of each alternative (CNF activities only). 

Planning Periods 1 and 5 are shown in the tables as percent increases in sediment 

yield tend to increase slightly through time, generally reaching their highest levels in 

period five. 

Table 3-7. Estimated Percent Increases in Sediment Yield Above a Baseline 

Condition Due to Land Uses on NFS Lands Within Each 5th Level Watershed by 

Alternative 

Watershed Hydrologic Unit 

Code Alt A Alt B Alt D Alt E Alt F Alt G Alt I 

Period 1 

Upper New 05050001010 0.05 0.05 0.1 0.02 0.04 0.02 0.04 

Big Laurel 06010102010 4.0 3.5 4.5 1.4 3.6 1.7 3.4 

Conasauga 

River 03150101010 3.1 2.7 3.0 1.7 2.9 2.8 2.9 

South Holston 06010102030 2.8 2.7 4.4 1.0 3.0 2.2 3.0 

Roan 06010103010 2.1 1.6 2.5 0.6 1.4 0.9 1.7 

Watauga 06010103020 1.8 1.2 2.4 0.9 1.5 1.2 1.8 

Elk 06010103030 2.1 2.7 3.0 1.2 2.0 1.7 2.0 

Doe 06010103040 6.1 5.3 7.4 3.7 6.0 4.1 5.9 

Stone 06010103050 9.0 7.2 14.0 3.1 8.1 5.7 8.2 

Lower 

Watauga 06010103060 2.6 2.8 4.7 1.0 1.8 1.6 2.7 

French Broad 06010105070 8.0 6.0 10.0 2.9 6.6 3.6 7.0 

Big Creek 06010105080 7.8 8.9 12.6 2.3 7.2 7.1 8.0 

Pigeon 06010106010 1.4 1.2 2.7 0.5 1.0 0.8 1.4 

North Carolina 06010108010 1.1 1.3 1.9 0.6 1.1 0.4 1.6 

North Indian 06010108030 8.5 7.1 11.6 3.7 5.8 3.6 7.9 

South Indian 06010108031 2.3 1.9 3.7 1.5 2.5 1.9 3.1 

Camp 06010108050 2.7 1.8 3.9 1.2 2.2 1.6 2.5 

Nolichucky 06010108060 2.0 1.6 2.7 0.6 1.9 0.7 1.8 

Little 

Tennessee 06010204020 6.1 4.6 6.1 2.8 3.8 2.6 5.6 

Tellico 06010204040 10.5 7.7 10.5 2.8 7.0 4.2 9.6 

Hiwassee 06020002030 9.2 6.9 11.3 2.2 6.4 4.8 8.3 

Conasauga 

Ck. 06020002040 5.4 3.7 6.2 1.0 2.7 2.2 5.2 

Lower Ocoee 06020003020 14.3 13.7 15.7 7.1 12.2 10.2 13.5 

Upper Ocoee 06020003040 1.7 1.7 1.7 0.9 1.6 1.1 1.7 

Period 5 

Upper New 05050001010 0.06 0.09 0.1 0.02 0.05 0.03 0.05 

Big Laurel 06010102010 4.6 4.3 6.3 1.4 3.8 2.0 4.9 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

62 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Table 3-7. Estimated Percent Increases in Sediment Yield Above a Baseline 

Condition Due to Land Uses on NFS Lands Within Each 5th Level Watershed by 

Alternative 

Watershed Hydrologic Unit 

Code Alt A Alt B Alt D Alt E Alt F Alt G Alt I 

Conasauga 

River 03150101010 5.0 2.9 4.5 3.4 3.0 4.5 4.6 

South Holston 06010102030 4.2 4.0 5.9 1.1 3.1 3.4 4.5 

Roan 06010103010 2.3 2.1 3.4 0.6 1.6 1.2 2.4 

Watauga 06010103020 2.2 1.6 3.1 1.0 1.6 1.5 2.5 

Elk 06010103030 2.8 4.4 4.4 1.5 2.2 2.3 2.8 

Doe 06010103040 7.9 8.0 9.6 4.6 6.2 5.5 8.5 

Stone 06010103050 10.9 9.3 17.4 3.1 8.5 7.3 11.4 

Lower 

Watauga 06010103060 3.1 4.4 5.8 1.1 2.0 2.0 4.0 

French Broad 06010105070 9.7 6.6 13.2 3.6 6.9 5.0 10.9 

Big Creek 06010105080 12.5 13.9 15.6 2.3 7.5 11.6 12.6 

Pigeon 06010106010 1.7 1.5 3.3 0.6 1.0 1.1 2.1 

North Carolina 06010108010 1.2 1.5 2.7 0.6 1.3 0.5 2.2 

North Indian 06010108030 9.7 8.6 14.7 4.9 6.2 4.5 12.0 

South Indian 06010108031 3.4 2.5 4.8 1.9 2.6 2.9 4.5 

Camp 06010108050 3.0 2.2 5.1 1.4 2.3 1.8 3.3 

Nolichucky 06010108060 2.2 2.4 3.4 0.6 2.0 0.8 2.8 

Little 

Tennessee 06010204020 6.8 5.4 8.2 4.5 4.1 3.1 8.1 

Tellico 06010204040 12.5 10.1 13.6 3.0 7.4 5.3 12.1 

Hiwassee 06020002030 12.5 9.8 14.4 2.3 6.7 7.4 12.2 

Conasauga 

Ck. 06020002040 7.2 6.1 7.7 1.0 3.0 3.2 6.6 

Lower Ocoee 06020003020 19.9 18.7 20.8 10.1 12.8 15.0 20.8 

Upper Ocoee 06020003040 2.0 2.1 2.2 1.1 1.7 1.3 2.5 

Predicted sediment yield increases above a baseline condition due to actions on NFS 

lands range from 0.05 percent to 20.8 percent. These increases are low considering 

the very low erosion/sediment rates associated with a baseline condition with no 

human influence. The increases would be in addition, however, to the percent 

increases resulting from the current condition in each watershed, as shown in Table 

3-8. 

Using the highest estimated annual sediment yield increase of 20.8 percent above 

natural or 343 tons (Lower Ocoee Watershed, Alternatives D and I) the estimated 

annual increase in sediment yield would be about 0.004 tons per acre or about eight 

pounds per acre in this watershed. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 63 

Table 3-8. Estimated Percent Increase in Sediment Yield Above the Current 

Condition Due to Land Uses on NFS Lands Within Each 5th Level Watershed 

Watershed Hydrologic 

Unit Code Alt A Alt B Alt D Alt E Alt F Alt G Alt I 

Period 1 

Upper New 05050001010 0.0* 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 

Big Laurel 06010102010 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 

Conasauga 

River 03150101010 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 

South Holston 06010102030 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 

Roan 06010103010 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 

Watauga 06010103020 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 

Elk 06010103030 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 

Doe 06010103040 0.6 0.5 0.7 0.3 0.6 0.4 0.5 

Stone 06010103050 0.8 0.7 1.3 0.3 0.8 0.5 0.8 

Lower 

Watauga 06010103060 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 

French Broad 06010105070 0.5 0.4 0.7 0.2 0.5 0.2 0.5 

Big Creek 06010105080 1.7 1.9 2.7 0.5 1.6 1.6 1.7 

Pigeon 06010106010 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 

North Carolina 06010108010 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.3 

North Indian 06010108030 0.5 0.4 0.7 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.5 

South Indian 06010108031 0.6 0.5 0.9 0.4 0.6 0.5 0.7 

Camp 06010108050 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 

Nolichucky 06010108060 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 

Little 

Tennessee 06010204020 2.2 1.7 2.2 1.0 1.4 1.0 2.0 

Tellico 06010204040 1.2 0.9 1.2 0.3 0.8 0.5 1.1 

Hiwassee 06020002030 0.7 0.5 0.8 0.2 0.5 0.3 0.6 

Conasauga 

Ck. 06020002040 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.3 

Lower Ocoee 06020003020 1.5 1.5 1.6 0.8 1.3 1.1 1.4 

Upper Ocoee 06020003040 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.1 

Period 5 

Upper New 05050001010 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 

Big Laurel 06010102010 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.2 

Conasauga 

River 03150101010 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 

South Holston 06010102030 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.2 

Roan 06010103010 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.2 

Watauga 06010103020 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.2 

Elk 06010103030 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.3 

Doe 06010103040 0.7 0.7 0.9 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.8 

Stone 06010103050 1.0 0.9 1.6 1.4 0.8 0.7 1.1 

Lower 

Watauga 06010103060 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.1 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

64 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Table 3-8. Estimated Percent Increase in Sediment Yield Above the Current 

Condition Due to Land Uses on NFS Lands Within Each 5th Level Watershed 

Watershed Hydrologic 

Unit Code Alt A Alt B Alt D Alt E Alt F Alt G Alt I 

French Broad 06010105070 0.7 0.5 0.9 0.8 0.5 0.3 0.8 

Big Creek 06010105080 2.7 3.0 3.4 2.9 1.6 2.5 2.7 

Pigeon 06010106010 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 

North Carolina 06010108010 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.4 

North Indian 06010108030 0.6 0.5 0.9 0.7 0.4 0.3 0.7 

South Indian 06010108031 0.8 0.6 1.2 0.9 0.6 0.7 1.1 

Camp 06010108050 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 

Nolichucky 06010108060 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.1 

Little 

Tennessee 06010204020 2.4 1.9 2.9 2.2 1.5 1.1 2.9 

Tellico 06010204040 1.5 1.2 1.6 1.2 0.9 0.6 1.4 

Hiwassee 06020002030 0.9 0.7 1.0 0.8 0.5 0.5 0.9 

Conasauga 

Ck. 06020002040 0.4 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.4 

Lower Ocoee 06020003020 2.1 2.0 2.2 1.7 1.4 1.6 2.2 

Upper Ocoee 06020003040 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.1 

*Indicates less than 0.05 percent 

Table 3-8 indicates that there would be very little change in predicted sediment rates 

that result from CNF management activities compared to the existing condition in 

each of the 5th level watersheds. 

Table 3-7 and Table 3-8 examine percent increases in sediment yield resulting from 

management alternatives at a large watershed scale. At this level of detail, the 

contributions of NFS lands to the overall quality of water is difficult to discern. In the 

case of watersheds such as the Lower Watauga, Nolichucky River and Upper Ocoee 

River, the sources contributing to degradation of water quality are external from NFS 

lands. There is little that management of the national forest can contribute to 

improving the quality of water flowing into the national forest. In other cases such as 

the Conasauga River, the headwaters are in NFS ownership and water quality 

provided downstream is very good (meets state and federal water quality criteria). 

The effects of NFS system management to individual streams would be best 

determined at a project level (smaller watershed scale) where specific management 

practices are evaluated for impacts to water quality. 

Erosion that results from timber harvest activity would be greatly modified through 

time in that disturbance would be temporary and generally a single pulse over a long 

period of time. Any given area to be disturbed by a harvest would likely be cut and 

site prepared within a year's time. After this, the given area would unlikely be 

disturbed (barring natural disturbance) for at least 50 to 60 years. With proper 

mitigation applied, effects from timber harvest on soil loss, sediment yield and 

compaction would return to precutting conditions within two to five years. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 65 

Forestwide and riparian prescription management standards have been designed to 

mitigate the amount and duration of compaction, erosion and sediment delivery that 

would potentially occur from timber harvest and other management activities. 

Research and effectiveness monitoring have proven the value of properly applied 

mitigation (BMP) in greatly reducing compaction, erosion and sediment yield 

potential (Patric, 1994 and Curtis, Pelren, George, Adams, and Layzer, 1990). All 

alternatives considered would incorporate mitigation that would be designed to: 

Restore vegetation and litter cover on logging roads, skidder trails, and log 

landings as soon as practicable. 

Minimize land disturbance by building the fewest skid trails, logging roads and 

log landings feasible. 

Use broad-based dips or waterbars on all access ways and firelines on nonlevel slopes to disperse water. 

Locate all access as far as practicable from streams. 

Maintain as much unbroken forest floor as possible between exposed mineral 

soil and streams through the use of riparian corridors and filter strips. 

Disking or ripping deeply compacted soils that result from management 

activities to restore soil productivity and assist in controlling runoff and 

erosion. 

Potential sediment yields displayed in Table 3-6, Table 3-7, and Table 3-8 would not 

completely reflect the mitigation that would be associated with timber harvest and 

other management activity. This mitigation would actually prevent much of the 

potential yield displayed in Table 3-6, Table 3-7, and Table 3-8 from reaching streams 

or other water bodies. 

In addition to soil loss and sediment yield, each alternative would potentially result in 

soil compaction. Where compaction would be severe and unmitigated, soil 

productivity would be reduced due to loss of soil structure. Compaction would be 

most likely to occur on those areas where heavy equipment operates repeatedly 

especially when soils are wet. Areas subject to compaction include bladed skid trails, 

temporary roads and log landings. 

Timber harvest results in an increase in solar energy reaching the forest floor. The 

increased litter and soil temperature results in an increase in chemical and biological 

activity that causes an increased rate of organic matter breakdown. Since partial 

harvest or clearcutting leaves fewer plants (especially trees) on an area to uptake 

nutrients and more nutrients would potentially be available due to increased organic 

matter decomposition, nutrients would be potentially free to move off site. Nutrients 

would potentially be dissolved in precipitation and infiltrate into underlying mineral 

soil. Subsequent drainage through the soil would potentially carry some of these 

nutrients to nearby streams. The result would be an increase in nutrient levels such 

as nitrogen, calcium and magnesium in stream water. The duration of this possible 

effect would be short-lived--less than five years. After this time period, sprouts, 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

66 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

seedlings and other vegetative growth reestablish shade to the cut area and 

effectively tie up available nutrients. 

Long term measurements of chemical changes in water quality at Coweeta 

Hydrologic Lab found that nutrient losses observed in commercial logging were small, 

and would not adversely impact the sustainability of growth in the successional forest 

(Swank, et al, 2001). These findings also support other studies that concluded 

hardwood ecosystems in the southern Appalachians are highly resistant and highly 

resilient to changes in biogeochemical cycles associated with forest harvesting 

activities (Swank, et al 2001). 

Management standards associated with the riparian prescription would prevent 

increases in solar insolation from directly reaching streams. Research studies 

indicate that maintaining streamside vegetation would be a key to maintaining 

stream temperatures at existing levels (Stednick, 1999). 

Site Preparation and Timber Stand Improvement

Generally, site preparation and timber stand improvement treatments used on the 

forest result in little or no soil disturbance. Hand tools (chainsaws) and herbicides 

would be used for these treatments. An exception to this would be firelines 

associated with the use of fire for site preparation. 

Each alternative would use herbicides for site preparation and timber stand 

improvement. Where used, herbicides would normally be applied only to individual 

trees that would be treated to accomplish the stand improvement or site preparation 

objective. Herbicide use would involve low toxicity chemicals that would be applied 

infrequently (once or twice in a period of 80 or more years). The method of 

application would minimize herbicide residue movement into surface waters, 

although (depending upon the method of application) short duration residue 

concentrations of 0.5 to 1.0 ppm would potentially occur during stormflow (Neary, 

1988). On-site degradation processes and in-stream dilution and degradation would 

result in quick dissipation of any herbicide residue that might reach surface waters 

(Neary, 1988). Short-term water quality effects would be minimal, and long-term 

water quality would not be adversely affected (Neary, 1988). Forestwide standards 

and riparian corridor prescription standards would apply to all alternatives, and would 

limit application of herbicides in proximity to surface waters. 

Effects of Fire Management 

Each alternative proposes prescribe burning for fuel reduction, ecosystem restoration 

and site preparation. The effects of prescribed fire on water quality vary, depending 

on fire severity, type and amount of vegetation, ambient temperature, antecedent 

soil moisture, terrain and other factors (Van Lear, 1989). Published scientific studies 

have concluded that understory, prescribed burns implemented under managed or 

controlled conditions have negligible effect on the physical, chemical and biological 

properties of soils and soil productivity (Patric, 1994; Richter, Ralston, and Harms, 

1982; Van Lear, Thomas and Waldrop, 1989; Swift, et al, 2001). Furthermore, there 

is little evidence that sedimentation or water yield increases significantly in streams 

from forested lands burned under conditions specified in a prescribed burning plan 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 67 

designed to meet wildlife, recreation, watershed, vegetation management, or 

ecological objectives. Understory burning would consume only a small amount of the 

duff (organic layer) and would expose very little mineral soil. Most of the organic 

layer and fine root layer would be left in place. 

As fire severity increases, a higher percentage of the litter, duff and larger fuels on 

the forest floor would be consumed, resulting in possible degradation of mineral soil 

quality. This in turn would affect soil biota, structure, organic matter and fertility, 

potentially triggering accelerated erosion and loss of soil nutrients. Suspended solids, 

sediments and dissolved salts in streamflow would increase nutrient enrichment. 

Very hot, stand replacement burns would result in these effects. 

Ground disturbance created by firelines, particularly those constructed by bulldozers, 

could result in erosion and sedimentation to streams. Forestwide management 

standards would be designed to reduce these effects by minimizing the connectivity 

of firelines to streams, and completing erosion control on firelines, as necessary, to 

minimize erosion. 

Alternatives A, B, D, F, and G propose a prescribe burning objective of 16,000 acres 

per year. Burning would be completed for fuel reduction and ecosystem restoration. 

Alternative E proposes an objective of 10,000 acres per year, and Alternative I 

proposes a burning objective of 20,000 acres per year. 

It is estimated that about three percent of all acres subject to prescribed fire would 

be severely burned (personal observation). Severe burning implies all organic matter 

on the soil surface and within the upper 1⁄2 inch of the mineral soil would be 

consumed, and soil structure and or color visibly altered. These conditions would 

affect the hydrologic condition and productive potential of the severely burned area 

in the short term. Therefore, projections would be that prescribed fire would 

potentially adversely impact soils the least in Alternative E (300 acres), followed by 

Alternatives A, B, D, F, and G (480 acres), with Alternatives I having the greatest 

potential impact related to fire (600 acres). These severely burned acres would 

normally be small patches distributed throughout the burn area, essentially 

mimicking natural fire occurrence. 

Effects of Recreation Management and Use 

Water plays an important role in many aspects of recreation on the forest. Lakes and 

streams would be a magnet to people who visit the forest. The need and desire for 

recreational users to be near water would create varying degrees of impact to the 

resource. 

Most of the developed and dispersed recreation sites on the forest would potentially 

be located near streams and lakes. Likewise, many wilderness visitors travel to and 

camp near streams. This type of concentrated use would result in damaged 

vegetation, and compaction and erosion within riparian zones and along stream 

banks. Water pollution from human waste, dishwashing, trash accumulation and 

horse use would be a potential effect where people congregate. Generally, these 

effects would be localized and would be reduced by using strategies to avoid riparian 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

68 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

areas whenever possible, using appropriate mitigation measures and educating 

forest visitors about ways to protect soil and water resources. 

Off-road vehicle trails and their use result in soil compaction, displacement, erosion 

and sedimentation. The magnitude of this problem varies by alternative depending 

upon the mileage of off-road vehicle trails provided. Acres designated for off-highway 

vehicle use by alternative provides an indication of potential OHV use. Alternaitve I 

has the most acres designated as OHV areas followed by Alternative A and E. All 

alternatives would limit off-road vehicle use to designated roads and trails. The use 

of proper location, layout, and construction techniques would reduce the impacts 

associated with off-road vehicle trails and their use. For example, the avoidance of 

soils with high erosion hazard, minimizing stream crossings, and proper drainage of 

trails reduces potential soil and water effects. 

Hiking, horse and bicycle trails result in varying degrees of compaction, erosion and 

sedimentation depending upon their location, design and amount of use. As with offroad vehicle trails, proper location, layout, and construction techniques would 

potentially reduce the impacts associated with these types of trails and their use. 

Overall, recreation use of the forest would be expected to increase for all 

alternatives. This could result in an increased affect to soil and water resources. 

Effects to the soil and water resources would not be expected to vary significantly by 

any alternative, except Alternative A and E. These alternatives would emphasize 

providing increased recreation opportunities, and would be expected to have more 

recreation-related effects to the soil and water resources compared to the other 

alternatives. 

Effects of Transportation System Management 

Watershed effects related to roads are generally categorized as geomorphic, 

hydrologic and those related to site productivity. 

Geomorphic Effects - Roads are considered the most common source of accelerated 

erosion and sediment on CNF lands. Road-generated sediment would be produced 

from the erosion of cut and fill slopes, ditches, and the road surface, and from 

stream crossings and mass erosion processes (debris slides). Raw ditchlines and 

roadbeds would be a continuing source of sediment, usually because of lack of 

maintenance, inadequate maintenance for the amount of use, excessive ditchline 

disturbance, or poorly timed maintenance relative to storm patterns (Swift, 1984). 

Unpaved roads paralleling and crossing streams would be a continuing source of 

sediment to some forest streams. 

Mass failure of road segments has occurred on the forest after large rainfall events. 

Typical causes of mass road failure have included location (road encroachment into 

floodplain) and inadequate culvert sizes to pass water associated with a given flood 

event. Future, extreme precipitation events could result in road-related mass failure. 

The occurrence and magnitude of road-related debris slides varies by climate, 

geology, road age, construction practices and storm history. Several studies in the 

eastern United States of America (U.S.A.) have shown that landslides were driven 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 69 

more by storm magnitude and geology than by land use. A threshold amount of five 

inches of rain per day and metasedimentary geology has been shown to be 

associated with large debris slides in the Appalachians (Eschner and Patric, 1982). 

Road drainage could cause small slides in road fills; nevertheless, some major 

landslides originate in undisturbed forest land (Neary and others, 1986; Neary and 

Swift, 1987). 

The accelerated erosion and sediment associated with permanent, open roads would 

be reduced by effective mitigation, but would not be eliminated. Proper 

maintenance, the use of vegetative measures and surfacing materials for soild 

stability, and proper drainage of roads would be the key to reducing erosion and 

sediment. 

Hydrologic Effects: Roads have three primary effects on water: intercept rainfall 

directly on the road surface, cutbanks and surbsurface water moving down the 

hillslope; concentrate flow, either on the surface or in an adjacent ditch or channel; 

and divert or reroute water from pathways that it would otherwise take if the road 

were not present (Gucinski, Furniss, Ziemer, Brookes, 2000). By intercepting surface 

and subsurface flow, and diverting it into ditches and channels, road systems 

effectively increase the density of streams in the landscape. As a result, the amount 

of time required for water to reach stream channels and the timing of peakflows 

would be altered. Generally, the higher the density of roads within a watershed, the 

quicker the runoff is received by the stream network, and peak flows increase. 

Productivity Effects – Roads affect site productivity by removing and displacing 

topsoil, altering soil properties, and accelerating erosion. The number of acres of 

existing, permanent roads on the forest is estimated to be considerably less than one 

percent of the total forest acreage. As a result, productivity effects related to roads 

are quite small. 

The effects described for roads would vary somewhat by alternative depending on 

the number of miles of new road that would need to be constructed to support 

management activities and forest visitor use. Road mileage resulting from new 

construction would be expected to increase very little, since roads needed for 

management and forest visitor use would be essentially in place. Road effects would 

also vary by alternative to the extent that road decommissioning would take place; 

although road decommissioning is expected to vary only slightly by alternative. 

Minerals Management 

Very little mineral activity occurs and would be expected to occur on the CNF. The 

level of activity would not be expected to change by alternative. 

Common variety rock would be collected in very small amounts on the forest for 

landscaping purposes. Very little effect to the water resource results from this 

activity. 

A very localized activity that occurs on the forest is suction dredging for gold: 

currently known to occur in only one or two streams on the forest. Dredging would be 

done more for recreational than commercial purposes. While the effects associated 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

70 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

with this activity are not well documented, possible effects relate more to aquatic 

biology than water quality. Where dredging would potentially be done, smaller 

channel substrate particles would potentially be moved from one location to another 

within the stream. A temporary increase in suspended sediment levels would be 

likely in close proximity to the dredging activity. Channel morphology would be 

affected locally by changing bed material particle size, modifying channel topography 

and possible disturbance of streambanks (Harvey, Lisle, Vallier, Fredley, 1995). 

Other than any streambank disturbance, these morphological changes would 

normally be short-lived as high flows tend to reestablish the pre-dredging condition. 

Water Quantity Effects from Timber Harvest and Other Activities 

The CNF is the source of water for domestic and commercial use, as well as, 

recreation use and stream flows necessary to maintain healthy aquatic and riparian 

resources. Forest management activities or natural disturbance that reduces live 

tree basal area, or disturbances such as roads would potentially affect water yield. 

Changes in water yield would occur in response to timber harvest, road and skid trail 

development and silvicultural activities such as mechanical slash-down or herbicide 

treatment of vegetation. These activities would increase water yield by decreasing 

the interception of precipitation by trees and transpiration loss of soil water. 

Research indicates that achieving a measurable increase in stream flow requires at 

least a 20 percent decrease in basal area (Patric, 1994). As basal area reduction 

increases to 100 percent, greater increases in stream flow take place. Any basal 

area left on harvested areas would reduce the water yield increase. In all of the 

alternatives, most vegetation manipulation would be done with partial basal area 

removal cuts (shelterwood). 

Stream flow increases do not last long in the southeastern U.S.A due to the rapid 

regeneration of dense new stands on cut areas. Although increased yields would be 

possible from five to ten years or even longer after harvest, almost all of the increase 

would be over after five years for clearcuts and within one to three years when less 

than 50 percent basal area would be removed. In terms of the timing of yield 

increases, almost all of the increased stream flow takes place during the growing 

season (and often during periods of stream low flow). This is due to the fact that soil 

moisture is usually deficit during this time of the year and any increase in soil 

moisture due to a decrease in evapo-transpiration would move through the soil and 

augment stream flow. In the vegetative dormant season when little evapotranspiration occurs, soils would normally be saturated anyway. The increased 

growing season yields diminish yearly as increased vegetative growth and resultant 

evapo-transpiration return the water balance to pre-cut conditions. 

Timber harvest would potentially increase storm flows (quick flows) and slightly affect 

the timing of the storm hydrograph in relation to the amount of basal area removed, 

the number of acres of a given watershed involved, and the amount of ground 

disturbance (including roads) present after harvest. Research at Coweeta Hydrologic 

Lab indicates that timber harvest, with carefully located and designed roads, produce 

only small and acceptable (about 15%) increases in mean storm flow volumes and 

peak flow rates. Increased stream flows and storm flows would not necessarily be a 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 71 

negative effect since these almost always occur during the growing season when 

stream flow would potentially be at or near base flow. 

The highest water yield increase would be expected from the implementation of 

Alternative D, followed by Alternatives I, B, A, G, F and E. Variation in water yield 

increase, by alternative, would be due to the amount and type of timber harvest 

associated with each alternative. Water yield would be extremely variable, however, 

in relation to time of year, intensity and duration of storms, antecedent moisture 

conditions, and the timing and concentration of contributing flows. Water yield 

increases would often go undetected, especially in relation to larger downstream 

flows. Local flows would be detectable depending upon the percentage of a 

watershed harvested, and the location of harvest units within the watershed. These 

effects would be analyzed on a site-specific basis. Based on local knowledge and 

field observation, stream channels within the forest are usually stable and capable of 

handling the small increases in flow that would be associated with each alternative 

without causing channel erosion. 

Water Use 

Water supplies in the southern Appalachians are abundant in the form of year-round 

rainfall, surface water flowing through streams and groundwater (SAA, 1996). With 

expanding development and urbanization, there is expected to be an increasing 

demand on water supplies. The SAA (1996) indicates, however, that water usage in 

the domestic, industrial and agricultural categories actually declined by 19.6 percent 

between 1985 and 1990. This was primarily due to a decrease of 26.6 percent in 

industrial use. 

In recognition of the changing status of water demand in the south, the Tennessee 

enacted Chapter Number 854 of Public Acts, 2000 (Public Acts) that regulates 

certain water withdrawals from streams and aquifers in Tennessee. This act requires 

public water suppliers to obtain an Inter-Basin Transfer Permit to transfer water out 

of a major river basin in Tennessee. The Publics Act applies to surface and some 

groundwater supplies. 

Table 3-9 displays the water use in counties that contain CNF ownership within them. 

This information was developed in the SAA completed in 1996. 

Table 3-9. Water Use of Counties That Contain CNF Ownership (million gallons per 

day) 

County Commercial Domestic Industrial Agriculture Total 

Carter 0.81 5.53 20.73 0.11 27.18 

Cocke 0.91 2.18 0.74 0.35 4.18 

Greene 3.31 3.18 0.82 1.11 8.42 

Johnson 0.17 1.0 0.47 0.13 1.77 

McMinn 0.63 2.13 73.47 0.86 77.09 

Monroe 0.57 2.29 0.32 0.36 3.54 

Polk 0.15 1.59 29.04 0.15 30.93 

Sullivan 1.47 4.52 450.72 0.44 457.15 

Unicoi 0.23 1.55 0.35 0.14 2.27 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

72 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

The estimated consumptive withdrawal of water from sources on the CNF would be 

about 0.34 million gallons per day. Water supply vastly exceeds this use. 

Relatively small water yield increases would be expected from the alternatives 

considered. Any increases in summer low flow, if detectable, would be a benefit to 

local water users and instream uses. The actions in any of the alternatives would not 

have an effect on local water supply or aquatic biota. 

2.3 Cumulative Effects 

To evaluate watershed cumulative effects associated with management alternatives 

on the CNF, a frame of reference in terms of time and space was needed. For LMP 

planning, 5th level watersheds are considered the appropriate landscape scale for 

analysis. While the LMP would have an implementation period of ten to 15 years, the 

appropriate time scale for cumulative watershed effects analysis is considered to be 

five 10-year periods (50 years). 

Sediment is an appropriate measure to determine the effects of management 

activities on water quality and respective associated beneficial uses on forested 

lands (Coats and Miller, 1981). Sediment is the primary factor that would potentially 

reduce the quality of water derived from forested lands. Sediment increases could 

adversely affect fish productivity and diversity (Alexander and Hansen, 1986), 

degrade drinking water and affect recreational values. Other cumulative effects that 

could result from forest management activities such as changes in water yield and 

nutrient fluxes in streams are considered to be minor and not an appropriate 

indicator of cumulative effects at the LMP level. 

To evaluate cumulative effect, estimated sediment yields were evaluated for 24 fifth 

level watersheds. These watersheds range in size from 37,657 to 300,301 acres 

(modified USGS 5th level hydrologic units). The average watershed size used in this 

analysis is approximately 113,631 acres. 

Table 3-10 displays the percent increase in sediment yield over baseline conditions. 

Table 3-11 displays the predicted percent increase in sediment yield over the current 

or existing condition due to activities occurring on Forest Service and private lands 

within each watershed. Planning periods 1 and 5 are shown in the Tables, as 

percent increases in sediment yield tend to increase slightly through time, generally 

reaching their highest levels in period five. 

Table 3-10. Estimated Percent Increases in Sediment Yield Above Baseline Condition 

Due to Land Uses on Public and Private Lands Within Each 5th Level Watershed 

Watershed Hydrologic Unit 

Code 

Current 

Above 

Natural 

Alt 

A 

Alt 

B 

Alt 

D 

Alt 

E 

Alt 

F 

Alt 

G 

Alt 

I 

Period 1 

Upper New 05050001010 1,316 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 

Big Laurel 06010102010 2,695 41 40 41 38 40 38 40 

Conasauga 

River 03150101010 1,579 41 40 41 39 40 40 40 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 73 

Table 3-10. Estimated Percent Increases in Sediment Yield Above Baseline Condition 

Due to Land Uses on Public and Private Lands Within Each 5th Level Watershed 

Watershed Hydrologic Unit 

Code 

Current 

Above 

Natural 

Alt 

A 

Alt 

B 

Alt 

D 

Alt 

E 

Alt 

F 

Alt 

G 

Alt 

I 

South 

Holston 06010102030 2,182 24 24 26 22 24 24 24 

Roan 06010103010 1,598 46 45 46 44 45 45 45 

Watauga 06010103020 1,441 46 45 46 45 46 45 46 

Elk 06010103030 1,017 48 48 48 47 48 47 47 

Doe 06010103040 1,088 37 36 38 34 37 35 37 

Stone 06010103050 1,072 23 21 28 17 22 20 22 

Lower 

Watauga 06010103060 4,836 28 28 30 27 27 27 28 

French 

Broad 06010105070 1,464 25 23 27 20 24 21 24 

Big Creek 06010105080 461 42 44 47 37 42 42 43 

Pigeon 06010106010 1,526 36 36 37 35 35 35 36 

North 

Carolina 06010108010 561 40 40 40 39 40 39 40 

North Indian 06010108030 1,698 26 24 29 21 23 21 25 

South Indian 06010108031 412 36 35 37 35 36 36 37 

Camp 06010108050 3,312 13 12 14 12 13 12 13 

Nolichucky 06010108060 4,789 21 21 22 20 21 20 21 

Little 

Tennessee 06010204020 277 29 27 29 26 27 26 28 

Tellico 06010204040 861 28 26 28 21 25 22 28 

Hiwassee 06020002030 1,402 45 42 47 37 42 40 44 

Conasauga 

Ck. 06020002040 1,845 36 34 36 31 33 32 35 

Lower Ocoee 06020003020 953 24 23 25 16 22 20 23 

Upper Ocoee 06020003040 3,014 83 83 83 82 83 82 83 

Period 5 

Upper New 05050001010 1,316 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 

Big Laurel 06010102010 2,695 41 41 43 38 40 39 41 

Conasauga 

River 03150101010 1,579 42 40 42 41 41 42 42 

South 

Holston 06010102030 2,182 26 25 27 22 24 25 26 

Roan 06010103010 1,598 46 46 47 44 45 45 46 

Watauga 06010103020 1,441 46 46 47 45 46 46 47 

Elk 06010103030 1,017 48 50 50 47 48 48 48 

Doe 06010103040 1,088 39 39 40 35 37 36 39 

Stone 06010103050 1,072 25 23 31 17 22 21 25 

Lower 

Watauga 06010103060 4,836 29 30 31 27 28 28 30 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

74 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Table 3-10. Estimated Percent Increases in Sediment Yield Above Baseline Condition 

Due to Land Uses on Public and Private Lands Within Each 5th Level Watershed 

Watershed Hydrologic Unit 

Code 

Current 

Above 

Natural 

Alt 

A 

Alt 

B 

Alt 

D 

Alt 

E 

Alt 

F 

Alt 

G 

Alt 

I 

French 

Broad 06010105070 1,464 27 24 31 21 24 22 28 

Big Creek 06010105080 461 47 49 50 37 42 46 47 

Pigeon 06010106010 1,526 36 36 38 35 35 35 36 

North 

Carolina 06010108010 561 40 40 41 39 40 39 41 

North Indian 06010108030 1,698 27 26 32 22 24 22 29 

South Indian 06010108031 412 37 36 38 35 36 36 38 

Camp 06010108050 3,312 14 13 16 12 13 12 14 

Nolichucky 06010108060 4,789 21 22 22 20 21 20 22 

Little 

Tennessee 06010204020 277 30 28 31 27 27 26 31 

Tellico 06010204040 861 30 28 31 21 25 23 30 

Hiwassee 06020002030 1,402 48 45 50 38 42 43 47 

Conasauga 

Ck. 06020002040 1,845 37 36 38 31 33 33 37 

Lower Ocoee 06020003020 953 29 28 30 19 22 24 30 

Upper Ocoee 06020003040 3,014 83 83 83 82 83 82 83 

Table 3-11. Estimated Percent Increases in Sediment Yield Above Current Condition 

Due to Land Uses on Public and Private Lands Within Each 5th Level Watershed 

Watershed Hydrologic 

Unit Code 

Alt 

A 

Alt 

B 

Alt 

D 

Alt 

E 

Alt 

F 

Alt 

G 

Alt 

I 

Period 1 

Upper New 05050001010 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 

Big Laurel 06010102010 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.4 1.5 1.4 1.5 

Conasauga 

River 03150101010 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.5 2.6 2.6 2.6 

South Holston 06010102030 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.1 

Roan 06010103010 2.9 2.8 2.9 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 

Watauga 06010103020 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.1 3.2 3.2 3.2 

Elk 06010103030 4.7 4.7 4.8 4.6 4.7 4.6 4.7 

Doe 06010103040 3.4 3.3 3.5 3.2 3.4 3.2 3.4 

Stone 06010103050 2.1 2.0 2.6 1.6 2.1 1.8 2.1 

Lower 

Watauga 06010103060 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 

French Broad 06010105070 1.7 1.6 1.9 1.4 1.6 1.4 1.7 

Big Creek 06010105080 9.2 9.5 10.3 8.0 9.1 9.1 9.3 

Pigeon 06010106010 2.3 2.3 2.4 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 

North 06010108010 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.0 7.1 6.9 7.1 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 75 

Table 3-11. Estimated Percent Increases in Sediment Yield Above Current Condition 

Due to Land Uses on Public and Private Lands Within Each 5th Level Watershed 

Watershed Hydrologic 

Unit Code 

Alt 

A 

Alt 

B 

Alt 

D 

Alt 

E 

Alt 

F 

Alt 

G 

Alt 

I 

Carolina 

North Indian 06010108030 1.5 1.4 1.7 1.2 1.4 1.2 1.5 

South Indian 06010108031 8.7 8.6 9.1 8.5 8.8 8.6 8.9 

Camp 06010108050 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 

Nolichucky 06010108060 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 

Little 

Tennessee 06010204020 10.5 9.9 10.5 9.3 9.6 9.2 10.3 

Tellico 06010204040 3.3 3.0 3.3 2.4 2.9 2.6 3.2 

Hiwassee 06020002030 3.2 3.0 3.3 2.7 3.0 2.9 3.1 

Conasauga 

Ck. 06020002040 1.9 1.8 2.0 1.7 1.8 1.8 1.9 

Lower Ocoee 06020003020 2.5 2.4 2.6 1.7 2.3 2.1 2.4 

Upper Ocoee 06020003040 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 

Period 5 

Upper New 05050001010 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 

Big Laurel 06010102010 1.5 1.5 1.6 1.4 1.5 1.4 1.5 

Conasauga 

River 03150101010 2.7 2.6 2.7 2.6 2.6 2.7 2.7 

South Holston 06010102030 1.2 1.2 1.3 1.0 1.2 1.1 1.2 

Roan 06010103010 2.9 2.9 3.0 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.9 

Watauga 06010103020 3.2 3.2 3.3 3.1 3.2 3.2 3.2 

Elk 06010103030 4.8 4.9 4.9 4.6 4.7 4.7 4.8 

Doe 06010103040 3.6 3.6 3.7 3.2 3.4 3.3 3.6 

Stone 06010103050 2.3 2.2 2.9 1.6 2.1 2.0 2.4 

Lower 

Watauga 06010103060 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 

French Broad 06010105070 1.9 1.6 2.1 1.4 1.7 1.5 1.9 

Big Creek 06010105080 10.3 10.6 10.9 8.0 9.2 10.1 10.3 

Pigeon 06010106010 2.4 2.4 2.5 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.4 

North 

Carolina 06010108010 7.1 7.1 7.3 7.0 7.1 6.9 7.2 

North Indian 06010108030 1.6 1.5 1.9 1.3 1.4 1.3 1.7 

South Indian 06010108031 9.0 8.8 9.3 8.6 8.8 8.9 9.2 

Camp 06010108050 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 

Nolichucky 06010108060 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.5 

Little 

Tennessee 06010204020 10.7 10.2 11.2 9.9 9.7 9.4 11.2 

Tellico 06010204040 3.5 3.3 3.7 2.4 2.9 2.7 3.5 

Hiwassee 06020002030 3.4 3.2 3.6 2.7 3.0 3.0 3.4 

Conasauga 

Ck. 06020002040 2.0 2.0 2.1 1.7 1.8 1.8 2.0 

Lower Ocoee 06020003020 3.1 2.9 3.2 2.0 2.3 2.6 3.2 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

76 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Table 3-11. Estimated Percent Increases in Sediment Yield Above Current Condition 

Due to Land Uses on Public and Private Lands Within Each 5th Level Watershed 

Watershed Hydrologic 

Unit Code 

Alt 

A 

Alt 

B 

Alt 

D 

Alt 

E 

Alt 

F 

Alt 

G 

Alt 

I 

Upper Ocoee 06020003040 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.8 

Watershed Health Index 

A watershed health index was developed as a measure of the condition of each 5th

level watershed with respect to current and future sediment load increases 

(Clingenpeel, 2002). The health index relates sediment loads in watersheds to the 

relative abundace of locally adopted aquatic species (See Aquatic Habitats, page 

196). The reference point for the index is the estimated current, average annual 

sediment yield in 5th level watersheds expressed as a percent above a baseline 

condition (Table 3-10). Table 3-10 also displays future estimates of sediment yield 

expressed as a percent increase above baseline condition for each alternative. The 

current and future estimates include sediment yields from private and public lands. 

Watersheds whose current sediment condition have the highest percent increases 

above a baseline condition generally contain a small percentage of NFS ownership 

and contain a large amount of urban, agricultural and other non forest land uses on 

private land. The Nolichucky, Upper Ocoee and Lower Watauga watersheds are 

examples of this condition. Forest Service activities would potentially result in minor 

sediment yield increases as determined by comparison of Table 3-7 and Table 3-8 

with Table 3-10 and Table 3-11. With implementation of the Riparian Prescription 

(which is imbedded in all prescriptions and Forestwide direction, cumulative effects 

to water quality from land disturbing activities would be insignificant in all 

alternatives). 

3.0 Riparian, Wetlands, and Floodplains 

3.1 Affected Environment 

Riparian areas include the water body, and the transition area between aquatic 

systems and upland terrestrial systems. All wetlands (including beaver ponds), as 

well as margins of varying widths along streams, rivers, lakes, ponds, and reservoirs, 

are contained within the riparian area. The 100-year floodplain associated with 

streams and rivers is often within or analogous to the riparian area. 

An estimated 6,500 miles of perennial and intermittent streams exist on CNF lands. 

In addition, there are approximately 16,000 acres of lakes and reservoirs. The 

riparian corridor associated with streams, lakes and other water bodies is estimated 

to be about 126,000 acres. Riparian corridor acreage is not necessarily the same as 

actual riparian area acreage. The riparian corridor is a fixed width area for 

management purposes. True riparian area acreage on the forest is believed to be 

somewhat less than the acreage associated with riparian corridors, but this 

assumption has not been validated. Most first order streams on the forest are 

ephemeral, while second order streams are generally intermittent. Third order and 

higher streams are generally perennial. Stream orders are based on the Strahler 

method of categorization by ordering all streams on 1:24,000 topographic maps 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 77 

from the watershed divide to valley bottom. Streams are generally located in steep, 

narrow mountain valleys with relatively narrow floodplains. Most streams are small, 

high gradient, riffle/pool systems. Forest streams comprise the headwater areas of 

several large rivers that originate or flow through the forest. These include the 

Conasauga, Ocoee, Hiwassee, Tellico, Little Tennessee, Pigeon, French Broad, 

Nolichucky, Watauga and South Fork Holston Rivers. 

Extensive wetland areas do not exist on the forest. Approximately 290 acres of 

wetland have been inventoried. Not included in this total, are riverine and palustrine 

wetland areas that are associated with river and stream beds, and palustrine and 

lacustrine areas associated with lake and reservoir beds. The presence of additional 

wetland areas in riparian zones along rivers and streams and associated with springs 

and seeps is likely. 

Prior to becoming lands of the CNF, many cove sites and most of the larger floodplain 

areas associated with streams and rivers were logged, farmed, and grazed. 

Tramlines for logging and early access roads were often built in riparian areas due to 

the relative ease of construction at these locations. Besides the obvious changes to 

riparian vegetation that resulted from these actions, other possible effects included 

compaction of riparian soils, accelerated erosion/sediment delivery to streams and 

rivers, and channel instability. 

As lands were acquired and became part of the CNF, a new forest began to mature in 

riparian, as well as, upland areas. Today, riparian areas are generally in a mid to late 

successional stage of forest development. Most disturbances in these areas are the 

result of access roads, trails, and dispersed and developed recreation area 

development. Natural disturbance also results from floods, wind, ice, and insect and 

disease damage. The elimination of American by the chestnut blight (Endothia 

parasitica) from the forest landscape in the early 20th century has affected the 

quality of woody debris provided to streams. The size and resistance of the tree to 

rot provided long lasting woody debris and stability to stream systems. Future input 

of woody debris to streams could potentially be affected by forest pests such as 

hemlock woolly adelgid (HWA) and gypsy moth (GM). Southern pine beetle has 

recently affected thousands of acres of southern yellow pine and white pine, some of 

which, is located in riparian areas. 

Healthy and properly functioning riparian areas, wetlands, and floodplains are 

physically and biologically diverse and highly productive environments. These landwater interfaces are generally very dynamic and support complex associations of 

plant and animal communities. Riparian areas maintain or improve water quality, 

moderate impacts of flooding, and provide continuous ground water recharge areas. 

The areas are also attractive for their diverse scenery and recreation potential. 

A proper functioning condition assessment has not been completed on forest riparian 

areas. Most of the areas are believed to be functioning at or near their proper 

capability and potential. Where roads and concentrated recreation (dispersed and 

developed) exist in riparian areas, proper functioning condition could be at-risk or 

non-functioning. Sufficient quantities of large woody debris, for example, may be 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

78 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

absent in some streams due to these facilities and/or past land use practices and 

natural disturbance. 

3.2 Direct/Indirect Effects 

Under all alternatives, riparian corridors would be managed under the riparian 

prescription. The prescription defines these corridors by setting minimum widths of 

100 feet on either side of perennial streams and 50 feet on either side of 

intermittent streams, but also indicates that the corridors would be expanded to 

include all of the true riparian area. A 100 foot corridor width for perennial streams is 

generally recognized in the literature as an appropriate zone to maintain proper 

riparian function and protection. The management goal for riparian corridors would 

be to maintain or enhance the structural and functional integrity of riparian areas 

and associated aquatic and upland systems. 

To provide for riparian integrity, management standards would be included in the 

riparian prescription. Management standards would include provisions to provide 

desirable levels of woody debris, and control impacts from vegetation management, 

recreational uses, mineral development, and fireline construction. Vegetation 

management would be limited to that needed to maintain or improve riparian 

function. Zones around channeled ephemeral streams would also be recognized as 

special areas, with standards designed to ensure protection of channels and their 

function as part of the riparian network. 

Fire Management 

Prescribed fire would potentially occur within riparian corridors, most often as low 

intensity backing fires. Because of low intensity, the fires would not be expected to 

substantially alter riparian conditions. Firelines needed in riparian corridors would 

normally be built with hand tools. The use of mechanized equipment would be 

minimized. Forestwide and riparian prescription direction required for all alternatives 

would minimize fire-related effects in riparian areas. 

Vegetation Management 

Minimal vegetation management is expected to occur in riparian areas. 

Implementation of the riparian prescription under all alternatives is expected to 

increase the acreage of riparian area that is in late-successional forest. Increases in 

older forests would result in increases in abundance of snags and downed wood and 

large woody debris input to streams. 

Any timber harvest or other vegetative management treatments that occurs in 

riparian areas would be guided by forestwide and riparian prescription direction. 

Significant ground disturbance would not result from any vegetative treatments that 

would be completed. As a result, soil productivity and water quality would be 

minimally affected by any vegetative management actions that would occur in 

riparian areas. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 79 

Transportation System Management 

The need for new road construction would be minimal for any alternative. Any road 

construction that would potentially be required in riparian areas would be limited to 

crossings that enter and leave the areas in as close to a perpendicular manner as 

possible. Encroachment by new roads along stream channels and in floodplains 

would be minimal. Very little effect to riparian, floodplain and wetland areas would 

result from new road construction. 

Each alternative would examine opportunities to improve, relocate or decommission 

roads located in riparian areas, as appropriate and feasible. Improvement would 

focus on reducing sediment delivery to streams and addressing any aquatic organism 

passage concerns. To the extent these activities would be needed and completed, 

the proper functioning condition of riparian areas would be improved. 

Recreation Management 

Most of the existing developed recreation and dispersed camping sites on the forest 

are located in or near riparian areas. This type of concentrated human use results in 

damaged vegetation, soil erosion and compaction including damage to stream banks 

and minor channel alterations (rock dams). Sediment delivery to nearby aquatic 

systems would potentially be an effect as would water pollution from human or 

animal waste, dishwashing, and trash accumulation. Generally, the effects would be 

localized and would be reduced by using strategies to avoid riparian areas whenever 

possible, using appropriate mitigation measures and educating forest visitors about 

ways to protect soil and water resources. 

Any new trail or recreation facility development and use would potentially result in 

localized effects to riparian areas such as vegetation removal, soil compaction and 

erosion. Forestwide and riparian prescription direction limits new recreation facility 

and trail development in these areas, however, and requires mitigation to minimize 

these effects. 

Effects to the riparian resource are not expected to vary significantly by any 

alternative. Alternative A and E emphasize providing increased recreation 

opportunities, and could potentially result in more trail and facility development in 

these areas. Opportunities to improve existing developed and dispersed recreation 

facilities to achieve a proper riparian functioning condition would be examined and 

implemented as necessary and possible. 

3.3 Cumulative Effects 

Cumulatively, networks of riparian corridors across the national forest landscape are 

fragmented by mixed ownerships and land use conversion on private land. This 

condition would be expected to persist across all alternatives. On NFS lands, riparian 

areas would move toward a late successional or mature forest condition. Table 3-12 

indicates the percentage of riparian area within each 5th level watershed that is in a 

forested condition. Table 3-12 displays a coarse indication of the relative health of 

riparian areas at the watershed scale. 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

80 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Table 3-12. Percent Forested Riparian Area 

(1990) by 5th Level Watershed 

5th Level Watershed Name Percent Forested 

Riparian 

Upper New River 79.5 

Big Laurel 72.8 

Conasauga River 81.3 

South Holston River 55.9 

Roan Creek 77.8 

Watauga River 75.8 

Elk River 88.0 

Doe River 89.5 

Stone Creek 86.4 

Lower Watauga River 70.8 

French Broad River 75.2 

Big Creek 95.2 

Pigeon River 81.9 

North Carolina Streams 92.6 

North Indian Creek 75.8 

South Indian Creek 96.3 

Camp Creek 56.6 

Nolichucky River 55.0 

Little Tennessee River 81.0 

Tellico River 84.3 

Hiwassee River 78.3 

Conasauga Creek 70.9 

Lower Ocoee River 81.5 

Upper Ocoee River 86.5 

On NFS lands, riparian areas would be close to 100 percent forested with the 

exception of roads and recreation developments. Expected trends for riparian areas 

on NFS land---moving toward mature forest—would contribute to sustaining healthy 

riparian condition on the landscape. 

4.0 Air Resources 

4.1 Affected Environment 

The CNF contains portions of two Class I Wildernesses; the Cohutta Wilderness and 

Joyce Kilmer-Slickrock Wilderness. These wildernesses are afforded special 

protection under the Clean Air Act (CAA). The CAA requires federal land managers to 

identify Air Quality Related Values (AQRV), or resources important to the areas that 

might be affected by air pollution. For Cohutta and Joyce Kilmer-Slickrock Wilderness 

these include visibility, water quality and vegetation. The GSMNP (administered by 

the Department of Interior) is another Class I area located between the south and 

north end districts of the CNF. The term AQRV will apply to any resources within the 

national forest boundary that might be affected by air pollution. A more detailed 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 81 

explination of air quality and the impacts to the AQRV can be found in Appendix G, Air 

Resource. 

Through a series of legislative and regulatory requirements, federal land 

management agencies have the unique responsibility to not only protect the air, land, 

and water resources under their respective authorities from degradation associated 

with the impacts of air pollution emitted outside the borders of NFS lands (CAA, 

1990), but to protect those same resources from the impacts of air pollutants 

produced within those borders (CAA, 1990, Organic Act, 1977, Wilderness Act, 

1997). Activities from within the forest such as prescribed burning, road 

construction/maintenance, recreational use, and timber harvesting all have an 

impact on the air quality of the forest. It is the responsibility of federal land 

managers to minimize the impact of these activities on the forest’s AQRV, as well as 

the forest’s contribution to air pollution. It is important for federal land managers to 

understand the impacts of pollution sources from activities within the national forest, 

and to be familiar with the impacts from pollution sources outside the national forest 

boundary. 

The CNF is found in an area of the U.S.A with an increasing population and with an 

increasing demand for the combustion of fossil fuels to produce energy for electricity 

and transportation (SAMI, 2002). The forest is within a day’s drive of a large 

percentage of the United State’s population. Within 120 miles there are 36 urban 

areas and numerous towns near the CNF. Four major cities, Nashville, Birmingham, 

Atlanta, and Charlotte are among the urban areas about 120 miles from the forest. 

The urban areas are where the largest number of vehicle miles is traveled, where 

many coal-fired power plants are located near to supply electricity, and where 

industrial facilities (such as the Tennessee Eastman Company near Kingsport, 

Tennessee) are located to manufacture goods (Figure 3-2 ). Within 120 miles of the 

forest, about 35 percent of the nitrogen oxide emissions are released from coal-fired 

power plants (especially during hot summer days when electricity is needed to cool 

homes and businesses) and about 34 percent of the nitrogen oxides released come 

from highway vehicles. Nitrogen oxides are an important contributor to the formation 

of ground-level ozone on hot sunny days (Chameides and Cowling, 1995). Current 

ozone concentrations near the forest are at levels that exceed the new ozone 

National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS), which means ozone levels on many 

areas of the forest are most likely to be unhealthy for people (Figure 3-3). Also, 

ozone exposures are likely to be causing growth reductions to sensitive species on 

the forest, and may be causing the ozone sensitive species to be less abundant in 

the forest (SAMI, 2002). Currently, there are laws rules and regulations in place that 

will reduce nitrogen oxide emissions by 60 percent in 2040 (in comparison to 1990 

emission) within 120 miles of the forest (Figure 3-4). The reductions in nitrogen 

oxides are most likely to reduce the highest concentrations of ozone, which may 

result in ozone having only minimal effects on growth by the year 2040. Further 

nitrogen oxide reductions are also anticipated as State and local air pollution control 

agencies seek ways to attain the new ozone standard in urban areas like Johnson 

City, Kingsport, and Bristol; Chattanooga; and Knoxville. The further reductions in 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

82 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

nitrogen oxides will have a large benefit for the health of people visiting or living 

within the forest, as well as the vegetation. 

Figure 3-2. Total nitrogen oxide emission (tons) in 1990 and location of point sources of nitrogen 

oxides greater than or equal to 10,000 tons per year (SAMI, 2002). 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 83 

Figure 3-3. Area that could possibly be designated nonattainment for the 8-hour ozone 

standard based upon using 1998 through 2000 data. 

Figure 3-4. Changes in total nitrogen oxide emission (tons) in 2040 and location of point sources 

of nitrogen oxides greater than or equal to 10,000 tons in 1990 (SAMI, 2002). 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

84 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Acid compounds in clouds, fog, rain, and haze (dry deposition) are having an adverse 

impact to visibility, and the ability of the soils and streams to buffer acid inputs 

(called acid neutralizing capacity, or ANC). Sulfur compounds, or sulfates, are the 

primary secondary compound causing these impacts and originally began as sulfur 

dioxide emissions. Seventy-eight percent of the sulfur dioxide emissions within 120 

miles of the forest are released from coal-fired power plants. The power plants in 

Georgia and Alabama are most likely to be influencing the acidity and sulfate 

concentration in the rainfall on the south end Districts; while TVA is most likely to 

have the greatest contribution to sulfates in rainfall on the north end districts (SAMI, 

2002). Sulfur dioxide emissions are expected to decrease by 61 percent, or more, 

from sources within 120 miles of the forest by the year 2040. However, continued 

decreases in stream ANC is expected for many high elevation headwater streams 

(Figure 3-5) because the soils have been retaining sulfates for many decades. As the 

sulfates are released into soil water solution then an equivalent amount of base 

cations, such as calcium, will be removed from the soils. Eventually the stream’s 

ANC may fall below a value of 50 microequivalents per liter, a value which may 

indicate potential adverse impacts to the aquatic biota. 

Figure 3-5. Predicted trend acid neutralizing capacity (ANC) with implementation of current laws, 

rules, and regulations (SAMI, 2002). 

The regional haze and reduced visibility observed in the mountains is caused mostly 

by air pollution, primarily sulfates that originated from coal-fired power plants. The 

beautiful mountain scenery is one of the main reasons tourists visit the CNF and 

other areas in Appalachia (Appalachian Regional Commission, 1970). During the 

last four decades, the eastern U.S.A has seen a significant, regional reduction in 

visibility (IMPROVE, 2001). The estimated natural background visibility for the 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 85 

eastern U.S.A is 93+28 miles (NAAP, 1991). However, there has been a significant 

reduction in how far a person can see distant views, as well as how clearly a person 

can see the mountains. Secondary fine particles (PM2.5) are primarily responsible for 

the visibility impairment. Secondary fine particles are formed when combustion 

gases are chemically transformed into particles. In the eastern U.S.A it is sulfate 

particles (transformed sulfur dioxide) from coal-fired power plants that comprise 

most of the measured fine particle mass (IMPROVE, 2001). 

On the days (with a relative humidity of 80 percent) classified as having the lowest 

fine particle mass (3.9ug/m3) the estimated visibility is 60 miles, but on the highest 

mass (20.65ug/m3) days the visibility is reduced significantly to 16 miles (Figure 3-

6). Relative humidity levels play an important role in determining visibility, certain air 

pollutants (e.g. sulfate molecules) physically grow in size with increasing relative 

humidity. The days with the poorest visibility are most likely to occur starting in May 

and continue through September (Air Resource Specialists, 1995) during the time 

when most people are visiting the forest. Throughout the year, people are most likely 

to see a uniform haze – like a white or gray veil – obscure the beautiful mountains 

(Air Resource Specialists, 1995). Sulfates are the most important fine particles 

contributing to visibility impairment. On the low mass days they comprise 53 percent 

of the total mass while on the highest mass days the sulfates are 68 percent of the 

total. Seventy-eight percent of the sulfur dioxide emissions within 120 miles of the 

forest are released from coal-fired power plants. On hot-sunny days when there is an 

atmospheric stagnation then it is the TVA emissions of sulfur dioxide that are most 

likely to be causing most of the visibility impairment on the forest (SAMI, 2002). 

Organics (released primarily from vegetation as volatile organic compounds) are the 

second most important fine particles measured and if organics were to most 

abundant then there would be a bluish cast to the mountains – hence the name Blue 

Ridge Mountains. 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

86 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Figure 3-6. Visual representation at Joyce Kilmer-Slickrock Wilderness 

using the 1988 through 1995 IMPROVE data. The image on the left 

shows visibility on a low fine particle mass day (90 miles), while the 

image on the right shows a high fine particle mass day (16 miles). 

Relative humidity was set at 80 percent when using the WinHaze 

model. 

Sulfur dioxide is expected to decrease by at least 61 percent by the year 2040 in the 

counties within 120 miles of the CNF. Further reductions by coal-fired power plants 

in North Carolina (especially if the facility in Asheville puts on controls) and the TVA 

are likely to contribute to further reductions then what Southern Appalachian 

Mountains Inititatives (SAMI) (2002) estimated for the year 2040. SAMI did estimate 

what visibility may be like between the 1991 through 1995 average and the year 

2040. For Joyce Kilmer-Slickrock Wilderness the annual average visibility was 

estimated to be 23.4 miles, but with the current laws, rules and regulations in place 

the average is expected to improve to 28.5 miles. Summertime visibility is worst with 

an average of 13.8 miles. The SAMI (2002) estimates for summertime visibility are 

expected to improve by the year 2040 to 21.1 miles. Similar patterns are also 

expected for Cohutta Wilderness. The annual average visibility estimate based upon 

the SAMI (2002) analysis is 19.5 miles and it is predicted to improve to 24.5 miles by 

the year 2040. Summertime visibility at Cohutta Wilderness was estimated to be 

15.7 miles and visibility is expected to improve to 24.3 miles. 

The fine particles that cause visibility impairment are also of concern because high 

concentration can be unhealthy for people since they are primarily associated with 

the aggravation of respiratory conditions, such as asthma. Fine particles are closely 

associated with increased hospital admissions and emergency room visits for heart 

and lung disease, increased respiratory disease and symptoms such as asthma, 

decreased lung function, and even premature death. Sensitive groups are at greater 

risk and include the elderly; individuals with cardiopulmonary disease, such as 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 87 

asthma; and children. For this reason, fine particle levels are monitored, and the 

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has established NAAQS for fine particles, also 

called PM2.5. Table 3-13 presents results for monitors near the CNF and these 

results indicates the annual average PM2.5 is the NAAQS most likely to be violated in 

the future. The 24-hour average (please note the maximum values are presented 

and not the 98th percentile) NAAQS is unlikely to be exceeded when the data from the 

closest monitoring sites to the forest are averaged for three years. The fine particles 

measured in the atmosphere area combination of both primary (such as released 

from prescribed fires) and secondary (such as the transformation of sulfur dioxide to 

sulfates) fine particles. Near urban areas the types of compounds comprising most 

of the fine particles are likely to be sulfates and organics that are released from 

vegetation and vehicles. 

Table 3-13. Monitoring results for particulate matter 2.5 microns (PM2.5) and 

smaller in size for the year 1999 through 2001*. 

Location 

(County) 

1999 

Maximum 

24-hour 

(ug/m3) 

1999 

Annual 

Average 

(ug/m3) 

2000 

Maximum 

24-hour 

(ug/m3) 

2000 

Annual 

Average 

(ug/m3) 

2001 

Maximum 

24-hour 

(ug/m3) 

2001 

Annual 

Average 

(ug/m3) 

Blount 41.3 17.42 25.3 13.49 No data No data 

Blount No data No data 48.7 18.14 40.9 15.14 

Knox 38.2 19.49 52.3 18.59 45.1 17.14 

Knox 72.7 21.82 69.6 20.61 46.7 18.42 

Knox 29.0 17.26 52.9 17.92 86.5 18.51 

McMinn No data No data 50.4 18.87 43.1 16.81 

Sullivan 53.2 18.2 56.2 17.55 45.1 16.66 

* The National Ambient Air Quality Standard is violated if the average of 3-years 

of annual means is 15 ug/m3 or greater (multiple community oriented monitors 

can be averaged together), or the 3-year average of the 24-hour concentration for 

the 98th percentile (using the maximum population oriented monitor in an area) is 

the 65 ug/m3 or greater. 

The Johnson City-Kingsport-Bristol metropolitan statistical area (Sullivan County) 

includes a large portion of the north end districts and there is a high likelihood this 

area will be designated as nonattainment for the fine particle (and ozone) NAAQS. 

The EPA will have the decision if any other portions of the forest will also be 

designated as nonattainment for fine particles or ozone. It is of particular 

importance for fire managers to mitigate prescribed fire emissions, to the greatest 

extent practical, during those days characterized by existing or predicted high 

ambient air pollution. The PM2.5 standard may require fire managers to be even 

more vigilant to protect the health and welfare of citizens on and off forest lands from 

the effects of particulate matter emissions associated with prescribed fire. 

Once an area is designated nonattainment, a State Implementation Plan is 

developed in attempt to bring the area back into attainment of the standard. This 

usually involves placing controls on various sources that contribute to the pollutant of 

concern in order to lessen or minimize their emissions. The forest will need to 

interact with the Tennessee Department of the Environment and Conservation - Air 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

88 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Pollution Control Division to ensure that Forest prescribed fire emissions (and 

perhaps other Forest activities) are considered in the State Implementation Plan 

development, since 70 percent of the emissions from prescribed fires are fine 

particles, and nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds are also released. 

4.2 Direct/Indirect/Cumulative Effects 

Land management and recreational activities conducted on the forest would 

potentially contribute to air quality degradation in combination with other air pollution 

emissions in the region. Most of the emission activities (such as highway vehicle 

use) from Forest Service activities are already accounted for in emissions inventories. 

However, the single most important Forest Service management activity that would 

deviate from the emissions inventory would be for prescribed fires. Therefore, this 

analysis will be limited to evaluating how county level total emissions of fine particles 

would change with the alternatives. 

The Southern Appalachian Mountain Initiatives database was used to estimate 

primary fine particulate matter (PM2.5) emissions (SAMI, 2002) for the nine counties 

that intersect the forest. Total fine particulate matter emissions in the year 1990 

were estimated to be 11,928.5 tons and by the year 2040 the emissions would 

potentially be predicted to increase to 14,334.4 tons. The agriculture and forestry 

sector was estimated to have 907.3 tons of fine particles in 1990 and 1,607.9 tons 

by the year 2040. It should be noted that it can not be determined how much of the 

agriculture and forestry total would potentially be from Forest Service prescribed 

fires. 

Table 3-14 lists the estimated emissions of fine particulates for each of the 

Alternatives and the emissions would potentially be directly related to the number of 

acres to receive prescribe fire treatment each year. Alternatives F (current), A, B, D, 

E, and G would potentially be all below the 1990 totals obtained from the SAMI 

database, while Alternative I (as well as the other alternatives) would potentially be 

below the 2040 levels predicted by SAMI. Most likely though, the SAMI emission 

inventory for fine particulates emissions has not anticipated all of the emissions for 

any of the Forest Service alternatives. Therefore, it is critical for the forest to work 

with the Tennessee Department of Environmental Control – Air Pollution Control 

Division and others to include Forest Service emissions in future emissions 

inventories. 

Table 3-14. Estimated fine particulate emissions for each of the Alternatives 

using EPA emission factors (U. S. EPA, 1996). 

Alternative Acres Fuel Consumed 

(tons per acre) 

PM2.5 (pounds per 

ton of fuel 

consumed) 

PM2.5

Emissions 

(tons) 

A 16,000 4 28 896 

B 16,000 4 28 896 

D 16,000 4 28 896 

E 16,000 4 28 896 

G 10,000 4 28 560 

I 20,000 4 28 1,120 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 89 

Table 3-14. Estimated fine particulate emissions for each of the Alternatives 

using EPA emission factors (U. S. EPA, 1996). 

Alternative Acres Fuel Consumed 

(tons per acre) 

PM2.5 (pounds per 

ton of fuel 

consumed) 

PM2.5

Emissions 

(tons) 

F-current 16,000 4 28 896 

Sulfates are the primary fine particles measured at remote monitoring sites near the 

Class I areas (SAMI, 2002). Currently, the emissions from prescribed fires would not 

be expected to be a large contributor to the total fine particulate matter mass and 

consequently to exceeding the fine particle National Ambient Air Quality Standard 

(NAAQS). However, the forest would be expected to follow conformity determination 

rules and disclose any prescribe fire activities in nonattainment areas. Most likely, 

this would include any prescribe burn projects in the following counties: Sullivan, 

Charter, Washington, and Unicoi. 

5.0 MINERALS 

5.1 Affected Environment 

The U.S.A holds title to approximately 89 percent of the minerals beneath the CNF. 

The 11 percent the forest doesn’t own are identified as Reserved or Outstanding 

mineral rights. Reserved minerals rights are property rights that were established at 

the time the Forest Service acquired the surface estate when the mineral estate was 

severed from the surface estate. Outstanding mineral rights are property rights that 

were established and separated from the surface estate prior to the Forest Service’s 

acquisition of the surface estate. The Bureau of Land Management (BLM) manages 

the mineral estate where the U.S.A holds title and the Forest Service administers the 

surface estate. There are no mineral activities occurring on the CNF. 

There are 639,755 acres on the CNF. The Federal mineral ownership is 568,005. 

This acreage falls within five categories for mineral leasing purposes. The first 

category consists of lands that are not available for lease. These lands have either 

been withdrawn from mineral entry administratively, by law or the forest has 

determined that a prescription goal cannot be accomplished if the lands were open 

to mineral entry. 5.6 percent of the forest falls within this category. The second 

category allows only oil and gas leasing only with a No Surface Occupancy (NSO) 

stipulation. 3.7 percent of the forest falls within this category. The third category 

allows solid minerals leasing with a NSO stipulation. 5.5 percent of the forest falls 

within this category. The fourth category allows mineral leasing with a NSO or a 

Controlled Surface Use (CSU) stipulation. 7.1 percent of the forest currently falls 

within this category. The final category allows leasing with standard lease 

stipulations. A majority of the lands on the forest, 78.1 percent, fall within this 

category. The above listed information identified as Alternative F and is located in 

the following table (Table 3-15): 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

90 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Table 3-15. Percentage of CNF Affected by Each Alternative 

Alternative No Leasing 

Oil & 

Gas 

Leasing 

with 

NSO 

Leasing 

Allowed 

with NSO 

Leasing 

Allowed 

with 

NSO/CSU 

Leasing 

Allowed 

with 

Standard 

Stipulations 

A 11.1 5.6 11.0 40.0 32.3 

B 11.2 5.9 6.9 49.1 26.9 

D 11.2 5.7 0.1 30.7 52.4 

E 11.2 5.2 7.9 36.0 39.7 

F 5.6 3.7 5.5 7.1 78.1 

G 11.2 4.8 11.6 30.5 41.9 

I 11.1 5.6 3.5 35.4 44.4 

5.2 Direct/Indirect Effects 

The determination of effects for each alternative would be measured by the 

percentage of the forest available for Federal leasing under each alternative. 

Alternative A: Under this alternative 11.1 percent of the forest would potentially not 

be available for lease, 5.6 percent would potentially only be available for oil and gas 

leasing with a NSO stipulation, 11.0 percent would potentially be available for solid 

mineral leasing with a NSO stipulation, 40.0 percent would potentially be available 

for lease with NSO and/or CSU lease stipulations and 32.3 percent of the forest 

would potentially be open for leasing with standard lease stipulations. 

Alternative B: With this alternative 11.2 percent of the CNF would potentially be 

withdrawn from leasing, 5.9 percent of the forest is available for oil and gas leasing 

with a NSO stipulation, 6.9 percent of the forest would potentially be available for 

solid mineral leasing with a NSO stipulation, 49.1 percent of the forest would be 

available for leasing with either a NSO or a CSU lease stipulation, and 26.9 percent 

of the forest would potentially be available for leasing with standard lease 

stipulations. 

Alternative D: In this alternative 11.2 percent of the CNF will not be available for 

lease, 5.7 percent of the CNF would be available only for oil and gas leasing with a 

NSO stipulation, 0.1 percent of the CNF would be available for solid mineral leasing 

with a NSO stipulation, 30.7 percent would be available for lease with either a NSO or 

CSU stipulation, and 52.4 percent of the CNF would be available for lease with 

standard lease stipulations. 

Alternative E: With this alternative 11.2 percent of the forest would potentially not be 

available for lease, 5.2 percent of the forest would potentially be available only for oil 

and gas leasing with a NSO stipulation, 7.9 percent would potentially be available for 

solid mineral leasing with a NSO stipulation, 36.0 percent would potentially be 

available for lease with either a NSO or a CSU stipulation and 39.7 percent of the 

forest would potentially be available for lease with standard lease stipulations. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 91 

Alternative G: Under this alternative 11.2 percent of the forest would not be 

available for lease, 4.8 percent of the forest would only be available for oil and gas 

leasing with a NSO lease stipulation, 11.6 percent would be available for solid 

mineral leasing with a NSO lease stipulation, 30.5 percent would be available for 

lease with either a NSO or a CSU lease stipulation and 41.9 percent of the forest 

would be available for lease with standard lease stipulations. 

Alternative I: In this stipulation 11.1 percent of the forest would not be available for 

lease, 5.6 percent would only be available for oil and gas leasing with a NSO lease 

stipulation, 3.5 percent would only be available for solid mineral leasing with a NSO 

lease stipulation, 35.4 percent would be available for leasing with either a NSO or 

CSU lease stipulation and 44.4 percent of the forest would be available for lease with 

standard lease stipulations. 

5.3 Cumulative Effects 

Potential cumulative effects disclosure would not be determined due to the uncertain 

nature of mineral exploration and development. An area under lease may or may not 

contain marketable minerals. Any lease issued would potentially not have 100 

percent surface disturbance. 

BIOLOGICAL ELEMENTS

Introduction – Historical Perspective 

The forests and plant and animal communities of the southern Appalachian region 

are widely known as being some of the most rich and diverse systems outside of 

tropical areas (Laerm et al. 1999 in Ford et al. 1999; USDA Forest Service 2001). 

This high level of diversity abounds despite the intensive land use and abuse of the 

early to mid 1900’s that left much of the region de-forested and barren (Shands 

1991). Thus, the high diversity found in the southern Appalachians today is a 

testimonial to the resilience of these systems. The following sections that describe 

the effects of EIS alternatives on plant and animal communities are described 

primarily based on current conditions. This introductory section provides some 

historical context that may be used as a reference point when comparing expected 

future habitat outcomes and in describing effects to viability of associated species. 

While much of the region had been completely logged over by the turn of the century, 

various tracts of land remained with standing virgin timber (Shands 1991). Early 

inventories of forests in the southern Appalachian region conducted by government 

surveyors provide valuable insights into the historical condition and distribution of 

southern Appalachian forest communities (Ashe 1911, 1913, 1922; Ayres and Ashe 

1905; Foster and Ashe 1908; Greeley and Ashe 1907; Pinchot and Ashe 1897). 

Table 3-16 provides a brief summary of the major forest tree species and their 

position on the landscape based upon inventories conducted primarily by U.S. Forest 

Service Examiner W.W. Ashe, during the period 1897 to 1922. 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

92 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Table 3-16. Historic Data For Major Forest Tree Species for the Southern 

Appalachians. 

Common Name Scientific Name Description (after Ayers and Ashe, 1905) 

Chestnut Castanea dentata

The chestnut is a large tree which attains a 

height of 120 feet and a diameter of 7 

feet. It is common on nearly all soils above 

2,000 feet. It regenerates well from both 

shoots and seeds and has a greater growth 

rate than any other tree in the region. 

White Oak Quercus alba 

White oak reaches a height of 120 feet 

and a diameter of 5 feet. It is common 

below an elevation of 4,500 feet, 

especially on rocky soils. It seeds 

abundantly and reproduction is good. 

Chestnut Oak Quercus prinus 

Chestnut oak reaches a height of 90 feet 

and a diameter of 40 inches. It is common 

on dry, sandy slopes where it seeds in 

abundance. 

Northern Red Oak Quercus rubra 

Northern red oak is the largest oak in the 

southern Appalachians, frequently 

reaching a height of 130 feet and a 

diameter of more than 5 feet. It is 

common above 1,500 feet elevation but 

attains it’s greatest size in protected coves 

where it grows with chestnut, basswood, 

birch, and yellow poplar. Red oak is a tree 

that seeds frequently and has good 

reproduction. 

Scarlet Oak Quercus coccinea 

Scarlet oak reaches a height of 100 feet 

and a diameter of 30 inches. It is very 

common on dry soils below 4,000’ 

elevation. 

Black Oak Quercus velutina 

Black oak reaches a height of 100 feet and 

a diameter of 30 inches. It is frequent on 

good soils on well drained slopes below 

2,500 feet elevation. It is a tree with good 

reproduction. 

Southern Red Oak Quercus falcata 

Southern red oak reaches a height of 80 

feet and a diameter of 30 inches. It is 

common below an elevation of 2,000 feet 

where it occurs on dry soils with shortleaf 

pine. Southern red oak grows rapidly and 

seeds abundantly every few years. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 93 

Table 3-16. Historic Data For Major Forest Tree Species for the Southern 

Appalachians. 

Common Name Scientific Name Description (after Ayers and Ashe, 1905) 

White Pine Pinus strobus 

White pine typically reaches a height of 

160 feet and a diameter of 40 inches. It 

can form nearly pure stands on sandy or 

gravelly soils on northwest slopes between 

1,700 and 4,000 feet elevation. This 

species has rapid growth and reproduces 

freely. 

Shortleaf Pine Pinus echinata 

Shortleaf pine reaches a height of 100 feet 

and a diameter of 36 inches. It is found on 

well-drained soils below 2,000 feet 

elevation. It seeds freely and reproduces 

abundantly in full sunlight. 

Pitch Pine Pinus rigida 

Pitch pine reaches a height of 90 feet and 

a diameter of 28 inches. It is associated 

with shortleaf pine though it is more 

abundant than that species at higher 

elevations. 

Table Mountain 

Pine Pinus pungens 

Table Mountain pine is a medium sized 

tree reaching a height of 70 feet and a 

diameter of 24 inches. It occurs on dry, 

rocky ridges between 1,500 and 3,000 

feet. 

Virginia Pine Pinus virginiana 

Virginia pine (also refered to as scrub pine) 

is a short-lived, slender tree that seldom 

reaches more than 80 feet in height and 

18 inches in diameter. It is common below 

an elevation of 2,000 feet where it 

propagates freely and grows rapidly. It is 

most common in abandoned fields and 

fencerows. 

Hemlock Tsuga canadensis 

Hemlock is one of the largest trees in the 

eastern U.S.A often attaining a height of 

over 140 feet and a diameter of 5 feet. It 

is common along streams and on north 

facing slopes above an elevation 1,500 

feet. It seeds frequently but reproduction 

is poor. 

White Ash Fraxinus 

americana 

White ash often attains heights of 130 feet 

and a diameter of 40 inches. 

Black Gum Nyssa sylvatica 

Black gum can reach 110 feet in height 

and 36 inches in diameter. It is common 

along streams at low elevations and on dry 

slopes at higher elevations. 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

94 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Table 3-16. Historic Data For Major Forest Tree Species for the Southern 

Appalachians. 

Common Name Scientific Name Description (after Ayers and Ashe, 1905) 

Basswood Tilia heterophylla 

Basswood reaches 120 feet in height and 

48 inches in diameter. It is common along 

streams and in protected coves. 

Buckeye Aesculus flava 

Buckeye reaches a height of 120 feet and 

a diameter of 48 inches. It is common in 

coves, especially above elevations of 

3,000 feet. 

Red Maple Acer rubrum 

Red maple often attains a height of 110 

feet and a diameter of 36 inches. It is 

common on moist soils and represents 

most of the young growth in culled forests. 

Sugar Maple Acer saccharum 

Sugar maple reaches a height of 120 feet 

and a diameter of 40 inches. It typically 

occurs above 2,000 feet elevation on cold, 

moist sites. 

Black Cherry Prunus serotina 

The best individuals of Black Cherry have 

generally been removed, however, on 

moist sites it still reaches heights of 100 

feet and a diameter of 36 inches. 

Hickories Carya spp. 

Several specoes of hickory are found in the 

souther Appalachians. These species 

occupy a variety of sites from moist to dry 

and typically reach heights of 110 feet and 

diameters of 36 inches. 

Sweet Birch Betula lenta 

Sweet birch reaches a height of 90 feet 

and a diameter of 36 inches. It is typically 

found along cold mountain streams and on 

north facing slopes. 

Yellow Birch Betula 

allgheniensis 

Yellow birch reaches a height of 80 feet 

and a diameter of 36 inches. It is common 

on north facing slopes at higher elevations. 

Beech Fagus americana 

Beech reaches a height of 100 feet and a 

diameter of 30 inches. It reaches it’s 

greatest size on moist sites, coves, and 

along streams. It also forms stunted 

groves on cold slopes at higher elevations. 

Land acquisition files of the USDA Forest Service provide detailed inventories of 

individual forested tracts and often include detailed site mapping showing the 

distribution of forest types on the landscape. Site mapping, with corresponding 

forest descriptions, for most (if not all) of the lands that now comprise the CNF are 

part of land acquisition records (USDA 1912 - ). Four categories of sites were used in 

the early type mapping done by the U.S. Forest Service: “Cove”, “Lower Slope”, 

“Upper Slope”, and “Ridge” (Frothingham 1921). The “site” is the sum of the 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 95 

ecological (edaphic, topographic, climatic) factors at a given location (Ashe 1922). 

The forest “type” that corresponds to a given site on the maps is provided in the 

records as a description of the major forest species present at that location. The 

canopy species and size of trees that make up a forest “type” are directly related to 

the conditions at the “site” (Ashe 1922), thus differing quality (size) trees of the same 

species may be expressed in the various forest types depending upon the site at 

which they occur (Figure 3-I). In addition to describing forested communities, land 

acquisition files may provide insightful data on the distribution of rare communities. 

Site mapping for the Roan Mountain area depicts historical boundaries of balds and 

spruce-fir forests, both of which have declined significantly since the time of 

acquisition. 

Affected environment sections presented below describe existing habitat conditions 

within major forested communities found on the CNF. Existing habitat conditions 

within these forests today are far different from those found in the pre-settlement 

forests that supported trees with the characteristics described in Table 3-16. 

Objectives in the LMP geared at restoring major forest communities are designed to 

begin to restore habitat structure, composition, and distribution to a desired 

condition thought to be needed to maintain viability of associated species. However, 

there is no surrogate today for a chestnut tree, which, on a good site, could reach a 

diameter of seven feet and height of 120 feet tall, nor the associated habitat 

conditions found in forests that support such trees. Recognizing that the forests 

have undergone such significant change is important in describing effects to species 

viability. Section 15.0 of this chapter (Terrestrial Species Viability) outlines the 

process that was used to analyze effects on species viability and makes reference to 

pre-settlement conditions as a benchmark to compare expected habitat outcomes. It 

is recognized that significant ecological changes (loss of the American chestnut from 

eastern forests due to chestnut blight (Endothia parasitica), and reduction of large 

tree structure, etc.) cannot be replaced in the short-term, rather, future habitat 

outcomes are put into the context of how well they approximate such conditions. 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

96 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Figure 3-7. Growth Curves for Southern Appalachian Site Types Showing the Difference Between the 

Highest Quality (Cove – Site 1a) and Lowest Quality (Ridge - Site IIIb) sites (Frothingham 1921). 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 97 

6.0 MAJOR FOREST COMMUNITIES 

The following sections describe existing condition and potential effects by alternative 

to Major Forest Communities on the CNF. 

6.1 Mesic Deciduous Forests 

6.1.1 Affected Environment 

Mesic deciduous forests covered in this section include northern hardwood, mixed 

mesophytic, and bottomland hardwood community types, as well as the dry-mesic 

oak forest communities with most ambient moisture (USDA Forest Service 1997 and 

Table 6-1). These forest types are characterized by relatively low levels of 

disturbance, and from a habitat perspective, their primary value is providing habitat 

for a variety of species dependent on mid- and late-successional forest stages. 

Abundance 

Oak forests are the dominant forest cover type in the SAA Area, comprising over onethird of the land area (SAMAB 1996:23). However, in contrast to this analysis, that 

figure includes both mesic and xeric oak forests. Other mesic deciduous forest 

communities such as northern hardwood, mixed mesophytic hardwood, and 

bottomland hardwood forests are less common, comprising 1.6 percent , 8.4 percent 

and 1.2 percent of the land area of the SAA area. 

The current acreage of mesic deciduous forests for the CNF is shown in Table 3-17. 

Figure 3-8 and Figure 3-9 show the current distribution of mesic deciduous forests. 

Mesic deciduous forests are abundant and well distributed, comprising 44 percent of 

the CNF. The best, most clustered distributions are found at the higher elevations of 

the Tellico Ranger District and Big Frog Mountain, followed by Big Bald, Unaka, Roan, 

Pond and Holston Mountains and Rogers Ridge (Figure 3-8 and Figure 3-9). Poorest 

distributions are found on the pine-dominated Starr and Chilhowee Mountains. 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

98 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Table 3-17. Current acreage (and percent) of mesic deciduous forest by 

successional class, the percent of total mesic deciduous forest acreage in 

mid-late-old successional stages, and the percent of total forest acres in midlate-old successional mesic deciduous forests for the CNF, 2002. 

Early Successional 9,965 (4%) 

Sapling/Pole 22,139 (8%) 

Mid- Successional 103,214 (36%) 

Late-Old Successional 147,770 (52%) 

Total 283,088 

Total acres of mid-late-old successional mesic 

deciduous forests 250,984 

% of total mesic deciduous forest acres in mid-lateold successional stages 89% 

% of total forested acres in mid-late-old 

successional mesic deciduous forests 39% 

CISC data, 20 December 2002. Includes CISC Forest Types 13 (Loblolly PineHardwood), 41 (Cove Hardwoods-White Pine-Hemlock), 46 (Bottomland 

Hardwood-Yellow Pine), 50 (Yellow Poplar), 51 (Post Oak-Black Oak), 53 (White 

Oak-Red Oak-Hickory), 54 (White Oak), 55 (Northern Red Oak), 56 (Yellow 

Poplar-White Oak-Red Oak), 58 (Sweet Gum-Yellow Poplar), 72 (River BirchSycamore), 81 (Sugar Maple-Beech-Yellow Birch). 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 99 

Figure 3-8. Current distribution of mesic deciduous forests, south end CNF, 2002 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

100 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Figure 3-9. Current distribution of mesic deciduous forests, north end CNF, 2002. 

Age Class Distribution and Forest Structure 

For the SAA Area, the majority of the mesic deciduous forests are currently in mid-late 

successional age classes. Across all ownerships, approximately 75-80 percent of 

northern hardwoods, oak-hickory, and river floodplain forests are in mid- and latesuccessional stages (SAMAB 1996: 165). There are approximately 3.5 million acres 

of deciduous forest on NFS within the SAA area (SAMAB 1996:168). Of these acres, 

two percent are in early-successional forest, six percent are in the sapling/pole 

forest, 45 percent are in mid-successional forest and 46 percent are in latesuccessional forest. 

A key management issue for this community is maintenance of a high proportion of 

this type in older conditions to provide habitat for associated species. There are over 

200 species of viability concern species that are broadly associated with mature 

mesic deciduous forests of the southern Appalachian region, and others that are 

more specifically associated with such forests at high elevations (Table L, Appendix 

E). This assemblage supports a high number of viability concern species compared 

with other broad ecological community forest groups (ie, pine and pine-oak, oak and 

oak-pine). 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 101 

The current age class distribution of mesic deciduous forests for the CNF is shown in 

Table 3-17. About 89 percent of these forest communities are in mid-late-old 

successional stages. These forest types make up 39 percent of the total CNF acres. 

A number of bird species, including the cerulean warbler (Dendroica cerulea) favor 

mature, mesic hardwood forests with a diverse and well-developed canopy structure 

including canopy gaps and associated midstory and understory structural diversity. 

(Ramey 1996; Buehler and Nicholson 1998; Rodewald and Smith 1998; Nutt 1998). 

Species of potential viability concern associated with canopy gaps and structurally 

diverse understories in mesic deciduous forests are identified in Table L, Appendix E. 

This structural diversity may be characteristic of the decadent, patchy conditions 

found in old growth forests, to which these species have presumably adapted. While 

a growing portion of the landscape in the southern Appalachians consists of large 

hardwoods, most sites have very simple canopy structures (Runkle 1985). This lack 

of structure is likely the result of previous even-aged timber management, resulting 

in forest stands of approximately equally-aged trees with low mortality and few 

canopy gaps. Most of these mid- and late-successional forests have not yet begun to 

develop the canopy gaps characteristic of old growth forests. It may be many 

centuries before such structure develops through natural succession. 

Intermediate treatments such as thinning can be used to improve forest structure in 

mid-successional mesic deciduous forests. Canopy gaps created by these 

treatments would stimulate the development of the desired midstory and understory 

structure. Single-tree selection or small group selection (generally less than 0.75 

acre group maximum size), implemented at relatively low intensities, achieves very 

similar desired conditions. For some late successional and older mesic forests, 

several old growth structural characteristics such as canopy gaps, multi-layered 

canopy, and abundance of dead and down wood may be present, and treatments to 

achieve this objective would not be needed. 

Management Indicators 

Several management indicators have been identified for assessing effects to mesic 

deciduous communities. These include both MIS and key habitat variables. 

The hooded warbler (Wilsonia citrina) is a neotropical migrant that is fairly common 

to common throughout the southeastern U.S.A during the breeding season (Hamel 

1992). It is found in moist deciduous forests with fairly dense understories, where it 

breeds and feeds (Hamel 1992; DeGraaf et al. 1991). It has been identified as a 

MIS for mid-late mesic deciduous forests with canopy gaps and structurally diverse 

understories. The hooded warbler is common in appropriate habitat on the CNF. 

The cerulean warbler was previously considered as a MIS due to the association of 

breeding territories with canopy gaps within southern Appalachian forests. The 

warbler is a high-priority neotropical migrant that breeds in the eastern US and 

Canada (DeGraaf et al. 1991, Rosenberg et al. 2000). Breeding Bird Survey results 

indicate that it experienced an average annual decline of 4.2 percent per year from 

1966-2000 (Sauer et al. 2000). In 1991 it was listed as a Category 2 (C2) candidate 

for listing under the ESA and was petitioned for listing as threatened in 2000. It is 

currently undergoing status review by the US Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

102 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

The cerulean warbler is also extremely rare on the CNF and is known from less than 

ten sites within the Bald River and upper Citico Creek drainages of the Tellico Ranger 

District. It is identified in the Forest Service National Strategic Plan as an emphasis 

species and will be monitored on the CNF, but not as a MIS. It is not an effective MIS 

because of its extreme rarity on the CNF and is not effectively monitored using 

standardized point count protocols. Consequently, trend analysis is not feasible. Its 

populations would primarily be evaluated based on presence or absence in targeted 

habitat types or in response to experimental habitat treatments. Monitoring for this 

species will focus more on verifying occurrence location data rather than determining 

population response to management activities. 

The hooded warbler is more appropriate as an MIS for the CNF because it is more 

common and widely distributed than the cerulean warbler. Management 

opportunities exist to increase the structural diversity of closed canopied habitats in 

this type to favor species, such as the hooded warbler, that optimize their abundance 

in forests with canopy gaps and patches of dense understory. This species is also 

deemed appropriate for helping to indicate the availability of mid- and latesuccessional mesic deciduous habitats and the efficacy of management intended to 

favor its habitat. 

Key habitat variables identified for this community are total acres of mid- and -late 

successional and old growth mesic deciduous forests, and total acres treated to 

create canopy gaps. 

6.1.2 Direct/Indirect Effects 

Abundance and Age Class Distribution 

The amount of regeneration treatments would potentially affect the future quantity 

and distribution of mid-late-old successional mesic deciduous forests. The future age 

class distribution of mesic deciduous forests would vary among alternatives due to 

the differences in management intensity and emphasis. Table 3-18 shows the 

proportion of existing mid-late-old successional deciduous forest by successional 

stage option for the CNFs (see section on Early Successional Forests for a more 

detailed description of successional stage options). Those acres allocated to 

successional stage Options 1 and 2 would emphasize mid-late-old successional 

forests as compared to Options 3 and 4, which would emphasize moderate and high 

quantities of early-successional forest. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 103 

 

Table 3-18. Proportion of current mid-late-old 

successional mesic deciduous forest in each 

successional stage option by alternative 

Successional Stage Option 1

Alternative 1 2 3 4 

Alternative A 46 26 22 6 

Alternative B 40 32 26 3 

Alternative D 34 3 23 40 

Alternative E 87 3 9 1 

Alternative F 31 0 48 20 

Alternative G 76 1 23 0 

Alternative I 50 0 43 7 

1 –Successional Stage Options: 

1- No objective for creating early-successional forest; 

areas are expected to provide mid-late-old successional 

forest habitat. 

2 – Areas with predominance of mid-late-old 

successional forests, but up to 4% in early-successional 

forest. 

3 – Areas with mid-late-old successional forests 

common, but 4-10% in early-successional forest. 

4 - Areas with emphasis on early-successional forests, 

with 10-17% in early-successional forest 

Currently, 89 percent of the CNF’s mesic deciduous forests are in older (mid-late-old) 

age classes (Table 3-17). These older forests would be allocated to prescriptions 

that would maintain their existing landscape predominance (successional stage 

option 1 or 2) in all alternatives except F and D (Table 3-18). For alternative I, about 

half would be allocated to older successional options, and half to younger 

successional stage options, but overall abundance may remain stable due to 

maturation of forest allocated to options 1 and 2. 

Forest Structure 

With the exception of mesic oak forests, these forests are not benefited by presence 

of fire and many associated species are fire intolerant. Forestwide objectives and 

standards have been established to minimize the acreage of these forests prescribed 

burned and to reduce the impacts of prescribed fire in these communities when 

included as part of landscape-level burn units. In addition, a CNF standard ensures 

that a minimum of 75 percent of the northern hardwood, mixed mesophytic and river 

floodplain forest types would be maintained in mid-late successional stages, and that 

50 percent of each of those types be maintained in late successional or old growth 

conditions. 

Management of existing mid- and late-successional mesic deciduous forests to 

create desired structural habitat conditions would be implemented on an 

experimental, small-scale basis. A plan objective was established to cooperate with 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

104 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

USFWS to increase structural habitat diversity in up to five percent of closedcanopied mid- and late-successional mesic deciduous forest, including old growth 

restoration areas, by retaining large trees and creating small canopy gaps suitable for 

cerulean warbler and associated species. Canopy gap treatments that enhance 

structural diversity in mid-successional mesic hardwoods could benefit cerulean 

warbler, hooded warbler, and other species associated with these habitat conditions. 

The cerulean warbler responds to changes in canopy structure resulting from canopy 

gaps. However, breeding densities would be expected to remain low under all 

alternatives due to the position of the forest within its range (Hamel 1992:275). In 

the long term, alternatives that provide the highest levels of late-successional and 

old growth mesic deciduous forests (Alternatives A, B, E, and G) would most likely 

support the largest populations of this species. 

Management Indicators 

Hooded warblers are more common than cerulean warblers, and respond to the 

understory growth that ultimately results from canopy gaps. Its highest population 

densities are expected in these situations. Average breeding densities reported by 

Hamel (1990:C-8) are 16.0 pairs per 100 acres. Populations are expected to be 

highest under alternatives that provide for more creation of canopy gaps and older 

decadent forests. Since a specific acreage objective for canopy gap generation was 

not developed, a quantitative comparison across alternatives is not possible. Table 

3-19 is based on the relatively high proportions (68%, 63%, and 50%, respectively) of 

mesic deciduous forests allocated to successional stage options 3 and 4 in 

Alternatives F, D and I (Table 3-18). Alternatives A, B, E and G would provide the 

highest acreage of older forests where canopy gap habitat for hooded warbler would 

be expected to develop. 

Table 3-19. Expected population trend1 of the hooded warbler on the CNF under EIS 

alternatives 10 and 50 years following plan adoption. Population trend estimates are 

based on expected trends in habitat quantity and quality. 

Alternative Time Period A B D E F G I

10 years + + - + - + =

50 years ++ ++ - - ++ - - ++ =

1 Population trend expressed as expected change from current levels: “++” = relatively large 

increase, “+” = increase, “=” = little to no change, “-“ = decrease, “- -“ = relatively large decrease. 

6.1.3 Cumulative Effects 

Mature mesic hardwood forests were widespread historically. Species composition, 

diversity and structure of today's forests does not approximate historic conditions 

due to loss of the American chestnut by the chestnut blight, previous unregulated 

cutting and burning, and reduction of large diameter trees (Ayres and Ashe 1905). 

Increases in distribution of mature forests and restoration towards historic conditions 

are expected under all alternatives except Alternatives D and F. This is based on a 

comparison of current conditions (52% of mesic hardwoods currently in late and old 

successional age classes and 89 percent in mid-late-old successional age classes; 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 105 

Table 3-17) with proposed conditions in Table 3-18 demonstrating that Alternatives F 

and D would allocate 68 percent and 63 percent (respectively) to successional 

stage options 3 and 4. For Alternative I, although 50 percent of these forests are 

allocated to options 3 and 4, the total acreage of late and old successional habitats 

would remain stable and likely increase during the 10- and 50- year planning 

horizons due to the “recruitment” or maturation of mid-successional forests. The 

future distribution of mature mesic forests is expected to be common (Table 3-75 

Section 15.1, Terrestrial Viablity). Distibution is expected to be fair for all alternatives 

except for Alternatives D, F, and I, for which distribution would be poor compared to 

historic conditions (Table 3-74, Section 15.1, Terrestrial Viability). 

Mature mesic hardwood forests were likely the predominant condition at high 

elevations. Species composition, diversity and structure of these forests today does 

not approximate historic conditions due to predominance of mid-successional age 

class structure (Section 8.1, Successional Forested Habitats, northern hardwoods). 

Distribution will likely continue to approach historic conditions under all alternatives 

except for Alternatives D and F, which would put these forest types under regulation 

and for which distribution would be expected to be poor compared to historic 

conditions (Table 3-75, Section 15.1, Terrestrial Viability). For other alternatives midlate successional forests would be the predominant matrix condition at high 

elevations. Abundance would be expected to be occasional for all alternatives (Table 

3-74, Section 15.1, Terrestrial Viability). 

Oak decline and gypsy moth are expected to primarily effect xeric oak-dominated 

forests, and will not likely have significant effect on this mesic hardwood group. The 

effects of dogwood anthracnose, butternut canker, beech bark disease and hemlock 

woolly adelgid are discussed in the Forest Health section. 

Large patches of late successional and old growth mixed mesophytic and northern 

hardwood forests are very uncommon within the southern Appalachian region due to 

prior land uses. About five percent of the total acreage of these two ecological 

communities falls within these age classes, and they comprise only one percent of 

the Southern Blue Ridge physiographic province (SAMAB 1996). More than twothirds of all northern hardwood acreage in the region is located on non-industrial 

private lands, where only five percent is classed as late successional. About one 

fourth is found on public land, where 30 percent is late successional. Within the 

Blue Ridge, about 80 percent is mid-successional. As concluded above, the current 

age class structure of the northern hardwoods group and the mixed mesophytic 

group does not resemble historic conditions (Ayres and Ashe 1905). 

Implementation of all alternatives would increase amounts of mature mesic 

deciduous forests, primarily on those acres allocated to successional stage options 1 

and 2 (Table 3-18). However, the regional distribution of these forests with a desired 

structure that approximates historic conditions is expected to remain relatively rare 

due to predominance of younger age classes on private lands. Restoration of old 

growth mesic deciduous forests is therefore an opportunity best achieved on public 

lands. 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

106 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

6.2 Spruce-Fir Forests 

6.2.1 Affected Environment 

This forest is dominated by red spruce (Picea rubens) and Fraser fir (Abies fraseri). 

Red spruce begins to occur in stands with northern hardwoods (yellow birch, Betula 

lutea: beech, Fagus grandifolia; maple spp. Acer; etc.) at elevations around 4,500 

feet. It becomes more dominant with increasing elevation, and may be the dominant 

species between 5,000 and 5,500 feet. Dominance of Fraser fir also increases with 

elevation. It occurs as low as 4,500 feet in Virginia, and may outcompete the red 

spruce to form pure stands above 6,000 feet. The northern limit of Fraser fir is Mount 

Rogers in Virginia. Common shrub associates of red spruce-Fraser fir are 

Rhododendron catawbiense, Vaccinium erythrocarpum and V. constablaei, Rubus 

canadensis, and Viburnum alnifolium. The herb layer commonly includes Oxalis 

montana, Dryopteris campyloptera, Aster divaricatus, Clintonia borealis, Solidago 

glomerata, Carex pennsylvanica and Maianthemum canadense, as well as a variety 

of other species. The pure fir forest has many of the same species in the understory, 

although total species diversity is typically somewhat lower. Both of these 

communities are characterized by relatively high moisture levels, short growing 

seasons, acidic soils with low levels of nutrients, and are often subject to strong 

winds and other extreme weather conditions. 

Spruce-fir forests are low disturbance systems, with most of the area under forest 

canopy. Adverse affects caused by air pollution, the non-native balsam woolly 

adelgid, and the SPB have cause significant mortality of overstory trees in many 

areas, making quality examples of this community very rare and threatening 

persistence of many associated species. Further discussion of these threats is found 

under the Forest Health section. 

There are a number of species with viability concerns associated with the spruce-fir 

type (Table L, Appendix E). These forests support species found nowhere else in the 

world. Some examples are Fraser fir, the rock gnome lichen (Gymnoderma lineare), 

and the spruce-fir moss spider (Microhexura montivaga). Fraser fir only occurs 

naturally in a few isolated islands in western Virginia and North Carolina, and in 

eastern Tennessee (D. Beck In: Burns & Honkala 1990). The rock gnome lichen is 

only known from the Great Smoky Mountains (Hale 1979). The spruce-fir moss 

spider is one of only two known species in the genus Microhexura, and is apparently 

endemic to the southern Appalachian spruce-fir zone. The forests also provide key 

habitat for both the Carolina and Virginia northern flying squirrels, Glaucomys 

sabrinus coloratus and G.s. fuscus, respectively. Isolated populations of several 

birds--the northern saw-whet owl (Aegolius acadicus), the black-capped chickadee 

(Parus atricapillus), the red crossbill (Loxia curvirostra) and possibly the olive-sided 

flycatcher (Contopus borealis)--occur at these high elevations and are uncommon or 

rare elsewhere in the southeast. 

Within the Southern Appalachians, the southern extent of this habitat association 

coincides approximately with the state lines where Tennessee, North Carolina and 

Georgia come together. The northern extent of the association is roughly coincident 

with the northern boundary of the Monongahela National Forest. These forests are 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 107 

confined to the highest peaks of Virginia, Tennessee, and North Carolina. They 

provide a cool, moist habitat similar to the boreal forests found at more northern 

latitudes. Woodward & Hoffman (in Terwilliger 1991) postulate that Fraser fir 

speciated from balsam fir (Abies balsamea) during the Pleistocene when the climate 

warmed and populations were isolated on southern mountain tops. 

There are about 85,000 acres of spruce-fir forest in the region (SAMAB 1996:168-

169). Of this total, 11,700 acres are on national forests. These stands occur on the 

George Washington, Jefferson, and CNFs, and the National Forests in North Carolina. 

Of the remainder, 62,700 acres are in other public ownership (mostly National Park 

Service), and 10,600 acres are in private or corporate ownership. Most of the public 

land (including 39% of the NFS land) is in late successional stage (81 yrs. +) forests. 

At the time of the SAA (1996), four percent of the NFS acres were in the sapling/pole 

(11-40 yrs.) stage and 57 percent were in the mid-successional (41-80 yrs.) stage. 

All of the private holdings are in either the sapling/pole stage or the mid-successional 

stage. 

There are currently 642 acres of spruce-fir forest remaining on the CNF (Table 3-20) 

comprising 0.1 percent of total forested acres. Spruce-fir forest is located at Roan 

Mountain and Unaka Mountain. 

Table 3-20. Acres of spruce-fir forests by successional stage 

and percent of total forested acres, October 2002 

Successional Stage Acres 

Early Successional 29 

Sapling/Pole 79 

Mid- Successional 511 

Late-Successional (includes Old 

Growth) 23 

Total 642 

It is possible that the spruce-fir type originally extended from Unaka Mountain east to 

Roan Mountain along the North Carolina-Tennessee border. Spruce-fir forest 

occupied over 800-900 acres at Roan Mountain (Tennessee), but has declined to a 

current figure of 476 acres. The area formerly supported at least 700,000 spruce 

and fir trees of “Christmas tree size” (Mead 1939), which were sold to markets 

throughout the region. All of the remaining Fraser fir forest and 75 percent of the 

CNF’s remaining fir and spruce-fir type is located at Roan Mountain. At least 2-4 

acres of red spruce at Roan Mountain have been lost to SPB infestations of 2000-

2002. Approximately eight acres were infested with the beetle, but the most 

vigorous trees survived (Duerr 2002). 

Historic distribution of red spruce was also more extensive at Unaka Mountain than 

current conditions indicate, totalling at least 291 acres in 1921 for one acquisition 

tract alone (Hedges 1921). These spruce stands were densely stocked at over 20 

thousand board feet per acre. Virtually all of the original red spruce was destroyed by 

logging followed by a catastrophic fire (Red Fork Fire) which impacted 6,806 acres in 

1925. The current stand at Unaka Mountain is 166 acres of red spruce, some of 

which was planted in 1934-1935, and re-planted in 1943. One small remaining 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

108 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

stand contains red spruce trees over 180 years of age, and may be one of few 

remaining “old growth” stands of its type in the Southern Appalachians. This old 

growth stand was 164 acres in size in 1921 (Hedges 1921). Small numbers of red 

spruce at Unaka Mountain were killed by a SPB infestation in 2001-2002, but loss is 

apparently not widespread at this time (Myers 2002). 

Total acres of spruce/fir forests will be used as management indicators to assess 

effects to this community. Because little management activity would occur in this 

type, no MIS were chosen to reflect effects of management on this community. 

6.2.2 Direct and Indirect Effects 

Historic loss of this forest type occurred early in the 20th century due to unregulated 

logging and burning, and unregulated commercial sale of Christmas trees throughout 

a regional market (Mead 1939). Currently, potential negative impacts to this 

community include recreational activity that may inhibit regeneration because of soil 

compaction, physical damage to young trees, and the commitment of some potential 

tree growing sites to recreational facilities. Recreation and facility development at 

Roan Mountain, along with dispersed camping use along the A.T. and day use 

recreation at Roan Mountain, will require monitoring. In addition, Fraser fir cone 

collection is decreasing the in-ground seed bank and thereby decreasing potential 

seedling recruitment. 

In response to these threats, forestwide standards have been incorporated into all 

alternatives to help maintain this type. They include measures that prohibit 

collection of Fraser fir seeds and cones, require that all silvicultural treatments 

conducted in spruce-fir forests be designed to maintain or restore the type, and to 

the extent practical, contribute to control of threats from insects and disease. 

Management under Prescription 9.F (Rare Communities) would benefit this forest 

type. Generally, management in these areas would consist of activities that protect or 

enhance spruce-fir forests, and conform with the recovery plans for listed species. 

Restoration activities for spruce-fir forests may include planting trees, removing 

selected trees, and use of herbicides. Activities needed to control insects and 

diseases are not clearly known at this time. Such activities would be proposed and 

anlayzed as site-specific projects. 

Because these forests would be managed to optimize their natural distribution, 

abundance, and condition in all plan alternatives, potential effects through plan 

implementation to these vegetative communities should be positive. Because 

provisions for maintenance of spruce-fir are similar across all alternatives, the 

magnitude of these positive effects would be similar for all alternatives. 

6.2.3 Cumulative Effects 

Populations of Fraser fir are in decline range-wide because of several threats. The 

SPB and balsam woolly adelgid are killing mature spruce and fir, respectively. 

Airborne heavy metal pollution and acid precipitation may be contributing to the 

decline of both the fir and the spruce and inhibiting regeneration of both species, as 

well as contaminating understory plants and the soil. Because only 14,700 acres of 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 109 

spruce/fir forest out of a total of 85,000 is privately owned, the perpetuation of this 

forest type is primarily a federal responsibility. Restoration and maintenance 

activities on national forest and expected protection and management on the 

national parks should have positive benefits to the type; however, continued decline 

in quality of these communities is likely due to impacts from the adelgid and air 

pollution. Therefore, despite national forest management efforts, it is likely that 

quality examples of this community will continue to decline on the forest and within 

the Southern Appalachian region. Future distribution of this community type is 

expected to be rare, and future abundance expected to be poor, for all alternatives 

(Table 3-74 and Table 3-75, Terrestrial Viability Section 15.1). 

6.3 Eastern Hemlock and White Pine Forests 

6.3.1 Affected Environment 

Eastern hemlock and white pine forests are broadly defined to include those forested 

communities that are either dominated or co-dominated by eastern hemlock (Tsuga 

canadensis) or eastern white pine (Pinus strobus) in the canopy. These forest types 

are the predominant components of the Conifer-Northern Hardwood community type 

described in the regional old-growth guidance (USDA Forest Service 1997). For the 

purposes of this analysis, forests with a significant component of eastern hemlock 

are classified as hemlock forests, even where white pine may be dominant (CISC 

types 4, 5, 8). White pine forests include all other forests where white pine is 

dominant (CISC types 3, 9, 10). This division puts priority on the presence of 

hemlock as a key habitat component. 

Eastern hemlock forests typically occur on acidic soils and often have a dense shrub 

layer composed of ericaceous species. These communities are typically low in 

herbaceous diversity, but may support rich bryophyte communities. White pine 

forests occupy similar sites but also may occur on dryer locations, particularly in 

areas where fire has been suppressed. White pine forests have also been artificially 

created as timber plantations. 

The combination of a largely evergreen canopy and a dense midstory in naturally 

occurring hemlock and white pine forests provide for a variety of benefits, including 

shading and cooling of riparian systems, thermal cover for wildlife, and nesting and 

foraging habitat for several species of neotropical migrant birds dependent upon the 

layered canopy structure and understory thickets (Rhea and Watson 1994). There is 

some evidence that hemlock-white pine forests provide necessary habitat 

components for the long-term conservation of red crossbills (Dickson 2001). 

Eastern hemlock forests may also be important refugia for species typically adapted 

to higher elevations. Dickson (2000) states that red-breasted nuthatches, winter 

wrens, and golden-crowned kinglets are found in late successional hemlock forests 

down to elevations of 2,000 feet, and several species of rare bryophytes that are 

known to occur primarily within the spruce/fir zone are also found at lower elevations 

in humid gorges often under a canopy that includes eastern hemlock (Hicks 1992). 

In 1996, the SAA (SAMAB 1996) estimated that there were 617,687 acres of “White 

Pine-Hemlock Forests” across all land ownerships in the southern Appalachians 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

110 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

representing 2.5 percent of the total land base. This figure represents data 

collected from FIA, Continuous Inventory of Stand Condition (CISC), and LANDSAT 

imagery. The current amount and distribution of mature eastern hemlock forests is 

threatened by the recent emergence of the hemlock woolly adelgid in the southern 

Appalachians. First identified in the eastern U.S.A near Richmond, VA in the early 

1950’s, this exotic pest has recently spread into the southern Appalachians and 

threatens to spread throughout the range causing mortality within five years after 

initial infestation (SAMAB 1996). 

The current distribution of eastern hemlock forests is shown in and Figure 3-11. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 111 

Figure 3-10. Distribution of eastern hemlock forests on the southern districts of the 

CNF. 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

112 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Figure 3-11. Distribution of eastern hemlock forests on the northern districts of the 

CNF. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 113 

Table 3-21 displays the acres of eastern hemlock and white pine forests by 

successional stage for the CNF. 

Table 3-21 Acres of eastern hemlock and white pine forests by 

successional stage and percent of total forested acres, 2002 

 Acres 

Eastern Hemlock 

 Early Successional 315 

 Sapling/Pole 131 

 Mid- Successional 1,989 

 Late-Successional (includes old growth) 4,558 

 Total 6,993 

 Percent of forested Acres 1% 

White Pine 

 Early Successional 2,076 

 Sapling/Pole 15,411 

 Mid- Successional 15,182 

 Late-Successional (includes old growth) 12,456 

 Total 45,125 

 Percent of forested Acres 7% 

On the CNF, eastern hemlock forests are found primarily in association with north 

facing coves and slopes and riparian systems. Years of fire suppression have 

allowed individual hemlocks and white pine to creep upslope onto more xeric slopes 

and ridges where they would not likely exist under a natural fire regime. There are 

currently approximately 45,125 acres of white pine forest types on the CNF, 6,664 

acres of which originated as plantations. 

Management Indicators 

Two key habitat variables are selected as management indicators to monitor the 

condition of eastern hemlock and white pine forests. The number of acres of 

hemlock forests infested with hemlock woolly adelgid and the number of acres of 

white pine plantations restored to diverse native communities will be tracked 

annually. The selection and monitoring of MIS may be an appropriate tool when a 

clear correlation between a specific management activity and the population trend of 

the species is known. Because the main factor that may cause a decline in hemlock 

forests and associated species is the hemlock woolly adelgid rather than 

management, it is not meaningful to select MIS for this community type. 

6.3.2 Direct and Indirect Effects 

Abundance 

The amount and distribution of white pine forests has increased over its natural 

abundance through the establishment of plantations and a process of upland 

encroachment that is a result of years of fire suppression. White pine plantations are 

often closed canopy stands with little botanical diversity. The LMP includes 

objectives to restore these plantations back to diverse native communities 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

114 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

appropriate to the site. Expected levels of such restoration vary across alternatives 

as shown inTable 3-22. 

Table 3-22. Expected acres of existing white pine 

plantations to be restored to diverse native 

communities by alternative, 2002 

 Acres 

Existing White Pine Plantations 6,664 

Acres Restored Alternative A 4,250 

Acres Restored Alternative B 4,250 

Acres Restored Alternative D 5,500 

Acres Restored Alternative E 2,000 

Acres Restored Alternative F 5,500 

Acres Restored Alternative G 3,000 

Acres Restored Alternative I 5,000 

With a renewed emphasis of introducing fire onto the landscape in areas where 

natural fire may have played a role in shaping historic vegetative patterns, it is likely 

that white pine distributions will shrink from areas where it has been able to become 

established in the absence of fire. Table 3-23 shows the proportion of white pine 

plantations by vegetation management level by alternative. In general, the use of 

prescribed fire will be consistent with the vegetation management level, though it is 

also possible to have low to moderate prescribed fire use in areas where vegetation 

management is low to none. 

Table 3-23. Percent of Existing White Pine Plantations in Each Vegetation 

Management Level by Alternative 

Vegetation Management Level Alternative None Low Medium High 

Alternative A 4 35 40 21 

Alternative B 6 26 31 37 

Alternative D 0 10 25 65 

Alternative E 3 76 20 1 

Alternative F 0 7 64 29 

Alternative G 4 54 25 17 

Alternative I 0 12 54 34 

These figures show that the greatest opportunity for management activities that 

would restore native diversity within existing white pine plantations occurs under 

Alternatives F, D, and I. Good but more moderate opportunities are available under 

alternatives B, A, and G, with the lowest opportunities present under Alternative E. 

Eastern hemlock forests are naturally limited in distribution, occurring primarily in 

association with north facing coves and slopes and riparian systems. Under all 

alternatives except F (current Plan) forestwide standards are included that defer 

existing hemlock forests from regeneration cutting during this plan period and that 

maintain the hemlock component where it occurs as patches within other forest 

types. These provisions are included in the action alternatives in an effort to maintain 

mature hemlock forests in the face of threats to this type from the hemlock woolly 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 115 

adelgid. As a result of these provisions, no changes to the distribution and 

abundance of eastern hemlock forest are anticipated as a direct or indirect effect of 

national forest management. However, long-term effects from the hemlock woolly 

adelgid may be large (see cumulative effects). 

Condition 

Objectives to restore white pine plantations to more diverse natural communities 

would benefit species dependant upon multi-layered canopies with an evergreen 

component. Because hemlock forests would not be subject to regeneration cutting 

this planning period, hemlock forests would move into older age classes with Plan 

implementation, increasing abundance of mature forests of this type under all 

alternatives. Activities within hemlock stands would be limited under all alternatives 

and would promote mature forests with the desired multi-layered canopy condition 

that is needed by many species of wildlife. 

Because hemlock and white pine forests would be managed to optimize their natural 

distribution, abundance, and condition in all plan alternatives, potential effects 

through plan implementation to these vegetative communities should be positive. 

There are thirty-three species of plants and animals with viability concerns that are 

associated with mature hemlock forests across the southern Appalachian area (Table 

3-73, Terrestrial viability section). Thirteen of these species are of concern on the 

CNF (Table 3-79, Terrestrial viability section and Table L, Appendix E). The positive 

direct and indirect effects to hemlock and white pine forest communities should 

contribute to the viability of these associated species under all alternatives Because 

provisions for maintenance of hemlock are similar across all alternatives, the 

magnitude of these positive effects would be similar for all alternatives. 

6.3.3 Cumulative Effects 

A thirty-nine percent increase in the acreage of white pine-hemlock forests has been 

documented across both public and private ownerships in the southern Appalachians 

since the mid 1970’s (SAMAB 1996). This is largely attributable to an increase in 

managed stands of white pine (plantations) and upland encroachment of both white 

pine and hemlock into areas where it would not occur under a natural fire regime. 

The use of prescribed fire in the restoration of upland habitats will likely shrink these 

communities back to a more natural distribution on the landscape over time. 

Despite Plan protection and restoration objectives, the current amount and 

distribution of mature eastern hemlock forests is threatened by the recent 

emergence of the hemlock woolly adelgid in the southern Appalachians. The fact 

that this community type is naturally limited in distribution, coupled with the 

impending threats from the hemlock woolly adelgid which will imapct the species 

regardless of land ownership, leaves the long-term maintenance of historical 

distribution and abundance of this community type in question. Future distribution 

and abundance of this community type compared to historic levels would be poor 

(see Table 3-74 and Table 3-75, Terrestrial viability section). The fate of associated 

viability concern species will be dependent upon their ability to adapt to changing 

environmental conditions associated with the decline of hemlock from within these 

communities. Species that utilize hemlock forests in addition to other vegetative 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

116 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

community types will be more likely to persist than species that are obligates to the 

hemlock forest community. 

6.4.0 Oak and Oak-Pine Forests 

6.4.1 Affected Environment 

Oak dominated forests covered under this section include dry to mesic oak and oakpine forests. Dry-mesic oak forests vary greatly in their species composition due to 

its wide distribution. The major species include chestnut oak (Quercus montana), 

northern red oak (Q. rubra), black oak (Q. velutina), white oak (Q. alba), and scarlet 

oak (Q. coccinea) (USDA Forest Service 1997:60, and Table 6-1). The dry to mesic 

oak-pine forests considered here are oak-dominated forests containing a significant 

pine component. Predominant pine species include white pine (Pinus strobus), 

shortleaf pine (P. echinata), Virginia pine (P. virginiana), and loblolly pine (P. taeda). 

These dry to mesic types are distinguished from oak and oak-pine woodlands and 

savannas, which are targeted at xeric oak, oak-pine, and pine-oak types. These xeric 

types are covered under the section on Oak, Mixed, and Pine Woodlands, Savannas, 

and Grasslands. 

Abundance 

In the southern U.S.A, acres of oak-hickory and oak-pine forests have increased over 

the last 50 years (USDA Forest Service 2001: 49). Oak and oak-pine forests are 

common throughout the South, comprising over half of the timberland of the region 

as a whole (USDA Forest Service 2001: 91-92). Oak-hickory forests are the dominant 

forest type in the Southern Appalachian Ecoregion. 

The current acreage of oak forests for the CNF is shown in Table 3-24. 

Oak forests are abundant on the CNF, comprising 36 percent of the CNF acreage 

(Figure 3-12 and Figure 3-13). These forests are very well distributed within the 

northern portion of the CNF. Oak forests are less evenly distributed on the southern 

CNF, especially along the pine-dominated lower elevations including Starr Mountain 

and the lower Citico Creek drainage; and in the highest elevations, where mesic 

deciduous forest types predominate. 

Table 3-24. Current acreage (and percent) of oak1 forest by 

successional class, the percent of total oak forest acreage in 

mid- and late-successional stages, and the percent of total 

forest acres in mid- to late-successional oak forests, 2002. 

Early Successional 6,147 (3%) 

Sapling/Pole 12,716 (5%) 

Mid- Successional 79,501 (34%) 

Late-Successional (including Old 

Growth) 133,632 (58%) 

Total 231,995 

Total acres of M-L Succ. Oak 213,133 

% of total oak acres in mid- and 

late-successional oak forests 92% 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 117 

Table 3-24. Current acreage (and percent) of oak1 forest by 

successional class, the percent of total oak forest acreage in 

mid- and late-successional stages, and the percent of total 

forest acres in mid- to late-successional oak forests, 2002. 

% of total forested acres in mid- and 

late-successional oak forests 33% 

1 – Based on 20 December 2002 CISC data for Forest Types 44 (Southern Red Oak-Yellow 

Pine), 45 (Chestnut Oak-Scarlet Oak-Yellow Pine), 47 (White Oak-Black Oak-Hickory-Yellow 

Pine), 48 (Northern Red Oak-Hickory-Yellow Pine), 51 (Post Oak-Black Oak), 52 (Chestnut 

Oak), 53 (White Oak-Red Oak-Hickory), 54 (White Oak), 55 (Northern Red Oak), 59 (Scarlet 

Oak), 60 (Chestnut Oak-Scarlet Oak).

Figure 3-12. Current Distribution of Oak and Oak-pine forests, South end CNF, 2002. 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

118 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Figure 3-13. Current Distribution of Oak and Oak-pine forests, North End, 2002. 

Future abundance will primarily depend on the management of existing oak stands to 

maintain oak dominance. Additional opportunities exist to restore oak forests to 

9,000 acres now occupied by pine plantations. 

Age Class Distribution and Forest Structure 

Across the southern U.S.A, about 50 percent of the upland hardwood forests 

(predominantly oak-hickory) and 30 percent of the natural oak-pine forests are in 

mid- and late-successional stages (41+ year-of-age) (USDA Forest Service 2001: 69-

70). However, only about one percent of the planted oak-pine forests are in midand late-successional stages. For the SAA Area, approximately 75 percent of oakhickory forests are in mid and late successional stages (SAMAB 1996: 165). For 

the CNF, 92 percent of this community type is currently within these age classes 

(Table 3-24); over half of these forests are in late successional or old growth 

condition, with another third in the mid-successional stage. 

SAMAB 1996 (pp. 165, 168-169) summarizes the age class distribution of oakhickory and oak-pine forests across the SAA area by a variety of land ownerships. 

The vast majority of older oak forests are located on publicly-owned lands (Table 3-

25). The age class structure of the CNF’s oak forests is comparable to other public 

lands, with slightly younger forests present. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 119 

Table 3-25. Successional stage distributions (in %) for oak and oak-pine forests 

across several ownerships in the SAA Area. 

Successional 

Stage CNF All Public Lands 

All Private 

Lands 

All 

Ownerships 

Early 

Successional 3% 2% 8% 6% 

Sapling/Pole 5% 8% 28% 23% 

Mid- Successional 34% 41% 54% 51% 

Late-Successional 

(includes old 

growth) 

58% 49% 10% 20% 

NFS data is derived from the December 2002 CISC Database. Data for other 

ownerships is derived from FIA and LANDSAT data. 

The structural condition of these oak forests is a key factor in the maintenance of 

these communities. Brose et al. (2001) describe an emerging hypothesis that 

periodic, low-intensity surface fires were crucial to the perpetuation of mixed oak 

forests for millennia. Research indicates that oak forests may not perpetuate 

themselves without some level of disturbance, especially on mesic sites (Loftis 

1991). Treatments such as shelterwood harvest combined with prescribed burning 

(Brose et al. 1999) or basal area reduction from below using herbicides (Loftis 1991) 

have been shown to create conditions that promote adequate oak regeneration. Oak 

dominance can be maintained by retention of suitable oak densities in regeneration 

treatments and implementation of moderate fire return intervals. 

Treatments such as moderate thinning and prescribed burning also can be used to 

create the desired habitat conditions in closed canopy oak forests. There are a 

number of viability concern species that are associated with open canopy condition 

and moderate levels of prescribed burning in dry to mesic oak forests (See Woodland 

and Savannah habitat element in Table L, Appendix E). 

Mast Production 

Mid- and late-successional oak forests provide an important source of hard mast and 

dens. Acorns are a critical fall and winter food for numerous wildlife species (Martin 

et al. 1951). The availability of acorns have been shown to strongly influence 

population dynamics of species such as black bear (Pelton 1989), squirrels (Nixon et 

al. 1975), white-tailed deer (Wentworth et al. 1992) and white-footed mice (Wolff 

1996). The large diameter hollow trees and snags found in these older oak forests 

also are an important source of dens for black bears (Carlock et al. 1983). Hard 

mast production is an important habitat feature for several wildlife species in 

demand for sport hunting, including white-tailed deer, wild turkey, gray squirrel, and 

black bear. The only mast dependent viability concern species on the CNF are the 

Southern Appalachian eastern woodrat (Neotoma floridana haematoreia) and the 

Allegheny woodrat (Neotoma magister). 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

120 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Management Indicators 

Several management indicators have been identified for assessing effects to oak and 

oak-pine forest communities. These indicators include both MIS and key habitat 

variables. Because of their wide distribution across moisture gradients, mid- and 

late-successional oak and oak-pine forests support a wide variety of species. 

Hooded warblers, selected as MIS for mid- and late-successional mesic deciduous 

forests adequately represent the mesic oak forest communities. This species is 

expected to respond positively to management actions (including thinning and 

moderate frequency burning) that are designed to stimulate advanced oak 

regeneration and perpetuation of the forest type on these mesic sites. Drier oak 

forests support a slightly different mix of species due to their more open condition. 

To represent this upland oak community, the scarlet tanager is selected as an MIS. 

This species is most abundant in upland mature deciduous forest (Hamel 1992). 

Four key variables for tracking management effects on this community type are 

selected. To indicate the level of management activity directed at maintaining this 

forest type, acres of the type burned annually and acres thinned annually are 

projected. Restoration efforts are tracked by the annual acreage of oak and oakpine forest restored to appropriate sites currently occupied by other forest types, as 

well as total acres and age-class distribution. Because older oak forests are an 

important source of oak mast and dens, total acres of mid- and late-successional oak 

and oak-pine forests are also projected. 

6.4.2 Direct and Indirect Effects 

Abundance 

The future abundance of oak and oak-pine forests is primarily related to the 

maintenance of stand conditions that ensure oak dominance, and to the restoration 

of oaks or oak-pine forests on appropriate sites currently occupied by pine 

plantations or other hardwood species such as gum and maple. Opportunity for 

these activities is similar across all alternatives, and slightly higher for Alternatives F, 

D, and I (Table 3-26). 

Table 3-26. Expected Activity Levels related to the maintenance and 

restoration of oak forests by Alternative. 

Activity Alt A Alt B Alt D Alt E Alt F Alt G Alt I 

Average annual 

acres of oak or oakpine forests to be 

restored 

750 800 900 800 1,000 800 900 

Average annual 

acres of oak and 

oak-pine forests to 

be burned 

4,420 4,680 5,200 4,680 5,720 4,680 5,200 

The ability to meet these activity levels, to manage these forests to ensure adequate 

oak regeneration, and to provide habitat conditions for species associated with 

relatively open canopy condition and moderate levels of prescribed burning will vary 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 121 

among alternatives due to the differences in management intensity and emphasis. 

To compare the potential level of maintenance and restoration activities among 

alternatives, the current distribution of oak forest was compared with the prescription 

allocations by alternative. Prescriptions were rated as to the management 

opportunity (none, low, medium, and high) they provide for the levels of thinning and 

burning desirable for oak management. The proportion of the existing oak forests in 

each management opportunity level is shown in Table 3-27. 

Table 3-27. Proportion of Oak and Oak-Pine Forest in 

Management Opportunity Level by Alternative 

Management Opportunity Level 1

Alternative None Low Moderate High 

Alternative A 5 41 26 28 

Alternative B 13 30 28 29 

Alternative D 2 21 8 69 

Alternative E 6 29 56 9 

Alternative F 0 16 13 71 

Alternative G 6 34 35 25 

Alternative I 1 22 24 53 

Management Opportunity Level: (Veg Mtg -Rx Fire) 

None: None-None 

Low: None-Low, None-Medium, Low-Low 

Mod: Low-Medium, Low-High, Medium-Medium 

High: Medium-High, High-High 

For the CNF, all alternatives would provide opportunities to manage existing oak 

forests to ensure adequate oak regeneration and create desired stand conditions on 

a majority of forest acres. Opportunities for management would be greatest in 

Alternative F, followed by D and I Table 3-27). With plan implementation, oak forests 

would continue to be abundant and well distributed across the CNF under all 

alternatives. 

Age Class Distribution and Forest Structure 

Future age class distribution will vary slightly among alternatives due to the 

differences in management intensity and emphasis (Table 3-26 and Table 3-27). 

Alternatives F, followed by D and I, would provide lesser amounts of mid-late 

successional oak forest habitat. However, the quantity of this habitat is expected to 

be abundant and well distributed in all. 

Mast Production 

Acorn production is greatest in mid and late successional oak forests. The expected 

quantity of mid- and late successional oak forest habitats and the availability of oak 

mast will vary only slightly among alternatives. The quantity of mid- and latesuccessional oak forests and consequently acorn availability is expected to increase 

under all alternatives during the planning period with the possible exception of 

Alternatives D and F, due to the emphasis on high levels of management targeting 

older oaks (Table 3-27). Quantity of oak forest habitats will vary only slightly among 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

122 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

alternatives but will be abundant, well-distributed, and sufficient to maintain viability 

of oak mast dependent species in all alternatives. 

Management Indicators 

High levels of management activity directed at maintaining this forest type would 

occur most often in Alternatives F and D (Table 3-27). Acres of the type to be burned 

annually and acres to be restored to oak and oak-pine forests would be very similar 

across all alternatives (Table 3-26). Acres to be thinned annually, as well as total 

acres of oak/oak-pine and future age-class distributions are not specifically 

projected. Because older oak forests are an important source of oak mast and dens, 

total acres of mid- and late-successional oak and oak-pine forests are projected. 

Levels of oak mast are expected to remain fair for all alternatives except for 

Alternatives D and F, for which mast levels are expected to be poor compared to 

historic conditions (Table 3-74 and Table 3-75, Section 15.1, Terrestrial Viability). 

Because relatively few acres of oak would be restored during the first decade of plan 

implementation (Table 3-26), no changes in levels of scarlet tanager populations 

would be expected (Table 3-28). Since Alternatives F and D would likely result in high 

activity levels targeting mid- and late-successional oak forests (Table 3-27), 

population levels may decline during a fifty-year period. 

Table 3-28. Expected population trend1 of scarlet tanager on CNF under EIS 

alternatives 10 and 50 years following plan adoption. Population trend estimates are 

based on expected trends in habitat quantity and quality. 

Alternative Time Period A B D E F G I

10 years = = = = = = = 

50 years + + - + - + + 

1 Population trend expressed as expected change from current levels: “++” = relatively large 

increase, “+” = increase, “=” = little to no change, “-“ = decrease, “- -“ = relatively large decrease.

6.4.3 Cumulative Effects 

Oak and oak-pine forests are common on the CNF as well as on adjacent 

nonindustrial private and other public lands, and to a lesser extent, forest industry 

lands. Management opportunities permitted in most alternatives would ensure 

continued oak dominance on NFS lands. However, the majority of these oak forests 

are on nonindustrial private lands. These lands are the least likely to receive active 

forest management and therefore the loss of oak dominance is likely to be more 

problematic in these areas. 

Insects and diseases such as gypsy moth and oak decline also are expected to have 

an overall negative effect on oak forests in the future (SAMAB 1996: 103-108, 114-

117). Several gypsy moth infestations have been detected in the CNF’s northeastern 

counties, and spread of the infestation is expected to expand throughout the CNF by 

2020. Many of the older xeric oak forests are experiencing oak decline. The greatest 

impact of oak decline will be immediately behind the advancing front of gypsy moth 

due to repeated severe defoliations. As existing oak stands grow older, susceptibility 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 123 

will increase. Although oaks will not be eliminated from effected areas, oak 

abundance and diversity will be reduced. On both NFS and private lands, the future 

of oak forests will largely depend on management activity such as thinning and 

burning that encourage oak reproduction to offset the impacts of these insects and 

diseases. Further discussion of these threats is found under the Forest Health 

section (Section 16.0). 

American chestnut mast was historically dominant within the southern Appalachians. 

Oak and hickory mast has replaced it at reduced levels. Levels are expected to 

remain reduced, especially due to additional impacts from gypsy moth infestations. 

The future distribution of mast is expected to be fair for all alternatives except for D 

and F, for which distribution is expected to be poor. Abundance is expected to be 

common for all alternatives (Table 3-74 and Table 3-75, Section 15.1, Terrestrial 

Viability). 

Mature oak forest habitat was widespread historically, but often as a subcomponent 

of chestnut forests. Oak has replaced chestnut and increased in distribution, but it is 

threatened by approaching gypsy moth infestation and oak decline, which may 

reduce future distribution. Alternatives that emphasize older forests and lower oak 

species diversity will likely lose more to gypsy moth; those alternatives that 

emphasize balanced age-classes will lose older forests to younger age classes. 

Therefore, the result is a similar distribution and abundance under all alternatives, 

with less than good distribution. Management effects differ due to general intention 

to maintain, increase, or reduce acreage of mature oak forest. However, future 

distribution is expected to be fair for all alternatives, and abundance is expected to 

be common for all alternatives (Table 3-74 and Table 3-75,, Section 15.1, Terrestrial 

Viability). 

6.5.0 Pine and Pine-Oak Forests 

6.5.1 Affected Environment 

Pine dominated forests covered in this section include all “Southern Yellow Pine” 

(SAMAB 1996: 163) forest types with various admixtures of hardwood species 

occurring as minor components. These forests occur on a variety of landforms at a 

wide range of elevations. Historically, in the Blue Ridge Physiographic Province, 

these communities occupied areas that were subject to natural fire regimes and 

typically occurred on ridges and slopes with southern exposures (NatureServe 2002). 

However, due to a combination of previous land use, fire exclusion, and intensive 

forestry (plantations), many pine species have expanded beyond their natural range 

and today, pine-dominated communities can be found on virtually all landforms and 

aspects. 

Abundance

During the last 50 years across the southeastern U.S.A, pine plantations have 

increased in importance, expanding from one percent of the total pine forest acres 

to 48 percent of those acres (USDA Forest Service 2001: 1). At the same time, the 

20-year trend reported for the SAA area (SAMAB 1996: 27) shows a downward trend 

of 16 percent for southern yellow pine forests. These two facts together suggest that 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

124 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

natural yellow pine forests have declined significantly and represent an opportunity 

for large-scale restoration of this community type. 

The current acreage of southern yellow pine types on the CNF is displayed in Table 3-

29. 

Table 3-29. Current acreage of Southern Yellow Pine forest types for the CNF 

Community Type Acres 

Loblolly Pine (CISC 31) 1,167 

Loblolly Pine – Oak Forests (CISC 13) 186 

Pitch Pine (CISC 38) 14,853 

Pitch Pine-Oak Forests (CISC 15) 14,512 

Shortleaf Pine (CISC 32) 23,943 

Shortleaf Pine - Oak forests (CISC 12) 6,094 

Table-Mountain Pine (CISC 39) 6,920 

Table-Mountain Pine – Hardwoods (CISC 20) 3,172 

Virginia Pine (CISC 33) 51,106 

Virginia Pine-Oak (CISC 16) 19,471 

Total acres of Southern Yellow Pine Forests 141,424 

The CNF has been experiencing a SPB epidemic since 1999 and currently 40,000-

60,000 acres of southern yellow pine forests have been severely impacted. Many of 

the sites impacted were densely stocked stands of Virginia pine that had proliferated 

beyond their natural range due to fire suppression and land management practices 

of the past 70 years. Historical data suggests that large areas that have become 

occupied by even aged stands of Virginia pine would have naturally supported mixed 

stands of shortleaf and pitch pine with varying levels of hardwoods. These natural 

communities are maintained by low intensity fires originating on ridgetops and 

southern exposures (NatureServe 2002). With large-scale mortality in these 

communities due to pine beetle effects, the opportunity now exists to restore these 

sites to a more natural mixed pine hardwood community. 

Age Class Distribution and Forest Structure

On the CNF, southern yellow pine forests are currently well distributed across the 

landscape (Figure 3-14 and Figure 3-15). 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 125 

Figure 3-14. Distribution of yellow pine forests on southern districts of the CNF 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

126 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Figure 3-15. Distribution of yellow pine forests on the northern districts of the CNF 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 127 

The SAA (SAMAB 1996: 165, 168-169) summarizes the age class distribution of 

southern yellow pine forests across the SAA area by a variety of land ownerships. 

Similar information is derived from queries of the CNF CISC database. Table 3-30 

provides a summary of this information. 

Table 3-30. Successional stage distributions (in %) for southern yellow pine forests 

across several ownerships in the SAA Area. 

Successional 

Stage Cherokee NF All Public Lands 

All Private 

Lands 

All 

Ownerships 

Early 

Successional 7 10 18 16 

Sapling/Pole 22 9 19 18 

Mid- Successional 43 32 59 55 

Late-Successional 

(includes old 

growth) 

28 49 4 11 

NFS data is derived from the CISC Database. Data for other ownerships is derived 

from FIA and LANDSAT data 

Nineteen species of viability concern are associated with southern Appalachian latesuccessional southern yellow pine forests (Table 3-73, Terrestrial Viability section), 

six of which are of concern on the CNF (Table 3-79, Terrestrial Viability section and 

Table L, Appendix E). While public lands support the majority of late-successional 

acres, the structure and composition of these forests has been altered due to years 

of fire suppression resulting in less than optimal habitat conditions. Fire intolerant 

species such as Virginia pine have proliferated while other pines (shortleaf, pitch, 

Table Mountain, longleaf) have seen dramatic declines (NatureServe 2002, Martin et 

al 1993). In the absence of fire, hardwoods, shrubs, and vines have replaced the 

open, grassy, herbaceous layer that is characteristic of frequently burned areas, and 

hardwoods have encroached into the midstory further affecting forest structure. This 

change in forest structure and resulting habitat condition has had a direct effect on 

species dependent upon these communities. Several bird and reptile species 

associated with southern pine forests are in decline (Dickson 2001) as various 

habitat components are lost. In addition to declines in species dependent upon 

specific habitat attributes, entire pine communities are in decline. Recent studies 

show that acreage of Table Mountain pine communities (considered a rare 

community in the southern Appalachians) has decreased due to fire suppression 

(Turrill and Buckner 1995) and that many remaining examples have substantial 

hardwood invasion. 

Management Indicators

Several management indicators have been identified for assessing effects to pine 

and pine-oak forest communities. These indicators include both key habitat 

variables and MIS. 

Key habitat variables to be monitored annually include the number of acres of pine 

forests burned, the number of acres of pine plantations restored to natural 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

128 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

communities, and the total number of acres of pine forests restored. These activities 

together indicate the level of effort directed at maintaining or restoring pine and pine 

oak communities. The pine warbler (Dendroica pinus) is selected as a MIS for mid 

and late-successional pine forests based upon its association with this community. It 

will be monoitored annually through standard survey protocols. 

6.5.2 Direct and Indirect Effects 

Abundance

The future distribution of pine and pine-oak forests on the CNF will vary among 

alternatives in relation to management objectives for the maintenance and 

restoration of these community types. Table 3-31 lists the expected activity levels 

related to maintenance and restoration of southern yellow pine forests by alternative. 

Table 3-31. Expected activity levels related to the maintenance and restoration of southern 

yellow pine forests on the CNF 

Activity Alt A Alt B Alt D Alt E Alt F Alt G Alt I 

Average annual acres 

of existing shortleaf 

pine, pitch pine, or 

table mountain pine 

forests to be restored. 

850 850 1,050 900 1,050 850 1,000 

Average annual acres 

of loblolly pine 

plantations to be 

restored to natural 

communities 

30 30 30 30 30 30 30 

Average annual acres 

of Virginia pine forests 

to be reduced through 

restoration of fire 

adapted pine or pine 

oak communities. 

2,125 2,125 2,625 2,250 2,625 2,125 2,500 

Average annual acres 

of pine and pine-oak 

forests burned to 

achieve a fire return 

interval of 4-12 years. 

1,955 1,955 2,415 2,070 2,415 1,955 2,300 

Specific acre objectives for Table Mountain pine forests are presented in Section 7.4.0

(p.139 

The ability to meet these activity levels under each alternative varies based upon 

differences in the emphasis and subsequent management intensity of each 

alternative. To compare the potential level of maintenance and restoration activities 

among alternatives, the current distribution of southern yellow pine forests was 

compared with the prescription allocations for each alternative. Prescriptions were 

rated as to the management opportunity they provide for varying levels of vegetation 

management and prescribed burning (none, low, medium, and high). The proportion 

of existing mid and late-successional southern yellow pine forests in each 

management opportunity level is shown in Table 3-32. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 129 

Table 3-32. Proportion of existing mid and late-successional southern 

yellow pine forests on the CNF in each management opportunity level by 

alternative. 

Management Opportunity Level 1

Alternative None Low Moderate High 

Alternative A 1 27 30 42 

Alternative B 5 22 37 36 

Alternative D 1 16 12 71 

Alternative E 2 18 70 10 

Alternative F 0 13 11 76 

Alternative G 2 20 38 40 

Alternative I 1 15 15 69 

Management Opportunity Levels: None: None-None 

(Veg Mtg -Rx Fire): 

Low: None-Low, None-Medium, Low-Low 

Mod: Low-Medium, Medium-Medium, Low-High 

High: Medium-High, High-High

Table 3-32 shows that all alternatives provide high levels of opportunity for 

management, the lowest being alternative A, with 72 percent of the acres within 

prescriptions that would allow at least moderate levels of management. 

Age Class Distribution and Forest Structure

Future age class distributions and forest structure will vary among alternatives due to 

the differences in management intensity and emphasis as shown above in Table 3-

32. The ability to use fire as a management tool will play a critical part in restoring 

natural species assemblages and forest structure within the southern yellow pine 

communities. 

As shown in Table 3-32, opportunities exist to manipulate vegetation in southern 

yellow pine forests through prescribed fire and other vegetation management 

techniques under all alternatives. Projected activities should be sufficient to 

enhance existing habitat conditions within pine and pine-oak forests above their 

current levels. Longer rotation ages coupled with more frequent fire will enhance 

habitat attributes such as grassy understories and standing snags needed by several 

declining bird species (Dickson 2001). With 50 years of Plan implementation, it is 

expected that this habitat element will be relatively abundant and well distributed 

across the forest under all alternatives. 

Differing age class distribution and structure by alternative will have varying effects 

on the MIS for this community type. Table 3-33 shows the expected population 

trends for pine warblers under the different alternatives. 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

130 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Table 3-33. Expected population trend1 of pine warblers on the CNF under forest 

plan revision alternatives 10 and 50 years following plan adoption. Population trend 

estimates are based on expected trends in habitat quantity and quality. 

Alternative Time Period A B D E F G I 

10 years = = ++ = ++ = + 

50 years = = ++ = ++ = ++ 

1 Population trend expressed as expected change from current levels: “++” = 

relatively large increase, “+” = increase, “=” = little to no change, “-“ = decrease, “- -“ 

= relatively large decrease. 

Based upon opportunities for active management, alternatives D, F, and I present the 

best future scenario for these MIS. 

6.5.3 Cumulative Effects 

This community was likely a common component of the historical landscape, but has 

been greatly reduced in distribution by recent SPB infestations and over the long 

term by fire exclusion. Restoration of mature forests will still be in progress in 50 

years at some level under all alternatives, but likely would remain below historical 

levels. Future distribution and abundance of this community type would be 

considered to be fair (See Table 3-74 and Table 3-75, Terrestrial Viability section) when 

compared to historic levels. Although restoration rates would vary among 

alternatives, general outcomes would be the same because even under aggressive 

restoration alternatives, it will take longer than 50 years to restore mature forests in 

desired conditions. 

Pine and pine-oak forests are common on the CNF as well as on adjacent private and 

public lands. The distribution of age classes (Table 3-30) varies considerably based 

upon ownership patterns, with the majority of older pine forests occurring on public 

lands. Management opportunities under all alternatives will ensure continued 

persistence of these communities on NFS lands with a focus on maintenance and 

restoration of natural species assemblages. Public lands already provide a vital 

function in providing the bulk of mid- and late-successional southern yellow pine 

forests and as restoration proceeds within these communities on NFS lands, the 

importance of these habitats to species of regional viability concern will increase. 

6.6 Woodlands, Savannas, and Grasslands 

6.6.1 Affected Environment 

Complexes of woodlands, savannas, and grasslands were once a frequent 

occurrence across portions of the southeastern landscape, primarily in the Piedmont 

and Coastal Plain provinces (Davis et al., 2002; NatureServe 2001). Smaller 

occurrences likely occurred in the southern Appalachians on xeric ridge-tops and 

south-facing slopes where they were maintained by frequent fire (SAMAB 1996; 

DeSelm and Murdock, 1993). Woodlands are open stands of trees, generally 

forming 25 to 60 percent canopy closure (Grossman et al. 1998:21) and may be of 

pine, hardwood (typically oak), or mixed composition. Savannas are usually defined 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 131 

as having lower tree densities than woodlands; grasslands are mostly devoid of trees. 

All of these conditions typically occurred in mixed mosaics within a fire-maintained 

landscape. In all cases, a well-developed grassy or herbaceous understory is 

present. 

Existing remnants of this habitat in both the southern Appalachians and Piedmont 

are limited primarily to roadsides and powerline rights-of-way (Davis et al., 2002) due 

to reductions in fire frequency across most landscapes. One hundred and thirtyseven species of viability concern are associated with this community in the southern 

Appalachian region (Table 3-73, Terrestrial Viability section). Of these, thirty-five 

species are of concern on the CNF (Table 3-79, Terrestrial Viability section and Table 

L, Appendix E). 

Because existing woodland, savanna, and grassland complexes are rare and not 

consistently tracked, the current acreage in such condition is not well documented. 

These communities would likely occur on landforms currently occupied by xeric pine 

and oak communities. The distribution and condition of xeric pine and oak forests 

are discussed above in sections 6.4 and 6.5. 

Management indicators used to assess management effects to woodland, savanna, 

and grasslands are: 1) total acres of woodland, savanna, and grassland complexes 

restored and maintained in desired conditions, 2) annual acreage of xeric forest 

types thinned for the purpose of restoring desired tree densities, 3) annual acreage 

of prescribed burning in xeric forest types for the purpose of restoring or maintaining 

open conditions and diverse understories, and 4) changes in the relative frequency of 

plant species within prescribed fire monitoring plots (USDI National Park Service 

2001). 

6.6.2 Direct and Indirect Effects 

Because of their rarity, existing remnants of grassland communities that support 

significant populations or assemblages of rare species would be managed under the 

Rare Community Prescription (9.F) under all alternatives except F (current Plan). 

Similarly, existing woodland conditions associated with glades and barrens also 

would be included under rare community provisions. The Rare Community 

Prescription provides priority to protection and maintenance of such sites under all 

alternatives except F, including regular prescribed burning (if necessary) to maintain 

desired species composition and vegetation structure. Therefore, these sites are 

expected to be sustained for the foreseeable future under all alternatives except F. 

In an effort to restore some of the ecological role that these communities have 

historically played, the LMP includes objectives for restoring complexes of woodlands, 

savannas, and grasslands to fire-maintained landscapes. Desired conditions include 

heterogeneous canopy coverage averaging 25 to 60 percent, and dense grass and 

herbaceous ground layers. Scattered patches may be devoid of canopy to provide for 

interspersed savanna and grassland conditions. Restoration activities may include 

thinning of trees (generally to less than 60 ft.2 of basal area per acre) and prescribed 

burning. Prescribed fire on relatively short rotations (1 to 3 years) typically would be 

used to maintain desired conditions, and may involve both dormant and growing 

season fires. 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

132 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Acres of woodland, savanna, and grassland complex restored and maintained would 

vary by alternative (Table 3-34) as a result of differing management emphases and 

the opportunity for varying levels of vegetation management and prescribed burning 

afforded by the various prescription allocations. 

Table 3-34. Expected annual acres of maintenance and restoration activities for 

woodland, savanna, and grasslands complexes on the CNF 

Activity Alt A Alt B Alt D Alt E Alt F Alt G Alt I 

Acres of shortleaf/pitch 

pine forests thinned per 

year to maintain a target 

basal area of 60-80 square 

feet per acre. 

85 85 105 90 105 85 100 

Acres of xeric pine and oak 

forests restored per year to 

open woodlands, savannas, 

and grasslands. 

485 485 600 520 600 485 570 

Acres of open woodlands, 

savannas, and grasslands 

burned annually in an effort 

to maintain a fire return 

interval of 4-12 years. 

2,210 2,210 2,730 2,340 2,730 2,210 2,600 

Because good examples of this community have become rare or missing on today’s 

landscape, abundance of this community type in the future will be directly related to 

the amount of restoration and maintenance activities accomplished. Alternatives D, 

F, and I are the most permissive to restoration activities based upon the allocation of 

prescriptions, yet alternative’s B and I provide the most direction to restore through 

associated objectives and overall theme of the prescriptions. 

Restoration and maintenance activities would provide habitat for species associated 

with these community types, including several species of viability concern. 

Populations of these species are expected to vary across alternatives based on the 

amount of habitat restored and maintained. Permanent plots will be sampled preand post burn to determine the relative frequency of plant species. Fire adapted 

species are expected to increase over time within these plots. 

Restoration and maintenance activities may cause some short-term negative effects 

to individual species, by causing disturbance, mortality, or temporarily setting back 

plant and animal reproduction or growth. However, species associated with this 

community are relatively adapted to such disturbances, which are necessary to 

create and maintain optimal habitat conditions. In balance, these actions would 

result in long-term beneficial effects to associated species. 

6.6.3 Cumulative Effects 

Historically present on xeric sites due to presence of fire, these habitats are much 

reduced today. Restoration will improve their distribution, but not likely to historical 

levels under any alternative. Restoration and management activities on National 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 133 

Forests would play a critical role in the conservation of this community within the 

landscapes containing NFS land. Natural woodland, savanna, and grassland 

habitats are currently rare, occurring on private ownerships primarily along mowed 

roadside and powerline rights-of-ways (Davis et.al., 2002). It is not expected that 

private landowners will restore or manage to maintain significant amounts of 

woodland, savanna, and grassland complexes; therefore, they would remain limited 

in abundance without national forest restoration efforts. 

7.0 Rare Communities 

Rare communities are assemblages of plants and animals that occupy a small 

portion of the landscape, but contribute significantly to plant and animal diversity. 

They generally are limited in number of occurrences, are small in size, and have 

relatively discrete boundaries. Rare communities, wherever they occur on the forest, 

will be managed to ensure their contribution to meeting goals for community 

diversity, endangered and threatened species recovery, and species viability. 

Objectives and standards in the LMP are designed to maintain, restore, and enhance 

rare communities so that they will exhibit the composition, structure, and function 

necessary to support vigorous populations of species characteristic of the 

community, including relevant federally-listed threatened and endangered species, 

and species at risk of losing viability. The following sections describe existing 

condition and potential effects to rare communities on the CNF by alternative. 

7.1.0 Wetland Communities 

7.1.1 Affected Environment 

Rare wetland communities in the Southern Appalachians include bogs, fens, seeps, 

ponds, river gravel-cobble bars, and river scour areas as follows: 

Bogs, fens, seeps, and ponds are characterized by 1) soils that are semi-permanently 

to permanently saturated as a result of groundwater seepage, perched water tables, 

rainfall, or beaver activity, but otherwise are generally nonalluvial, and 2) presence of 

wetland-associated species such as sphagnum, ferns, and sedges. Dominant 

vegetation may be herbs, shrubs, trees, or some complex of the three. Ponds in this 

group include limesink, karst, and depression ponds, which may hold areas of 

shallow open water for significant portions of the year. Also included are all 

impoundments and associated wetlands resulting from beaver activity. Artificial 

impoundments are not included, unless they support significant populations or 

associations of species at risk. The primary management need is that of protection 

from activities that could disrupt wetland hydrology or other community structures 

and functions. Some sites may require periodic vegetation management to maintain 

desired herbaceous and/or shrubby composition. Rare wetland communities include 

Mafic and Calcareous Fens, Sphagnum and Shrub Bogs, Swamp Forest-Bog Complex, 

Mountain Ponds, Seasonally Dry Sinkhole Ponds, and Beaver Pond and Wetland 

Complex as defined in the SAA (SAMAB 1996), and all Associations within the 

following ecological groups as defined by NatureServe (2001): 

458-15 Appalachian Highlands Wooded Depression Ponds 

458-20 Appalachian and Interior Highlands Limesink and Karst Wooded 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

134 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Ponds 

470-10 Appalachian Highlands Forested Bogs 

470-20 Appalachian Highlands Forested Acid Seeps 

470-50 Appalachian Highlands Forested Fens and Calcareous Seeps 

475-10 Appalachian Highlands Acid Herbaceous Seeps 

475-20 Appalachian Highlands Alkaline Herbaceous Fens and Seeps 

475-30 Appalachian and Interior Highlands Herbaceous Depression Ponds 

and Pondshores 

Riverine rare communities are characterized by 1) sites adjacent to or within stream 

channels that are exposed to periodic flooding and scour, and 2) presence of 

significant populations or associations of species at risk. These communities may 

be found in both Appalachian and Piedmont regions. Primary management needs 

are protection from disturbance during development of road crossings, and 

maintenance of desirable in-stream flows. These communities include River GravelCobble Bars as defined in the SAA (SAMAB 1996), and the rare Associations within 

the following ecological groups as defined by NatureServe (2001): 

457-10 Appalachian Highlands Riverine Vegetation 

457-30 Rocky Riverbeds 

457-40 Appalachian Highlands Riverscour Vegetation 

The SAA Terrestrial Report summarizes the approximate number of occurrences of 

some of these wetland communities on NFS lands in the southern Appalachians 

(SAMAB 1996: 190) as follows: 

Beaver Ponds and Wetland Complex = 5 

Mafic and Calcareous Fens = 5 

Mountain Ponds = 14 

River-Gravel/Cobble Bar = 15 

Seasonally Dry Sinkhole Ponds = 9 

Sphagnum and Shrub Bogs = 62 

Swamp Forest - Bog Complex = 19 

Three hundred and fifty-six species of viability concern are associated with the above 

communities in the southern Appalachian region (Table 3-73, Terrestrial Viability 

section), one hundred and seventeen of which are of concern on the CNF (Table 3-79, 

Terrestrial Viability section and Table L, Appendix E). 

There are numerous occurrences of wetland communities on the CNF. The following 

named communities represent some of the more significant occurrences by type: 

Cumberland Forested Acid Seeps (Bullet Creek, Cutshall Bog, Yellow Creek); Swamp 

Forest-Bog Complex - typic type (Jones Branch Bog, Lindy Camp Bog, parts of 

Moffett-Laurel Botanical Area, Stony Creek Bog); Rich Montane Seep - Cove Type 

(parts of Moffett-Laurel Botanical Area); Sinkhole Wetlands (Grindstaff Karst/Sinks, 

Sharp/Gimlet Branch); Montane Sweetgum Alluvial Flat (Sheeds Creek); Northern 

white cedar fen (Pine Knob); Unclassified (Devil’s Kitchen Branch Bog, Allen Gap). 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 135 

7.1.2 Direct and Indirect Effects 

Ernst and Brown estimated that more than 50 percent of the nation’s wetlands have 

been destroyed in the past 200 years (Ernst and Brown 1988). Wetlands have been 

ditched and drained for pastures, mined for peat (Ewel 1990), and filled for a variety 

of commercial activities. Loss of some wetlands can also be attributed to 

sedimentation, pollution, and plant succession due to fire suppression (USFWS 

1991). Because wetlands are so vulnerable to destruction on private land, it is 

critical to maintain these communities where they occur on NFS land. Beaver activity 

has historically played an important role in creating open wetland habitats that are 

now rare on the landscape. Beaver wetlands are beneficial for many rare species 

such as monkey face orchid (Shea 1992), but may be detrimental to others such as 

bog turtle (Jensen, pers. commun). Beaver impoundments also may cause 

unacceptable impacts to facilities and other resources. 

Wetland rare communities would be managed under all alternatives except F, under 

the 9.F Rare Community Prescription for protection, maintenance, and where 

possible, restoration. These wetlands generally fall within riparian corridors, so 

provisions of the Riparian Prescription also would apply. Standards under all 

alternatives except F provide for protection of hydrologic function of wetland rare 

communities, and prohibit fish stocking to maintain suitability for amphibian 

breeding. Beaver created wetlands would normally be treated as rare communities, 

but beaver populations and impoundments could be managed to avoid adverse 

impacts to public safety, facilities, private land resources, at-risk species, and other 

rare communities. 

Because wetland rare communities would be protected and maintained in all 

alternatives except F, no adverse direct or indirect effects to these communities are 

expected in these alternatives. Restoration efforts and creation of new wetlands 

through beaver activity may result in increased occurrence of these communities to 

the benefit of associated species. However, analysis indicates that, under all 

alternatives, wetland rare communities would remain uncommon on the forest 

because of their naturally limited distribution. 

7.1.3 Cumulative Effects 

Because all alternatives (except F- current Plan) place priority on protection and 

maintenance of these communities, cumulative effects on NFS lands are expected to 

be positive However, a significant proportion of Southern Appalachian wetland rare 

communities are located on private lands (SAMAB 1996: 190) where protection may 

be poorly regulated. For these reasons, protection of these habitats on NFS land is 

important to maintaining viability of associated species within the region. Future 

distribution and abundance of wetland habitats is likely to be poor (see tables 3 and 

4, terrestrial viability section) when compared to historic levels. Drainage of virtually 

all occurrences of wetlands during European settlement and subsequent farming has 

reduced the distribution of these habitats and while plan implementation may restore 

some occurrences over time, this would not approximate historical levels within 50 

years. 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

136 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

7.2.0 Barrens, Glades, and Associated Woodlands 

7.2.1 Affected Environment 

These communities are characterized by thin soils and exposed parent material that 

result in localized complexes of bare soils and rock, herbaceous and/or shrubby 

vegetation, and thin, often stunted woods. During wet periods they may include 

scattered shallow pools or areas of seepage. Glades, barrens, and associated 

woodlands differ from rock outcrop communities by exhibiting soils and vegetative 

cover over the majority of the site, and differ from the more widespread woodland 

communities in that they occur on geologic substrates which are unique for the 

region, including limestone, dolomite, amphibolite, greenstone, mafic rock, 

serpentine, sandstone, or shale. Associated communities include Calcareous 

Woodlands and Glades, Mafic Woodlands and Glades, Serpentine Woodlands and 

Glades, and Shale Barrens as defined in the SAA (SAMAB 1996). At a minimum, this 

rare community complex includes rare associations within the following ecological 

groups as defined by NatureServe (2001a): 

401-17 Appalachian Highlands Calcareous/Circumneutral Dry-Mesic 

Hardwood Forest 

440-05 Appalachian Highlands Carbonate Glades and Barrens 

440-06 Appalachian Sandstone Glades and Barrens 

440-07 Appalachian Serpentine Woodlands 

440-08 Appalachian Mafic Igneous/Metamorphic Glades and Barrens 

These communities may be found in the Appalachian region but are primarily known 

from Piedmont and Ridge and Valley physiographic provinces. Shale and mafic 

woodlands are most widespread in distribution, and may be forested if fire has not 

played a role in their maintenance or restoration. In general, these communities 

have not been well inventoried. Occurrence data for these communities on the CNF 

is limited, partly through the natural rarity of the community type, and in part due to 

lack of inventory. The following communities have been mapped on the CNF to be 

included in the rare community (9.F) prescription: 

Appalachian Sandstone Glades and Barrens 

Little Toqua Creek 

Red Knobs Post Oak – Virginia Pine Woodland 

CEGL008406 Community Rank: G2? 

Monroe County 

Appalachian Shale Glades and Barrens 

French broad Shale Slopes 

Blue Ridge Calcareous Shale Slope Woodland (Grassy Type) 

CEGL007720 Community Rank: G2? 

Cocke county 

Nolichucky Cliffs 

Blue Ridge Calcareous Shale Slope Woodland (Grassy Type) 

CEGL007720 Community Rank: G2? 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 137 

Unicoi County 

Wilbur Lake Cliffs 

Blue Ridge Calcareous Shale Slope Woodland (Grassy Type) 

CEGL007720 Community Rank: G2? 

Carter County 

Wilbur Lake Cliffs 

Blue Ridge Acid Shale Forest 

CEGL007539 Community Rank: G2? 

Carter County 

The SAA (1996) concluded that only 25 percent of the known occurrences for 

species associated with mafic and other calcareous habitats, occurred on NFS lands. 

There are one hundred and nineteen species of viability concern associated with rare 

glades, barrens, and woodlands in the Southern Appalachians (Table 3-73, Terrestrial 

Viability section), fifteen of which are of concern on the CNF (Table 3-79, Terrestrial 

Viability section and Table L, Appendix E). 

7.2.2 Direct and Indirect Effects 

Many rare communities of this type are likely to be overgrown or in need of some 

level of restoration. Slightly adverse short-term effects could occur as a result of 

active restoration activities, which may temporarily alter the timing of reproduction or 

growth, but will result in no long term adverse effects. Short-term direct effects to 

species associated with these communities are likely to be small and insignificant 

compared to the positive indirect benefits of habitat restoration activities, when 

needed. Since all rare communities will be managed under the rare community (9.F) 

prescription, and the standards associated with the rare community prescription will 

be applied, effects of national forest management on both the communities and 

associated species is expected to be positive across all alternatives except 

alternative F (1986 LMP) in the long-term. 

Since community inventories will primarily be conducted in project areas, consistent 

with the standard specific to this prescription, alternatives with fewer anticipated 

projects may result in the discovery and consequent restoration of fewer rare 

communities. Although the glade and barren communities are geographically 

restricted in distribution, and require low intensity disturbance once they are 

restored, they will be managed or restored to maintain their characteristics based on 

Forestwide goals for rare communities which will be applied across all alternatives. 

The future distribution of glade, barren, and woodland rare communities on the CNF, 

will be limited in all alternatives based upon natural rarity of these communities. 

7.2.3 Cumulative Effects 

The cumulative effects on the quantity and distribution of these rare communities is 

predicted by considering opportunities to inventory and restore these communities 

across alternatives and across private and public ownerships. Our ability to protect 

and restore these communities on the national forest is limited by our knowledge 

regarding their occurrence and distribution on the landscape. If only 25 percent of 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

138 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

the known sites for this community type occur on NFS land, glades, barrens, and 

woodland rare communities are likely to be vulnerable to development, competition 

with successional vegetation, and possible extirpation. Given the emphasis on rare 

communities in this Forest Plan, our knowledge regarding their distribution on NFS 

land is likely to increase. This suggests that national forests will play a larger role 

than private land in the conservation of glade, savanna, and woodland rare 

communities in the future. The cumulative effects of plan implementation are likely 

to be positive, though more so in year 50 compared to year ten of plan 

implementation as a result of better inventories. Restoration activities (especially 

prescribed fire) will improve the distribution of these habitats after 50 years of 

implementation, however we cannot accurately gauge changes from historical 

distribution because many examples of this community type are likely obscured on 

the landscape. Future distribution and abundance of this community type would be 

fair (See Table 3-74 and Table 3-75, Terrestrial Viability section) when compared to 

historic levels, except under Alternative F, which may not explicitly recognize these 

communities for proactive restoration and maintenance. 

7.3.0 Carolina Hemlock Forests 

7.3.1 Affected Environment 

Carolina Hemlock (Tsuga caroliniana) communities, in general, have a restricted 

range, occurring primarily in the Southern Blue Ridge, with scattered occurrences in 

the upper Piedmont and Ridge and Valley of North Carolina, Tennessee, South 

Carolina, and Virginia. Occurrences are typically small and restricted to rocky bluff 

habitats, but can be found on valley bottoms, gorge slopes, or other protected 

landforms. These rare forests are separated into three distinct subtypes that are 

included in one ecological group (401-20) as defined by NatureServe 2001. 

The ecology of this forest community is poorly understood with some debate in the 

current literature regarding the role of fire. Much of the species composition would 

suggest a fire maintained community, yet monitoring studies in North Carolina have 

shown evidence of stand expansion both following fires and periods of fire exclusion 

(Schafale and Weakley 1990). Rentch et al. (2000) reported that Carolina hemlock 

at a site in Montgomery County, VA was long-lived, very tolerant of drought stress, 

and had reproduced episodically over the past 200 years. There is no mention of fire 

in that paper. Further description of the life history of Carolina hemlock can be found 

in Humphry (1989). 

Published information on the known distribution of Carolina hemlock forests across 

the southern Appalachians includes five occurrences on national forests, one 

occurrence in national parks, and six occurrences under private ownership (SAMAB 

1996). Three sites have been allocated to the rare community (9.F) prescription on 

the CNF, located at Cliff-Temple Ridge, Iron Mountain, and Wilbur Lake Cliffs. The fact 

that these communities are often small in size and that half of the known 

occurrences occur on private lands leaves this community type vulnerable 

throughout it’s range. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 139 

The current amount and distribution of Carolina hemlock forests is threatened 

throughout it’s range by the recent emergence of the hemlock woolly adelgid in the 

southern Appalachians. First identified in the eastern U.S.A near Richmond, VA in the 

early 1950’s, this exotic pest has recently spread into the southern Appalachians and 

threatens to spread throughout the range causing mortality within five years after 

initial infestation (SAMAB 1996). 

7.3.2 Direct and Indirect Effects 

Carolina hemlock forests are considered to be a rare community and are afforded 

protection in all plan alternatives (except alternative F – current plan) through the 9.F 

(rare community) prescription. Additionally, a forestwide standard is included in all 

LMP alternatives except F that will minimize impacts to Carolina hemlock during 

vegetation management activities in order to maintain future restoration 

opportunities. Through the combination of the rare community prescription and 

forestwide standard, Carolina hemlock forests will be optimally managed for 

protection, restoration, and/or maintenance. This habitat type will remain rare and 

poorly distributed on NFS lands however, due to it’s naturally limited distribution. 

There are four species of plants with viability concerns that are associated with 

Carolina hemlock forests across the southern Appalachian ecoregion (Table 3-73, 

Terrestrial Viability section). Three of these species are of concern on the CNF (Table 

3-79, Terrestrial Viability section and Table L, Appendix E). Due to the rarity of the 

habitat, the viability of these associated species will remain at risk, though 

management strategies included under all alternatives except F will minimize this 

risk by maintaining existing sites and associated populations. 

Despite protection afforded under Plan alternatives, the current amount and 

distribution of Carolina hemlock forests is threatened throughout it’s range by the 

recent emergence of the hemlock woolly adelgid in the southern Appalachians. First 

identified in the eastern U.S.A near Richmond, VA in the early 1950’s, this exotic pest 

has recently spread into the southern Appalachians and threatens to spread 

throughout the range causing mortality within five years after initial infestation 

(SAMAB 1996). 

7.3.3 Cumulative Effects 

The fact that these communities are often small in size and that half of the known 

occurrences occur on private lands also leaves this community type vulnerable 

throughout their range. This, coupled with the impending threats from the hemlock 

woolly adelgid which will impact the species regardless of land ownership, leaves the 

long-term persistence of this community type in question. After 50 years of Plan 

implementation the distribution and abundance of this community would be poor 

(see Table 3-74 and Table 3-75, Terrestrial Viability section). 

7.4.0 Table Mountain Pine Forests 

7.4.1 Affected Environment 

This forest community is characterized by a dominant or significant component of 

Table Mountain pine (Pinus pungens) in the overstory often in combination with pitch 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

140 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

pine (Pinus rigida). This community type corresponds to Table Mountain pine/Pitch 

Pine Woodlands as defined in the SAA (SAMAB 1996:185-186), and all Associations 

within the following ecological group as defined by NatureServe (2001a): 

401-80 Appalachian Highlands Pitch and Table Mountain pine Woodlands. 

The Table Mountain pine community is globally rare (G3) and endemic to the 

southern Appalachian Mountains where it is maintained by periodic fire or extreme 

site conditions. Several sensitive and locally rare species may be found within this 

community type. Recent studies show that acreage of this community has decreased 

due to fire suppression (Turrill and Buckner 1995) and that many remaining 

examples have substantial hardwood invasion. Without periodic fire, this community 

will gradually succeed into forests dominated by Quercus prinus and Quercus 

coccinea, except on the most extreme sites, where this vegetation is selfperpetuating (NatureServe 2001). Previous studies have suggested that stand 

replacement fire was the primary mechanism for Table Mountain pine regeneration 

(USDA 1965, Zobel 1969, Sanders 1992), however, recent research suggests 

otherwise. Welch and Waldrop (2001) found that while fire is needed for 

regeneration of Table Mountain pine stands, the intensity may vary depending on site 

conditions. High intensity fire may reduce seedbed habitat quality by drying the site, 

reducing mycorrhizal fungi abundance, and may consume cones and kill seeds 

(Waldrop 2002). Additionally, dendrochronology studies indicate that ridgetop pine 

communities in the southern Appalachians are unevenly aged with trees ranging from 

50 to 150 years old, and were historically created and maintained by multiple lowintensity fires rather than a single stand-replacement event (Waldrop 2002). 

Table Mountain pine has a very limited distribution on the CNF. The CISC database 

currently contains 6,921 acres coded as Table Mountain pine and an additional 

3,172 acres of Table Mountain pine-hardwood, which combined is just over one 

percent of the total forest acres. One of the largest Table Mountain pine stands is 

found at Horse Hitch Gap in Greene County. This 148 acre site consists mostly of 

steep, upper mountain slopes ranging from approximately 2,000 to 2,800 feet in 

elevation. The vegetation varies from nearly pure stands of Table Mountain pine to 

mixed communities that support a variety of pine and hardwood species. The area 

was proposed as a Research Natural Area in the 1970’s but was never formally 

established. Additional Table Mountain pine stands are found at scattered locations 

on the CNF, noteably at Cliff-Temple Ridge (Unicoi Co.), Fagal-Birch Branch (Johnson 

Co.), Nolichucky Cliffs (Unicoi Co.), Whetstone Branch (Johnson Co.), and Wilbur Lake 

Cliffs (Carter Co.). 

Ten species of viability concern are associated with Table Mountain pine forests in 

the southern Appalachian region (Table 3-73, Terrestrial Viability section). Three of 

these species are of concern on the CNF (Table 3-79, Terrestrial Viability section and 

Table L, Appendix E). 

7.4.2 Direct and Indirect Effects 

Table Mountain pine forests are considered a rare community and are protected in 

all plan alternatives except F (current Plan) through the 9.F (rare community)

prescription. Plan alternatives A, B, D, E, G, and I also include specific standards and 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 141 

management direction to maintain and restore this community type on suitable sites. 

Where Table Mountain pine occurs as a minor component of the canopy, vegetation 

management will be designed to ensure it’s regeneration in order to maintain future 

restoration opportunities. Primary management needs are maintenance and 

expansion of existing occurrences, using thinning and prescribed fire. Table 3-35 

shows expected activity levels related to the maintenance and restoration of Table 

Mountain pine forests. 

Table 3-35. Expected Activity Levels related to the maintenance and restoration of 

Table Mountain pine forests for the CNF by Alternative. 

Activity Alt A Alt B Alt D Alt E Alt F Alt G Alt I 

Average annual acres of 

table mountain pine 

forests to be restored 

40 45 50 40 55 45 50 

Average annual acres of 

table mountain pine 

forests to be burned 

130 145 175 130 175 130 160 

The ability to meet these activity levels under each alternative varies based upon 

differences in the emphasis and subsequent management intensity of each 

alternative. To compare the potential level of maintenance and restoration activities 

among alternatives, the current distribution of Table Mountain pine forests was 

compared with the prescription allocations for each alternative. Prescriptions were 

rated as to the management opportunity they provide for varying levels of vegetation 

management and prescribed burning (none, low, medium, and high). The proportion 

of existing Table Mountain Pine Forests in each management opportunity level is 

shown in Table 3-36 and Table 3-37. 

Table 3-36. Proportion of existing Table Mountain pine forests on the CNF in each 

management opportunity level by alternative. 

Management Opportunity Level 1

Alternative None Low Moderate High 

Alternative A 3 46 48 3 

Alternative B 19 19 52 10 

Alternative D 3 15 1 82 

Alternative E 4 44 33 19 

Alternative F 0 15 44 41 

Alternative G 4 34 28 34 

Alternative I 2 26 22 50 

1Management Opportunity Levels: None: None-None 

 (Veg Mtg -Rx Fire) Low: None-Low, None-Medium, Low-Low 

 Mod: Low-Medium, Low-High,Medium-Medium 

 High: Medium-High, High-High 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

142 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Table 3-37. Proportion of existing Table Mountain pine-oak forests on the CNF in 

each management opportunity level by alternative. 

Management Opportunity Level 1

Alternative None Low Moderate High 

Alternative A 12 57 22 9 

Alternative B 20 39 33 8 

Alternative D 3 34 2 61 

Alternative E 3 61 33 3 

Alternative F 0 30 24 46 

Alternative G 3 56 36 5 

Alternative I 2 34 47 17 

1Management Opportunity Levels: None: None-None 

 (Veg Mtg -prescribed Fire) Low: None-Low, None-Medium, Low-Low 

 Mod: Low-Medium, Low-High,Medium-Medium 

 High: Medium-High, High-High 

For the CNF, alternatives F, D, and I provide the most opportunity for management, 

and all alternatives have at least 50 percent of the Table Mountain pine acres 

allocated to prescriptions that would allow at least moderate levels of management. 

The same is true for Table Mountain pine-oak forests, except only alternatives F, I, 

and D have greater than 50 percent of the acres allocated to prescriptions that 

would allow at least moderate levels of management. While all alternatives appear 

to allow sufficient management to maintain existing Table Mountain pine forests, 

only alternatives F, I, and D would provide sufficient flexibility to restore these 

communities where hardwood encroachment has occurred. However, because 

alternative F does not explicitly recognize this community type and afford it the 

protections and proposed restoration strategies that the other alternatives do, it is 

not anticipated that management activities will benefit this communty type under 

alternative F. While restoration and maintenance activities would benefit this 

community, Table Mountain pine forests will remain rare and poorly distributed on 

NFS lands due to their naturally limited distribution. 

7.4.3 Cumulative Effects 

Table Mountain pine has a limited distribution on the CNF and is concentrated in 

relatively small areas typically with small acreages. Little is known about the amount 

of Table Mountain pine forest on adjacent private lands, however, it is unlikely that 

such forests would be actively managed to restore or maintain this community type, 

and therefore existing Table Mountain pine stands on private lands are expected to 

decline over time due to hardwood encroachment and lack of pine regeneration. 

Although limited in acreage, the maintenance and restoration of this community on 

NFS lands remains critical to perpetuate this forest type. 

Distribution of these forests should be improved with restoration and maintenance, 

but prevalence of fire at moderate elevations needed to maintain this community will 

probably still be less than that which occurred historically. The rare community 

prescription would result in the same level of protection and maintenance of existing 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 143 

sites across alternatives, except for Alternative F, which could result in continuing 

decline of the type due to neglect. After 50 years of Plan implementation the 

distribution of this community type would range from good to poor (see Table 3-74 and 

Table 3-75, Terrestrial Viabilty section). 

7.5.0 Basic Mesic Forests 

7.5.1 Affected Environment 

These communities are characterized by closed-canopy deciduous overstories and 

rich and diverse understories of calciphilic herbs, underlain by high-base geologic 

substrates. On moderate to high elevation sites, these communities are typically 

found in protected coves, and can be distinguished from more acidic mesic cove 

forests by the abundance of species such as white basswood (Tilia americana), 

yellow buckeye (Aesculus flava), black walnut (Juglans nigra), sweet white trillium 

(Trillium simile), black cohosh (Cimicifuga racemosa), blue cohosh (Caulophyllum 

thalictroides), sweet shrub (Calycanthus floridus), sweet cicely (Ozmorhiza spp.), 

doll’s eyes (Actaea racemosa), maidenhair fern (Adiantum pedatum), and plantainleaved sedge (Carex plantaginea). Good examples of moderate and high elevation 

basic mesic forests have a low incidence of white pine (Pinus strobus), eastern 

hemlock (Tsuga canadensis), rhododendron (Rhododendron spp.), and Christmas 

fern (Polystichum acrostichoides). 

On lower elevation sites, these communities are more typically found on north slopes, 

where dominant and characteristic overstory species are American beech (Fagus 

grandifolia) and northern red oak (Quercus rubra), with tulip poplar (Liriodendron 

tulipifera), white oak (Quercus alba), shagbark hickory (Carya ovata), or white ash 

(Fraxinus americana), and pawpaw (Asimina triloba) in the midstory and shrub layers, 

and understories that include nodding trillium (Trillium rugelii), black cohosh 

(Cimicifuga racemosa), doll’s eyes (Actaea racemosa), foam flower (Tiarella cordifolia 

var. collina), bloodroot (Sanguinaria canadensis), bellworts (Uvularia sp.) and trout 

lilies (Erythronium spp.). Good examples of low elevation basic mesic forests have a 

low incidence of sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), loblolly pine (Pinus taeda), and 

exotics such as Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica) or Chinese privet 

(Lingustrum vulgare). 

This community includes the following Associations defined by NatureServe (2001a, 

2001b): 

CEGL007711 Southern Applachian Cove Forest (Rich Foothills Type), 

CEGL007695 Southern Applachian Cove Forest (Rich Montane Type), 

Identification of these communities is typically based on site-specific inventories. 

The following sites supporting basic mesic forests have been mapped for protection 

on the CNF: Fagal Branch, Griffith Branch, Whetstone Branch. 

The SAA (SAMAB 1996:49) combined mesic and xeric mafic communities, and 

concluded that only 25 percent of the known occurrences for species associated 

with mafic and other calcareous habitats, occurred on NFS land. Forty-three species 

of viability concern are associated with basic mesic forests in the southern 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

144 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Appalachian region (Table 3-73, Terrestrial Viability section), with the majority being 

vascular plants. Twenty-seven of these species are of concern on the CNF (Table 3-

79, Terrestrial Viability section and Table L, Appendix E). 

7.5.2 Direct and Indirect Effects 

All high quality basic mesic forest communities will be managed under the 9.F (rare 

community) prescription under all alternatives except Alternative F (current Plan). 

Under Alternative F these areas may be available for timber production and early 

seral wildlife habitat, reducing their distribution relative to other alternatives. Primary 

management needs are protection from undesirable disturbance. These 

communities are characterized by low intensity, low frequency disturbances, and are 

often most threatened by recreational use, since many are desirable for interpretive 

trails. Several standards for rare communities ensure their maintenance or 

restoration across the CNF. The 9.F prescription encourages the exclusion of basic 

mesic forests from prescribed burning blocks where this can be accomplished 

without large increases in fireline construction, and discourages direct firing unless 

necessary to secure control lines. Only low intensity fires are allowed. Alternative E, 

which emphasizes recreation, may present the greatest management challenge to 

protection of these communities and associated species. Additional rare 

communities standards are designed to reduce or eliminate adverse effects to rare 

communities caused by recreational use. 

Since rare communities would be protected or restored across all alternatives, the 

effects of national forest management on these communities and associated species 

would be positive under all alternatives except F (current plan). However, under all 

alternatives this community will remain relatively rare on the forest because of its 

naturally limited distribution. 

7.5.3 Cumulative Effects 

The cumulative effect on the quantity and distribution of basic mesic forests is 

determined by considering trends in the status of these communities through time 

and across private and public ownerships. Even though people increasingly use the 

national forest for recreational or social needs, protection actions will have positive 

effects. However, based on regional conditions reported in SAMAB (1996:49) the 

CNF likely contains a relatively small proportion of known occurrences of this 

community type; examples of the type on private lands are unlikely to receive the 

same level of protection. It is expected that the cumulative effects of development, 

recreational use, timber harvest, and other activities on private lands will result in a 

decrease of good examples of these community types across the landscape, making 

national forest examples increasingly valuable to regional conservation. Future 

distribution and abundance of this community on NFS lands would be fair (see Table 

3-74 and Table 3-75, Terrestrial Viability section) under all alternatives except 

Alternative F when compared to historic levels. Although virtually all of these sites 

have been logged in the past, with protection they are likely restorable to near 

historic distributions after 50 years of LMP implementation. Outcomes are the same 

across alternatives, except for Alternative F, which does not recognize this community 

for protection. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 145 

7.6.0 Beech Gap Forests 

7.6.1 Affected Environment 

This community is characterized by canopies dominated by American beech (Fagus 

grandifolia) on steep slopes near mountain gaps above 4,500 feet. Trees may be 

stunted, shrub layers are typically sparse, and herbaceous growth dense. This 

community is found in the Appalachian region. Primary management needs are 

protection from non-target management disturbance and recreational impacts. This 

community corresponds to Beech Gap Forest as defined in the SAA (SAMAB 

1996:179), and the following Associations defined by NatureServe (2001a, 2001b): 

CEGL006246 Southern Appalachian Beech Gap (North Slope Tall Herb Type) 

CEGL006130 Southern Appalachian Beech Gap (South Slope Sedge Type) 

Beech gap forests are considered as a distinctive subtype of the northern hardwood 

forest (Schafale and Weakley 1990). These forests have a very restricted range and 

typically occur as small acreages. As a result of exposure to severe climatic 

conditions (wind, snow, ice) the canopy trees typically have a distinctive stunted and 

gnarled appearance. There are no plants or animals known to be obligate associates 

of this community, though one species of viability concern in the southern 

Appalachian region is associated with this habitat type (Table 3-73 and Table 3-79, 

Terrestrial Viability section and Table L, Appendix E). 

The SAA indicates that there are at least 12 known occurrences of this rare 

community in Virginia and North Carolina, with other occurrences possible in 

Tennessee (SAMAB 1996: 188). Of these, five are on national forests, three on 

national parks, and four on private lands (SAMAB 1996:190). Beech gap 

communities are not well inventoried on the CNF, though a few occurrences have 

been documented and are included in mapped rare community (9.F) allocations. 

7.6.2 Direct and Indirect Effects 

Beech gap forests would be managed under the Rare Community (9.F) Prescription 

under all alternatives except alternative F (current Plan). Because of the sitedependent ecological forces that have shaped existing beech gap forests, 

opportunities for increasing their extent are limited. Maintenance of existing sites 

would focus on protection from recreational impacts and management disturbances. 

Despite these protections, this community will remain rare and poorly distributed on 

NFS lands due to its naturally limited distribution. Threats to these forests include 

wild hogs and air pollution (TNC 1994, NatureServe 2001). 

7.6.3 Cumulative Effects 

This community is limited to topographic positions that make its potential distribution 

relatively stable over time. However, these communities were significantly modified 

(cleared and burned) during the early 20th century. Stands will need to reach about 

140 years of age before old growth component is present again. Beech bark disease 

is expected to cause mortality at existing sites under all alternatives. 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

146 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

This community is limited in distribution and abundance across ownerships, with the 

majority of known sites in public ownership (SAMAB 1996: 190), making protection 

on public lands critical to its maintenance. All revision forests supporting this 

community recognize it as a rare community under provisions of the 9.F prescription, 

which would provide it optimal protection under all alternatives except alternative F. 

Protection of private land sites is not as certain. Regardless of national forest 

protections, this community would remain rare across the southern Appalachian 

region under all alternatives due to its naturally limited distribution. After 50 years of 

Plan implementation the distribution and abundance of this community would be fair 

(see Table 3-74 and Table 3-75, Terrestrial Viability section) under all alternatives 

when compered to historic conditions, except alternative F, which would be poor. 

7.7.0 Rock Outcrops and Cliffs 

7.7.1 Affected Environment 

Rock outcrops and cliffs are defined here as rare communities and include the 

following types of communities as defined in the SAA (SAMAB 1996:179-186), and 

by NatureServe (2001). 

Talus Slopes 

This community is characterized by nonvegetated or sparsely vegetated 

accumulations of rock at 2,500 to 4,600 feet elevation. It is found in the 

Appalachian region and is distinguished from Forested Boulderfields by the lack of 

trees, and from rocky summits by its occurrence on side slopes as opposed to ridges 

and peaks. This community includes Talus Slopes as defined in the SAA (SAMAB 

1996:186), and all Associations within the following ecological group as defined by 

NatureServe (2001): 

430-10 Eastern Acid Talus 

Forested Boulderfields 

This community is characterized by rock fields, found at 3,500 to 5,300 feet 

elevation, that support a variable density of trees, typically dominated by yellow birch. 

It is distinguished from talus slopes by the presence of trees. It is found in the 

Appalachian region. This community includes Boulderfields as defined in the SAA 

(SAMAB 1996:179), and the following Associations as defined by NatureServe 

(2001a, 2001b): 

CEGL004982 Southern Appalachian Hardwood Boulderfield Forest (Typic Type) 

CEGL006124 Southern Applachian Boulderfield Forest (Currant and Rockcap Fern 

Type) 

Cliffs and Bluffs 

These communities are characterized by steep, rocky, sparsely-vegetated slopes, 

usually above streams or rivers. Cliff communities may be dry or wet, and include 

communities associated with waterfalls, such as spray cliffs and rock houses. These 

communities are found in the Appalachian region. This community includes 

Calcareous Cliffs, Mafic Cliffs, Sandstone Cliffs, and Spray Cliffs as defined in the SAA 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 147 

(SAMAB 1996:179,182,183,185), and all Associations within the following ecological 

groups as defined by NatureServe (2001a): 

430-40 Eastern Dry Acid Cliffs 

430-45 Eastern Moist Acid Cliffs 

430-50 Eastern Dry Alkaline Cliffs 

430-55 Eastern Moist Alkaline Cliffs 

430-60 Appalachain Highlands Northern White-Cedar Bluffs 

430-65 Appalachian Highlands Rock Houses 

Rock Outcrops 

These communities are characterized by significant areas of exposed, usually 

smooth, exfoliating granite or related rocks, with scattered vegetation mats and 

abundant lichens. These communities are found in both the Appalachian and 

Piedmont regions. This community includes Granitic Dome and Granitic Flatrock as 

defined in the SAA (SAMAB 1996:180-181), and all Associations within the following 

ecological groups as defined by NatureServe (2001a): 

435-10 Appalachian Highlands Granitic Domes 

435-20 Appalachian Highlands Grantic Flatrock 

Rocky Summits 

This community is characterized by sparsely vegetated outcrops of fractured, 

irregular rock found above 4,000 feet elevation on peaks, ridges, and upper slopes. 

It is distiguished from rock outcrop communities by its fractured, irregular rock 

surface, and from talus slopes and cliff communities by its topographic position on or 

near summits. It differs from forested boulderfields in its general lack of forest cover. 

This community is found in the Appalachian region. This community includes High 

Elevation Rocky Summits as defined in the SAA (SAMAB 1996:182), and all 

Associations within the following ecological group as defined by NatureServe 

(2001a): 

436-30 Appalachian Highlands Rocky Summits 

The known distribution of rock outcrop and cliff communities (Table 3-38) described 

in the SAA (SAMAB 1996:188) is as follows: 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

148 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Table 3-38. The Distribution of Rock Outcrop and Cliff Rare Communities By State 

For The Southern Appalachian Area (after SAMAB 1996:188) 

Community Type AL GA NC SC TN VA 

Talus Slopes ? ? ? ? ? 9 

Forested Boulderfields ? ? 96 ? 37 5 

Calcareous Cliffs 2 ? 3 ? 2 41 

Mafic Cliffs ? ? 4 ? ? 3 

Sandstone Cliffs 6 6 ? ? 2 5 

Spray Cliffs ? ? 40 4 ? ? 

Granitic Domes ? ? 53 18 ? ? 

Granitic Flatrock 5 ? ? ? ? ? 

Note: These data are based upon a 1996 query of State Natural Heritage databases 

and may not reflect actual distributions if individual states have not tracked these 

communities. 

Two hundred and eighteen species of viability concern are associated with southern 

Appalachian rock outcrops and cliffs (Table 3-73, Terrestrial Viability section). Of 

these, sixty-eight species are of concern on the CNF (Table 3-79, Terrestrial Viability 

section and Table L, Appendix E). 

7.7.2 Direct and Indirect Effects 

As stated above, rock outcrop and cliff communities are considered rare 

communities and will be managed optimally for protection, restoration, and/or 

maintenance through the 9.F (rare community) prescription. This direction is the 

same under all plan alternatives (except F – current Plan) thus the effects of national 

forest management on these communities and associated species is expected to be 

positive in all alternatives except F. A subset of these communities that are 

associated with riparian areas (spray cliffs, waterfalls, etc.) are also afforded 

protection by the riparian prescription under all plan alternatives. This habitat type 

will remain rare and poorly distributed on NFS lands, however, due to it’s naturally 

limited distribution. Likewise, viability of associated species will remain at risk, 

though management strategies included under all alternatives except F will minimize 

this risk by maintaining existing sites and associated populations. 

7.7.3 Cumulative Effects 

Cumulatively, these communities are vulnerable to negative impacts on private 

lands, making national forest sites essential to maintain. Distribution of such sites 

has been and should continue to be relatively stable over time under all alternatives 

due to the stability of the factors that define them. Future condition of this habitat 

type should be good (see Table 3-74 and Table 3-75, Terrestrial Viability section) 

when compared to historic condition, except under Alternative F, which does not 

explicilty recognize these communities for protection. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 149 

7.8.0 High Elevation Balds and Meadows 

7.8.1 Affected Environment 

“Of all the non-forested plant communities in the southern Appalachians, the grassy 

balds are the most famous and their origins the most historically obscure” (Lindsay 

and Bratton 1979). The origin and continued existence of high elevation balds in the 

southern Appalachians has been, and continues to be, a hotly debated topic. Several 

authors have proposed that existing balds are simply the result of historic land use 

and their disappearance is nothing more than natural succession (Wells 1936, 1938, 

1956; Gersmehl 1970; Lindsay and Bratton 1979; Sutter and White 1994), while 

others are proponents of natural origins with major ecological changes being the 

cause of their decline (Billings and Mark 1957; Mark 1958, Weigl and Knowles 

1995). The answer most likely to be accurate combines both theories. Some balds 

support species of rare and northern disjunct plant species suggesting a long 

evolutionary history (Weigl and Knowles 1995) while others support a mix of common 

and non-native species and may be nothing more than historical fields. 

Regardless of origin, two types of high elevation balds are found in the southern 

Appalachians; grassy balds and shrub (or heath) balds. Grassy balds are 

characterized by extensive areas dominated by herbaceous vegetation at high 

elevations (generally above 5,000 feet). They generally are found on ridgetops, 

domes, and gentle slopes. Shrub balds are typically found on steep exposed slopes 

and ridges at elevations ranging from 2,000 to 6,500 feet, and are characterized by 

dominance of ericaceous shrubs. This community includes Grassy Balds and Heath 

Balds as defined in the SAA (SAMAB 1996: 181-182), and all Associations within the 

following ecological groups as defined by NatureServe (2001a): 

436-10 Appalachian Highlands Grassy Balds 

436-20 Appalachian Highlands Shrub Balds 

Conditions typically occurring on high elevation balds include strong wind, high 

rainfall, frequent fog and extremes of temperature and moisture. Species 

composition varies regarding topographic features, moisture, exposure, types of 

disturbances and land use history. The known distribution of grassy and heath bald 

communities is described in the SAA Terrestrial Technical Report (SAMAB 1996:188-

190). This report indicates that approximately two-thirds of the occurrences of 

grassy balds and nearly one half of the occurrences of heath balds in the southern 

Appalachian area are located on NFS lands. 

Twenty-nine balds and high elevation meadows are known to occur on the CNF. 

Table 3-39 lists these balds with a short description of existing conditions. 

Table 3-39. Balds and High Elevation Meadows Known to Occur on the CNF 

Name Location Existing Condition 

Northern Portion of the CNF 

Beauty Spot N36o 07.02’ 

W82o 19.95’ 

Open areas with numerous exotic species 

present. Has been maintained with mowing 

and prescribed fire. 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

150 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Table 3-39. Balds and High Elevation Meadows Known to Occur on the CNF 

Name Location Existing Condition 

Beauty Spot 

Gap 

N36o 07.55’ 

W82o 18.71’ 

Open area with numerous exotic species 

present. Some woody encroachment is 

taking place. Partially in Wilderness. 

Big Bald N35o 59.30’ 

W82o 29.30’ 

Predominantly open area with a mixture of 

exotic and native grasses. Areas of 

blackberry and hawthorn thickets are being 

controlled with annual mowing. Vehicle use 

is causing problems on portions of the area. 

Big Butt N36° 04.00’ 

W82° 37.50’ 

An open high elevation grassland also known 

as the Ball Ground. Consists of exotics and 

natives. Mowed on occasion by District. 

Road currently flood damaged. Some woody 

encroachment taking place. Need to restore 

access in order to maintain. 

Bradley Gap N36° 07.869’ 

W82° 01.600’ 

Open bald with a mix of native and exotic 

species. Managed with a grazing allotment 

administered by the Pisgah National Forest. 

Woody encroachment is occurring on 

perimeters. Most of this lies within North 

Carolina but portions may be on Cherokee 

National Forest lands. 

Camp Creek 

Bald 

N36° 01.40’ 

W82° 42.30’ 

Site of an old ski resort and development. 

Currently open and maintained. Mostly exotic 

grasses, but some natives present. Vehicle 

use has caused problems at site. Small 

grass dominated openings are scattered 

along the ridge and are surrounded by high 

elevation red oak forest. 

Cold Springs 

Bald 

N36° 03.50’ 

W82° 38.30’ 

An open bald mowed as a wildlife opening. 

Access road is currently flood damaged. 

Some woody encroachment is taking place. 

Mixture of exotics and natives. Need to 

restore road access in order to maintain. 

Doll Flats N36° 08.426’ 

W82° 00.710 

Open fields. Portion recently acquired in 

North Carolina was grazed. Portions in 

Tennessee suffering from encroachment and 

ATV traffic. Vegetation is a mix of exotics and 

natives. Currently open, but encroachment is 

a problem. Currently talking with Pisgah 

National Forest to manage jointly with 

grazing. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 151 

Table 3-39. Balds and High Elevation Meadows Known to Occur on the CNF 

Name Location Existing Condition 

Grassy Bald N36° 06.201’ 

W82° 04.877’ 

Natural bald. Mostly native species, but 

some exotics present. Some ongoing 

maintenance, but woody encroachment is 

still occurring. Visitor use is resulting in 

trampling of vegetation. 

Jane Bald N36° 06.368’ 

W82° 05.40’ 

Natural bald. Mostly native species, but 

some exotics present. Periodically 

maintained by mowing, but encroachment is 

occurring and is a constant problem. 

Lick Rock N35° 59.00’ 

W82° 36.00’ 

Old farmstead consisting of a mixture of 

exotics and native grasses and shrubs. 

Working with ATC to keep open by burning. 

Need to work on exotics to improve site. 

Little Hump 

Mountain 

N36° 07.457’ 

W82° 01.753’ 

Open bald. Combination of natives and 

exotics. Managed with a grazing allotment 

administered by the Pisgah National Forest. 

Woody encroachment is occurring on 

perimeters. 

Max Patch N35° 47.40’ 

W82° 57.20’ 

Mostly open with scattered shrubby patches. 

Maintained by the Pisgah NF recently by fire. 

Combination of natives and exotics. 

North East 

Little Rock 

Knob 

N36° 09.19’ 

W82° 08.23’ 

Currently maintained as a wildlife opening by 

mowing. A mix of natives and exotic species. 

Roger’s Ridge N36° 35.316’ 

W81° 41.421’ 

Once one bald, now split in two, separated by 

northern hardwood/mesic oak forest. 

Composed of exotic and native grasses. 

Approximately 20 acres (25%) of open area 

was burned in 2001. Woody encroachment 

is a major factor here and the bald is very 

vulnerable to closure in the absence of active 

open-areas management. 

Round Bald N36° 06.397’ 

W82° 06.27’ 

Natural bald. Mostly native species, but 

some exotics present. Maintained via track 

mowing, weed eaters, brush mowers, and 

grazing in recent years. Woody 

encroachment is a constant problem. 

Stamping 

Ground Ridge 

N36° 08.30’ 

W82° 17.30’ 

A heath bald with encroaching trees. Exotic 

species are prevalent along trails. No current 

management. Partially in wilderness. 

Street Gap N35° 58.30’ 

W82° 32.25’ 

Recently acquired old Christmas tree farm. 

Burned in 2001 and planted with hardwoods. 

Plans are to keep a small opening along AT 

and allow rest to revert to forest. Numerous 

exotic species present. 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

152 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Table 3-39. Balds and High Elevation Meadows Known to Occur on the CNF 

Name Location Existing Condition 

Unaka 

Mountain 

Observation 

Site 

N36° 08.00’ 

W82° 18.40’ 

A heath bald. Mostly native vegetation, but 

exotics occur along road and trail. No current 

management. Located partially in 

Wilderness. 

Walnut 

Mountain 

N35° 50.30’ 

W82° 56.50’ 

Historic farm fields and orchards that are 

succumbing to succession. Currently a 

mixture of small openings, orchards and 

young forest, with a mix of native and exotic 

species. Plans exist to re-open as part of the 

Wolf Creek Project. 

Southern Portion of the CNF 

Beaverdam 

Bald 

Small grassy area surrounded by hardwood 

forest. Currently a mixture of native and 

introduced grasses and forbs. 

Buck Bald 

Small grassy area surrounded by hardwood 

forest. Currently a mixture of native and 

introduced grasses and forbs. 

Grassy Top Bald remnant, now mostly forested with 

hardwood forest. 

Haw Knob 

Small grassy area surrounded by hardwood 

forest. Currently a mixture of native and 

introduced grasses and forbs. 

Hazelnut 

Knob 

Bald remnant, now mostly forested with 

hardwood forest. 

Stratton 

Meadow 

Bald remnant, now mostly forested with 

hardwood forest. 

Little Bald 

Small grassy area surrounded by hardwood 

forest. Currently a mixture of native and 

introduced grasses and forbs. 

Little Haw 

Knob 

Small grassy area surrounded by hardwood 

forest. Currently a mixture of native and 

introduced grasses and forbs. 

Whigg 

Meadow 

Grassy meadow dominated by a mixture of 

introduced and native grasses and forbs. 

Surrounded by high elevation hardwood 

forest. 

Primary management needs for natural balds are protection from recreational 

impacts and maintenance of open condition with desired vegetation. Sixty-five 

species of viability concern are associated with southern Appalachian grassy and 

shrub bald communities (Table 3-73, Terrestrial Viability section). Of these, twentynine species are of concern on the CNF (Table 3-79, Terrestrial Viability section and 

Table L, Appendix E). 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 153 

7.8.2 Direct and Indirect Effects 

Natural balds are considered a rare community and would be managed and 

protected under all alternatives through the 9.F (rare community) prescription. Balds 

determined to be anthropogenic in origin are best considered “historic landscapes” 

and may be managed to interpret those conditions. Regardless of origin, balds 

containing significant populations of rare elements will be protected as rare 

communities under all alternatives. 

Information concerning the former distribution of grassy balds is available from 

historic records which could be used to ascertain desired future distribution. 

Distribution of shrub balds has been, and should continue to be, somewhat more 

stable over time than grassy balds due to the stability of the factors that create them, 

namely slope position and shallow soils. Catastopic fires that occurred after land 

clearing in the early 20th century has likely expanded and changed the composition 

of these balds. Expected outcomes for bald habitats are the same across 

alternatives, except for the benign neglect under Alternative F as opposed to focused 

attention under other alternatives as a result of the rare community prescription. 

For those balds that fall within existing or recommended Wilderness (Prescriptions 

1.A and 1.B), restoration activities could occur, but these allocations could limit the 

available methods and the degree of restoration activities. High elevation balds 

would be managed to maintain or restore bald characteristics including species 

composition, successional stages desired, and occurrences of threatened or 

endangered species. Bald restoration may involve thinning, mechanical treatments, 

herbicide release, grazing, and prescribed burning (Saunders 1980). 

A conservation strategy for three high elevation balds (Roger’s Ridge, Whigg Meadow, 

and Camp Creek Bald) was completed in 2001 (Major 2001). Much of the 

information and methods presented in that document will be applicable to other 

balds in the region. Restoration and maintenance activities would benefit these 

communities and associated species of viability concern, however they will remain 

rare and poorly distributed on NFS lands due to their naturally limited distribution 

and constraints on the ability to manage as described above. 

7.8.3 Cumulative Effects 

Most high elevation habitat (> 4,000’ elevation) in the southern Appalachian region 

occurs on public lands placing the responsibility of restoration and maintenance of 

balds on public land managers. Similar restoration efforts for balds are occurring 

throughout the southern Appalachian region which should result in a long-term 

improvement of this habitat type in the future. Expected abundance and distribution 

of this habitat element after 50 years of plan implementation relative to historic 

conditions would be fair (see Table 3-74 and Table 3-75, Terrestrial Viability section). 

7.9.0 Caves and Mines 

7.9.1 Affected Environment 

This community is characterized by natural and human-made openings in the ground 

that extend beyond the zone of light, creating sites buffered in relation to the outside 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

154 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

environment. Included are karst and sinkhole features and sinking streams that lead 

to subterranean environments. Surfaces of karstlands are directly linked to cave 

water systems and aquifers (Kastning and Kastning 1990). 

The shape and location of entrances, along with the hydrology, configuration, size, 

elevation, and patterns of airflow influence the types of fauna found within caves and 

mines (SAMAB 1996: 180). Many bats are dependent on caves, both seasonally and 

year-round. Bats select roosts with temperatures appropriate to their metabolic 

processes (Tuttle and Stevenson 1977). An intermediate, unusable range of 

temperatures characterizes most caves, and bats use a very small number of caves 

with desirable conditions. 

In the southern Appalachians, most caves are found in carbonate valleys of the Ridge 

and Valley and the Cumberland Plateau (SAMAB 1996: 180). The Blue Ridge 

contains fissure caves and a smaller number of solution caves found in limestone or 

dolomite collapsed valleys and windows. Because of their rarity and vulnerability, 

their protection is a key conservation need within this region (SAMAB 1996: 37). 

Sinkholes and karstlands are scattered throughout the planning area, and large 

examples are rare They are most common in the Northern and Central Ridge and 

Valley (Jefferson National Forest), as well as the Cumberland Plateau (Bankhead 

National Forest), with fewer occurrences known from the Blue Ridge (SAMAB, 1996: 

189). 

Abandoned mines have become key year-round resources for bats displaced from 

natural roosts, including caves and large hollow trees, by human disturbance (Tuttle 

and Taylor 1994). Abandoned mines may provide microclimates similar to those of 

caves. Mines are used for maternity sites, hibernation sites, migratory stopover sites, 

and temporary night roosts. Some bats rely heavily on use of mines range wide, and 

many bat species are believed to hibernate exclusively in old mines or caves (Tuttle 

and Taylor 1994). 

The limited karst formations of the CNF are found along the extreme western edge of 

the forest (the eastern edge of the Ridge and Valley Province) (Barr 1961). Eight 

caves and over twenty mine portals are known to exist on the CNF. Barite or iron ore 

mine portals are known from all ranger districts but are concentrated on the 

Nolichucky-Unaka District. 

7.9.2 Direct and Indirect Effects 

Possible threats to national forest caves and mines are 1) direct disturbance from 

human visitation or improperly installed gates/closure devices, 2) management 

activities that indirectly result in alteration of temperature, humidity, surface water 

recharge or water quality, and 3) temporary decline in air quality due to prescribed 

burning (SAMAB 1996:90). 

Provisions of the Rare Community Prescription (9.F) and forestwide direction apply to 

caves and mines that support cave-associated species and are the same across all 

alternatives. Direct disturbance from human visitation is regulated by a standard 

that requires use of proper closure devices for caves and mines supporting 

significant populations of bats. Camping and fire-building at cave and portal 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 155 

entrances is prohibited. Non-essential public access routes within .25 miles of these 

sites will be closed during periods when bats are present. Consistent inclusion of this 

standard under all alternatives is expected to reduce frequency and degree of human 

intrusion, providing beneficial effects to associated species. 

Management actions that may result in indirect alteration of temperature, humidity, 

surface water recharge or water quality within caves or mines include vegetation 

clearing and management, construction of roads, trails and other recreation 

developments, and other use of heavy equipment. Standards under all alternatives 

provide for undisturbed buffers around significant caves and mines and associated 

features to maintain clean water, vegetative cover and moist microclimatic 

conditions. Prohibited activities include vegetation cutting, recreation site 

development, and construction of roads, skid trails and log landings. Until caves, 

mines, and associated features have been surveyed for use by federally listed bats, 

these species are assumed to be present and habitat is maintained for them by 

applying standards for occupied sites. Implementation of the Riparian Prescription 

(Rx 11) will also contribute to high water quality and abundant aquatic 

macroinvertebrates in cave water systems and connected streams. 

Identifying caves and mines as smoke sensitive targets and planning to avoid them 

when developing prescribed burn plans mitigates effects of prescribed burning. Until 

caves or mines have been surveyed for use by federally listed bats, these species are 

assumed to be present and habitat is maintained for them by applying standards for 

occupied sites. 

For more discussion on other habitat elements for federally listed bats, see Section 

11.0. 

All caves and mines suitable for supporting characteristic fauna would be managed 

optimally for protection under all alternatives. Because of the priority put on 

protection of this community and associated species, effects of national forest 

management are expected to be positive under all alternatives except Alternative F, 

which does not provide the same explicit level of conservation and protection. 

7.9.3 Cumulative Effects 

Caves and other karst features are naturally rare elements. In addition, a significant 

proportion of Southern Appalachian caves (95%) are located on private lands 

(SAMAB 1996: 37, 49) where protection may be poorly regulated. For these reasons, 

effects of protection of these habitats on NFS land is important to maintaining 

viability of associated species within the region. 

Overall distribution of these habitat features may have increased due to creation of 

mines, although many attributes of karst ecosystems (intact water systems and 

invertebrate, amphibian and fish fauna) may be lacking in mines. Generally, existing 

sites would be maintained through protection under all alternatives due to the 

riparian prescription (Prescription 11) and other legislation. Alternative F does not 

provide an explicit, similar level of protection that is provided in the other alternatives 

under the rare community prescription (Prescription 9.F). Overall viability of these 

systems is tied to private lands. Across all alternatives, the future distribution would 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

156 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

be expected to remain rare. Abundance would be expected to be fair for all 

alternatives except for Alternative F, for which abundance would be expected to be 

poor due to lack of explicit protection (Table 3-74 and Table 3-75, Terrestrial Viability, 

Section 15.1). 

8.0 Successional Habitats 

The following sections describe existing condition and potential effects by alternative 

to successional habitats on the CNF. 

8.1 Successional Forested Habitats 

8.1.1 Affected Environment 

Forest age and related structure are key determining factors for presence, 

distribution, and abundance of a wide variety of wildlife. Some species depend on 

early-successional habitats, some depend on late-successional habitats, and others 

depend on a mix of both occurring within the landscape (Franklin 1988, Harris 1984, 

Hunter et al. 2001, Hunter 1988, Litvaitis 2001). These habitat conditions are also 

important as wintering and stopover habitats for migrating species (Kilgo 1999, 

Suthers 2000, Hunter et al. 2001). In order to support viability of diverse plant and 

animal populations and to support demand for game species, a variety of habitat 

types are needed within national forest landscapes. 

This section deals only with successional forest conditions. Permanent openings 

such as open woodlands, savannas, grasslands, barrens and glades, balds, wildlife 

openings, old fields, pastures, and rights-of-way are covered elsewhere in this 

document. Mid- and late-successional/old growth conditions are covered only 

generally in this section; more detailed treatment of desired conditions for these 

successional stages can be found under individual forest community sections. 

For analysis purposes, forest succession is divided into four stages: early, 

sapling/pole, mid, and late (Table 3-40; after SAMAB 1996:11, 284). Earlysuccessional forest is defined as regenerating forest of zero to ten years of age for all 

forest community types. It is characterized by dominance of woody growth of 

regenerating trees and shrubs, often with a significant grass/forb component, and 

relatively low density or absent overstory. This condition is distinguished from most 

permanent opening habitats by dominance of relatively dense woody vegetation, as 

opposed to dominance of grasses and forbs. Such conditions may be created by 

even-aged and two-aged regeneration cutting, and by natural disturbance events, 

such as windstorms, severe wildfire, and some insect or disease outbreaks. Ages 

defining the remaining successional stages vary slightly by forest community type. 

Sapling/pole forest is characterized by canopy closure of dense tree regeneration, 

with tree diameters typically smaller than ten inches. Mid-successional forest begins 

to develop stratification of over-, mid-, and understory layers. Late-successional 

forests are usually greater than 80 years old. The old growth stage contains the 

largest trees and often has many well-developed canopy layers, scattered openings 

caused by tree mortality, and an abundance of dead and downed wood. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 157 

Table 3-40. Forest age (years) corresponding to successional stages for 

each forest community type coinciding with CNF SPECTRUM analysis. 

 Successional Stage 

Forest Community 

Type Early Sapling/Pole Mid Late 

Northern 

Hardwood Forest 0-10 11-40 41-80 81+ 

Conifer-Northern 

Hardwood Forest 0-10 11-40 41-80 81+ 

Mixed Mesophytic 

Forest 0-10 11-40 41-80 81+ 

River Floodplain 

Hardwood Forest 0-10 11-20 21-60 61+ 

Dry-Mesic Oak 

Forest 0-10 11-40 41-80 81+ 

Dry and Xeric Oak 

Forest; Woodland 

and Savanna 

0-10 11-40 41-80 81+ 

Xeric Pine & Pineoak Forest & 

Woodland 

0-10 11-40 41-80 81+ 

Dry and Dry-mesic 

Oak-pine Forest 0-10 11-40 41-80 81+ 

Montane Spruce-fir 

Forest 0-10 11-40 41-80 81+ 

Of particular importance as habitat are forest conditions that exist at both extremes 

of the forest successional continuum – early-successional and late successional/old 

growth forests. Table L, Appendix E identifies species of viability concern associated 

with early-successional forests, mixed successional forest landscapes, and latesuccessional/old growth forests of a variety of forest community types. 

Early-successional forests are important because they are highly productive in terms 

of forage, diversity of food sources, insect production, nesting and escape cover, and 

soft mast. Early-successional forests have the shortest lifespan (10 years) of any of 

the forest successional stages, and are typically in short supply and declining on 

national forests in the Southern Appalachians (SAMAB 1996:28), and in the eastern 

U.S.A (Thompson 2001). Early-successional forests are also not distributed regularly 

or randomly across the landscape (Lorimer 2001). These habitats are essential or 

beneficial for some birds (ruffed grouse, chestnut-sided warbler, golden-winged 

warbler, prairie warbler, yellow-breasted chat, blue-winged warbler); beneficial to 

deer, turkey, and bear in the South; and sought by hunters, berry pickers, crafters, 

and herb gatherers for the opportunities they provide (Gobster 2001). Many species 

commonly associated with late-successional forest conditions also use earlysuccessional forests periodically, or depend upon it during some portion of their life 

cycle (Hunter et al. 2001). 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

158 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Sapling/pole stages are generally of least value to wildlife because closed canopies 

limit understory development, and trees are not yet large and old enough to begin 

producing mast or other wildlife benefits. However, this successional stage does 

provide value as dense cover for some species. Mid-successional forests begin to 

look and function like late-successional forests, and provide habitat for many species 

that use late-successional forests. For most of these species however, midsuccessional forests provide lower quality habitat than do late-successional forests. 

Like early-successional forests, late-successional forests provide habitats and food 

supplies for a suite of habitat specialists as well as habitat generalists. These 

habitats are important providers of high canopy nesting, roosting, and foraging 

habitat, suitable tree diameters for cavity development and excavation, and relatively 

large volumes of seed and hard mast. Although it takes many decades for latesuccessional forest conditions to develop, these habitats are more common and 

contiguous across the national forest and are dominant features in the SAA area 

(SAMAB 1996:28). 

At the time of the SAA, NFS lands had three percent of forest habitats in the earlysuccessional stage, while 89 percent was in the mid- and late-successional classes; 

45 percent of this was late-successional forest (SAMAB 1996:168). Other public 

lands were similar to the national forest. Conversely, private industrial lands had 22 

percent in early-successional forest and only four percent in late-successional 

forest; private non-industrial had eight percent in early-successional forest and nine 

percent in late-successional forest (SAMAB 1996:168-169). The 20-year trends 

(SAMAB 1996:28) show early-successional forest on national forests decreasing by 

four percent , with late-successional forest increasing by 34 percent. Trends for 

private forests are mixed, with increases in both early- and late-successional forest 

percentages. These results likely reflect the mixed objectives of private landowners, 

with some focusing on commodity production and others on amenity values. In 

general, on NFS lands forest conditions are weighted heavily toward total acres of 

older forests, while private forests are providing emphasis on young forests (TraniGriep 1999). 

Quality of forest successional habitats may also vary between private and NFS lands. 

Objectives on national forests to provide for wildlife habitat needs, recreational 

activities, SIOs, and water quality often result in greater vegetation structure retained 

in early-successional forests than in similar habitats on private lands. On private 

lands, intensive management for fiber production may simplify structure and 

composition, reducing habitat quality. Similarly, effort to restore and maintain 

desired ecological conditions and processes in mid- and late-successional forests 

also often enhances habitat quality over that found on private lands. For these 

reasons, conclusions regarding cumulative habitat availability from both private and 

NFS lands must be made with caution. 

Hurricanes (Foster 1992), lightning frequency (Delcourt 1998), fire frequency 

(Whitney 1986), and pre-settlement cultural activities (Delcourt 1987) were probably 

the major sources of disturbance events that created early successional forests prior 

to European occupation. Less drastic perturbations such as mortality events from 

tornadoes, insect or disease outbreaks, or defoliation (passenger pigeon roosts) were 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 159 

typically less extensive and cyclic but nonetheless provided a source of earlysuccessional forest conditions. Natural disturbances, however, are unpredictable, 

episodic, and heterogeneous (Lorimer 2001); influential at a landscape scale; and 

are neither uniform nor random in distribution. Anthropogenic disturbances may 

have occurred more frequently in floodplains along major rivers and in “hunting 

grounds.” 

Overall, landscape patterns more consistently contain a component of young forests 

in places more “likely” to be susceptible to disturbances, i.e., south and west facing 

slopes, sandy or well drained soils, or in fire adapted plant communities. Fire 

suppression, intensive agriculture resulting in massive soil losses, land use changes, 

and urban sprawl have drastically altered the variables that would perpetuate a 

landscape with a significant component of early- successional forests. Many species 

associated with southeastern early successional forests (Table L, Appendix E) are in 

decline (Hunter et al. 2001), and management actions that perpetuate earlysuccessional forest conditions would support their viability. Many of these same 

factors, especially land use conversion, have also reduced the distribution and 

abundance of quality late-successional forests across the larger landscape. 

Maintenance of these on public lands is equally important. 

Table 3-41. Current acres and percentages of forested acreage by community type 

on the CNF in each successional stage by forest community type. Source: CNF GIS 

database, November 2002, sorted by Old Growth Community; Utilized in SPECTRUM 

modeling. 

 Successional Stage 

Forest Community Type Early Sapling/Pole Mid Late 

Northern Hardwood Forest 582 

(3%) 

1603 

(9%) 

9579 

(51%) 

6913 

(37%) 

Conifer-Northern Hardwood 

Forest (primarily White Pine) 

1438 

(4%) 

13012 

(40%) 

10126 

(31%) 

7816 

(25%) 

Mixed Mesophytic Forest 4209 

(3%) 

13758 

(9%) 

60178 

(40%) 

72622 

(48%) 

River Floodplain Hardwood 

Forest 

30 

(2%) 0 398 (27%) 

1072 

(71%) 

Dry-Mesic Oak Forest 4118 

(3%) 

10246 

(8%) 

40274 

(32%) 

71395 

(57%) 

Dry and Xeric Oak Forest; 

Woodland and Savanna 

3621 

(5%) 

1589 

(2%) 

25858 

(36%) 

40958 

(57%) 

Xeric Pine & Pine-oak Forest & 

Woodland 

2691 

(2%) 

20654 

(18%) 

57199 

(50%) 

33008 

(30%) 

Dry and Dry-mesic Oak-pine 

Forest 

6273 

(6%) 

20988 

(20%) 

32616 

(32%) 

43802 

(42%) 

Montane Spruce-fir Forest 29 

(5%) 

79 

(12%) 

511 

(79%) 

23 

(4%) 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

160 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Generally, age classes at extreme ends of the spectrum are relatively rare for all 

community types (Table 3-41). Old growth (combined here with late successional age 

class) is essentially absent due to nearly complete land clearing prior to Forest 

Service land acquisition. Early successional habitats are relatively scarce due to a 

decline in management activity during the past decade. Overall, other age class 

distributions reflect relative availability of merchantable tree species over the past 

century. The majority of forest management activity during the past 50 years 

focused on white pine, followed by red and white oaks and shortleaf pine (see 

sapling/pole percentages). Prior to the 1950’s, management emphasis focused on 

upland hardwoods, especially mixed mesophytic and northern hardwood forests, for 

harvest of species including red and white oaks, black cherry and associated cove 

species (see mid-late successional percentages). Age class structure of river 

floodplain forest and spruce-fir forest is probably reflective of the condition at the 

time of land acquisition. Forest structure of northern hardwoods and xeric pine/pineoak forests is probably particularly poor due to dominance of the mid-successional 

age class. 

Management Indicators 

Indicators of conditions related to successional forest habitats are acreage or 

percent of forested acres on the national forest within three categories of forest 

successional stages: 1) early successional forest, 2) mid- and late-successional 

forest combined, and 3) late-successional/old growth forest alone. These three 

indicators are selected because they are most relevant to describing important 

habitat conditions. Early-successional forests are a key condition required by many 

species, and their level indicates near-future presence of sapling/pole successional 

stages as well. Because most species associated with late-successional conditions 

will also be found to some extent in mid-successional forests, the combined level of 

these successional stages provides an indication of the total base of habitat 

available for these species. However, because late-successional/old growth forest 

conditions will often provide better quality habitat for these species, a focus on levels 

of this stage alone is also meaningful. 

The prairie warbler (Dendroica discolor) is selected as a MIS to represent earlysuccessional forests. Because the mid- and late-successoinal forest habitats support 

more divergent communities depending on their composition, MIS for these habitats 

are identified and analyzed under the individual major forest community sections of 

this document. 

Prairie warblers are shrubland nesting birds found in suitable habitats throughout the 

Southern Appalachians (Hamel 1992). Prairie warblers require dense forest 

regeneration or open shrubby conditions in a forested setting. Near optimal habitat 

conditions are characterized by regeneration, thinned area or patchy openings ten 

acres or more in size where woody plants average two to three meters in height, 

three to four cm dbh, and occur in stem densities around 3,000 stems/acre 

(Natureserve 2001). Populations respond favorably to conditions created three to 

ten years following forest regeneration in larger forest patches (Lancia 2000). 

Providing a sustained flow of regenerating forests is necessary to support 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 161 

populations of prairie warbler. Populations of prairie warbler have been steadily 

declining in the eastern U.S.A (Trend -2.08, P value 0.0000; Sauer 2000). 

8.1.2 Direct and Indirect Effects 

To guide provision of forest successional habitats in the LMP and to facilitate effects 

analysis, four different mixes of successional forest conditions were defined and 

assigned to prescriptions, which were then allocated to NFS lands. These four 

options describe objectives for percentages of early-successional forest to be 

provided by natural causes or management actions, percentages of mid- and latesuccessional forests combined (including old growth), and percentages of latesuccessional forest (including old growth). Objectives were set for these measures 

because these were deemed the most meaningful measures of habitat availability for 

dependent species. The options were designed to cover the full spectrum of 

successional mixes needed to cover the range of preferences documented for forestassociated species. In other words, if each of these options is allocated to some 

portion of the landscape, all forest-associated species should find some portion of 

the landscape with optimal successional forest mixes. 

Option 1 is assigned to those areas for which there are no specific objectives for 

creating early-successional forests through management actions. These areas would 

be expected to provide primarily mid-and late-successional forest habitats in the 

short term, with late-successional/old growth forest conditions eventually 

predominating. Option 2 also are areas with no specific objectives for earlysuccessional forests, but creation of such habitat through management action may 

provide up to four percent of forested acres in early-successional forest conditions, 

where compatible with the emphasis of the prescription. These areas have an 

objective of a minimum of 75 percent of forested acres in mid- and late-successional 

forest and a minimum of 50 percent in late-successional forest. Therefore, these 

areas also are expected to become dominated by late-successional forests over time. 

Option 3 areas are characterized by objectives to create an intermediate mix of forest 

successional stages, with four to ten percent of forested land in early-successional 

forest condition. Objectives for older forests in these areas are to maintain a 

minimum of 50 percent of forested acres in mid- to late-successional forest and a 

minimum of 20 percent in late-successional forest. Option 4 areas are characterized 

by a mix of forest successional stages, with an emphasis on early-successional 

forests. Objectives are to maintain 10-17 percent of forested acreage in earlysuccessional, 20 percent in mid-and late-successional forests, and ten percent in 

late-successional forest. Expected percentages of successional forest conditions by 

option are summarized in Table 3-42. 

Table 3-42. Targeted percentage of forested acreage in early-successional, mid- and 

late-successional, and late-successional/old growth forest by successional mix 

options allocated to NFS lands. 

Successional 

Mix Option Early Successional Mid- and LateSuccessional 

Latesuccessional/Old 

Growth 

1 0 100 100 

2 0-4 >75 >50 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

162 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Table 3-42. Targeted percentage of forested acreage in early-successional, mid- and 

late-successional, and late-successional/old growth forest by successional mix 

options allocated to NFS lands. 

Successional 

Mix Option Early Successional Mid- and LateSuccessional 

Latesuccessional/Old 

Growth 

3 4-10 >50 >20 

4 10-17 >20 >10 

Allocation of these prescription options to NFS lands varies across alternatives. 

Forestwide mixes of successional habitats by alternative may be compared by 

comparing the acreage allocated to each of these four successional stage options 

(Table 3-43). These allocation percentages may be combined with desired 

successional mix percentages (Table 3-42) to estimate total forest-wide successional 

forest mixes (Table 3-43). These estimates represent unconstrained attainment of 

forest successional stage objectives, and provide an additional means to compare 

alternatives. 

Table 3-43. Percent of total forest acres allocated to successional stage 

options 1, 2, 3, and 4, by alternative, and projected percentages of total 

forested acreage to be maintained in early successional forest, mid-and latesuccessional forest, and late-successional forest, if option objectives are 

met. 

Percent of Forested 

Acreage Allocated to Forest 

Successional Option 

Projected % of Forested Acreage 

by Successional Stage Alternative 

1 2 3 4 Early Mid and 

Late Late 

A 39 27 27 7 2-5 74 59 

B 32 35 30 3 2-5 74 56 

D 28 3 22 47 6-10 51 39 

E 86 5 8 1 <1-1 94 90 

F 27 0 49 24 4-9 56 39 

G 71 1 28 0 1-3 86 77 

I 44 0 48 9 3-6 69 54 

Alternatives E and G offer the highest emphasis on late successional habitats (90% 

and 77%, respectively), whereas Alternatives D and F represent the lowest (39%). 

Alternatives D and F would provide up to ten percent and nine percent early 

successional habitat conditions, respectively. 

SPECTRUM modeling provides a means for examining attainment of desired 

successional mixes at future points in time within the constraints of other factors 

such as existing age-class distribution. Modeled mixes of successional stages at ten 

and 50 years of plan implementation vary by alternative due to the differences in 

management intensity and emphasis (Table 3-44, Table 3-45, and Table 3-46). The 

model was applied only to acres that 1) were assigned to a prescription with a 

specific early successional habitat objective greater than zero and 2) were classed as 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 163 

suitable for timber management. Some management could possibly occur on 

additional acres, and therefore these represent very conservative estimates of early 

successional habitat and liberal estimates of mid-and late-successional habitat. 

The SPECTRUM projections show a similar pattern among alternatives to those 

illustrated by the successional class option analysis above. Alternatives G and E 

would provide the least amount of early successional habitat while Alternatives F and 

D would provide the most (Table 3-44). Alternatives G and E would provide the 

greatest amount of late successional habitat while Alternatives F and D would 

provide the least (Table 3-46). Compared to current conditions, for Alternatives F 

and D, the quantity of late successional habitat would decrease at year ten but 

increase by year 50. In year 10, Alternatives F and D would increase the quantity of 

early successional habitat over the currently available amount. All alternatives 

except Alternative G and E would increase the quantity of early successional habitats 

at year 50. 

Table 3-44. Expected percent of 

forested acreage in early-successional 

forest conditions on the CNF, after 10 

and 50 years of implementing forest plan 

alternatives. (derived from SPECTRUM 

models November 22, 2002) 

Alternative Year 10 Year 50 

A 2.6 4.0 

B 2.8 4.1 

D 5.4 6.4 

E 0.6 0.9 

F 5.3 8.0 

G 1.4 2.3 

I 2.9 4.8 

Table 3-45. Expected percent of forested 

acreage in mid- and late--successional 

forest conditions on the CNF, after 10 and 

50 years of implementing alternatives. 

(derived from SPECTRUM models 

November 22, 2002) 

Alternative Year 10 Year 50 

A 83.1 84.9 

B 82.7 83.7 

D 80.5 76.2 

E 85.7 96.5 

F 80.5 72.5 

G 84.4 91.0 

I 83.0 82.7 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

164 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Table 3-46. Expected percent of forested 

acreage in late-successional forest on the 

CNF, after 10 and 50 years of 

implementing alternatives. (derived from 

SPECTRUM models November 22, 2002) 

Alternative Year 10 Year 50 

A 46.1 69.9 

B 46.1 68.7 

D 43.4 57.2 

E 48.2 82.3 

F 43.5 54.4 

G 47.4 76.5 

I 46.0 66.7 

Management Indicators 

Mean breeding density of prairie warblers calculated from several studies (Hamel 

1992) is 0.4 breeding pairs/ha. Mean territory size was 1.6 hectare (ha) in Indiana, 

and 0.5 ha in Maryland (NatureServe 2001). In a multi-year study in South Carolina, 

breeding densities were recorded from 0.3 to 0.6 pairs/ha in a longleaf pine 

plantation (Droge 1993, Wagner 1994, Irby 1995, Irby 1996). Because of the tight 

association of breeding prairie warblers with early-successional forests, prairie 

warbler populations are expected to vary by alternative in direct relation to the 

abundance of this successional stage. Based on Table 3-43, Alternatives D and F 

would provide the most habitat, and Alternative E would provide the least habitat 

(Table 3-47). Because of the relatively small differences in projected proportions of 

early successional habitat across alternatives (Table 3-43), changes in prairie warbler 

population levels are overall expected to be relatively small. 

Table 3-47. Expected population trend1 of prairie warbler on the CNF under each 

alternatives 10 and 50 years following plan adoption. Population trend estimates are 

based on expected trends in habitat quantity and quality. 

Alternative Time Period A B D E F G I 

10 years = = + - + - = 

50 years = = + - ++ - = 

1 Population trend expressed as expected change from current levels: “++” = relatively large 

increase, “+” = increase, “=” = little to no change, “-“ = decrease, “- -“ = relatively large decrease. 

8.1.3 Cumulative Effects 

Across the landscape in which the national forest exists, cumulative mixes of 

successional forests will be affected by actions on private lands, and results of insect 

and disease outbreaks and storms that create relatively large patches of canopy tree 

mortality. Although outbreaks and storms are difficult to predict, levels of these 

influences and private land factors are not expected to vary across alternatives. 

These external factors would be considered in site-specific planning under all 

alternatives to moderate cumulative effects. Measureable amounts of earlysuccessional forests created by outbreaks or storms would be included in 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 165 

calculations of existing conditions, which would be used to determine whether 

management actions are needed to meet early-successional forest objectives. If 

objectives are met through these unplanned events, creation of additional earlysuccessional forest by management action would not be planned. Presence of 

quality successional forest habitats on surrounding private lands, to the extent they 

can be known, would be considered during site-specific planning to determine where 

within the range of successional forest objectives is most desirable for NFS lands. 

However, in order to provide for the diversity of plant and animal communities on 

NFS land as required by the NFA, effort would be made under all alternatives to 

achieve successional mixes on NFS lands that are within the objectives or desired 

conditions of each allocated prescription and its associated successional mix option. 

Although exact mixes would vary somewhat across alternatives as described in the 

preceding section, when viewed cumulatively across the landscape, it is expected 

that the NFS lands would provide the majority of late-successional forests and private 

land would provide a greater proportion of early-successional forests under all 

alternatives. 

Early successional habitat was an occasional but unpredictable component of the 

historical landscape. Its maintenance on the future landscape will make its 

distribution more certain and regular over time. Outcomes vary by alternative, with 

Altermatives E and G resulting in lowered distribution and abundance and 

Alternatives D and F providing greater distribution and abundance. Other 

Alternatives are in between. Distribution of these habitats will be good for 

Alternatives D and F; poor for for Alternatives E and G; and fair for all others. 

Abundance will be common for Alternatives D and F; rare for Alternatives E and G; 

and occasional for all other alternatives (Table 3-74 and Table 3-75, Terrestrial 

Viability Section 15.1). 

Mix of successional habitat conditions (Mixed Landscapes) is more prevalent today 

compared to historic conditions due to private land uses, and will likely remain so in 

the future under all alternatives. Abundance is expected to be common for all 

alternatives. Distribution is expected to be good for all alternatives (Table 3-74 and 

Table 3-75, Terrestrial Viability Section 15.1). 

8.2.0 High Elevation Early Successional Habitats 

8.2.1 Affected Environment 

While early-successional habitats are important for many species throughout the 

Southern Appalachian region, a relatively small but very specialized subset require 

these habitats at high elevations, generally above 3000 to 3500 feet elevation 

(SAMAB 1996:76; Hunter et al. 1999:52-60). The limited and declining abundance 

of these habitats has put associated species at risk. For the purposes of this 

analysis, high-elevation early-successional habitats are defined to include Open 

woodlands, savannahs, and grasslands; old fields; and regenerating forests 0-10 

years old. 

The SAA used remote sensed data to estimate presence of approximately 27,000 

acres of high-elevation early-successional habitat within the Southern Appalachian 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

166 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

region, of which approximately one quarter occurs on NFS land (SAMAB 1996:79). 

These habitats have been declining as a result of succession of old fields, fire 

suppression, and reduced management intensity on national forests (Hunter 

1999:54). Although abundance of these habitats likely peaked in the late 1800’s 

along with farming at high elevations, evidence suggests some level of these habitats 

was present prior to European settlement due to the effects of burning by Native 

Americans, and grazing of bison and elk (Hunter 1999:53). Current trends in 

populations of associated species such as golden-winged warblers (Vermivora 

chrysoptera) and Appalachian Bewick’s wren (Thyromanes bewickii altus) suggest 

that these habitats are below desired levels of abundance needed to maintain the 

full complement of native species on NFS land. Table L, Appendix E identifies 

additional species of viability concern associated with early-successional habitats 

found at high elevations (over 3000 ft). 

On the CNF, there are approximately 6,910 acres of early-successional habitat above 

3000 feet elevation, which represents four percent of the total Forest high elevation 

acreage (167,421 acres). This figure does not include acreage of ROW, balds and 

maintained openings along the A.T. and other locations, which are more difficult to 

quantify. 

Management Indicators 

Acreage of early-successional habitat at high elevations is used as an indicator of 

management effects on this habitat element. The golden-winged warbler is identified 

in the National Strategic Plan as an emphasis species and will be monitored on the 

CNF, but not as a MIS. It is not an effective MIS because there are no consistent 

breeding records for the CNF and consequently trend analysis is not feasible. Its 

populations would primarily be evaluated based on presence or absence in targeted 

habitat types or in response to experimental habitat treatments. Remaining 

populations of this species are concentrated in southwestern North Carolina with 

very few known breeding pairs remaining in Georgia, South Carolina, Virginia, and 

Tennessee. The golden-winged warbler is closely associated with second growth 

areas and abandoned fields characterized by clumps of shrubs and saplings, 

scattered trees and grassy or herbaceous ground cover (Confer 1981). Optimal 

patch size for this and many other associated species is 20-100 acres (Hunter 

1999:57). Once open habitats are established, the optimum management 

techniques may be a rotation of burning (approximate a 10 year cycle), or 

intermittent mowing (Hunter 1997). 

The chestnut-sided warbler (Dendroica pensylvanica) is selected as the most 

appropriate MIS for high-elevation early-successional habitats because of its strong 

association with these habitats. It is effectively monitored using established 

protocols and is likely to indicate the effects of management activities on the 

suitability of high elevation early seral habitats for associated wildlife. This warbler is 

a disturbance-dependent specialist found in early-successional habitats, and its 

populations are in decline (Trend –0.69, P value 0.05258, Sauer 2001). Chestnutsided warblers are closely associated with stand replacement burns, extensive 

blowdowns, riparian early-successional habitat created by flooding or beaver activity 

(Richardson 1995, Askins 2000), and may reach their highest densities in clearcuts 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 167 

(Freedman 1981). At high elevations, deciduous shrubs or laurel brush along 

streams or field borders, deciduous second growth, alder thickets, and large forest 

clearings (Richardson 1995) provide suitable nesting and foraging habitat for this 

species. In portions of the Appalachians chestnut-sided warblers were found in 

thickets of young chestnut trees which die prior to reaching maturity (Richardson 

1995). Near optimal habitat conditions are characterized by regeneration or shrub 

dominated deciduous conditions typically containing blackberry, or Rubus spp. 

(Richardson 1995), with woody plants between one and ten meters in height. 

Populations of chestnut-sided warblers have been observed to decline with a 

decrease in Rubus spp. (Pfeifer Nature Center 2002). In the absence of large-scale 

natural disturbances, management practices (prescribed burning, timber harvesting) 

that effectively provide early-successional habitat will best manage for this species 

throughout its range (Schulte 1998). 

8.2.2 Direct and Indirect Effects 

The LMP includes an objective to maintain 1000 acres above 3000 feet in an earlysuccessional condition. Alternatives vary in the amount of this condition that could 

possibly be maintained (Table 3-48) due to differing allocations of prescriptions to 

high elevation areas. Alternatives B and I most closely approximate maintenance of 

existing condition (6,910 acres). Alternatives D and F would nearly double the 

existing acreage. For Alternative I, managers project actual implementation of 1,000 

acres due to issues including road access, high cost, and other resource constraints. 

Table 3-48. Expected acreage of NFS land above 3000 feet maintained in 

high option, early successional habitats by alternative for the CNF 

 Alt A Alt B Alt D Alt E Alt F Alt G Alt I 

Acres 

maintained in 

high-elevation 

earlysuccessional 

habitat 

4,870 5,905 12,575 1,412 12,516 1,977 5,682 

To more broadly assess opportunity for creation and maintenance of high-elevation 

early-successional habitats across alternatives, allocations of prescriptions to high 

elevation areas were summarized by four forest successional stage options. These 

options define desired mixed of forest successional stages (see section on 

Successional Forests for full description of successional stage options). 

Prescriptions were also rated for their compatibility with vegetation management. 

Both successional stage option and vegetation management intensity rating indicate 

levels of opportunity for creating and maintaining high-elevation early-successional 

habitat. 

All alternatives provide some level of opportunity to create this habitat type. 

Alternatives D and F, followed by Alternative I, offer the highest opportunity to create 

landscape-scale high elevation, early successional habitat because of the highest 

number of acres allocated to prescriptions with early successional options 3 and 4 

(allowing 4-10% and 10-17% in the 0-10 year age classes, respectively) (Table 3-49); 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

168 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

and because of the highest number of acres allocated to prescriptions with few 

constraints on use of vegetation management (class=high likelihood of management) 

(Table 3-50) due to scenic values and emphasis on other species groups. 

Table 3-49. Expected range of acres of early successional habitat over 3000 feet in 

elevation allocated to each successional stage option by alternative on the CNF 

Forest Successional Stage Option1

Alternative 1 2 3 4 

A 0 0-1287 1,253-3,134 265-450 

B 0 0-1456 1,136-2,840 947-1,609 

D 0 0-120 1,296-3,240 5,420-9,214 

E 0 0-4 358-896 301-512 

F 0 0 3,077-7,692 2,838-4,824 

G 0 0 799-1,997 0 

I 0 0 2,273-5,683 0 

1 –Successional Stage Options: 

1 - No objective for creating early-successional forest: areas are expected to provide 

mid- and late-successional forest habitat. 

2 – Areas with predominance of mid and late-successional forests, but up to 4% in 

early-successional forest. 

3 – Areas with mid and late-successional forests common, but 4 to 10% in earlysuccessional forest. 

4 - Areas with emphasis on early-successional forests, with 10-17% in earlysuccessional forest 

Table 3-50. Acres of NFS land over 3000 feet in elevation allocated to prescriptions 

as rated for likely level of vegetation management by alternative on the CNF 

Vegetation Management Level Alternative None Low Moderate High 

A 0 1,518 3,194 4, 870 

B 0 2,083 3,994 5,905 

D 0 6,716 9,646 12,575 

E 0 660 1,036 1,412 

F 0 5,915 9,216 12,516 

G 0 799 1,398 1,997 

I 0 2,273 3,978 5,683 

Management Indicators 

The highest density reported for chestnut-sided warbler is 1.9 pairs/ha recorded in 

clearcuts (Freedman 1981). Hamel (1992:C-7) reports mean breeding densities of 

0.3 pairs/ha from 13 censuses. Six years following a tornado in western New York, 

population densities of chestnut-sided warblers peaked at 1.2 pair/ha with an 

observed density on a control site of 0.04 pair/ha (Pfeifer Nature Center 2002). 

Other observations suggest that the highest densities of chestnut-sided warblers are 

associated with the earliest stages of forest succession (Green 1978). Population 

levels of this species are expected to vary among alternatives in proportion to the 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 169 

amount of high-elevation early-successional habitat provided (Table 3-49 and Table 

3-50). Alternatives D and F would provide most habitat, and Alternatives E and G 

would provide the least acreage of habitat. 

Table 3-51. Expected population trend1 of chestnut-sided warbler on the CNF under 

alternatives 10 and 50 years following plan adoption. Population trend estimates are 

based on expected trends in habitat quantity and quality. 

Alternative Time Period A B D E F G I 

10 years = = + - + - = 

50 years = = ++ - ++ - = 

1 Population trend expressed as expected change from current levels: “++” = relatively large 

increase, “+” = increase, “=” = little to no change, “-“ = decrease, “- -“ = relatively large decrease. 

8.2.3 Cumulative Effects 

Trends in land use and management (i.e., lack of fire, maturing of existing early 

successional habitat) resulting in loss of high quality early-successional habitats at 

high elevations are likely to continue on private lands. Forest health threats, while 

causing overstory mortality in some high-elevation forest communities that may 

contribute to high-elevation early-successional conditions, are not expected to create 

the habitat structure needed by all associated species. In light of these cumulative 

effects, efforts to maintain quality high-elevation early-successional habitats on NFS 

lands will be critical to sustaining associated species. 

Distribution of this habitat type likely increased during European settlement, but has 

declined recently. Desired maintenance levels are lower than those acreages 

created in recent history, but higher than present acreage (6,910 acres). 

Somewhere in between likely represents historical reference conditions. Abundance 

is expected to be occasional for Alternatives D and F, and rare for all other 

alternatives. Distribution would be good for Alternatives D and F, poor for 

Alternatives E and G, and fair for all other alternatives (Table 3-74 and Table 3-75, 

Terrestrial Viability Section 15.1) 

8.3 Permanent Openings and Old Fields, Rights of Way, Improved 

Pastures 

8.3.1 Affected Environment 

Habitats considered here include permanent openings and old fields, utility right-of 

way, and improved pastures. Other early successional habitats such as woodlands, 

grasslands, and early successional forests are discussed elsewhere in this 

document. 

Permanent Openings and Old Fields 

Permanent grass/forb and seedling/sapling/shrub habitats are important elements 

of early successional habitat. Permanent openings typically are maintained for 

wildlife habitat on an annual or semi-annual basis with the use of cultivation, 

mowing, or other vegetation management treatments. These openings may contain 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

170 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

native grasses and forbs, but many are planted to non-native agricultural species 

such as clover, orchard grass, winter wheat, annual rye, or other small grains. Old 

fields are sites that are no longer maintained and or succeeding to forest or are 

maintained on a less frequent basis (5-10 year intervals, usually with burning and 

mowing). They are largely influenced by past cultural activities and may be dense 

sod or a rapidly changing field of annual and perennial herbs, grasses, woody shrubs 

and tree seedlings. 

Permanent openings are used by a variety of wildlife, both game and non-game 

species. The benefits of permanent openings to white-tailed deer are well 

documented. Permanent openings, especially those containing grass-clover mixtures, 

are used most intensively in early spring, but also are an important source of 

nutritious forage in winter, especially when acorns are in short supply (Wentworth et 

al. 1990, Kammermeyer et al. 1993). Kammermeyer and Moser (1990) found a 

significant relationship between openings and deer harvest with only 0.13 percent of 

the land area in high quality openings. Forest openings also are a key habitat 

component for wild turkeys throughout the year (Thackston et al. 1991, Brenneman 

et al. 1991). Maintained openings provide nutritious green forage in the winter and 

early spring and seeds during late summer and fall. Because of the abundance of 

insects and herbaceous plants produced in these openings they are especially 

important as brood rearing habitat for young turkeys (Nenno and Lindzey 1979; 

Healy and Nenno 1983). Linear openings, especially those associated with young 

regenerating forests provide optimal brood habitat conditions for ruffed grouse 

(Dimmick et al. 1996). 

There also are numerous wildlife benefits from openings maintained in native 

species. Native warm season grasses provide nesting, brood-rearing, and roosting 

habitat for northern bobwhite and other grassland species of wildlife (Dimmick et al. 

2001). Native species are well adapted to local environments and generally require 

less intensive maintenance following establishment. 

Old fields provide food and cover for a variety of wildlife species. A number of 

disturbance-dependent birds, such as northern bobwhite, grasshopper sparrow, 

golden-winged warbler, and blue winged warbler are associated with old field habitat 

(Hunter et al. 2001). Recently abandoned fields are important for rabbits and many 

small mammals (Livaitis 2001). Woodcock use old fields as courtship, feeding, and 

roosting sites (Straw et al. 1994, Krementz and Jackson 1999). Although managed 

less intensively than other types of permanent openings, some degree of periodic 

management is necessary to maintain these habitats. 

There are approximately 1,517 acres of permanent maintained openings on the CNF 

(Table 3-52). This represents 0.2 percent of the total national forest acres. Many 

were created by the expansion of log landings following timber harvest or by closing 

and seeding old roads to create linear openings. They are maintained with funding 

provided by the Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency (TWRA), the Forest Service, 

and partners including the National Wild Turkey Federation (NWTF). Many are 

planted in non-native grass-clover mixtures, which include combinations of white or 

red clovers along with wheat, rye, oats, orchard grass, and ryegrass. Some of the 

older openings are dominated by fescue and/or annual weed species, and some of 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 171 

the recently renovated openings are planted to grain sorghum. Old fields acreage is 

currently unknown. 

Table 3-52. Current acreage of permanent maintained

openings on the CNF 

Ranger District Spot (Acres) Linear 

(Acres) Total Acres 

Ocoee-Hiwassee 196 181 377 

Tellico 105 155 260 

Nolichucky-Unaka 416 125 541 

Watauga 235 104 339 

TOTAL 952 565 1,517 

Rights-of-Way and Improved Pastures 

Although pastureland acreage has declined over the last 50 years, pastures still 

comprise approximately seven percent of the southeastern U.S.A (USDA Forest 

Service 2001). For SAA Area, pastures comprise approximately 17 percent of the 

area, 99 percent of which is on private land (SAMAB 1996). There are no 

comparable estimates for rights-of-way. 

Utility ROWs and improved pastures typically are managed for purposes other than to 

provide wildlife habitat. However, they can provide wildlife benefits if managed 

appropriately. Rights-of-way can be established and maintained in plantings that 

enhance their benefits to wildlife. Once established, maintenance costs generally 

are reduced. There are approximately 1300 acres of powerline ROW on the CNF. 

Right-of-way acreage was estimated by multiplying the existing 85 miles of powerline 

ROW known to the CNF by an average width of 125 feet. The majority of these 

support a mixture of herbaceous plants and shrubs and are maintained by a variety 

of methods 

The conversion of fescue pastures to native warm season grasses improves habitat 

conditions for northern bobwhite and numerous grassland species (Dimmick et al. 

2001). Featured sites are primarily old farms that were in cultivation when acquired 

by the Forest Service. Native warm season grass plantings have been established at 

Doc Rogers fields, several tracts along the French Broad River, and along a powerline 

ROW between the Ocoee and Hiwassee Rivers. Emphasized species include 

bluestems, Indian grass, switchgrass and native legumes. An experimental native 

cool season grass planting (Virginia wild rye) has been established along the 

Nolichucky River. These plantings total approximately 215 acres and were 

established with funds provided by the Forest Service, TWRA, TVA and several 

sportmen’s organizations including Quail Unlimited. 

8.3.2 Direct and Indirect Effects 

Permanent Openings and Old Fields 

No specific objectives for the quantity of permanent openings are established in the 

revised forest plan. Through the prescription allocation process described above, the 

forest will be zoned into areas of varying intensity of opening maintenance and 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

172 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

development. The desired amounts of openings for a specific portion of the forest 

will be determined through site-specific analysis. 

The management prescriptions vary in how they treat the creation and maintenance 

of permanent openings. Each prescription has been assigned to one of three 

options. 

Option 1 - Existing old fields and wildlife openings are not maintained, but are 

allowed to succeed to forest. In some cases, existing openings may be obliterated 

through tree planting and elimination of non-native species. New permanent wildlife 

openings are not created. 

Option 2 - Existing old fields and openings for wildlife may be present and 

maintained, but no expansion of openings or creation of new permanent openings of 

this type occurs. Native species are emphasized when establishing food plants for 

wildlife. Some openings provide permanent shrub/sapling habitats as a result of 

longer maintenance cycles. 

Option 3 - Existing old fields and openings for wildlife may be present and 

maintained. Expansion of existing openings and/or creation of new openings may 

occur. Non-invasive non-natives are sometimes used when establishing food plants 

for wildlife, but native species are used where feasible and cost effective. Some 

openings provide permanent shrub/sapling habitats as a result of longer 

maintenance cycles.. 

Table 3-53 displays the acres of existing permanent openings in each permanent 

opening option by alternative for the CNF. 

Table 3-53. Acres of Existing Permanent Openings in each Permanent 

Opening Option and Proportion of Total CNF Acres, by Alternative 

Permanent Opening Option 

Alternative 

Option 1 

No Maintenance 

of Existing 

Openings 

Option 2 

Existing Openings 

Maintained/ No 

new openings 

Option 3 

Existing Openings 

Maintained/ New 

openings allowed 

Alternative A 119,463 (19%) 132,477 (21%) 383,060 (60%) 

Alternative B 68,148 (11%) 120,246 (19%) 446,606 (70%) 

Alternative D 66,704 (11%) 362,851 (46%) 205,445 (32%) 

Alternative E 161,971 (26%) 138,333 (21%) 334,696 (53%) 

Alternative F 99,575 (16%) 138,994 (22%) 396,431 (62%) 

Alternative G 169,245 (27%) 207,203 (32%) 258,552 (41%) 

Alternative I 126,658 (20%) 152,320 (24%) 356,022 (56%) 

A combination of factors such as hunting regulations, hunter access, forest 

management intensity, and permanent opening development influence levels of 

hunting opportunity. Alternative B would provide the highest number of acres where 

existing openings could be maintained and new openings developed, and would 

therefore provide some elements of high hunting opportunity. Alternative D would 

provide least opportunity for expansion of the permanent opening network and this 

element of hunter opportunity. For all alternatives, very few acres of existing 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 173 

openings would be lost due to lack of ability to maintain them (Option 1) because few 

openings currently exist in unroaded areas with poor motorized access. 

For all alternatives, monitoring could be conducted to determine effects of 

recreational use (e.g. horseback riding, mountain biking, OHV use, and camping) on 

desired vegetation within permanent openings 

Right-of-Way and Improved Pastures 

In general, existing utility rights-of-way would be treated similarly under all 

alternatives. Rights-of-way typically are managed by permit holders who would be 

encouraged to manage these to the extent possible to enhance their value to earlysuccessional species. In addition, forestwide standards have been established that 

prohibit broadcast herbicide application for maintenance and require site-specific 

environmental analysis prior to maintenance operations. 

Because of the benefits of native warm season grasses to numerous species of 

wildlife, forests have established objectives to convert existing fescue pastures to 

native warm season grasses. For the Alternative I, an objective was established to 

convert 140 acres of fescue to native grasses. Rates of conversion are expected to 

be similar across all alternatives. 

8.3.3 Cumulative Effects 

Permanent openings are utilized by a variety of wildlife species and are important to 

hunter success and satisfaction. However, they comprise less than one percent of 

the CNF landscape. The habitat conditions provided in these permanent openings 

are very different from those provided by lawns, ball fields and golf courses that are 

much more common on adjacent private land. Generally, the openings on private 

land are not maintained in the grass-clover or native warm season grass mixtures 

available in the Forest Service openings. Therefore, most of the openings on private 

land do not provide comparable benefits to wildlife or hunting opportunity. In 

addition, the Forest Service does not have control of the management of the 

openings on private land. Areas that currently provide habitat may be developed in 

the future and therefore cannot be relied upon to provide long-term wildlife benefits. 

It therefore is important to maximize the benefits from this limited acreage on the 

national forests by maintaining these openings in high quality habitat conditions. 

Other open-land habitats such as rights-of way and some types of improved pastures 

are abundant on private land. Because of the abundance of these habitats on 

private land, management of these habitats not a major focus of national forest 

management. Selected opportunities to convert abandoned cropland and fescue 

fields to native warm season grasses will be pursued when feasible across all 

alternatives. 

8.4.0 Forest Interior Birds 

8.4.1 Affected Environment 

Habitat fragmentation is a key issue for viability of local populations of breeding birds 

in some mature mesic deciduous forest settings. Birds in this group (Table L, 

Appendix E, Mature Forest Interiors) avoid forest edges during nesting and are 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

174 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

adapted to forest interior conditions. Most are neotropical migrants that primarily 

nest and raise young in the temperate Americas. These species are grouped for 

effects analysis due to their sensitivity to forest fragmentation and edge effects 

(Hamel 1992: Appendix G1-G2). 

Studies conducted in the mid-western U.S. have documented that forest interior 

species may not successfully breed in small patches of otherwise suitable habitat. 

Quality of their forest interior habitat is measured in part by proportion of edge, an 

artifact of juxtaposing forested and non-forested habitats. Edges fragment forest 

interior habitats and are associated with increased predation and brood parasitism 

by the brown-headed cowbird in agricultural settings (Primack 1993; Yahner 1998). 

However, characteristics of the surrounding landscape, such as percent forest cover, 

determine the magnitude of local edge effects. Findings of Robinson et al. (1995) 

indicate that large landscapes with at least 70-80 percent forest cover offer high 

potential as quality habitat for forest interior species, where adverse effects of edge 

are reduced to levels compatible with productive populations. 

Donovan et al. (1997) found that abundance of the brown-headed cowbird in a 

midwestern U.S. setting was significantly greater in highly fragmented landscapes 

(less than 15 percent forested) than in moderately fragmented (45-55% forested) or 

unfragmented (>90% forested) landscapes, but abundance in moderate and 

unfragmented landscapes did not differ. Landscape-scale habitat patterns 

significantly influenced overall nest predation patterns and cowbird abundance. 

However, local effects of livestock grazing and horse corrals caused high variation 

between landscape units with similar percent forest characteristics. The specific 

types of non-forested habitats present may be important. 

As a general rule, parasitism levels of 25 percent or less and daily nest predation 

rates of four percent or less should give most forest interior species "at least a 

chance" (Robinson 1995) of having self-sustaining local populations (also May and 

Robinson 1985; Donovan et al. 1995). Based on the work of Robinson et al. (1995), 

these parasitism rates are associated with a minimum of 70-80 percent forest cover 

at a landscape (75,000 acre) scale for a midwestern U.S. setting. 

Duguay et al. (2001) found that in a forested setting in West Virginia (Monongahela 

National Forest, >88% forest cover), “fifteen years after harvest, cuts placed within 

otherwise extensively forested areas do not result in the type of edge effects 

(population sinks) observed in areas fragmented by agriculture in the midwestern 

U.S.” They also concluded that implementing relatively small cuts that create edge 

on a small proportion of the landscape may not result in increased nest failure, 

provided that other factors such as proximity to cowbird feeding sites are not 

prominent. The study involved tracking 556 nests of 46 species over a four-year 

period and calculation of daily nest survival rates. 

Other habitat factors are known to influence productivity of this species group. 

Presence of young forest patches within a forested landscape is likely to have 

positive benefits for immature birds. Vega Rivera (1998) and Anders et al. (1998) 

found that after fledging, juvenile wood thrushes disperse from mature forest 

habitats and enter early-successional forests where they feed on invertebrates and 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 175 

fruit. Use of these habitats was very high relative to their availability. Later in the 

season, they shifted back into mature forest habitats. Fledglings preferred areas 

with dense understory and ground cover with species such as blackberry, sumac, and 

grape. Such areas may be provided by relatively small even-aged regeneration areas 

or by smaller dispersed canopy gaps. Scattered canopy gaps and associated dense 

understories likely were characteristic of old growth mesic deciduous forests. Open 

habitats such as pastures, old fields, and managed wildlife openings were rarely 

used. 

The significance of NFS lands to this species group was analyzed at both regional 

and forest scales in the SAA (SAMAB 1996b: 69-73). This analysis of forest interior 

habitat focused primarily on patterns of land use (forested vs. non-forested) and 

measures of edge effects at a landscape scale. Based on this analysis, there are 

approximately nine to 10.5 million acres of suitable habitat in the SAA Area with 

about 4.7 to 5.4 million acres (52%) located within tracts greater than 5,000 acres. 

Approximately 70 percent of suitable habitat and 51 percent of the largest tracts are 

privately owned, while 23 percent of suitable habitat and 39 percent of the largest 

tracts are on NFS land. A notable difference is found within the Blue Ridge 

Mountains, where approximately 40 percent of suitable habitat and half of the 

largest tracts occur on NFS land. Within the SAA area, the majority of forest interior 

habitat occurs within the Blue Ridge Mountains, followed by the Northern Ridge and 

Valley/Cumberland Mountains. The Southern Ridge and Valley and Southern 

Cumberland Plateau have the smallest relative amount (SAMAB, 1996b:73). 

To determine the landscape context of the CNF, a shifting window analysis was 

conducted using 1990 National Land Cover Data (U.S. EPA 2002). Percent forest 

cover within a surrounding landscape of 75,000 acres (per Donovan et al. 1997) was 

calculated for each 90-meter grid cell located on the national forest and nearby 

private land. For this analysis, Deciduous, Evergreen, and Mixed Forest, and Woody 

Wetlands were classified as forested lands. All other land cover types, including 

recent clearcuts (transitional cover type), were classed as non-forest cover. This 

analysis indicates the entire southern CNF, and a great majority of the northern 

portion of CNF, occurs within a landscape that is more than 70 to 80 percent 

forested (Figure 3-16). 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

176 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Figure 3-16. Composite map of percent forested land cover within 75,000-acre 

circles surrounding each 90-meter square grid cell on and near the northern CNF, 

based on 1990 National Land Cover Data (US EPA 2002) and CISC ownership data 

(USFS December 2002). 

Two areas comprising 17,199 acres within the northern CNF have settings that are 

less than 70 percent forested, where edge effects could adversely affect productivity 

of forest interior birds (Figure 3-16). These two locations comprise less than three 

percent of the total forest acreage. One narrow band stretches from the Dry Creek, 

Middle Creek, and Horse Creek drainages north to Rich and Buffalo Mountains. 

These areas lie within the larger, predominantly agricultural Camp Creek watershed. 

A portion also lies within North Indian Creek watershed, which is predominantly 

forested. 

The second area is Rockhouse Run and Backbone Rock, extending from the northern 

forest boundary in Sullivan County, Tennessee into Virginia and east of Holston Lake. 

Agriculture is a common use of private lands within the South Holston River 

watershed. The Big Laurel Creek watershed is predominantly forested, again with 

common agricultural use of private lands. 

Currently, the CNF provides 250,984 acres of mid- and late- successional mesic 

deciduous forest, comprising 44 percent of total forest acres. About 89 percent of 

total mesic deciduous forest acres are in mid- and late-successional stages. The vast 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 177 

majority (96%) of these older mesic forests are found within landscape settings that 

are more than 70 percent forested. 

Management Indicators 

The ovenbird (Seiurus aurocapillus) is selected as an appropriate MIS because of its 

association with mature deciduous forest interiors. The ovenbird typically nests in 

older closed-canopied deciduous and mixed deciduous-coniferous forests with deep 

litter layer and limited understory. It is effectively monitored using established 

protocols and is likely to indicate the effects of cumulative forest fragmentation 

across a landscape setting. Large, contiguous forested tracts are needed to support 

successful breeding and long-term population viability (NatureServe 2002). The 

species is declining in some parts of its range, although the overall trend seems to be 

stable or slowly increasing (0.7%/year). Threats include forest fragmentation and 

related brood parasitism and nest predation. Habitat is lost or degraded in the shortterm by management activities that open the canopy (NatureServe 2002). However, 

in a managed forest landscape setting, forest fragmentation may not impair male 

pairing success. 

8.4.2 Direct and Indirect Effects 

Implementation of forest plan alternatives would create edge in mesic deciduous 

forest interior habitats during creation of early-successional forest habitats, road 

construction, some types of recreation development, and routine maintenance and 

permitting of small clearings including easements and rights-of-way. These edges 

could cause adverse effects to productivity of forest interior species in some settings. 

Amount of edge generated would vary by alternative, particularly as caused by 

creation of early-successional forest habitats in or near mid- and late-successional 

mesic deciduous forests (Table 3-54). On the CNF, these older forests are allocated 

to prescriptions with medium and high objectives for early successional forest 

habitats at the highest rate in Alternative F, followed by Alternatives D and I. 

Alternatives A, B, and G are expected to result in associated edge at lower levels than 

F, D and I. Lowest levels of associated edge are expected under Alternative E. 

Table 3-54. Percentage of mid- and late-successional mesic deciduous forest 

acreage allocated to prescription objectives for early-successional forest by 

alternative, CNF, 2002. 

 Alternative 

Prescription objective 

for overall percent of 

early- successional 

forest 

A B D E F G I 

None 46 40 34 87 31 76 51 

Low (0-4% of area) 26 31 3 3 0 <1 0 

Medium (4-10% of 

area) 22 26 23 9 48 23 43 

High (10-17% of area) 6 3 40 1 20 0 7 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

178 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Much of the acreage that is most suitable for use by forest interior species would be 

allocated to prescriptions that do not have specific early successional forest 

objectives (Table 3-54, row marked “None”). Table 3-55 depicts acreage allocated to 

prescriptions with “low” to “medium” early successional forest objectives, where 

relatively low levels of active management would likely occur. These low levels of 

management are most likely to have positive effects on this species groups. 

Alternatives E and G would provide most acreage with “low” to “medium” objectives, 

and Alternatives F and D provide least acreage with these same objectives. 

Table 3-55. Acres of mid-late successional mesic hardwood forests within forest 

cover contours of > 70% forested landscape setting assigned to early successional 

stage options 1 (0-4% of area) or 2 (4-10% of area), by Alternative, for the CNF, 2002. 

Alternative A B D E F G I 

 139,881 173,478 92,825 218,169 75,891 186,681 121,841 

In the short-term, adverse effects of edge are most likely to occur in the two areas 

shown by analysis to be within landscapes less than 70 percent forested (Figure 3-

16). Regardless of varying levels of edge created under plan alternatives, edge 

created on the rest of the forest is not expected to have significant short-term effects 

due to the current landscape context. High levels of forest regeneration on national 

forests could negatively shift percent of forest cover as calculated for this analysis; 

however, such effects would require simultaneous implementation of relatively high 

levels of regeneration over large landscapes. This situation is unlikely due to the 

prevalence of prescriptions with low to no early-successional forest objectives. 

Alternatives F and D, due to their abundant allocation of acreage to high earlysuccessional forest objectives, is most likely to result in this effect. No alternative 

includes high levels of forest conversion to other land use types, and therefore no 

meaningful long-term change in landscape cover type is expected due to direct or 

indirect effects of national forest management. In the long-term, effects of forest 

edge on the national forest will largely depend on the cumulative effects of land-use 

changes on private lands surrounding the national forest. 

Alternatives that shift age-class distribution of mesic deciduous forests to younger 

age classes would have negative effects on interior birds through reduction in 

acreage of suitable habitat. Table 3-17, Mesic Deciduous Forests Section 6.1 

depicts allocations by successional stage option by alternative. Alternatives F and D 

are associated with the highest rates of forest regeneration and would most limit 

abundance of suitable habitat for these species. 

Some positive effects may be expected where alternatives permit low to moderate 

levels of vegetation management for creation of young mesic hardwood forest 

patches, due to use of these habitats by fledgling birds for food and cover (Vega 

Rivera 1998, Anders et al. 1998). The relative balance of these positive effects and 

potential negative edge effects is dependent on the landscape context and the 

relative abundance of mature and young forests. On balance, effects are expected to 

be positive where mid- and late-successional forests are common, and forest cover 

on surrounding landscapes predominate. The balance shifts to negative as 

landscapes go below 70 percent forest cover and young forests or forest openings 

become common. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 179 

Management Indicators 

Hamel (1992:C-7) lists mean breeding densities for the ovenbird ranging from 1.5 to 

24 pairs per 40 ha. Population trends for ovenbird are expected to vary among 

alternatives in proportion to the amount of interior forest habitat provided in the 

chart below. Alternatives D and Fwould result in the highest acreage of actively 

managed older mesic forests, which could cause a short-term decline in ovenbird 

habitat. Alternative E and G would provide the largest acreage of ovenbird habitat 

during the planning period. 

Alternative Time Period A B D E F G I 

10 years = = -- + - + = 

50 years + = -- ++ - ++ = 

1 Population trend expressed as expected change from current levels: “++” = relatively large 

increase, “+” = increase, “=” = little to no change, “-“ = decrease, “- -“ = relatively large decrease. 

8.4.3 Cumulative Effects 

Historically, the interior forest condition was likely widespread. Today it is dependent 

in large part on landscape context, including influence of privately-owned lands. As 

currently defined, the forest interior condition would likely remain widespread in the 

future on NFS lands under most alternatives due to the large block of mature forest 

represented by the national forest. The fully regulated forest of Alternatives D and F 

would reduce distribution of this condition. Abundance is expected to remain 

common, and distribution is expected to remain good for all alternatives except 

Alternatives D and F, for which distribution is expected to be fair (Table 3-74 and 

Table 3-75, Terrestrial Viability Section 15.1). 

Regional Landscape Setting 

Although the current supply of forest interior habitat on national forests within the 

SAA area is good to excellent (a range of 68% to 96% forest interior habitat; SAMAB 

1996b), the context of land use trends is relevant, because conditions on 

surrounding private lands can adversely affect habitat suitability for forest interior 

bird on NFS land by increasing densities of cowbirds and nest predators. Currently, 

about 75 percent of the Southern Appalachian area is rural and privately owned. 

Forested private land within the region has declined by about 220,000 acres since 

1982. Similarly, pasture and cropland have also decreased by about 300,000 acres. 

In contrast, developed acreage has increased by more than 600,000 acres, most 

prominently in the Blue Ridge and the Southern Mountain and Piedmont Sections 

(SAMAB 1996a). 

Like agricultural and rangeland uses, developed acreage has a negative influence on 

forest interior species by encouraging nest predation (by crows and jays, mid-sized 

mammals including domestic cats) (Wilcove 1985; Crooks and Soule 1999; Hawkins 

1998) and brood parasitism by cowbirds. 

Rapid population growth, economic growth and diversification, better employment 

and wages, declining farming, and better housing translate into rising pressures on 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

180 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

the natural resources of the Southern Appalachian region for the foreseeable future 

(SAMAB 1996a). New transportation corridors connecting communities will have 

direct and cumulative influences on development and subsequent loss of forested 

land. 

Forested private lands adjacent to national forests reduce the influence of developed 

land on core areas of forest interior habitat on national forest. However, the 

continued forested condition is tenuous, and acreage will most certainly decrease. 

Future land use trends over the next 15 years will likely include a decrease in 

suitable forest interior habitat acreage found in large tract sizes, primarily due to 

development and increasing urbanization. The severity of edge effects and 

fragmentation will be most prominent in the currently agriculture-dominated 

landscapes (SAMAB 1996b: 72) especially in locations where NFS ownership occurs 

in small to medium patch sizes. 

Cherokee National Forest Landscape Setting 

Bird productivity is likely most secure from landscape-level edge effects in Polk and 

Monroe Counties, Tennessee, which have low projected human population growth, a 

high percentage of public land ownership, and very consolidated patterns of public 

ownership, both in Tennessee and in adjacent NFS lands in Georgia and North 

Carolina. Bird productivity is least secure in Sullivan, Washington, and Greene 

Counties, Tennessee, which are characterized by more rapid predicted growth, 

smaller acreage in public ownership, and more fragmented public land ownership 

(Table 3-56). In these counties critical social trends coincide with possible existing 

fragmented landscape conditions. Two areas are most at risk of moving significantly 

below the less than 70 percent forest land-use threshold due to ownership patterns 

and land-use trends. These are 1) the Dry Creek, Middle Creek, and Horse Creek 

drainages north to Rich and Buffalo Mountains and 2) Rockhouse Run and Backbone 

Rock (Figure 3-16). 

Table 3-56. Projected increase, people per square 

mile, from 1990 -2010 in counties in proximity to the 

CNF 

Projected 

Increase 

County and (Percent Public 

Ownership) 

2-4% Polk (56%), Johnson (26%) 

5-7% Monroe (36%), Cocke (>18%), 

 Unicoi (47%) 

8-12% Greene (<1%), McMinn (<1%) 

13-19% Carter (38%) 

20-108% Sullivan (15%), Washington (8%) 

From SAMAB 1996a, Tables 2.19 and 2.2, pages 37-38. For 

counties <25% publicly owned, figure derived from percent 

Forest Service acreage in that county. Counties in bold may 

provide least favorable forest interior habitats in the future. 

Because of land ownership patterns, the majority of the CNF is expected to remain 

within predominantly forested landscapes under all alternatives. Within these lands, 

mid- and late-successional mesic deciduous forests are expected to be common 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 181 

under all alternatives, but least common for Alternatives F and D (Table 3-18, Mesic 

Deciduous Forests, Section 6-1). Due to the combination of these factors, most 

national forest habitats are expected to support varying degrees of productive 

populations of forest interior birds under short-term implementation of all 

alternatives. As long as small regeneration areas and other openings constitute a 

relatively small proportion of the total landscape and cowbird foraging areas do not 

dramatically increase, most CNF lands will likely continue to serve as source 

populations for surrounding, lower quality habitats for the foreseeable future. All 

alternatives would include monitoring of bird populations within these habitats, as 

well as changes in landscape context through re-evaluation of percent forest cover as 

new land cover data become available. Validation of forest interior bird productivity 

on national forests is a research need. 

8.5.0 Old Growth 

8.5.1 Affected Environment 

The provision of old growth, along with its amount and distribution, was identified as 

a public issue common to each of the five forests in revision in the fall of 1996. At 

the same time, Forest Service lead efforts were underway to provide regionally 

consistent guidance for addressing old growth in plan revisions. 

In 1989 Chief Dale Robertson issued a national position statement on old growth. 

Beginning in 1990, the Southern and Eastern Regions of the Forest Service, NFS; the 

Forest Service Southern, Northeastern, and North Central research stations; and the 

Nature Conservancy (TNC) began efforts to develop science-based old growth 

definitions for the east. The effort proved to be problematic in large part because so 

few representatives of old growth conditions exist, and their life history was so poorly 

known that quantifying the range of natural variability was imprecise. After five years 

of effort, in December, 1995 the Southern Regional Forester chartered a Region 8 

Old Growth Team to develop the scientific old growth definitions as ‘operational and 

useful’. In June of 1997 the Old Growth Team completed a report entitled Guidance 

for Conserving and Restoring Old-Growth Forest Communities on National Forests in 

the Southern Region; hereafter, called the ‘old growth report’ (Forest Service, 1997). 

Using this report as a guide the CNF completed a preliminary inventory in 1997. This 

inventory was based on age criteria for each old growth community type, wilderness 

acres, and acres allocated for bear old growth in the 1986 Forest Plan. The inventory 

identified about 136,171 acres as possible old growth. About 87% of the possible old 

growth acreage came from stands in existing wilderness. All community types were 

well-represented except montane & allied spruce, spruce-fir, and bottomland 

hardwood, on the landscape at the sub-section level (ecological classification 

hierarchy (Fryar, Roger D. 1997). 

The old growth report gave operational definitions for sixteen old growth community 

types that, among them, encompassed nearly all of the forest cover types in the 

southeast. The operational definitions established four criteria which had to be met 

before a stand would be considered “existing” old growth: (1) a minimum age in the 

oldest age class, (2) no obvious human-caused disturbance that conflicts with old 

growth characteristics, (3) minimum basal areas of stems five inches diameter at 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

182 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

breast height (dbh.) and larger, and (4) the dbh of the largest trees. The second 

criteria is measured qualitatively, the other three criteria are quantifiable and vary by 

old growth community type. The old growth report also generally charged each forest 

to provide: (1) distribution of large (more than 2,500 acres), medium (100 thru 2,500 

acres), and small (10 thru 99 acres) potential old growth patches; and (2) 

representation of all potential old growth forest community types for each ecological 

section unit. The distribution guidance does not specify an amount, such as acres or 

percent of area. In addition, old growth patches were assumed to be occurring on 

national forest in a matrix of mid to late successional forest conditions, providing 

connectivity without old growth allocations being physically contiguous. 

Representation was limited to ensuring that old growth community types were 

present, not a total amount nor an amount per each community. Amounts were to be 

based on public issues and ecological capabilities of the land. 

The Biological Significance of Old Growth 

As of 1997, no species had been identified in the southeastern U.S.A that were 

considered old growth obligates; that is, requiring old growth for some portion or all 

of their life cycle. Therefore, the provision of existing or future old growth in the LMP 

revisions is not directly linked in a cause and effect relationship to the viability of any 

species. 

However, old growth is a condition that is particularly rich in habitat attributes for a 

variety of wildlife and these attributes occur in close association (intra-stand) with 

one another as opposed to a landscape scale (inter-stand) distribution. A wider 

variety of habitat niches are available than in earlier life stages of the same 

community. The long development period with low disturbance is conducive to the 

formation of multiple canopy layers that would potentially include “emergent” trees, 

dominant and co-dominant trees, suppressed trees, and a forest floor shrub layer. 

Canopy gaps of various sizes caused by: (a) the death in-place of a single tree, or (b) 

the deaths in-place of small groups of trees, or (c) the falling of a group of trees, in 

comparison with their immediate surroundings provide micro-sites with higher light 

regimes, higher stem counts, and an “edge effect” both around the edge of the gap 

and back into the surrounding stand. Standing dead trees provide large and small 

diameter snags for foraging, perching, and cavity excavation. Down logs and limbs 

provide a substrate for wood decomposing fungi and insects; cover for small 

mammals, amphibians, and insects; and in later stages a “nurse log” for the 

establishment of new tree seedlings. Large-diameter living trees, with a long-term 

exposure to natural damaging agents, have the potential through wood-rotting fungi 

activity for the formation of large cavities suitable for bear, raccoon, squirrel, bats, or 

other cavity users. The heavy limb structure that develops in some tree species as 

they age provides sturdy nest platforms for species such as bald or golden eagles. 

The Social Significance of Old Growth 

Whether biologically necessary to species or not, old growth is of social value. A 

general perception would be that it is intelligent to have old growth habitat on the 

landscape. In Aldo Leopold’s words, ‘The first rule of intelligent tinkering is to keep all 

the parts.’ Some recognize are aware that old growth obligates do occur in other 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 183 

parts of the world; therefore, a conservative approach would be to provide old growth 

locally. As with wilderness, this perception appears to be a desire for places almost 

completely unmodified by humans whether or not those holding such a value ever 

visit them; that is, an “existence” value. The value of old growth is also related to the 

idea that good stewardship is to restore ecological conditions. In simplest terms, 

society needs to “fix back what we have broken”. There also appears to be a desire 

to have what is valued occurring at the landscape level that people can relate to as 

frame of reference. 

In more pragmatic terms, old growth serves other recognized social values. Old 

growth is a desirable recreation setting, both for biological variety and for the 

associated state of mind from knowing one is in an “old growth” setting. Old growth 

serves as a “biological time machine” in that social value is a reference area for what 

ecologically comparable areas may have been previously and would potentially be 

restored to given a similar amount of time and disturbance history. Old growth social 

values are a valuable component of showing a comprehensive ecological, and 

dynamic through conservation education. Old growth is a source of scientific 

information, such as through tree ring analysis. 

The analysis of old growth begins with identifying the old growth communities that 

are appropriate to each national forest. The CNF has nine of the 16 old growth forest 

communities. In addition, the knowledge of how big a “pool”’ of acres is available in 

total (regardless of age) for each old growth community is important. This information 

then becomes a baseline against which the allocations within each alternative would 

potentially be compared. 

Table 3-57 below shows the old growth types for the CNF located in the Blue Ridge 

Mountain Ecological Section. For some of the old growth types, the provision of large 

blocks is not feasible because the Forest Service does not administer enough lands 

ecologically appropriate for that type. 

Table 3-57. Occurrence and acreage of old growth types for the CNF 

Old Growth 

Type No. Old Growth Type Name Total Acres of Each Type 

1 Northern Hardwood Forest 18,516 

31 Montane Spruce-Fir Forest 647 

5 Mixed Mesophytic-Hardwood Forest 138,850 

2 Conifer-Northern Hardwood Forest 52,072 

21 Dry to Mesic Oak Forest 125,188 

25 Dry and Dry to Mesic Pine-Oak Forest 55,753 

22 Dry and Xeric Oak Forest 64,991 

24 Xeric Pine and Pine-Oak Forest 140,872 

28 Eastern Riverfront and River Floodplain Hardwood 

Forests 1,796 

(Source: Cherokee NF GIS database.) 

Each of the forest used the old growth report to respond to the old growth issue. The 

old growth report recognizes three categories of old growth for the purpose of forest 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

184 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

planning. The categories are existing old growth, possible old growth and future old 

growth. 

Existing Old Growth 

A preliminary inventory of possible old growth was done in conujunction with the 

Analysis of the Management Situation for this Plan Revision and for the Southern 

Appalachian Assessment (SAMAB 1996). The preliminary inventory is displayed in the 

Southern Appalachian Assessment, Terrestrial Report (SAMAB 1996). The inventories 

included only those stands that met the attribute age criteria for the old growth 

community type, were in existing wilderness, or were allocated for bear old growth in 

the current Forest Plan. For this analysis approximately 87 percent of the acreages in 

possible old growth came from stands in existing Wilderness. All ecological 

communities except Montane & Allied spruce and spruce-fir and bottomland 

hardwood community types are well represented on the landscape. The results of the 

preliminary inventory are listed below: 

Table 3-58. Preliminary Old Growth Inventory 

Ecological Community Type 

Approximate Acres 

Identified in Preliminary 

Old Growth Inventory 

Northern Hardwood 10,519 

Conifer-Northern Hardwood 2,545 

Mixed Mesophytic 35,952 

Dry-Mesic Oak 41,173 

Dry & Xeric Oak 19,114 

Xeric Pine & Pine-Oak 27,543 

Dry & Dry-Mesic Oak-Pine 20,120 

Montane & Allied Spruce 

Spruce-Fir 577 

Bottomland Hardwood 438 

Existing old growth is defined by the old growth report as forest stands that meet all 

four criteria (age, disturbance, basal area, and tree size) described in the operational 

definitions. 

Historic vegetation inventory did not include data sufficient to determine whether or 

not all four of these criteria are satisfied. The amount of existing old growth meeting 

the four criteria is not known at this time for the CNF. Stands with old growth 

characteristics would have to be verified during the life of the LMP. Given the land 

use history of the CNF, the amount of existing old growth is expected to be low. 

Possible Old Growth 

Possible old growth consists of forest stands that meet one or more of the old growth 

requirements. Table 3-59 below details the acreage of forest that meet the minimum 

age for their old growth type and the percentage of old growth type. The stands 

would need to be checked to determine if the stands meet the other three old growth 

requirements and are appropriate for management as old growth.
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 185 

Table 3-59. Amount of possible old growth by old growth community type for the 

CNF (All Rx’s). 

Old Growth Community Type OG 

No. 

Total Acres 

of Community 

Type 

Possible 

OG Acres 

Possible OG 

as Percent 

of Total OG 

Community 

Type 

Northern Hardwood Forest 1 18,516 1,739 7.5 

Montane Spruce-Fir Forest 31 647 0 0 

Mixed Mesophytic-Hardwood 

Forest 5 138,850 2,183 1.4 

Conifer-Northern Hardwood Forest 2 52,072 206 .3 

Dry to Mesic Oak Forest 21 125,189 3,495 2.5 

Dry and Dry to Mesic Pine-Oak 

Forest 25 55,753 3,327 5.8 

Dry and Xeric Oak Forest 22 64,984 8,280 12.7 

Xeric Pine and Pine-Oak Forest 24 140,872 5,102 3.9 

Eastern Riverfront and River 

Floodplain Hardwood Forests 28 1,086 0 0 

(Source: CNF GIS database.) 

Future Old Growth 

Future Old Growth is non-technically defined as any prescription with a management 

direction that features little or no timber harvesting. These stands contain little if any 

existing old growth at the present time. 

Each alternative evaluated includes management prescriptions that provide future 

old growth indirectly as the result of management focused on other values, such as 

wilderness. Included in this category of future old growth are riparian areas and 

unsuitable lands within suitable management prescriptions. The primary focus of old 

growth management in the short-term is restoring it on the landscape. The primary 

(not the only) component of restoration is simply time for existing stands to age 

through the gradual development of old growth conditions. For that reason, 

alternatives are compared by the sum of the acreage they allocate to future old 

growth prescriptions. 

Some lands placed in the category of possible old growth for this analysis would not 

potentially be managed as possible old growth. Some lands would require project 

level examination to determine if they are appropriate for old growth management, 

such as unsuitable prescriptions, unsuitable land within suitable prescriptions and 

riparian areas. In addition, lands would be examined during the implementation of 

the LMP determine if they meet the four criteria for old growth and are appropriate 

for old growth classification. If lands do not meet the criteria for old growth, then 

lands would be managed according to the given prescription. Wilderness and 

proposed wilderness would be managed as old growth due to the nature of the 

prescriptions. The following table (Table 3-60) shows future old growth by alternative 

and management prescription. 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

186 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Table 3-60. Future Old Growth Acres by Compatible Mg.Rx 

Mgmt Acres 

Rx 

No. Alt A Alt B Alt D Alt E Alt G Alt I 

1.A 66,699 66,700 66,701 66,701 66,701 66,660 

1.B 28,107 1,446 0 49,873 73,650 20,266 

2.B.1 1,254 1,254 1,254 1,254 1,254 1,110 

2.B.2 0 0 85 77 77 757 

2.B.3 0 0 0 0 0 2,578 

4.A 35,628 38,191 36,505 33,473 30,803 36,269 

4.B.2 607 566 574 397 397 0 

4.E.1 0 0 0 330 0 1,105 

4.F 11,159 17,466 9,539 17,683 17,808 20,975 

4.I 4,855 0 0 4,855 4,927 0 

4.K 4,494 4,632 4,632 4,632 4,632 4,640 

5.A 1,524 1,524 1,524 1,524 1,524 1,524 

5.B 605 605 605 605 605 605 

6.A 10,986 50,351 0 15,795 19,007 0 

6.B 0 0 0 5,307 5,307 0 

6.C 1,270 0 0 0 0 0 

6.E 5,142 0 0 3,955 3,955 0 

7.D 2,125 2,772 2,142 5,942 1,965 2,043 

7.E.1 0 0 0 184,288 11,906 0 

9.A.2 18,111 18,074 0 0 0 0 

9.A.4 23,513 23,541 7,965 0 8,181 0 

9.B.1 0 1,186 416 0 0 0 

9.B.2 0 1,404 1,323 0 49 0 

9.F 9,859 9,873 9,865 9,856 7,013 6,609 

12.A 7,921 0 0 49,873 116,842 15,741 

12.B 16,760 0 0 39,294 22,792 38,647 

rip 41,611 41,493 52,307 15,554 26,418 44,924 

un_lc 108,584 108,388 139,241 42,111 61,237 109,213 

Total 400,812 389,464 334,675 549,094 487,047 373,664 

(Source: CNF GIS database.)

Table 3-60 does not display data for Alternative F, which is based on the current 

forest plan and uses a different set of land allocations. The total future old growth 

for Alternative F is 234,525 acres, which is the unsuitable forest land in the current 

forest plan (Table IV-3, 1986 Plan). This figure is useful for comparison with the 

other alternatives. 

Table 3-61. Acres by OG Community by Alternative for Possible and Future OG 

Community Alt A. Alt B Alt D Alt E Alt G Alt I 

Conifer 

Northern 

Hardwood 

26,264 25,634 22,033 42,399 34,913 23,139 

Dry Mesic 81,315 78,968 68,613 108,490 97,528 76,879 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 187 

Oak 

Dry Xeric 

Oak 49,977 48,238 41,528 62,229 58,657 48,018 

Dry and Dry 

Mesic OakPine 39,437 39,009 34,691 51,080 46,024 36,944 

Eastern 

Riverfront 297 297 297 320 320 297 

Hardwood 

Wetland 

Forest 

33 33 33 101 33 33 

Mixed 

Mesophytic 95,054 93,318 80,384 123,573 113,935 92,186 

Montane & 

Allied 

Spruce 

647 647 647 647 647 647 

Northern 

Hardwood 17,802 17,646 17,066 18,097 18,212 17,366 

River 

Floodplain 

Hardwood 

562 492 467 545 570 540 

Xeric Pine & 

Pine Oak 75,416 74,375 61,845 108,926 92,965 65,238 

nonfor 3,787 3,715 3,547 4,500 4,197 3,745 

zeroFT 18,819 15,569 13,760 31,124 23,352 18,132 

 409,410 397,940 344,911 552,030 491,352 383,163 

8.5.2 Direct/Indirect Effects 

The amount of existing old growth on the CNF would be anticipated to be low given 

the current situation. Possible and future old growth would potentially be examined 

at the project level to determine if it meets the requirements for status as old growth. 

All of the alternatives contain possible and future old growth in varying amounts. 

Stands chosen for management as old growth would not be affected by other forest 

uses. Stand replacement events such as fire and storm damage would potentially 

result in local adverse effects on old growth. Forest health problems such as 

hemlock woolly adelgid and gypsy moth would potentially result in large scale 

adverse effects on specific old growth community types. 

The high percentage of the national forest aged 60 to 90 years would generally serve 

well as a connective matrix for old growth patches. Site-specific evaluation would 

determine specific needs for connective corridors. Land Management Plan 

objectives and standards for spruce-fir, eastern hemlock, mixed mesophytic, and 

northern hardwoods place limitations on management that would potentially 

contribute to the amount of future old growth. Objectives and standards for 

threatened, endangered and sensitive species also would potentially contribute to 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

188 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

the amount of old growth. The contribution of other management direction to the 

establishment of old growth would potentially also be considerable. 

The old growth communities would be managed under all alternatives. Much of the 

acreage would be future old growth, which would be in management prescriptions 

that favor the development of old growth. There would be a plan goal to protect, 

maintain and restore large medium and small patches of old growth. The area 

occupied by old growth forest would increase in each alternative. 

Because representative old growth communities would be managed in all 

alternatives, the LMP revision would have no adverse direct or indirect effects on old 

growth communities. There would potentially be no known species dependant on old 

growth forests; however, managing old growth communities would have a beneficial 

effect on the assemblage of species dependant on late successional forests. 

8.5.3 Cumulative Effects 

Plan direction would be to protect, restore, and maintain an appropriate 

representation of old growth community types. The goal and objective for old growth 

communities as discussed would be followed. The exact amounts and mixes would 

potentially vary across alternatives as described in the preceding section, but when 

viewed cumulatively across the landscape, would provide representative old growth 

at the forest level. Therefore, there would potentially be no adverse cumulative 

effects to the old growth communities or their associated species. 

9.0 Terrestrial Habitat Attributes 

The following sections describe existing conditions and potential effects by 

alternative for special terrestrial habitat attributes on the CNF. 

9.1.0 Riparian Habitats 

9.1.1 Affected Environment 

This section focuses on terrestrial habitat aspects of riparian areas; aquatic aspects 

of these ecologically important areas are covered under assessment of watersheds 

and aquatic systems. 

Terrestrial riparian habitats encompass the transition area between aquatic systems 

and upland terrestrial systems. All wetlands (including beaver ponds), as well as 

margins of varying widths along streams, rivers, lakes, ponds, and reservoirs, are 

contained within terrestrial riparian habitats. These areas provide a number of 

critical functions for associated species. Most importantly, they provide rich, moist 

environments, not often found in upland areas. Riparian terrestrial habitats may 

serve as corridors for wildlife movement, allowing for daily travel and seasonal 

migration. The riparian area may serve as a connector of habitats and populations 

allowing gene flow to occur, thus keeping populations genetically vigorous (Harris 

1988). 

Riparian habitats ideally include a mosaic of native plant and animal communities 

and successional stages, with a predominance of late-successional forests. Latesuccessional riparian forests contain multiple canopy layers that provide a variety of 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 189 

ecological niches, thermal and protective cover, and maintenance of moist 

conditions. Decadence of older forests provide an abundance of snags and downed 

wood, which also help retain moisture and provide important habitat substrate for 

reptiles, amphibians, small mammals, invertebrates, and mosses and liverworts. The 

majority of riparian dependent species need or prefer late-successional forest 

conditions for the diverse structure and the moist, temperature-moderated 

microclimates they provide. 

Disturbance regimes in riparian areas differ from those of adjacent uplands in 

important ways. Sheltered topographic positions and moist conditions generally 

reduce disturbance caused by wind and fire. Disturbance sources more common in 

riparian areas are beaver activity, and flooding and channel scour, especially along 

stream banks. These operate in addition to more universal factors, such as insect 

and disease outbreaks. One of the most important disturbance factors in riparian 

areas for at least the past thousand years is anthropogenic clearing, which, even 

prior to European settlement, was sufficient to create large areas of earlysuccessional riparian habitats such as canebrakes (Brantley and Platt 2001). 

Concentration of anthropogenic disturbances in riparian habitats was the result of 

the high fertility and level terrain of these areas. Such effects were likely most 

predominant along larger streams and rivers. Today, these same factors continue to 

drive anthropogenic disturbance in these areas. The value of these areas for human 

uses has resulted in many riparian zones along major watercourses remaining in 

private ownership while upper reaches were converted to public ownership. Prior to 

European settlement, anthropogenic disturbance along smaller streams, which are 

more typical of NFS lands, was likely less extensive, resulting in a greater 

predominance of late-successional conditions in these riparian areas. The challenge 

for federal land managers today is to try to restore, to the extent possible, the 

network of mature forest riparian corridors critical to many species and to water 

quality. 

The SAA (SAA; SAMAB 1996) included analysis of cover classes within 100 feet of 

watercourses for the entire study area. Satellite data with 30-meter resolution were 

used, resulting in only larger watercourses being detected. The 100-foot corridor 

width was selected due to the precision of the database and because riparian 

corridors of 100-160 feet can be useful for correlation of the riparian landscape to 

stream habitat and biological integrity (SAMAB 1996: 72). Based on this analysis, 

within the SAA study area there are approximately 2.3 million acres in the riparian 

zone. Land cover classes for the riparian study area were: 70 percent forested, 22 

percent pasture/herbaceous, three percent cropland, 4.3 percent developed/barren, 

and 0.7 percent wetland. Ownership of land in the riparian zone in the SAA area is 

mainly private, approximately 85 percent , with national forests being the next major 

owner at approximately ten percent. The remaining five percent is in national parks, 

the Cherokee Indians’ ownership, other federal holdings, and state parks and forests 

(SAMAB 1996:71-74). 

Riparian forest cover varied across the study area from more than 90 percent to less 

than 25 percent, with the Ridge and Valley ecoregion tending to have less forest 

cover in the riparian zone than the Blue Ridge and other ecoregions. The analysis 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

190 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

also found that “lands in federal ownership, such as national forests and national 

parks, have significantly more forest cover in the riparian zone than do lands in other 

ownerships.” 

Riparian areas are important habitat elements that run through all other 

management prescriptions. On the CNF, implementation of standard riparian buffers 

would result in approximately 126,040 acres of riparian corridor associated with 

perennial and intermittent streams. This represents 20 percent of the total national 

forest acres on this unit. 

One hundred and forty-two species of viability concern are associated with latesuccessional terrestrial riparian habitats in the southern Appalachian region (Table 3-

73, Terrestrial Viability section). Of these, thirty-six species are of concern on the 

CNF (Table 3-79, Terrestrial Viability section and Table L, Appendix E). 

The primary indicator used to assess terrestrial habitat conditions within riparian 

areas is forest-wide acreage of riparian corridors by successional stage. In addition, 

the Acadian flycatcher (Empidonax virescens) is selected as an appropriate MIS for 

mid- and late-successional riparian forest habitat. It requires deciduous forest near 

streams for breeding, and is not often found outside of these habitats during the 

breeding season (Hamel 1992:193). Its presence indicates riparian forests with 

relatively high levels of canopy cover and low levels of management disturbance, 

conditions required or preferred by many other riparian associated species. 

9.1.2 Direct and Indirect Effects

Under all alternatives, riparian corridors are managed under the Riparian 

Prescription. The prescription defines these corridors by setting minimum widths of 

100 feet on either side of perennial streams and 50 feet on either side of 

intermittent streams, but also indicates that these corridors would include all of the 

true riparian area where it can be readily determined. The management goal for 

riparian corridors is to maintain or enhance the structural and functional integrity of 

riparian areas and associated aquatic and upland systems. Riparian corridor 

characteristics important to structural and functional integrity for terrestrial wildlife 

include habitat connectivity; vegetation diversity (including age, species composition, 

and vegetation layer diversity), vegetation vigor, abundance of snags and woody 

debris, and a width that is adequate to retain riparian habitat functions (Knutson and 

Naef, 1997). Riparian corridors include the concept of buffering streams to retain 

important stream functions, but they also encompass the functional aspects of 

riparian areas relative to uplands. Therefore, they present the opportunity to manage 

riparian habitat as a more completely functioning system in which streams and 

uplands mutually influence each other (Knutson and Naef, 1997, Tiner 1999). 

Based on a literature review conducted by Werger (1999), a 100-foot riparian buffer 

will provide habitat for many terrestrial wildlife species. The forested landscape-scale 

setting of the national forest will provide the wider riparian areas required by forest 

interior bird species in most locations. (See section 8.4.0 for further discussion). 

To provide for riparian integrity, management standards are included in the Riparian 

Prescription. These include provisions to provide desirable levels of woody debris, 

and controls on impacts from grazing, recreational uses, mineral development, and 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 191 

fireline construction. Vegetation management is limited to that needed to maintain 

or improve riparian function. Zones around channeled ephemeral streams are also 

recognized as special areas, with standards designed to ensure protection of 

channels and their function as part of the riparian network. 

Implementation of the riparian prescription under all alternatives is expected to 

increase the acreage within riparian corridors that is in late-successional forest as a 

result of allowing forests in these areas to age. Increases in older forests would 

result in increases in abundance of snags and downed wood, important habitat 

components for many riparian dependent species. It would also result in abundant 

and well-distributed habitats characterized by shaded, low-disturbance, moist-soil 

microsites, which are preferred habitat for a large number of species. Overall, trends 

are expected to create a distribution of both early and late-successional riparian 

forest on NFS land that is roughly similar to the conditions that supported associated 

species prior to European settlement Patches of early-successional habitat 

associated with road crossings and other human developments are not expected to 

diminish the role of riparian areas as landscape corridors because of their small size 

and relative rarity, and their occurrence within a predominately mature forest matrix. 

For the Acadian flycatcher, the direct and indirect effect of all alternatives would be 

positive. Analysis indicates that, under all alternatives, in 50 years the riparian 

corridors would move toward the desired condition for the Acadian flycatcher, i.e. 

mature to older-aged forests. Acadian flycatcher populations are expected to follow 

trends in mature riparian forest due to the close association between this species 

and habitat type. Breeding densities in suitable habitat average 14.5 pairs per 100 

acres, with high densities reaching 43 pairs per 100 acres (Hamel 1990: C-5). 

Table 3-62. Expected population trend1 of the Acadian flycatcher on the CNF under 

alternatives 10 and 50 years following plan adoption. Population trend estimates are 

based on expected trends in habitat quantity and quality. 

Alternative Time Period A B D E F G I 

10 years + + + + = + + 

50 years ++ ++ ++ ++ + ++ ++ 

1 Population trend expressed as expected change from current levels: “++” = 

relatively large increase, “+” = increase, “=” = little to no change, “-“ = decrease, “- -“ 

= relatively large decrease. 

 

9.1.3 Cumulative Effects 

Cumulatively, networks of riparian corridors across the national forest landscape 

have been fragmented by mixed ownerships and land use conversion. This condition 

is expected to persist across all alternatives. Alteration of riparian areas from 

conditions needed to support dependent species is most prevalent along larger rivers 

and streams, which are disproportionately under private ownership. Historically 

these sites likely provided the best quality habitat for riparian dependent species, 

and an especially large proportion of the landscape’s early-successional riparian 

component due to their use for Native American agriculture. These sites still are 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

192 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

most likely to provide large areas of early-successional riparian habitat due to private 

land management actions. Many riparian areas are in land uses that are no longer 

suitable for either early- or late-successional riparian species. Expected trends for 

riparian areas on NFS land, moving toward mature forest dominance with a small 

component maintained in early-successional habitat near human developments, 

would contribute to sustaining associated species on the landscape. However, under 

all alternatives abundance and distribution of both early- and late-successional 

riparian habitats would be reduced relative to conditions that supported associated 

species prior to European settlement (see Table 3-74 and Table 3-75, Terrestrial 

Viability section). 

9.2.0 Snags, Dens, and Downed Wood 

9.2.1 Affected Environment 

Large woody debris (including branches, large logs, stumps, and root wads) is an 

important habitat component both to streams and terrestrial areas. It is important 

both structurally and as a source of energy. Large snags provide birds with nesting 

and feeding sites, singing perches, and as lookout posts for predators and prey 

(Howard and Allen 1988). Bats roost and produce maternity colonies under 

exfoliating bark. Amphibians, reptiles, small mammals, and invertebrates utilize 

woody debris as cover. Animals use snags, logs, and stumps as denning sites. 

Downed wood and logs are used for drumming by grouse to attract mates. Turtles 

and snakes use logs in streams and overhanging branches for basking and sunning. 

Large woody debris in riparian areas is used as cover by amphibians, insects, and 

other invertebrates, and small mammals. Small mammals utilize logs as travel ways. 

Fungi and other decomposers of woody debris are key components of food webs. 

Rotting wood tends to absorb moisture during wet periods and release it in dry 

periods thus helping to maintain a cooler microclimate (Ernst and Brown 1988, 

Knutson and Naef 1997). 

Within the stream system, downed wood from riparian trees and shrubs greatly 

influence channel morphology and aquatic ecology. By obstructing stream flow, large 

woody debris stores and distributes sediment, and creates channel features, such as 

pools, riffles, and waterfalls. Wood also traps organic matter, which allows this 

material to be processed by instream organisms. Fish and insects occupy the pools 

and riffles created by the large woody debris, and riparian forest regeneration occurs 

on deposited sediment (Lassettre and Harris 2001). 

Den trees, defined as living trees with hollows or cavities inhabited by animals, also 

are a critical habitat component for many species. They are used for nesting, 

roosting and hibernating. Many species of potential viability concern are associated 

with snags, downed wood, or den trees (Table L, Appendix E). 

Hunter (1990) states that little information is available on how much large woody 

material is sufficient to support associated species. He cites literature that reviews 

expert opinion on snags, with a recommendation of 2-4 snags per acre being a 

“reasonable target.” Generally, for most dependent wildlife, the more snags the 

better for associated species. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 193 

Viability of the Indiana bat is critically tied to snags because of their use as roosts. 

The need to avoid disturbance to this species is the driving factor in considering 

effects of management on snags (Section 11.11, Indiana Bat). 

Snags, downed wood, and den trees are typically most abundant in late-successional 

forests. Current abundance of late-successional forest by community type is shown 

under the section on Successional Forests (Section 8.1). This information indicates 

late-successional forests are abundant on the forest. Snags and downed wood also 

may be extremely abundant in forests affected by mortality events such as storms 

and insect and disease outbreaks. 

Management Indicators 

The pileated woodpecker (Dryocopus pileatus) is selected as an MIS because it 

requires large snags for nesting and feeding. The occurrence of this species may be 

correlated with forested habitats with abundant large dead trees and fallen logs 

(Hamel 1992:190), which also are used by other woodpeckers, owls, and numerous 

other birds, mammals, and amphibians. It requires large cavity trees for nesting, and 

forages on dead trees and downed logs across a variety of community types. This 

species is selected to help indicate the effects of management activities on the 

availability of forests with desired abundance of snags. Its use as an indicator is 

limited by its wide-ranging habits, which causes it to be documented in forest types 

that are not particularly suitable. It also occurs at relatively low densities, reducing 

the number of data points available for trend estimates. Local analysis would 

therefore be limited; analysis of regional trends across several national forests would 

provide more analytical power. Populations are also tracked by the annual Breeding 

Bird Surveys (BBS) and bird point counts conducted throughout the Southeast. 

Population monitoring would be combined with information on forest age-class 

distribution and snag densities to provide a full picture of management effects on 

snag-dependent wildlife. The acreage of late-successional forest is an appropriate 

indicator of the effects of management on these habitat elements because of the 

woodpecker’s relative abundance in this successional stage. 

9.2.2 Direct and Indirect Effects 

Forestwide direction under all alternatives states that unless necessary for small 

scale projects involving insect or disease control or facility development, or to provide 

for public and employee safety, standing snags and den trees would not be cut or 

bulldozed during vegetation management treatments unrelated to timber salvage. 

For timber salvage treatments, all live den trees, and a minimum average of six 

snags per acre from the largest size classes would be retained. Distribution of 

retained snags may be clumped. 

In stand regeneration treatments greater than ten acres in size, a minimum average 

basal area of 15 square feet per acre is retained throughout the rotation. Although 

this basal area pertains to live trees, priority is given to retaining the largest available 

trees that exhibit characteristics provided by snags and those favored by roosting 

Indiana bats (sloughing bark, cracks and crevices). 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

194 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Forestwide direction for potential black bear den trees under all alternatives states 

that den trees would be left during all vegetation management treatments occurring 

in habitats suitable for bears. Potential den trees are greater than 20 inches DBH 

and are hollow with a broken top. 

Direction within Prescription 8.E.1, ruffed grouse, states that at least one large, 

greater than 12 inch diameter downed tree would be left per acre during 

management activities, to be a potential drumming log (see Section 12.3, Ruffed 

Grouse). 

With these provisions included under all alternatives, existing snags, downed wood, 

and den trees would be well maintained on NFS land. Fire may reduce snags and 

downed wood in fire-dependent communities, but can also cause some tree mortality 

creating new snags and downed wood. Reduced density of these habitat elements 

may be expected in fire-dependent communities. 

Recruitment of new snags, downed wood, and den trees is most dependent on 

providing abundant late-successional forests. Expected percentages of latesuccessional forests are presented in Section 8.1, Successional Forests. This 

analysis indicates that Alternatives D and F would provide least emphasis on these 

habitats (39%); and Alternative E, followed by Alternative G, would provide most 

emphasis (90% and 77%, respectively). 

With the above protection and management provisions and the continuous creation 

of more habitat through aging age-class distributions, most alternatives will result in 

an increasing abundance and improved distribution of these habitat elements over 

the next 50 years, with benefits to associated species. Implementation of 

Alternatives D and F would likely result in a decline from the existing levels of snags, 

whereas other alternatives would provide increased amounts of late successional 

forest with snag recruitment. Increased mortality of trees due to forest health threats 

potentially would increase abundance of snags and downed wood regardless of 

management approaches (see cumulative effects discussion below). Although den 

trees are also expected to increase in abundance as forests age, restoring an 

abundance of very large diameter den trees will require longer than 50 years of 

forest growth in many forest community types. 

Management Indicators 

Because of their dependence on large snags, pileated woodpecker populations are 

expected to follow trends in snag availability and the abundance of older forests. 

Based on projected proportion of forest acreage in late successional stage conditions 

(Table 3-43, Successional Forested Habitats) compared to current conditions, 

population trends should increase under all alternatives except for Alternatives D and 

F. However, because pileated woodpeckers breed at relatively low densities (2.1 

pairs per 100 acres on average, Hamel 1990:C-4), obtaining robust datasets on 

populations is difficult. Therefore, to examine national forest trends in abundance of 

this species, data will likely need to be pooled with that from other national forests 

within the ecoregion and evaluated by comparing national forest trends with overall 

regional and range-wide trends. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 195 

Table 3-63. Expected population trend1 of pileated woodpecker on the CNF under 

10 and 50 years following plan adoption. Population trend estimates are based on 

expected trends in habitat quantity and quality. 

Alternative Time Period A B D E F G I

10 years + + - + - + +

50 years + + - ++ - ++ +

1 Population trend expressed as expected change from current levels: “++” = relatively large 

increase, “+” = increase, “=” = little to no change, “-“ = decrease, “- -“ = relatively large decrease. 

9.2.3 Cumulative Effects 

Across landscapes containing the national forest, NFS lands are expected to provide 

a disproportionately large share of the best quality habitats for species associated 

with snags, downed wood, and den trees. This result is expected because of the 

predominant distribution of older forests on NFS lands and other public lands 

compared to private lands (Section 8.1, Successional Forests). This disparity is 

expected to increase over time as other land uses affect abundance of older forests 

on private lands. Forest health threats also are expected to substantially add to 

cumulative effects on these habitat elements, by increasing tree mortality. The 

increasing number of threats and increasing severity of effects has created an 

abundance of snags and downed wood at many locations on the national forest. This 

trend is expected to continue into the foreseeable future as forests age and many 

threats expand their zone of influence (Section 16.0, Forest Health). While national 

forest management can reduce the severity of tree mortality in some locations, forest 

health threats are nevertheless expected to have a substantially positive effect on 

abundance and distribution of snags and downed wood under all alternatives. Den 

trees, which generally need longevity to become high quality habitat elements for 

wildlife, are likely to be negatively affected by forest health threats across 

alternatives 

Distribution of forests with desired levels of snags and downed wood is a function of 

forest age and health. Increasing forest ages and numerous forest health threats 

indicate that snags will be well distributed in the future. Loss of American chestnut 

snags and downed wood resulted in a decline in longevity of these features on the 

landscape. 

Distribution of forests with desired densities of den trees is also a function of forest 

age. Distribution should improve over time as forests age, but will not likely reach 

age class distributions where large den trees are as well distributed compared to 

historic conditions. 

The abundance of all three of these habitat attributes is expected to be common 

across all alternatives. Distribution is expected to be fair for all alternatives except 

for Alternatives D and F, for which distribution is expected to be poor (Table 3-74 and 

Table 3-75, Section 15.1, Terrestrial Viability). 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

196 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

10.0 Aquatic Habitats 

10.1 Affected Environment 

The CNF (Table 3-64) manages approximately 2,960 miles of perennial and 3,527 

miles of intermittent streams (Nicolo 2002). The miles of channeled ephemeral 

streams are estimated to be about three times the length of the intermittent 

channels or about 10,800 miles. All 16,495 miles of streams in these categories 

support aquatic communities. Of the 2,960 miles of perennial streams, only 792 

miles are capable of supporting fish; 275 miles are considered as coolwater fisheries 

(water temperatures often exceed 70o F in the summer). The remaining 517 miles 

are coldwater fisheries. In addition, CNF has 13 lakes and ponds covering 125 

acres. Most of this acreage is in Indian Boundary (97 acres) and Chilhowee Lakes (7 

acres). 

Table 3-64. Managed aquatic habitats that occur 

on CNF 

Aquatic Habitats Miles/Acres 

Ephemeral Streams 10,800 miles 

Intermittent Streams 3,527 miles 

Perennial Streams (No fish) 2,168 miles 

Coldwater Fish Streams 517 miles 

Coolwater Fish Streams 275 miles 

Warmwater Fish Ponds 125 acres 

Several large rivers and reservoirs occur on CNF or form a portion of the boundary. 

The Forest Service has no legal responsibility for the management of these waters 

and no requirement (under NFMA) to maintain viable populations, with the exception 

of threatened, endangered, and sensitive species, which are monitored for viability. 

These large rivers and reservoirs are managed by the TVA and are not affected by 

Forest activities. Table 3-65 displays these habitats. 

Table 3-65. Several large rivers and reservoirs flow 

across or are within the CNF proclamation 

boundary. No viability goals are established for 

aquatic species that are dependent on these 

habitats except threatened, endangered, and 

sensitive species. 

Body of Water 

Acres or Miles in 

Proclamation 

Boundary 

South Holston Reservoir 7,580 acres 

Watauga Reservoir 6,430 acres 

Parksville Lake (Ocoee #1) 1,900 acres 

Ocoee #2 0 acres 

Ocoee #3 480 acres 

South Holston River 4.0 miles 

Watauga River 5.0 miles 

Nolichucky River 12.5 miles 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 197 

Table 3-65. Several large rivers and reservoirs flow 

across or are within the CNF proclamation 

boundary. No viability goals are established for 

aquatic species that are dependent on these 

habitats except threatened, endangered, and 

sensitive species. 

Body of Water 

Acres or Miles in 

Proclamation 

Boundary 

French Broad River 19.0 miles 

Pigeon River 9.0 miles 

Little Tennessee River 25.0 miles 

Hiwassee River 24.5 miles 

Ocoee River 12.5 miles 

Aquatic Habitats 

Water quality in coldwater habitats is generally described as infertile with total 

alkalinity <20 ppm; total hardness <20 ppm; and neutral (pH 7.0) to slightly acid pH 

5.5). Most of these streams (75%) have steep gradients (>4%) and are small (order 

3) to medium sized streams (order 7). Only two percent of the coldwater streams 

are large rivers (order 8 or 9). 

Coolwater habitats generally have slightly higher alkalinity and hardness levels but 

the pH levels are comparable to the coldwater streams. Coolwater streams tend to 

have lower gradients. Only 54 percent are greater than four percent. Stream size 

(order) is quite similar to coldwater streams with only nine percent being classified 

as large rivers (order 8 or 9). 

All lakes and ponds are inherently infertile reflecting the alkalinity, hardness and pH 

values of their feeder streams. Ponds constructed for recreational fishing are limed 

every three years to raise the alkalinity level and increase the uptake of fertilizer that 

is added each year. These treatments increase the fish production providing more 

opportunities for recreational fishing. 

Biota 

The aquatic diversity in the southeastern U.S.A is globally significant for a variety of 

animal groups including crayfish, insects, snails, mussels, fish, amphibians, and 

reptiles (Herrig and Shute 2002). Concurrent with high diversity is the tendency for 

many of these species to be endemic to small ranges often leading to such rarity that 

protective legal status is necessary to insure their survival. Comparable species 

diversity and rarity occurs on CNF (Table 3-66). Intensive surveys have been 

conducted for fish and mussels. Data for the other groups are being collected but 

surveying has not been as rigorous because they include no threatened or 

endangered species. 

Table 3-66. Five aquatic groups have species tracked in the CNF 

database. Crayfish have not been surveyed and are not tracked 

but will be added in the future. 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

198 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Number Group Species Endangered Threatened Sensitive 

Amphibians 4 0 0 0 

Insects 8 0 0 8 

Snails 4 0 0 0 

Mussels 28 4 1 9 

Fish 154 4 4 10 

Total 194 8 5 27 

Over 5000 individual records document individual species locations within 758 

stream reaches on CNF. New data are entered into the database annually from 

Forest Service, TWRA, TVA, Universities, contractors, and other bonafide sources. 

10.2 Direct/Indirect Effects 

Management activities that release sediment through ground disturbance would 

potentially pose the greatest threat to the aquatic environment. Other threats 

include the removal of large trees located close to aquatic systems. These large 

trees provide shade, which aids in the regulation of stream temperatures. In 

addition, they are essential components in the continuous replacement of large 

woody debris to stream channels. Large logs and stumps create diverse habitat 

niches in streams vital to aquatic organisms. 

Roads affect the timing and volume of stream discharges by: intercepting and 

concentrating surface and subsurface flows; expanding or decreasing the channel 

networks; and reducing infiltration. The historic hydrological patterns within a 

watershed are altered affecting the functions and processes to which the riparian 

and its inclusive aquatic communities have adapted. Roads located within the 

Riparian prescription that either parallel or cross a stream would present the greatest 

potential for allowing pollutants into surface waters. Except on major highways, 

where CNF does not have jurisdiction, there are few examples of bulk transport of 

hazardous chemicals on forest roads. Some transport of hazardous chemicals 

including diesel fuel, oil, and pesticides occurs but is limited to: 1) private individuals 

using roads that lead to private residences; 2) campers and other recreating publics; 

and 3) loggers and other contractors working under Forest Service contracts. 

Opportunities to address concerns related to hazardous materials are limited to 

these contract workers. Clauses in Forest Service contracts specify safe handling 

measures for hazardous materials. 

Migration and movement of aquatic species are primarily restricted at road crossings 

by hanging culverts, high water velocity, inadequate swimming depth, or any 

combination of these three factors. Migration and movement barriers would 

potentially be desirable (in rare cases) to protect a native species (brook trout) from a 

non-native competitor (rainbow trout). During watershed level analysis, the aquatic 

communities should be sampled above and below any culverts that could be barriers. 

Where the aquatic community above a culvert appears to have lost components, a 

decision should be made to either restock the unoccupied habitat through seining or 

electrofishing or replace the culvert to facilitate natural movement back into the 

area. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 199 

To protect aquatic habitats and organisms, riparian corridors would be established 

along all perennial and intermittent streams. Riparian corridors would be managed 

to retain, restore, and/or enhance the inherent ecological processes and functions of 

riparian communities. Management activities within these corridors are governed by 

Riparian Prescription standards. Ephemeral channels, which are outside of the 

riparian corridors, and general water quality are protected by Forestwide standards. 

When projects are implemented with full consideration of these standards, no direct 

or indirect adverse effects to aquatic organisms or to the aquatic habitats that 

sustain them would occur (USDA Forest Service 1973). In order to verify that these 

standards are adequate, some ground disturbing projects would be monitored for: 

filter strip widths (implementation monitoring), off-site sediment movement 

(effectiveness monitoring), and aquatic invertebrate community composition 

(validation monitoring). 

10.3 Cumulative Effects 

Direct and indirect adverse effects to aquatic communities are minimized by the 

riparian and forestwide watershed standards; however, these effects are not 

eliminated from the entire watershed. Incrementally, the adverse effects of Forest 

Service activities could accumulate to levels that threaten the viability of aquatic 

species. In addition to NFS lands, activities are also carried out on private lands in 

many of the 5th level watersheds. Since the viability of an aquatic species is 

generally assessed at the 5th level or higher watershed, it is important to consider all 

activities which might affect its viability regardless of land ownership. 

Clingenpeel (2002) developed a process to estimate sediment yield and analyze the 

cumulative effects of proposed management actions on water quality and aquatic 

species viability at the 5th level watershed scale. The process predicts sediment 

yields as a surrogate for determining cumulative impacts to water quality and 

specifies a Watershed Condition Rank (WCR) for each of the 24 5th level watersheds 

under each of the seven alternatives (Table 3-67). The WCR in each watershed was 

consistent for all seven alternatives. Consequently, the cumulative effects analysis 

addresses only one WCR for each watershed. Possible Watershed Condition Ranks 

are: Excellent; Average; Below Average. 

Forest objectives for watersheds with an Excellent WRC (four watersheds) are to 

maintain or improve aquatic health through the implementation of Riparian 

Prescription standards. The probability is low for adverse effects to aquatic species 

and their associated habitats in these watersheds. 

Forest objectives for watersheds with an Average WRC (17) are the same as 

watersheds with Excellent WRC ratings with the addition of the requirement that 

during watershed assessments surveys are conducted to determine the sources of 

impairment and appropriate treatments are prescribed when they occur on NFS 

lands. No additional adverse effects to water quality or aquatic species should occur. 

Three watersheds ranked Below Average. During watershed assessments, surveys 

are conducted to determine the sources of impairment. Appropriate treatments are 

prescribed with emphasis placed on restoring these watersheds to their fully 

productive levels. 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

200 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Table 3-67. The Watershed Condition Ranks for each of the 24 5th level watersheds 

evaluated is displayed. 

Hydrologic Unit Code (HUC) HUC Name Watershed 

Condition Rank 

6010103060 L. Watauga River Below Average 

6010108060 Nolichucky River Below Average 

6020003040 Upper Ocoee River Below Average 

5050001010 Upper New River Average 

6010103010 Roane Creek Average 

6010103020 Watauga River Average 

6010103030 Elk River Average 

6010106010 Pigeon River Average 

6020002040 Conasauga Creek Average 

3150101010 Conasauga River Average 

6010108010 N. Carolina Streams Average 

6010102010 Big Laurel Creek Average 

6010102030 S. Holston Lake Average 

6010103040 Doe River Average 

6010103050 Stone Creek Average 

6010105070 Fr. Broad River Average 

6010108030 N. Indian Creek Average 

6010108050 Camp Creek Average 

6020002030 Hiwassee River Average 

6020003020 Lower Ocoee River Average 

6010105080 Big Creek Excellent 

6010108031 S. Indian Creek Excellent 

6010204020 L. Tennessee River Excellent 

6010204040 Tellico River Excellent 

11.0 Threatened And Endangered Species (Includes Candidates) 

The following sections describe existing conditions and potential effects by 

alternative for Threatened, Endangered, and Candidate species known to, or 

potentially occurring on the CNF. 

11.1 Rock Gnome Lichen (Gymnoderma lineare) 

11.1.1 Affected Environment 

Rock gnome lichen (Gymnoderma lineare) is a rare squamulose lichen that is 

endemic to the southern Appalachian mountains of North Carolina, Tennessee, South 

Carolina, and Georgia. This species is the only member of it’s genus that occurs in 

North America and is similar in appearance to the more common genus Cladonia. 

Rock gnome lichen was listed as endangered by the USFWS on January 18, 1995 

(Federal Register 1995) and a recovery plan (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1997) 

was developed for this species in 1997 that includes a rangewide summary of 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 201 

existing population information and a comprehensive literature review. Much of the 

information provided below is taken from that document. 

Gymnoderma lineare (Evans) Yoshimura and Sharp, is currently known from a total of 

thirty-five extant locations within four states (North Carolina, Tennessee, South 

Carolina, and Georgia) and has been extirpated from at least five sites where it was 

historically known to occur. Thirty of the remaining thirty-five sites are located on 

public lands where long-term protection may be afforded, yet many of these sites 

have experienced recent declines (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1997). 

Gymnoderma lineare populations are restricted to high elevation sites that are often 

bathed in fog, or steep humid gorges at lower elevations. High humidity seems to be 

an important habitat factor and the dense colonies are usually limited to near 

vertical, moist rock faces. Very little information exists regarding the life history or 

population biology of the species including dispersal mechanisms, and consequently 

populations are rather arbitrarily defined based on spatial separation (U.S. Fish and 

Wildlife Service 1997). 

Gymnoderma lineare populations are threatened by recreational impacts associated 

with hikers, climbers, and sightseers, collectors, and the indirect effects of habitat 

modifications associated with logging and other disturbances. Air pollution and 

exotic pests also may be contributing to habitat declines through their effect to high 

elevation spruce/fir forests. No cause has been documented for the extirpation of 

the five historic sites, though one was suspected to have been impacted by highway 

construction and the other four sites currently are subject to heavy recreational use. 

Most populations occupy an area less than one square meter and only eight of the 

remaining thirty-five populations cover greater than two square meters (U.S. Fish and 

Wildlife Service 1997) leaving all sites vulnerable to impact despite their occurrence 

on public (protected) lands. 

The combined factors of small populations and habitat declines related to factors 

that cannot be controlled by Forest Service management (air pollution and exotic 

pests) heighten the importance of maintaining existing populations and quality 

habitat. This necessitates the implementation of a rangewide monitoring program to 

detect population changes. 

Gymnoderma lineare is known from one site on the CNF located at Roan Mountain. 

Under the LMP this site occurs on lands allocated to the Unique Areas (4K) and Rare 

Communities (9.F) prescriptions under all alternatives. 

11.1.2 Potential Effects 

A recovery plan (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1997) was completed for 

Gymnoderma lineare in 1997. The plan emphasizes the protection and monitoring 

of existing populations and inventory of suitable habitats to locate new populations. 

Major threats to populations include the singular or cumulative effects of habitat loss 

caused by recreational trampling (scraping), collection, air pollution, and declining 

forest canopies in adjacent high elevation forests. 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

202 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

The Rare Community (9.F) and Unique Areas (4K) prescriptions and associated 

standards provide adequate protection for Gymnoderma lineare from potential 

negative effects of management activities on the CNF. Additionally, the CNF LMP 

includes forestwide standards that protect rare communities wherever they occur, 

protect individuals and locations of federally-listed threatened or endangered 

species, and control exotic species where they are causing adverse effects to 

federally-listed threatened or endangered species. 

The combination of prescription allocations, forestwide standards, and site specific 

mitigations described above afford very good protection to Gymnoderma lineare

populations and habitats from potential negative effects due to forest management 

activities. Despite this, factors out of the control of the Forest Service, such as air 

pollution and exotic insects (for which no adequate control exists), continue to 

threaten the species’ habitat which will continue to pose risks to it’s long-term 

viability, especially since most sites are very small in areal extent. 

As stated above, thirty of the thirty-five populations occur on public lands. This 

enhances the conservation potential for this species throughout it’s range. The 

adherence to a common monitoring protocol across public ownerships will enhance 

the ability to reach recovery objectives for this endangered species. 

On the CNF, all known sites for Gymnoderma lineare are currently protected under all 

LMP alternatives. Where needed to protect this species from potential adverse 

effects of management activities, project-level surveys would be conducted in 

accordance with procedures outlined in the Region 8 supplement of Forest Service 

Manual (FSM) 2672. Despite this, factors out of the control of the Forest Service, 

such as air pollution and exotic insects, continue to threaten the species’ habitat 

which will continue to pose risks to it’s long-term viability, especially since most sites 

are very small in aerial extent. Based upon this, under the implementation of any 

Plan alternative a determination of “not likely to adversely effect” is made for 

Gymnoderma lineare. 

11.2 Spreading Avens (Geum Radiatum) 

11.2.1 Affected Environment 

Spreading avens (Geum radiatum) is a rare perennial herb that is endemic to a 

limited area of the Blue Ridge mountains of North Carolina and Tennessee. 

spreading avens was listed as endangered by the USFWS on April 5, 1990 (Federal 

Register 1990) and a recovery plan (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1993) was 

developed for this species in 1993 that includes a rangewide summary of existing 

population information and a comprehensive literature review. Much of the 

information provided below is taken from that document. 

At the time of the writing of the recovery plan, eleven sites were known for this 

species, nine in North Carolina, one in Tennessee, and one spanning the border of 

both states. Twenty populations of spreading avens are currently known to exist 

(NatureServe 2002). At least five more sites in North Carolina are known to have 

been occupied historically, but are now considered extirpated. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 203 

Geum radiatum typically occurs on rocky exposures at high elevations on the edges 

of spruce-fir forests, northern hardwood forests, or balds. The plants grow in 

association with other pioneer perennial herbs on rocky cliffs and ledges that receive 

direct sunlight for some portion of the day. 

Very little is known about specific life history and population biology parameters for 

this species. Because the species is confined to just a few small areas on rocky 

summits, populations are extremely vulnerable to a variety of threats including 

atmospheric pollution, climatic extremes, erosion, natural succession, recreational 

developments, and trampling by sightseers, hikers, and climbers. 

Under the LMP the three locations of Geum radiatum on the CNF are allocated to 

prescriptions 4K (Unique Areas) and 9.F (Rare Communities) which were developed 

to protect the integrity of the unique biological and physical resources found at Roan 

Mountain. 

11.2.2 Potential Effects 

Geum radiatum will be considered recovered when there are at least sixteen selfsustaining populations that are fully protected from identified threats (USFWS 1993). 

According to NatureServe (2002) twenty known populations currently exist, however 

none are currently considered secure. The CNF LMP includes forestwide objectives 

and standards that protect individuals and locations of federally-listed threatened or 

endangered species, and control exotic species where they are causing adverse 

effects to federally-listed threatened or endangered species. Any proposed projects 

within the vicinity of known populations of spreading avens will be evaluated for 

potential effects to the species and appropriate mitigation measures would be 

developed to ensure no detrimental effects occur. 

The combination of forestwide objectives, standards, site specific mitigations, and 

prescription allocations described above afford very good protection to Geum 

radiatum populations and habitats from potential negative effects due to forest 

management activities. Despite these protections, the relatively small area occupied 

by this species leave it at some risk from catastrophic events. 

On the CNF, the known sites for Geum radiatum are currently protected under all 

LMP alternatives. Mitigating measures for identified recreational impacts near the 

sites have been implemented. Where needed to protect this species from potential 

adverse effects of management activities, project-level surveys would be conducted 

in accordance with procedures outlined in the Region 8 supplement of FSM 2672. 

Despite this, factors out of the control of the Forest Service, such as atmospheric 

pollution and climatic extremes, threaten the species’ and it’s long-term viability, 

especially since all sites are very small in aerial extent. Based upon this, under the 

implementation of any Plan alternative a determination of “not likely to adversely 

effect” is made for Geum radiatum. 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

204 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

11.3 Roan Mountain Bluet (Houstonia montana) 

11.3.1 Affected Environment 

Roan Mountain bluet (Houstonia montana) is a rare perennial herb that is endemic to 

a limited area of the Blue Ridge mountains of North Carolina and Tennessee. Roan 

mountain bluet was listed as endangered by the USFWS on April 5, 1990 (Federal 

Register 1990) and a recovery plan (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1996) was 

developed for this species in 1996 that includes a rangewide summary of existing 

population information and a comprehensive literature review. Much of the 

information provided below is taken from that document. 

Eight populations of Roan Mountain bluet are currently known to exist (NatureServe 

2002), seven in North Carolina, and one spanning the border of North Carolina and 

Tennessee. At least one more site in North Carolina is known to have been occupied 

historically, but is now considered extirpated. 

Houstonia montana typically occurs on rocky exposures at high elevations over mafic 

bedrock. The plants grow in gravel filled pockets on cliff ledges or talus slopes and 

occur on sites that are often bathed in frequent mountain fog and only receive direct 

sunlight for short periods of the day. Most known locations occur on cliff sites that 

are difficult to census without climbing gear, thus population sizes are primarily 

based upon estimates of the numbers of plant clumps present at each site. 

Very little is known about specific life history and population biology parameters for 

this species. Because the species is confined to just a few small areas on rocky 

summits, populations are extremely vulnerable to a variety of threats including 

atmospheric pollution, climatic extremes, erosion, natural succession, recreational 

developments, and trampling by sightseers, hikers, and climbers. 

Under the LMP the one location of Houstonia montana on the CNF is allocated to 

prescription 4K (Unique Areas) and 9.F (Rare Communities) which were developed to 

protect the integrity of the unique biological and physical resources found at Roan 

Mountain. 

11.3.2 Potential Effects 

Houstonia montana will be considered recovered when there are at least nine selfsustaining populations that are fully protected from identified threats (USFWS 1996). 

Since only eight known populations currently exist, recovery objectives obviously 

include either finding new naturally occurring populations, or re-introducing the 

species into appropriate habitat within it’s historical range. The LMP includes an 

objective to increase the number of populations or occurrences through 

reintroduction or propagation efforts. 

The CNF LMP includes forestwide objectives and standards that protect individuals 

and locations of federally-listed threatened or endangered species, and control exotic 

species where they are causing adverse effects to federally-listed threatened or 

endangered species. Any proposed projects within the vicinity of known populations 

of Roan Mountain bluet will be evaluated for potential effects to the species and 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 205 

appropriate mitigation measures would be developed to ensure no detrimental 

effects occur. 

The combination of forestwide objectives, standards, site specific mitigations, and 

prescription allocations described above afford very good protection to Houstonia 

montana populations and habitats from potential negative effects due to forest 

management activities. Despite these protections, the relatively small area occupied 

by this species leave it at some risk from catastrophic events. 

On the CNF, the known site for Houstonia montana is currently protected under all 

LMP alternatives. Mitigating measures for identified recreational impacts near the 

site have been implemented. Where needed to protect this species from potential 

adverse effects of management activities, project-level surveys would be conducted 

in accordance with procedures outlined in the Region 8 supplement of FSM 2672. 

Despite this, factors out of the control of the Forest Service, such as atmospheric 

pollution and climatic extremes, threaten the species’ and it’s long-term viability, 

especially since all sites are very small in aerial extent. Based upon this, under the 

implementation of any Plan alternative a determination of “not likely to adversely 

effect” is made for Houstonia montana. 

11.4 Small Whorled Pogonia (Isotria medeoloides) 

11.4.1 Affected Environment 

The small whorled pogonia (Isotria medeoloides) was listed by the USFWS as 

endangered in 1982 and revised to threatened status in 1992 based on discovery of 

new sites, achievement of protection for many of the sites, and additional life history 

and population information. This information and much of the following is taken 

from the revised recovery plan (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1992) written for the 

species. 

Isotria medeoloides (Pursh.) Raf. is a federally listed orchid known from 16 states, 

including Virginia, West Virginia, North and South Carolina, Georgia and Tennessee 

(NatureServe 2001). This species occurs in three primary population centers, 

consisting of New England, the southern extreme of the Appalachian Blue Ridge at 

the juncture of North and South Carolina, Georgia, and Tennessee, and the coastal 

plain and piedmont region of Virginia, with outliers in Delaware and New Jersey. 

Disjunct populations occur in six sites in Pennsylvania, Ohio, Michigan, Illinois, and 

Ontario (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1992). In the Southern Appalachian planning 

region, the only small whorled pogonia sites occurring on NFS lands are located on 

the Chattahoochee and Sumter National Forests in Georgia and South Carolina, 

respectively. The locations on these national forests are especially important 

because they are the only sites of the orchid known in the two states. 

This species is found primarily in second and third-growth deciduous and mixeddeciduous/coniferous forests. Ages of the older trees on the sites vary from as young 

as 30- years- old in South Carolina to 80-years-old in Virginia. The forest habitat in 

which this orchid is found is not rare, yet only a small percentage of the habitat has 

colonies of small whorled pogonia. Site characteristics are highly variable, but are 

usually mesic, with sparse to moderate ground cover and a relatively open understory 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

206 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

canopy. Old logging roads or streams are often nearby. Many sites show signs of 

past agricultural use (USFWS 1992, pers.obs). 

The primary threat to the small whorled pogonia throughout its range is habitat 

destruction by residential and commercial development. Collection of plants, 

recreational use, herbivory, and inadvertent damage from research activities are also 

cited as harming populations. Whereas heavy timbering and clear-cutting are 

considered threats, selective timbering may not be harmful to a population (U.S. Fish 

and Wildlife Service 1992). 

No populations of small whorled pogonia are currently known from the CNF, though 

there is one site on private land near the forest. The CNF does have habitat similar 

to other locations where the species occurs. Small whorled pogonia sites on the 

Chattahoochee National Forest in Georgia are near a stream and have sparse ground 

cover. Two sites there have a dense coverage of New York fern (Thelypteris 

noveboracensis). Habitat varies from mixed hardwoods to hardwoods mixed with 

white pine and hemlock. 

11.4.2 Potential Effects 

The Recovery Plan for Small Whorled Pogonia (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1992) 

lists several implementation tasks for recovery of the species. Those listed for 

federal agencies consist primarily of protection through existing laws and 

coordination with other governmental agencies and conservation organizations. The 

Forests in Georgia, South Carolina and Virginia have been implementing these tasks 

as well as conducting inventories for new locations of the orchid. 

In South Carolina and Georgia, there is a concern that under-and midstory vegetation 

may be shading plants and possibly causing a decline in individual colonies. 

Vegetative removal studies have been conducted in Maine in 1993 and 1996, with 

possible positive response of the Isotria to the increased light at the forest floor 

(Dibble et al 1997). Vegetative removal studies began in New Hampshire in 1998, 

but will take at least five years to determine any effects of the removal (Sperduto, 

pers. comm). The recovery plan identifies the need for further research into effects 

of vegetation removal in small whorled pogonia sites, and thus there is an 

opportunity for the national forests to experiment with such removal. Any risks of 

habitat manipulation through vegetation manipulation would likely be outweighed by 

potential benefits to the species (D. Harris, pers. comm.) Because the orchid is 

protected under the ESA, no activities with potential to affect the plants either 

adversely or beneficially can take place in the sites without concurrence from, or 

consultation with, USFWS. 

The CNF conducts project-level botanical inventories in sites with potential habitat for 

TES plants, prior to any ground disturbing activities taking place. Any populations of 

small whorled pogonia or other federally listed species are completely protected from 

any adverse direct or indirect effects of the activities. This will continue to occur 

under all alternatives in accordance with procedures outlined in the Region 8 

supplement of FSM 2672. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 207 

Forestwide standards in the LMP that provide protection to the small whorled 

pogonia are those standards that protect individuals and sites of federally listed 

species and those that control exotic species where they are adversely affecting 

federally listed species. 

A number of the small whorled pogonia sites occur on state and Federal lands, 

affording the species protection from development. According to the recovery plan 

(U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1992), 47 percent of known sites have some level of 

habitat protection. Private land sites in other states are being protected through 

agreements and conservation easements between the landowner and the state (U.S. 

Fish and Wildlife Service 1992). However, private landowners are not required to 

protect federally listed plants, and thus public land is critical in protecting and aiding 

in recovery of the species. 

According to the recovery plan, monitoring results of protected populations followed 

for years have shown a decline in viability, and many extant colonies may not be 

viable. Causes for the declines are not known, but the loss of habitat functionality 

may be a factor. Until causes of declines are known, viability of the small whorled 

pogonia could be at risk throughout its range. Meanwhile, populations of Isotria 

medeoloides will be protected through enforcement of the ESA and efforts made to 

strengthen protective regulations at the state and local levels (U.S. Fish and Wildlife 

Service 1992). 

There are currently no known sites of Isotria medeoloides on the CNF. To ensure no 

adverse effects to small whorled pogonia occur on CNF, botanical inventories will be 

conducted where needed to protect this species from potential adverse effects of 

management activities in accordance with procedures outlined in the Region 8 

supplement of FSM 2672. Because of the protective measures discussed above, 

implementation of any Plan alternative is not likely to adversely affect the small 

whorled pogonia. 

11.5 Ruth’s Golden Aster (Pityopsis ruthii) 

11.5.1 Affected Environment 

Ruth’s golden aster (Pityopsis ruthii) is a rare member of the sunflower family that is 

endemic to two river systems in southeastern Tennessee. Ruth’s golden aster was 

listed as endangered by the USFWS on July 18, 1985 (Federal Register 1985) and a 

recovery plan (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1992) was developed for this species in 

1992 that includes a rangewide summary of existing population information and a 

comprehensive literature review. Much of the information provided below is taken 

from that document. 

The global distribution of Pityopsis ruthii (Small), coincides with an exposure of 

Precambrian phyllite and graywacke boulders along short stretches of the Hiwassee 

and Ocoee rivers in Polk County, Tennessee. Plants are restricted to cracks in the 

boulders and are dependent upon periodic flood scour to reduce competition within 

their fragile habitat. The populations of Ruth’s golden aster on both rivers have been 

cooperatively monitored since 1987 by the TVA, Tennessee Department of 

Environment and Conservation (TDEC), and USDA Forest Service. The population on 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

208 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

the Hiwassee River has long been estimated to contain about 10,000 individuals and 

is monitored by random sampling at several key sites. A detailed census and 

assessment of the Hiwassee population was completed in 2000. The results of this 

census indicate a total of 8,235 plants along a four-mile section of the river. The 

Ocoee River population is much smaller, an average of only 650 plants, and is 

monitored by a total census each year. Despite sixteen years of monitoring resulting 

in an extensive dataset on total plant numbers, little information exists regarding the 

life history or population biology of the species including dispersal mechanisms. The 

fact that this species occupies such a small geographic area leaves it vulnerable to a 

variety of factors, despite the high number of individuals in the populations. 

The Ocoee River supports a major recreational whitewater sporting business that 

brings thousands of people to the river each summer. Visitation to the river by 

rafters, canoers, and kayakers has increased the opportunity for human contact with 

Ruth’s golden aster. In 1984, a total of 78,700 people floated the Ocoee River. In 

1987, this number increased to 128,507, an increase of nearly 50,000 individuals in 

only four years. The 1996 Olympic Event on the Ocoee has further increased the 

popularity of the sport. Large boulders in the river that are popular stop-over sites for 

the rafters often coincide with Ruth’s golden aster habitat. However, through a 

program of providing conservation education to the recreational guides that operate 

trips on the river, much of this concern has been alleviated. Despite this, the sheer 

numbers of people recreating on the river during the summer undoubtably have 

some effect on this species. 

The Hiwassee River population is more remote than the Ocoee River population and 

consequently has not been directly impacted by human uses. Occasional trampling 

by fisherman may occur along the Hiwassee, but the biggest threat is considered to 

be competition from encroaching herbaceous and woody vegetation. Neither of the 

two rivers that support Ruth’s golden aster have natural flow regimes as they did in 

the past, both having been extensively modified through a series of dams and power 

plants beginning in the early 1900’s. This modification is thought to be a major 

factor in the long-term survival of the species. It is thought that the Ruth’s golden 

aster plants depend upon periodic flood scour to remove competing vegetation from 

the narrow cracks in the boulders that it occupies along the river. With a lack of 

flooding, soil begins to build up in the cracks, and herbaceous and woody vegetation 

can become established closer and closer to the water’s edge, effectively crowding 

and eventually covering the golden aster’s habitat. This situation is most pronounced 

on the Hiwassee River where a water-diverting flume built in 1943 effectively 

dewatered the section of river that supports the plants. The current flow in that 

portion of the river now comes primarily from the tributary streams. 

On the Ocoee River, a similar water-diverting flume was built in 1912 leaving the 

riverbed essentially dry during periods of power generation. In 1976 the flume was 

closed for repairs and was not rebuilt until 1983. It was during that seven-year 

period, when water was again allowed to flow freely through the channel, that the 

river became a popular site for private and commercial whitewater sports. When the 

diversion flume was put back into operation in 1983, the lobby from the whitewater 

sports groups was so strong that a compromise was developed that allowed 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 209 

scheduled releases of water down the channel on a weekly basis for recreational 

purposes. While not the same as natural flows, this system of regulated “floods” 

provides a simulation of the flood scour needed to maintain habitat for Ruth’s golden 

aster and the vegetative encroachment is less here than along the Hiwassee River. 

Under the LMP there are no special management prescriptions allocated to the 

locations where Pityopsis ruthii occurs, however, under all alternatives, all known 

occurrences of this species occur on lands that will be included in the unmapped 

riparian buffers for the Ocoee and Hiwassee rivers. 

11.5.2 Potential Effects 

A recovery plan (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1992) was completed for Pityopsis 

ruthii in 1992. The plan emphasizes the protection and monitoring of existing 

populations and research into population and environmental parameters that can be 

used to determine long-term viability. An informal interagency recovery group 

composed of members from the above mentioned agencies and the USFWS is 

currently re-writing portions of the recovery plan to incorporate new information and 

recovery objectives based upon results from the annual monitoring data. Through 

the auspices of the recovery group, the USDA FS, TVA, USFWS, and TDEC are 

collaborating with researchers from the University of California at Davis to develop a 

population viability analysis for Ruth’s golden aster. Annual monitoring is being 

modified to incorporate some environmental and life history variables that will 

provide more predictive power to the analysis. 

Due to the habitat loss that is occurring along the Hiwassee River, experimental 

habitat manipulation is being developed through the cooperative work of the USDA 

Forest Service, TVA, TDEC, and USFWS. Manual removal of the encroaching plants 

and treatment with spot herbicide applications has been proposed, with strict 

monitoring of the effects on Ruth’s golden aster, before and after the removal. It is 

hoped that through a combination of habitat treatments and eventually a system of 

controlled water release, that suitable habitat for this species will persist into the 

future. 

The CNF LMP includes forestwide standards that protect individuals and locations of 

federally-listed threatened or endangered species, and control exotic species where 

they are causing adverse effects to federally-listed threatened or endangered 

species. Any proposed projects within the vicinity of known populations of Ruth’s 

golden aster will be evaluated for potential effects to the species and appropriate 

mitigation measures would be developed to ensure no detrimental effects occur. 

The combination of forestwide standards, site specific mitigations, and prescription 

allocations described above afford very good protection to Pityopsis ruthii

populations and habitats from potential negative effects due to forest management 

activities. Despite these protections, the relatively small area occupied by this 

species leave it at some risk from catastrophic events. 

On the CNF, all known sites for Pityopsis ruthii are currently protected under all LMP 

alternatives. Mitigating measures for identified recreational impacts along the Ocoee 

River have been implemented and experimental habitat manipulations are underway 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

210 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

along the Hiwassee River to ameliorate potential habitat loss. Where needed to 

protect this species from potential adverse effects of management activities, projectlevel surveys would be conducted in accordance with procedures outlined in the 

Region 8 supplement of FSM 2672. Despite this, factors out of the control of the 

Forest Service, such as catastrophic flooding, threaten the species’ and it’s long-term 

viability, especially since the entire known range of the species is very small in aerial 

extent. Based upon this, under the implementation of any Plan alternative a 

determination of “not likely to adversely effect” is made for Pityopsis ruthii. 

11.6 White Fringeless Orchid (Platanthera integrilabia) 

11.6.1 Affected Environment 

White fringeless orchid (Platanthera integrilabia) is listed as a Candidate for federal 

listing by the USFWS and is on the Regional Forester’s Sensitive Species List for the 

Southern Region. A conservation strategy (Bailey, 2001) was developed for this 

species in 2001 on the CNF that includes a rangewide summary of existing 

population information and a comprehensive literature review. Much of the 

information provided below is taken from that document. 

Platanthera integrilabia (Corell) Luer is currently known from a total of sixty-one 

extant locations within five states (Alabama, Georgia, Kentucky, Mississippi, and 

Tennessee) and is considered extirpated from three states (North Carolina, South 

Carolina, and Virginia). Existing populations are summarized in Table 3-68. 

Table 3-68. The Distribution of White Fringeless Orchid (Platanthera 

integrilabia) Populations by State Throughout it’s Range. 

State Total Number Of 

Extant Sites 

Total Number 

of Historic 

Sites 

Total Number 

Of Extant Sites 

on Forest 

Service Lands 

Alabama 7 1 ? 

Georgia 8 1 ? 

Kentucky 12 3 ? 

Mississippi 1 2 ? 

North Carolina 0 3 0 

South Carolina 0 1 0 

Tennessee 33 9 2 

Virginia 0 ? 0 

Data from State Heritage Programs (Bailey 2001) 

Platanthera integrilabia populations occur across a wide geographic area and 

consequently are found under a diverse array of environmental conditions. Because 

of this, it is difficult to characterize the specific habitat requirements for any given 

locale, however, in general plants are found in wet, flat, boggy areas, stream heads, 

or seepage slopes in acidic muck or sand in association with species of Sphagnum 

moss and one or more of the following fern species: Cinnamon fern (Osmunda 

cinnamomea), chain fern (Woodwardia areolata), and New York fern (Thelyptris 

noveboracensis). 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 211 

The rarity of Platanthera integrilabia throughout it’s range may be dependent on a 

combination of several factors including natural rarity of habitat, habitat loss, low 

seed germination rates, low flowering and fruit-set rates, and lack of effective 

pollinators. Habitat loss is recognized as the primary threat to the species rangewide 

and can be manifested directly through habitat conversion, or indirectly, though 

alterations to the hydrology at a given site that occur as secondary effects from 

activities such as road building, timber harvest, etc. Siltation of habitat, herbivory, 

and competition from exotic species are other threats that may impact populations. 

Like many orchid species, Platanthera integrilabia is dependent upon a symbiotic 

relationship with a fungus for seed germination (Zettler et al. 1990, Zettler and 

McInnis 1992, Zettler 1994, Currah et al. 1997). While an individual orchid capsule 

may produce thousands of dust-like seeds, only a tiny fraction of those seeds will be 

dispersed to a site that supports adequate habitat conditions and the required fungal 

species for seed germination. While many orchid species have a symbiotic relations 

with several different fungal species, it has been suggested (Crock 1996, Zettler 

1996) that the distribution of Platanthera integrilabia is further limited by the fact 

that there may be only a single fungal symbiont capable of initiating seed 

germination. Zettler (1996) showed that both in the lab and under natural conditions 

only three percent of Platanthera integrilabia seeds germinate to produce a seedling 

plant. Similarly, only a very small percentage of individuals ever flower and set viable 

seeds. With so many biological constraints affecting the viability of populations, the 

importance of maintaining existing populations and quality habitat through land 

management is heightened. 

Platanthera integrilabia is known from two locations on the CNF. The Polk County 

site (first reported in 1996) contains approximately 40 individuals, only four of which 

were in flower when first discovered. The McMinn County site (first reported in 1981) 

is estimated to contain several thousand plants and is the largest known site in the 

world for this rare plant. Annual monitoring since 1996 has shown a range in 

flowering individuals from 140 to 868 in a given year (numbers based on transect 

data, not 100% sample). 

Under the LMP the integrity of both sites will be protected in all alternatives by 

adherence to the standards listed in the riparian prescription and forestwide 

standards that protect channeled ephemeral streams. The McMinn County site is 

also allocated to the rare community prescription. Table 3-69 provides a summary of 

the applicable prescriptions for each site by alternative: 

Table 3-69. Applicable Prescriptions at Platanthera integrilabia Sites by 

Alternative (first prescription is the actual site, second prescription is the 

surrounding area – Rx 11 is unmapped) 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

212 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Site Alt A Alt B Alt D Alt E Alt F Alt G Alt I 

McMinn 9.F, 11 9.F, 11 9.F, 11 9.F, 11 N/A 9.F, 11 9.F, 11 

Polk 11, 8.C 11, 

9.A.3 11, 8.C 11, 9.A.3 N/A 11, 8.C 11,8.C 

Prescription Key: 0=Custodial, 8.C=Black Bear Habitat Management, 

9.A.3=Watershed Restoration Areas, 9.F=Rare Communities, 11=Riparian Areas. 

11.6.2 Potential Effects 

A conservation strategy (Bailey 2001) was completed for Platanthera integrilabia on 

the CNF in 2001. The strategy emphasizes monitoring of existing populations and 

inventory of suitable habitats to locate new populations. Major threats to CNF 

populations are listed as follows: Feral hogs; Plant poachers; Exotic/invasive plants; 

Alterations to existing hydrology. 

In 1996, a fence enclosure was erected at the McMinn County site that excludes 

hogs from the main area of the bog where the orchids occur. Annual monitoring of 

this site has detected the presence of the non-native grass Microstegium vimineum

in the small drainages that feed the bog. This species rapidly colonizes disturbed 

soils in both full sun and shaded conditions and is extremely difficult to eradicate, but 

the species seems unable to penetrate the established, dense herbaceous cover 

within the bog. At this time there is no practical method to treat this species near 

this site without adverse effects to numerous other species in the area. This need for 

this treatment may change in the future if the species is able to invade the bog. A 

similar fenced enclosure was erected at the Polk County site also in 1996. 

The Rare Community (9.F) and Riparian (11) prescriptions provide adequate 

protection for Platanthera integrilabia at the McMinn County site from potential 

negative effects of management activities on the CNF. Additional measures (fenced 

enclosure) have also ameliorated potential effects from feral hogs at this site. The 

Polk County site was inventoried in 2002 to determine it’s rare community status. 

The community is best described as a “Cumberland Forested Acid Seep” 

(NatureServe 2001) which is considered to be a rare community on the CNF. Under 

the LMP, the site would be protected by the rare community (9.F) prescription 

standards and the riparian prescription which is designed to maintain the integrity of 

habitats within that zone. Additionally, the CNF LMP includes forestwide standards 

that 1) protect channeled ephemeral streams, 2) protect individuals and locations of 

species needed to maintain their viability within the planning area, and 3) control 

exotic species where they are causing adverse effects to species of viability concern 

within the planning area. 

The combination of prescription allocations, forestwide standards, and site specific 

mitigations described above afford very good protection to Platanthera integrilabia

populations and habitats from potential negative effects due to forest management 

activities. Despite this, the species has some inherent biological limitations that 

could continue to pose risks to it’s long-term viability, especially at sites where 

population numbers are low. 

Table 3-69 (above) shows that out of sixty-one extant sites for the species rangewide, 

few occur on Forest Service lands. Based upon this, it is apparent that while Forest 
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ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 213 

Service conservation actions may contribute to rangewide viability, they cannot 

maintain it. Cumulatively, the long-term viability of the species across it’s range is at 

great risk. 

On the CNF, all wetland habitats and known sites for Platanthera integrilabia are 

currently protected under all EIS alternatives. Where needed to protect this species 

from potential adverse effects of management activities, project-level surveys would 

be conducted in accordance with procedures outlined in the Region 8 supplement of 

FSM 2672. Site specific mitigations to ameliorate the effects of feral hogs have been 

implemented at both sites, yet potential impacts to individuals remain at both sites 

through plant poaching. An assessment of potential impacts from invasive exotic 

plants has not indicated a tangible threat this time. Inherent biological limitations 

based upon population dynamics may continue to pose risks to the species long-term 

viability, especially at small sites. Based upon this, under the implementation of any 

Plan alternative a determination of “may impact individuals but not likely to cause a 

trend to federal listing or a loss of viabilty” is made for Platanthera integrilabia. 

11.7 Blue Ridge Goldenrod (Solidago spithamaea) 

11.7.1 Affected Environment 

Blue Ridge goldenrod (Solidago spithamaea) is a rare member of the sunflower 

family that is endemic to a limited area of the Blue Ridge mountains of North 

Carolina and Tennessee. Blue Ridge goldenrod was listed as threatened by the 

USFWS on March 28, 1985 (Federal Register 1985) and a recovery plan (U.S. Fish 

and Wildlife Service 1987) was developed for this species in 1987 that includes a 

rangewide summary of existing population information and a comprehensive 

literature review. Much of the information provided below is taken from that 

document. 

Three populations of Blue Ridge goldenrod are currently known to exist (NatureServe 

2002), two in North Carolina, and one spanning the border of North Carolina and 

Tennessee. Three more sites were known to have been occupied historically, all of 

which have undergone extensive recreational and residential development and have 

been extirpated. 

Solidago spithamaea occurs primarily in full sun at high elevations and is associated 

with rock outcrops, cliffs, and balds. Very little is known about specific life history 

and population biology parameters for this species. Because the species is confined 

to just a few small areas on rocky summits, populations are extremely vulnerable to a 

variety of threats including atmospheric pollution, climatic extremes, erosion, natural 

succession, recreational developments, and trampling by sightseers, hikers, and 

climbers. 

Under the LMP the one location of Solidago spithamaea on the CNF is allocated to 

prescription 4K (Unique Areas) which was developed to protect the integrity of the 

unique biological and physical resources found at Roan Mountain. 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

214 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

11.7.2 Potential Effects 

Solidago spithamaea will be considered recovered when there are at least five selfsustaining populations that are fully protected from identified threats (USFWS 1987). 

Since only three known populations currently exist, recovery objectives obviously 

include either finding new naturally occurring populations, or re-introducing the 

species into appropriate habitat within it’s historical range. The LMP includes an 

objective to increase the number of populations or occurrences through 

reintroduction or propagation efforts. 

The CNF LMP includes forestwide objectives and standards that protect individuals 

and locations of federally-listed threatened or endangered species, and control exotic 

species where they are causing adverse effects to federally-listed threatened or 

endangered species. Any proposed projects within the vicinity of known populations 

of Blue Ridge goldenrod will be evaluated for potential effects to the species and 

appropriate mitigation measures would be developed to ensure no detrimental 

effects occur. 

The combination of forestwide objectives, standards, site specific mitigations, and 

prescription allocations described above afford very good protection to Solidago 

spithamaea populations and habitats from potential negative effects due to forest 

management activities. Despite these protections, the relatively small area occupied 

by this species leave it at some risk from catastrophic events. 

On the CNF, the known site for Solidago spithamaea is currently protected under all 

EIS alternatives. Mitigating measures for identified recreational impacts near the site 

have been implemented. Where needed to protect this species from potential 

adverse effects of management activities, project-level surveys would be conducted 

in accordance with procedures outlined in the Region 8 supplement of FSM 2672. 

Despite this, factors out of the control of the Forest Service, such as atmospheric 

pollution and climatic extremes, threaten the species’ and it’s long-term viability, 

especially since all sites are very small in aerial extent. Based upon this, under the 

implementation of any Plan alternative a determination of “not likely to adversely 

effect” is made for Solidago spithamaea. 

11.8 Virginia Spiraea (Spiraea virginiana) 

11.8.1 Affected Environment 

Virginia spiraea is a southern Appalachian endemic occurring in the southern Blue 

Ridge and Appalachian Plateau physiographic provinces (Ogle, 1991). This species 

is a clonal shrub that reproduces completely or almost completely through vegetative 

means. Habitat is rocky, flood-scoured riverbanks in gorges or canyons, where woody 

competition is reduced and riverwash deposits create sites for vegetative propagule 

establishment (U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service 1990). 

NatureServe Explorer (2001) describes the habitat as periodically flood-scoured 

banks of high-gradient mountain streams or along lower stream reaches. Plants are 

often found on geologically active areas with erosion, deposition, and slumping, along 

rivers with dynamic flooding regimes, sandbars, scoured river shore and flatrock 

habitat with crevices. These areas also are associated with cobbles, boulders, and 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 215 

massive rock outcrops with sandy or clay soils. The areas can be periodically xeric. 

Plants are often seen in silt mud and sand. 

Threats include reservoir construction (inundation of plants or alteration of natural 

flood regimes), human disturbance of riverbank habitats, and competing vegetation 

(U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service 1990). 

NatureServe Explorer (2001) provides detailed information on physical habitat and 

associated species for occurrences of this species. The Recovery Plan for Virginia 

spiraea (U.S. Department of Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, 1991) summarizes the 

number of clones by state and by ownership as follows: 

West Virginia: 26 clones total; 2 in state park, 1 in national forest (?), the rest in 

private ownership. 

Virginia: 17 clones total; 3 in state park, 1 on Corps of Engineers, 1 private, and 12 

clones on the Guest River in a mixture of national forest and private. 

Kentucky: 2 clones total; 1 (2?) on national forest, 1 private. 

Tennessee: 21 clones total; 4 national park, 4 state park, 2 national recreation area, 

2 mix of national recreation area and private, and 9 private. 

North Carolina: 11 clones total; 7 clones private, and 4 clones a mix of national 

forest and private. 

Georgia: 7 clones total; 2 in state park, and 5 in private. 

Currently there are no known sites of Virginia spiraea on the CNF. One historic site 

was located in Unicoi County on CNF lands, however the species has not been seen 

there now for many years. 

11.8.2 Potential Effects 

The implementation schedule for the Virginia spiraea recovery plan (U.S. Department 

of Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, 1991) includes five items that directly relate to 

Forest Service management: 

Identify and monitor threats to each existing population. 

Enforce laws protecting the species and/or its habitat. 

Conduct rangewide searches for additional populations. 

Conduct site-specific manipulation to maintain existing populations. 

Reintroduce the species within its historical range. 

Negative impacts from recreational use are a real threat. In West Virginia, 

recreational activities including fishing, hiking, camping, and boating have damaged 

nearly all sites (West Virginia Department of Natural Resources 2000). Competition 

from other plant species is the other serious threat. In some cases, alteration of 

normal flood scour events may allow native competing vegetation to affect Virginia 
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216 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

spiraea populations. Invasive non-native plant species also have the potential to outcompete Virginia spiraea. 

Where needed to protect this species from potential adverse effects of management 

activities, project-level surveys would be conducted in accordance with procedures 

outlined in the Region 8 supplement of FSM 2672. Any populations of Virginia 

spiraea or other federally listed species are completely protected from any adverse 

direct or indirect effects of the activities. This will continue to occur under all 

alternatives. 

Forestwide standards in the LMP that provide protection to Virginia spiraea are those 

standards that protect individuals and sites of federally listed species and those that 

control exotic species where they are adversely affecting federally listed species. 

The LMP includes objectives taken from recovery plan (U.S. Department of the 

Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service 1990) and includes language that would encourage 

re-introduction within historic range. Opportunities may exist in the future to reestablish this species on the CNF. 

There are currently no known sites of Spiraea virginiana on the CNF. To ensure no 

adverse effects to this species occur on CNF, botanical inventories will be conducted 

in accordance with procedures outlined in the Region 8 supplement of FSM 2672. 

Because of the protective measures discussed above, implementation of any Plan 

alternative is not likely to adversely affect the Virginia spiraea. 

11.9 Bald Eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) 

11.9.1 Affected Environment 

The bald eagle ranges over most of the North American continent, from as far north 

as Alaska and Canada, down to Mexico. Experts believe that in 1782 when the bald 

eagle was adopted as our national bird, their numbers may have ranged from 25,000 

to 75,000 nesting pairs in the lower 48 states. Since that time the species has 

suffered from habitat destruction and degradation, illegal shooting, and most notably 

from contamination of its food source by the pesticide DDT. In the early 1960’s, only 

417 nesting pairs were found in the lower 48 states. In 1999, more than 5,748 

nesting pairs of bald eagles were recorded for the same area, resulting primarily from 

the banning of DDT in the U.S.A in 1972 aided by additional protection afforded 

under the ESA (USDI Fish & Wildlife Service, 1999). 

Bald eagles have few natural enemies but usually prefer an environment of quiet 

isolation from areas of human activity (i.e. boat traffic, pedestrians, or buildings), 

especially for nesting. Their breeding areas are generally close to (within 4 km) 

coastal areas, bays, rivers, lakes, or other bodies of water that reflect general 

availability of primary food sources including fish, waterfowl, rodents, reptiles, 

amphibians, seabirds, and carrion (Andrew and Mosher 1982, Green 1985, 

Campbell et al. 1990). Although nesting territory size is variable, it typically may 

encompass about 2.59 square kilometers (Abbott 1978). Most nest sites are found 

in the midst of large wooded areas adjacent to marshes, on farmland, or in loggedover areas where scattered seed trees remain (Andrew and Mosher 1982). The 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 217 

same nest may be used year after year, or the birds may alternate between two nest 

sites in successive years. Bald eagles mate for life and are believed to live 30 years 

or more in the wild. Breeding bald eagles in Virginia appear to be permanent 

residents, whereas the young disperse extensively northward and southward. 

Although bald eagles may range over great distances, they usually return to nest 

within 100 miles of where they were raised (USDI Fish & Wildlife Service, 1995). 

Winter home ranges for eagles can be very large, especially for non-breeding birds. 

They generally winter throughout the breeding range but are more frequent along the 

coast. These birds commonly roost communally. 

The primary threats to the bald eagle include loss of nesting, foraging, and roosting 

habitat especially along shorelines, disturbance by humans, biocide contamination, 

decreasing food supply, and illegal shooting (Byrd and Johnstone 1991, Buehler et al. 

1991). Bald eagles also have died from lead poisoning as a result of feeding on 

waterfowl that had inadvertently ingested lead shot. In 1991, the USFWS completed 

a program to phase out lead shot for waterfowl hunting. 

All confirmed recent use of the CNF is for wintering residents; no nesting activity has 

been confirmed on NFS lands. However, two recent nests have been documented at 

Tellico Lake on TVA lands adjacent to CNF. The secondary protection zones around 

these nests overlapped with Forest Service lands. 

The Forest Service, TWRA, and other partners attempted to re-establish breeding 

status on CNF lands through a hacking project at South Holston Lake in 1991-1995. 

Twenty-nine individuals were released at that location. Multiple winter resident birds, 

both mature and immature, have been sighted at Parksville (Ocoee) Lake, South 

Holston Lake, and Watauga Lake for the past decade. Monitoring for nesting activity 

continues on an annual basis in cooperation with the TVA and the TWRA. 

11.9.2 Potential Effects 

Timber harvesting, road building, and prescribed burning activities have the potential 

to impact the bald eagle or its habitat should it occur near streams, lakes, or other 

wetlands. Human disturbance from roads, trails, and campgrounds can also 

adversely affect the use of an area for nesting or roosting by eagles. 

The LMP and all alternatives include a standard establishing 1500-foot protection 

zones around bald eagle nests and communal roost sites. Vegetation management 

that would affect forest canopy within these zones is prohibited, and other activities 

that may disturb eagles are prohibited within these zones during periods of use. The 

Riparian Prescription, with its emphasis on low levels of disturbance and 

maintenance of mature forest, provides direction for management of shorelines 

where bald eagles may forage. This direction also would be the same across all 

alternatives. No additional specific provisions related to foraging habitat are 

included due to the variety of circumstances that may be involved. These issues 

would be addressed during site-specific analysis. 

Because this management direction addresses critical needs for habitat and 

protection of roosts and nests from human disturbance, the LMP and alternatives are 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

218 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

not likely to adversely affect the bald eagle, and should provide conditions beneficial 

to this species. Additional site-specific analysis would be done on all projects with 

the potential for affecting this species. Where needed to protect this species from 

potential adverse effects of management activities, project-level surveys would be 

conducted in accordance with procedures outlined in the Region 8 supplement of 

FSM 2672. 

11.10 Northern Flying Squirrel (Glaucomys sabrinus coloratus) 

11.10.1 Affected Environment 

The Carolina and Virginia subspecies of the northern flying squirrel were listed as 

Endangered under the ESA in 1985. A recovery plan was completed in September 

1990. Since that time, nest box studies and live trapping efforts have been used to 

determine the presence or absence of this species within habitats considered 

suitable. Results of these efforts have shown the species to be scattered throughout 

remnant stands of spruce/fir and northern hardwood types in North Carolina, Virginia 

and Tennessee and also some areas with stands of northern hardwoods/hemlock. 

Some apparent core areas (areas of greater squirrel concentrations) have been 

determined. Recent studies involving concentrated trapping and nest box checks in 

Virginia have shown numbers of northern flying squirrels greater than was previously 

thought to occur. Conditions of the hardwood habitat component are improving for 

this species in most of its range due to the aging of the forests it prefers. The conifer

component has declined dramatically. Fraser fir has declined dramatically. Although 

the red spruce component appears to be expanding its range into nearby northern 

hardwood stands in some areas of Virginia, it has also suffered some mortality due to 

recent SPB infestations at Roan and Unaka Mountains of Tennessee (D. Duerr 

2002). In addition, the hemlock woolly adelgid is expected to cause significant loss 

of the hemlock component. The number of captured southern flying squirrels 

(Glaucomys volans), a species that may displace the northern flying squirrel, has also 

increased in some areas along with those of the northern flying squirrel. 

The implementation schedule for the northern flying squirrel recovery plan (U.S. 

Department of Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service 1990) includes several items that 

directly relate to management of national forests: 

Protect existing habitat (occupied & high potential of suitability). 

Survey potential habitat to locate additional populations. 

Monitor known populations. 

Monitor loss or degradation of high elevation forest resulting from insect 

damage and/or air pollution. 

Monitor the effects of modification or loss of habitat resulting from timber 

operations, roads, trails, or other recreation developments. 

Development of educational materials or programs about the species. 

The distribution of northern flying squirrels is generally associated with high elevation 

boreal habitats, especially spruce/fir and northern hardwood forests within the 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 219 

Southern Appalachians. Each subspecies has a relict distribution of small and 

potentially vulnerable isolated populations that are separated by vast areas of 

unsuitable habitat. The subspecies G. s. coloratus is known from five isolated 

localities: three in the western mountains of North Carolina and two localities in the 

eastern mountains of Tennessee (USDI, Fish & Wildlife Service 1991). Populations of 

G. sabrinus coloratus/fuscus (subspecies taxonomy undetermined) are also known 

to occur in two counties in southwest Virginia (USDI, Fish & Wildlife Service 1990). 

These subspecies occur primarily in the ecotone or vegetation transition zone, 

between coniferous and northern hardwood forests. Both forest types are used in 

search of food but the hardwood areas are needed for nesting (Weigl 1977). 

Northern flying squirrels have been shown to utilize deciduous hardwood, and 

hardwood/hemlock habitats some distance away from spruce/fir stands (Weigl and 

Osgood 1974, Weigl 1978, Payne et al. 1989, Boynton 1989, Weigl et al. 1992). 

Because of the flying squirrel’s small size, the climatic severity of its habitat, and the 

abundance of avian and mammalian predators, secure nesting sites represent a 

critical limiting factor (USDI, Fish & Wildlife Service, 1990). Recent information from 

studies in Virginia indicate that flying squirrels appear to select tree cavities, 

woodpecker holes in decadent snags, cavities under root wads, underground rock 

dens, and nest boxes where available during periods of cooler weather. (Hackett and 

Pagels, personal communication, 2002). Leaf nests in tree canopies are also used 

during warmer weather. Nest cavities are often found in yellow birch trees (Betula 

allegheniensis Britton.) and bark from this species is commonly used as nest 

material (Odom 1995). 

Food availability and abundance may affect the distribution of G. sabrinus ssp. and 

the periodic dependence on certain species of fungi may be a factor in restricting the 

subspecies to high-elevation, mesic habitats (USDI, Fish & Wildlife Service, 1990). 

Studies from the western U.S.A have shown that the primary food for the northern 

flying squirrel from July – December is hypogeous fungi and from January thru June is 

epiphytic lichens (Maser et al. 1986, Maser and Maser 1988). They also consume 

seeds, buds, fruit, staminate cones, insects, and other animal material (McKeever 

1960), and have been observed ingesting tree sap (Foster and Tate 1966; Schmidt 

1931). 

Reproductive information is limited for these subspecies. Investigators working with 

other subspecies mention two litters of 2-6 young per year and a gestation period of 

37-42 days (Muul, 1969; Davis, 1963). Trapping data from the southern 

Appalachians provide evidence of only a single litter in spring or summer. Nest box 

data from Virginia and West Virginia indicates from one to five young per female (M. 

Fies & C.Stihler, personal observation). Two captive females from North Carolina 

each had litters of four young (P. Weigl, pers. obs.). Based upon studies from North 

Carolina and Tennessee, average normal lifespan for northern flying squirrels is 

estimated at three years with five years being the oldest wild recaptured individual 

observed (Weigl et al. 1999). Like many small rodent species, the northern flying 

squirrel has many predators. It is unlikely that many squirrels live more than about a 

year (Hackett and Pagels, personal communication, 2002). 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

220 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Population estimates are not available, but the northern flying squirrel appears to be 

extremely rare throughout the southern Appalachians. These subspecies are also 

very difficult to capture and study. Northern flying squirrels may periodically abandon 

particular habitats or undergo periodic population oscillations making them 

undetectable for extended intervals (USDI, Fish & Wildlife Service 1990). 

Two populations are known from the CNF. One population near Haw Knob is known 

from Tennessee through a single 1982 record. Attempts to resurvey the area in 

1991 yielded only southern flying squirrels. However, another northern flying squirrel 

was captured in 1991 within 1-2 miles in North Carolina, where the majority of 

suitable habitat is located (Weigl et al. 1991). No spruce or fir is available to this 

local population, and hemlock may provide the needed conifer component. Hemlock 

woolly adelgid infestations could affect habitat suitability in the future. 

A second location is Roan Mountain, site of one of the largest and best studied 

populations. Although the population appeared to be in decline in winter of 2000, 

current trend data is not available at this time (Weigl 2002). Unaka Mountain has 

some elements of suitable habitat, but a 1991 survey yielded only southern flying 

squirrels. 

The northern flying squirrel is vulnerable to a number of both natural and humanrelated impacts. Habitat degradation or destruction from timber harvesting, road or 

trail construction, firewood gathering, air pollution, insects, wildfire, overuse from 

forest visitors, and the possibility of global warming could threaten this species 

and/or its habitat. Any activity that reduces the amount of spruce/fir forest, northern 

hardwood forest, or the hemlock/northern hardwood forest, or increases the oak 

component within northern hardwood stands may adversely affect northern flying 

squirrels. 

11.10.2 Potential Effects 

The LMP and the 9.F Prescription (Rare Communities) provide for the protection and 

restoration of spruce/fir communities and includes a standard that limits vegetation 

management within .5-mile of habitat occupied by the northern flying squirrel. The 

spruce/fir community is unsuitable for timber harvesting, road construction or 

reconstruction and motorized access is limited to currently existing roads. The most 

frequent use of these high elevation spruce/fir and northern hardwood forests is 

dispersed recreation activities such as hunting, hiking, and camping. Associated trail 

construction and firewood gathering could occur within these forest types after 

appropriate project-level affects analysis finds a no effect determination. Such 

activities that affect vegetation would not affect the northern flying squirrel because 

they would not be allowed within the .5-mile protection area around occupied habitat. 

The protection of existing spruce/fir habitat should benefit the northern flying 

squirrel. In addition, standards require the retention of patches of hemlock during 

silvicultural treatments and would have a positive effect on the Haw Knob population. 

The habitat of the Haw Knob population has been mapped and allocated to the rare 

community prescription (9.F). Roan Mountain also occurs within a unique protective 

prescription (4.K). 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 221 

The Revised Forest Plan and its alternatives are not likely to adversely affect this 

species because this management direction addresses the critical needs for habitat 

and protection of the northern flying squirrel. All alternatives would improve habitat 

conditions for the species. Additional site-specific analysis would be done on all 

projects with the potential for affecting the species. Where needed to protect this 

species from potential adverse effects of management activities, project-level 

surveys would be conducted in accordance with procedures outlined in the Region 8 

supplement of FSM 2672. 

11.11 Indiana Bat (Myotis sodalis) 

11.11.1 Affected Environment 

The distribution of Indiana bats is generally associated with limestone caves in the 

eastern U.S. (Menzel et al. 2001). Within this range, the bats occupy two distinct 

types of habitat. During summer months, maternity colonies roost under sloughing 

bark of dead and partially-dead trees of many species, often in forested settings 

(Callahan et al. 1997). Reproductive females require multiple alternate roost trees 

to fulfill summer habitat needs. Adults forage on winged insects within three miles of 

the occupied maternity roost. Swarming of both males and females and subsequent 

mating activity occurs at cave entrances prior to hibernation (MacGregor et al. 1999). 

During this autumn period, bats roost under sloughing bark and in cracks of dead, 

partially-dead and live trees. 

Wintering colonies require very specific climatic regimes within cold, humid caves or 

mines primarily west of the Appalachian Mountains (Barbour and Davis 1969; 

Menzel et al. 2001). Few sites provide these conditions, and approximately 85 

percent of the entire known population inhabits only nine caves or mine shafts 

(Menzel et al. 2001; USDI FWS 1999). 

Although most hibernacula have been protected, the Indiana bat range-wide 

population has declined by about 60 percent since the 1960’s (USDI FWS 1999). 

Causes of decline are not known; declines have continued despite efforts to protect 

all known major hibernacula. Researchers are focusing studies on land use practices 

in summer habitat, heavy metals, pesticides and genetic variability in attempt to find 

causes for the declines. 

Within the planning analysis area, hibernacula are known to NFS lands in Virginia and 

Alabama, and to other lands in Tennessee and Georgia. Recommended habitat 

management includes protecting known significant hibernacula from human 

impacts, retaining forested condition around the entrances to significant hibernacula, 

and evaluating opportunities to protect Indiana bats through land acquisition (Menzel 

et al. 2001). 

It is difficult to quantify summer roosting habitat for Indiana bat at a range-wide, 

regional or local level due to the variability of known roost sites and lack of 

knowledge about landscape scale habitat characteristics of maternity roosts. Within 

the planning area, maternity roost sites are known from Virginia and Tennessee. 

Forest management practices that affect occupied roost trees may have local 

impacts on Indiana bat populations. However, the bats live in highly altered 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

222 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

landscapes, depend on an ephemeral resource--dead and dying trees--and may be 

very adaptable. Anecdotal evidence suggests that these bats may respond positively 

to some degree of habitat disturbance (USDI FWS 1999). 

No hibernacula are known from the CNF. An effort of 300 net nights of forest-wide 

sampling has yielded one capture of a lactating female on the Tellico Ranger District 

in 1999. Indiana bat vocalizations have been recorded using ANABAT technology 

from two locations on the same district (Cochran et al. 2000). Libby et al. (2000) 

also reported additional captures of juvenile and adult Indiana bats in Monroe County 

and adjacent counties of Tennessee and North Carolina. Therefore, there is a very 

high likelihood that at least this area of CNF supports a summer maternity colony or 

colonies. The CNF is located within about 16 miles of a known hibernaculum at 

GSMNP, where several maternity roosts have also been located (USDI National Park 

Service 2002). Four additional hibernacula are located within 40-70 miles from CNF 

(USDI Fish and Wildlife Service 1997). 

General standards that would help ensure adequate roost habitat include retention 

of snags whenever possible; prescribed burning to restore and maintain uncluttered, 

open midstory foraging conditions (using only cool season backing fires in karst 

areas); and ensuring a continuous supply of oaks, hickories, and ash as well as other 

trees with exfoliating bark (Menzel et al. 2001). 

11.11.2 Potential Effects 

If Indiana bat hibernacula are discovered on the CNF in the future, effects would be 

the same under all alternatives because standards would provide consistent 

protective measures. Until caves and mines have been surveyed for use by bats, it is 

assumed that federally-listed bats are present and habitat is maintained for them. 

Human intrusion would be regulated within .25 miles of significant sites by closing 

public access routes as needed and by prohibiting recreational activities (camping, 

fire-building) at cave or mine entrances. Although no hibernacula have been 

identified on the CNF, if they are found in the future, further consultation with the 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service would determine needed buffers around the area. 

Forestwide standards require installation of gates or other protective structures at 

entrances of all caves and mines occupied by significant populations of all bats, 

including Indiana bats. 

Research is needed on effects of forest management on Indiana bat summer 

roosting ecology (Menzel et al. 2001). Potential roost trees could be directly affected 

by vegetation management, firewood and salvage sales, routine 

maintenance/permitting of small clearings including easements, rights-of-way and 

reasonable access to privately-owned lands, and road construction. Implementation 

of Alternative D could result in the highest levels of vegetation disturbance and 

possible impact to currently occupied and potentially occupied roost trees. For any 

alternative that allows active vegetation management for any purpose, there is 

potential for “take” of a maternity roost tree. However, standards described below 

would minimize the chance of take for all alternatives. 

Properly implemented prescribed burns have potential to provide beneficial effects 

including improvement of foraging habitat conditions and creation of additional snag 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 223 

roosts. The flame lengths of dormant season prescribed burns are not likely to have 

a direct effect on roost trees, and Indiana bats would be absent from the general 

forest area during this period. Growing season burns (conducted June 1 through 

August 1) have the potential to have direct effects on roost trees and particularly 

nonvolant young, and there is potential for “take”. To avoid injury to young bats, sitespecific (project level) surveys for Indiana bat would be required under all 

alternatives to determine that the bats are not likely present before implementing the 

burn. This would require project-level consultation with USFWS. 

Under all alternatives, known Indiana bat roosts would be protected from cutting and 

modification until they were no longer suitable, unless treatments were needed for 

public or employee safety. This action would require project-level consultation with 

USFWS. Snags with exfoliating bark would be protected unless projects involved 

salvage harvests, insect and disease control, or facility construction. 

The forest’s fuelwood program allows the public to purchase and collect wood, often 

standing or leaning dead trees, for personal use. The program is regulated by issue 

of site-specific permit, and collection occurs primarily along roadsides and other 

specified areas with easy access. During the years 2000-2002, the forest issued an 

average of 89 fuelwood collection permits per year, resulting in the average 

collection of an approximately 193 CCF (hundred cubic feet) each year. This roughly 

translates into 1,380 trees each year (11 inch diameter, 32 feet in length), or 

approximately nine acres of snags each year, scattered across the forest. Most 

wood is collected from the Ocoee Ranger District, followed by the Watauga Ranger 

District, where few TES bat occurrences have been documented. The smallest 

proportion (an average of 12 permits per year consisting of about 21 CCF or 150 

trees (11% of the forest-wide program) was collected on the Tellico Ranger District, 

where Indiana bat maternity activity has been documented. Although risk of take 

cannot be completely eliminated while this program is implemented, the risk of direct 

effects to maternity roosts can be minimized by excluding larger shagbark hickories 

from the fuelwood program, and by prohibiting collection of snags for fuel wood 

between May 1 and August 15, when maternity roost trees may be occupied. Some 

risk of taking an unoccupied maternity roost tree would exist. Based on surveys of all 

known caves and mine portals, the forest does not currently offer habitat for 

hibernacula, and therefore the fuelwood program is not expected to affect swarming 

and mating bats. Some risk of taking a migratory bat roost would exist, although 

during this life stage use of individual roost trees is expected to be very temporary in 

nature. 

All types of vegetation treatments (salvage, even-aged and uneven-aged 

regeneration) would require varying levels of snag retention and specific retention of 

leave trees. In stand regeneration treatments greater than ten acres in size, a 

minimum average basal area of 15 square feet per acre of live trees is retained 

throughout the rotation, and priority is given to retaining the largest available trees 

that exhibit characteristics favored by roosting Indiana bats (sloughing bark, cracks 

and crevices). Routine (non-catastrophic) salvage treatments occurring between May 

15 and August 15 would require site-specific (project level) surveys for Indiana bat to 

determine that the bats are not likely present before implementing the treatment. 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

224 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

This would require project-level consultation with USFWS. Treatment of catastrophic 

salvage events would require a separate NEPA analysis and appropriate level of 

consultation with USFWS. 

All alternatives are not likely to adversely affect the Indiana bat. Although levels of 

vegetation management are not likely to diminish summer roosting or foraging 

habitat in a significant way, the possibility for “take” cannot be completely eliminated 

with any level of management. However, forestwide standards should reduce the 

potential for “take” to levels that are insignificant and discountable. 

11.12 Gray Bat (Myotis grisescens) 

11.12.1 Affected Environment 

The gray bat occupies a limited geographic range in limestone karst areas of the 

southeastern U.S. (USDI FWS 1982). The bat is more narrowly restricted to cave 

habitats than any other mammal occurring in the U.S., and occupies caves yearround. Most individuals migrate seasonally between maternity and hibernating caves. 

About 95 percent of the known population inhabits nine winter caves. 

Limiting factors for the gray bat may include warm caves in the northern portion of its 

range, and cold caves in the southern portion. A key cause of decline appears to be 

human disturbance and loss of cave habitat quality. The recovery plan (USDI FWS 

1982) recommends actions focused on cave acquisition and gating. 

Deforestation of areas around occupied cave entrances and in between caves and 

large water sources (feeding corridors) may have a detrimental effect. Forest cover 

provides protection from predators, especially for young bats. Retention of forested 

corridors around cave entrances, along river and perennial stream edges, and along 

reservoir shorelines within 25 km of known gray bat maternity caves is important 

(USDI FWS 1982; LaVal et al. 1977; Best et al. 1995). 

Although the gray bat is currently listed as endangered, some bat researchers have 

endorsed a proposed status change to threatened due to population increases and 

successful protection of many inhabited caves (Currie and Harvey 2002). Gray bats 

are now estimated to number over 2.6 million individuals. 

Both major hibernacula and Priority 1 maternity caves are known from Alabama and 

Tennessee. No hibernacula or maternity caves are known from the CNF. An effort of 

300 net nights of forest-wide sampling has yielded 41 confirmed captures of gray 

bat, including a pregnant female. All captures occurred on the Nolichucky-Unaka 

Ranger District within the French Broad River and Nolichucky River watersheds 

(Cochran et al. 2000). One adult male captured on CNF was recaptured in a privately 

owned maternity cave approximately nine miles from the original capture site. Based 

on these results, CNF provides riparian foraging habitat for nearby nursery colonies. 

Maternity sites exist within the proclamation boundary and could be purchased 

during the planning period if available for sale. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 225 

11.12.2 Potential Effects 

Possible effects under all alternatives are alteration of cave habitats through 

management or human recreation activities; removal of forest cover around caves or 

along riparian foraging corridors; and loss of water quality limiting production of 

aquatic insects. 

Effects to gray bat caves would be the same under all alternatives. For each 

alternative, standards would protect all hibernacula and maternity colony sites that 

are discovered or purchased. Although no hibernacula have been identified on the 

CNF, forestwide standards require installation of gates or other protective structures 

at entrances of all caves and mines occupied by significant populations of all bats, 

including gray bats. Human intrusion would be controlled within .25 miles of these 

sites. These sites would be protected by maintenance of a .25 mile vegetated buffer. 

Standards also require development of prescribed burning plans that identify caves 

and mines as smoke-sensitive targets. Until caves and mines have been surveyed 

for use by bats, it is assumed that federally-listed bats are present and habitat is 

maintained for them. 

Effects on foraging habitat are expected to be the same under all alternatives since 

riparian corridors will be well protected. The CNF has an estimated allocation of 

126,030 acres of riparian corridor along all perennial streams (2,960 miles) and all 

intermittent streams (3,527 miles). These acres will be managed under Prescription 

11 (Riparian Corridors) for all alternatives. The objective of this prescription is to 

retain, restore or enhance ecological processes and functions of these systems. The 

minimum forested corridor width provided for perennial streams, lakes and ponds is 

100 feet on either side of the waterway, unless interdisciplinary site specific analysis 

determines that a smaller or larger width is required to accomplish project objectives. 

In addition, forestwide direction for all alternatives provides that a minimum of 15-20 

square feet/acre basal area of tree cover be retained along a 25-foot zone on each 

side of channeled ephemeral streams (10,800 miles). These standards will not only 

provide forest cover for foraging and protection from predation, but will also ensure 

high water quality to support the aquatic insect prey base. Further site-specific 

consultation with USFWS would be required for projects within 20 miles of known 

maternity sites, if those projects may affect canopy cover along perennial streams or 

forested lake shorelines. 

The LMP and its alternatives may effect, not likely to adversely affect this species 

because management direction protects key habitat elements. All alternatives would 

improve or maintain foraging, roosting and maternity/hibernacula habitat conditions 

for this species, with the exception of Alternative F, which does not provide a similar, 

explicit level of protection. Where needed to protect this species from potential 

adverse effects of management activities, project-level surveys would be conducted 

in accordance with procedures outlined in the Region 8 supplement of FSM 2672. 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

226 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

11.13 Spruce Fir Moss Spider (Microhexura montivaga) 

11.13.1 Affected Environment 

This species is historically known from six mountain peaks in western North Carolina 

and eastern Tennessee (Coyle 1999). The restricted range of each of the surviving 

populations of the spider causes them to be extremely vulnerable to extirpation from 

a single event or activity (USDI FWS 1998). 

Typical optimal habitat is moist, well-drained moss mats growing on rocks and 

boulders in shaded conditions of mature high elevation (5,500 feet to 6,100 feet 

elevation) forests of Fraser fir, with scattered red spruce. Minor habitat components 

include the transition zone between the fir-spruce habitat and northern hardwood 

forest with boulders and rock outcrops (Coyle 1999). Quality of these conifer forests 

is deteriorating rapidly due to infestations of the balsam woolly adelgid (an exotic 

insect pest introduced from Europe) and possibly regional-scale air pollution. Other 

factors could include additional stress factors to the spruce-fir community and 

possibly site deterioration due to past land-use history (unregulated logging and 

burning). The spider requires high and constant humidity. Loss of forest canopy due 

to fir mortality leads to desiccation of habitat (USDI FWS 1998). Fraser fir loss is 

extensive at four or more of the known sites (possible exceptions Grandfather and 

Roan Mountains). 

The species was first discovered on the CNF in 1998 during a survey at Roan 

Mountain (Coyle 1999). Critical habitat was designated at this location in both Carter 

County, Tennessee and Mitchell and Avery Counties, North Carolina (Federal Register 

2001). A specific genus of moss, Dicranodontium spp., appears to be a significant 

habitat associate here (Coyle 1999). 

General threats to the spruce-fir forest type are discussed in Section 6.2 (Spruce-Fir 

Forests). Threats that the Forest Service has the ability to minimize include collection 

of fir seedlings and cones, and recreation development including trail and facility 

construction and activities such as boulder climbing. Recreation development 

resulting in removal or thinning of canopy trees within these stands may cause 

remaining trees to be more susceptible to exposure shock (Nicholas et al. 1992). 

Moss collection and uncontrolled wildfire could also affect moss mats utilized by the 

spider (Coyle 1999). 

11.13.2 Potential Effects 

For all alternatives, spruce-fir forests would be managed under the Rare Community 

(9.F) prescription to optimize their natural distribution, abundance and condition, and 

implementation of projects should have beneficial effects to the spider (Section 6.2 

Spruce-Fir Forests). Prohibition of moss collection, fraser fir seedling and cone 

collection, and facility development in suitable spider habitat at Roan Mountain 

would help to perpetuate the health of the community and habitat for the spider. Fire 

suppression and a prohibition on boulder climbing within suitable habitat would also 

help to protect moss mats and benefit the spruce-fir moss spider. 

The Revised Forest Plan and its alternatives are not likely to adversely affect this 

species because this management direction addresses the critical needs for habitat 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 227 

and protection of the spruce-fir moss spider, and should improve or maintain habitat 

conditions for the species. Where needed to protect this species from potential 

adverse effects of management activities, project-level surveys would be conducted 

in accordance with procedures outlined in the Region 8 supplement of FSM 2672. 

11.14 Amber Darter (Percina antesella) Williams and Etnier 

11.14.1 Affected Environment 

The amber darter was federally listed as endangered in 1985. Concurrent with the 

listing was the designation of 33.5 miles of critical habitat. The species is endemic to 

the upper Coosa River system. Three populations were known to exist; but 

specimens have not been collected from two of these rivers (Etowah River and Shoal 

Creek – a tributary to the Etowah River) for over 20 years. The extant population is in 

the Conasauga River with the upper limit of documented occurrence located 0.7 

miles down stream of the Cherokee National Forest in Polk County, TN. This 

population is estimated to contain 0 individuals on CNF lands. Artificial propagation is 

not being developed. 

No population or habitat objectives are established for the amber darter on the 

Cherokee National Forest. While monitoring Conasauga logperch on the National 

Forest, ichthyologists will be instructed to search specifically for amber darters in 

areas with suitable habitat. When recovery opportunities arise, they will be 

coordinated with the Fish and Wildlife Service and the Tennessee Wildlife Resources 

Agency. 

The amber darter is found in flowing pools and deeper runs of this small river over a 

clean sand to fine gravel substrate. Spawning behavior is thought to involve the 

release of eggs in the gravel substrate with no nest building or parental care. Food 

items emphasize snails, limpets, and invertebrates. 

11.14.2 Potential Effects 

The loss of amber darters is attributed to siltation from agriculture, logging, and the 

associated road building. For the population near the CNF, potential management 

influences include: sedimentation and altered flow associated with roads and 

crossings. Forestwide and riparian standards would protect the amber darter and its 

habitat from sediment released during management activities. Vegetation 

treatments would be limited within the streamside and riparian zones. Exceptions 

would allow the temporary loss of small patches of streamside forest canopies when 

insect infestations and the related control measures (such as cut and leave or cut 

and remove) are necessary. Primary effects to fish would be locally increased light 

and water temperatures. 

Other sources of pollutants would, generally, not be permitted on the national forest 

with the exception of herbicide applications, which are governed by forestwide 

standards to protect rivers and streams from accidental spills. Implementation of the 

forestwide and riparian standards would insure that the selection of any alternatives 

is not likely to adversely affect the amber darter. 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

228 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

11.15 Appalachian Elktoe (Alasmidonta ravenliana) Lea 

11.15.1 Affected Environment 

The Appalachian elktoe was federally listed as endangered in 1994. The species is 

endemic to the upper Tennessee River system including the Little Tennessee River 

and the French Broad River. Two extant populations persist: 1) in the main stem of 

the Little Tennessee River in Swain and Macon Counties, N.C.; and 2) in scattered 

locations in the Doe and Nolichucky Rivers including an isolated sub-population in 

Nolichucky River on the CNF (Unicoi County, Tennessee). This population is 

estimated to contain 100-1000 individuals on CNF lands. Artificial propagation is not 

being developed. 

The sub-population of Appalachian elktoe mussels in the Nolichucky River is located 

in the only suitable habitat for this species on the CNF. Preservation of this subpopulation along with approximately one mile of occupied habitat on NFS lands is the 

recovery objective for Appalachian elktoe mussels on the CNF. 

Annually, a portion of this sub-population will be monitored by CNF biologists and 

technicians. An index of mussels per hour of survey will be developed to document 

the status (age distribution) and trend. The results will be reported in the annual 

monitoring and evaluation report. At least once every five years, a professional 

malacologist will survey the entire suitable habitat managed by the CNF to evaluate 

the expansion or contraction in habitat being utilized. If augmentation of this subpopulation is determined to be necessary, the forest will coordinate with USFWS and 

TWRA. 

This species is found in small to large rivers with cool, well-oxygenated water flowing 

at moderate to fast rates. Gravel, cobble, and boulders are the preferred substrate. 

Habitat conditions also need to meet the requirements of the banded sculpin, which 

is the host for the glochidia. Freshwater mussels are filter feeders taking organic 

detritus, diatoms, phytoplankton, and zooplankton from the water column. Mussels 

require clean gravel riffles and are especially susceptible to stream degradation 

resulting from low dissolved oxygen levels or high chlorine concentrations in 

waterways. Furthermore, this mussel requires waters of low turbidity in order to be 

able to attract potential host fish to the glochidia. 

11.15.2 Potential Effects 

The decline and extirpation of most populations of Appalachian elktoe mussels is 

attributed to siltation from logging, mining, agriculture and construction; organic and 

inorganic pollutants from industrial, agricultural, and other point and non-point 

sources; habitat loss do to impoundments, channelization and dredging. For the CNF 

population, permitted ground disturbing activities have the greatest potential to 

affect individual mussels. The Nolichucky River would be protected by Forestwide 

and riparian standards from sediment released during management activities. 

Vegetation treatments would be limited within the streamside and riparian zones. 

Other sources of pollutants would, generally, not be permitted on the national forest 

with the exception of herbicide applications, which are governed by Forestwide 

standards to protect rivers and streams from accidental spills. Implementation of the 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 229 

forestwide and riparian standards would insure that the selection of any of the 

alternatives is not likely to adversely affect the Appalachian elktoe. 

11.16 Blue Shiner (Cyprinella caerulea) Jordan 

11.16.1 Affected Environment 

The blue shiner was federally listed as threatened in 1992. The species is endemic 

to the Cahaba and Coosa River systems. Six extant populations persist; four are in 

Alabama, one is in Georgia, and the third is in Tennessee and Georgia. The 

Tennessee and Georgia population is in the Conasauga River (Polk and Bradley 

Counties) part of which is on the CNF. This population is estimated to contain greater 

than 1000 individuals on CNF lands. Artificial propagation is being developed by 

Conservation Fisheries, Incorporated. 

The sub-population of blue shiners in the Conasauga River is located in the only 

suitable habitat for this species on the CNF. This population appears to be stable. 

Preservation of this sub-population along with approximately 5.5 miles of occupied 

habitat on NFS lands is the recovery objective for blue shiners on the CNF. 

Annually, the population is monitored by professional ichthyologists familiar with the 

species and its habitat. CNF biologists and technicians assist with this monitoring. 

An index (of blue shiners per hour of survey) has been developed and is used to 

assess the status (age distribution) and trend for the Conasauga River population. 

The results are reported in the annual monitoring and evaluation reports. The Forest 

Service supported the development of propagation techniques. When recovery 

opportunities arise, they will be coordinated with USFWS and TWRA. 

The blue shiner is found in small rivers and large streams with moderate gradients 

over a sand or sand and gravel substrate. Water willow beds are often present. 

Spawning occurs in the crevices of rocks or logs with no parental protection provided 

after spawning is completed. Food items are dominated by terrestrial insects. Silt 

free water and a substrate free of fine sediments that could fill in spawning crevices 

are extremely important. 

11.16.2 Potential Effects 

The loss of occupied habitat for blue shiners is attributed to siltation from agriculture, 

logging, and the associated road building; nutrient enrichment and water withdrawal 

for home site development; and inundation from dam construction. Populations 

have also become isolated by dams. For populations of blue shiners on or near the 

CNF, potential management influences include: sedimentation and altered flow. 

Forestwide and riparian standards would protect the blue shiner and its habitat from 

sediment released during management activities. Vegetation treatments would be 

limited within the streamside and riparian zones. Exceptions would allow the 

temporary loss of small patches of streamside forest canopies when insect 

infestations and the related control measures (such as cut and leave or cut and 

remove) are necessary. Primary effects to fish would be locally increased light and 

water temperatures. 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

230 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Other sources of pollutants would, generally, not be permitted on the national forest 

with the exception of herbicide applications, which are governed by Forestwide 

standards to protect rivers and streams from accidental spills. Implementation of the 

forestwide and riparian standards would insure that the selection of any of the 

alternatives is not likely to adversely affect the blue shiner. 

11.17 Conasauga Logperch (Percina jenkinsi) Thompson 

11.17.1 Affected Environment 

The Conasauga logperch was federally listed as endangered in 1985. The species is 

endemic to the Conasauga River. Concurrent with the listing was the designation of 

11 miles of critical habitat; two of these miles are located on the CNF in Polk County, 

Tennessee. The Conasauga logperch has been documented upstream of the critical 

habitat through the CNF in both the Conasauga and Jacks Rivers. This population is 

estimated to contain less than 100 individuals on CNF lands. Artificial propagation is 

being developed by Conservation Fisheries, Incorporated. 

The sub-population of Conasauga logperch in the Conasauga River appears to be 

stable or declining. Preservation of this sub-population along with approximately 5.5 

miles of occupied habitat on NFS lands is the recovery objective for Conasauga 

logperch on the CNF. The Forest Service is supporting the development of captive 

breeding protocols for possible augementation or re-introduction efforts. 

Annually, this population is monitored by professional ichthyologists familiar with the 

species and its habitat. CNF biologists and technicians assist with this monitoring. 

An index (of Conasauga logperch per hour of survey) has been developed and is 

being used to assess the status (age distribution) and trend for the Conasauga River 

population. The results are reported in the annual monitoring and evaluation reports. 

When recovery opportunities arise, they will be coordinated with USFWS and TWRA. 

The Conasauga logperch is found in flowing pools of this small river over a gravel to 

cobble substrate. Spawning behavior is unknown but other members of this genus 

deposit their eggs in gravel substrate with no nest building or parental care. Food 

items consist of invertebrates, which are obtained by flipping rocks with their noses 

and grabbing the dislodged organisms. Silt free water and a substrate free of fine 

sediments are extremely important. 

11.17.2 Potential Effects 

The loss of habitat for Conasauga logperch may be attributed to siltation from 

agriculture, logging, and the associated road building. For the CNF population, 

potential management influences include: sedimentation and altered flow. 

Forestwide and riparian standards will protect the Conasauga logperch and its 

habitat from sediment released during management activities. Under current 

management, vegetation treatments have been largely limited within the streamside 

and riparian zones. Exceptions have included the temporary loss of small patches of 

streamside forest canopies due to insect infestations and related control measures 

such as cut and leave or cut and remove. Primary effects to fish would be locally 

increased light and water temperatures. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 231 

Other sources of pollutants would, generally, not be permitted on the national forest 

with the exception of herbicide applications, which are governed by Forestwide 

standards to protect rivers and streams from accidental spills. Implementation of the 

forestwide and riparian standards would insure that the selection of any of the 

alternatives is not likely to adversely affect the Conasauga logperch. 

11.18 Cumberland Bean (Villosa trabalis) Conrad 

11.18.1 Affected Environment 

The Cumberland bean was federally listed as endangered in 1976. The species is 

endemic to the tributary streams of the Tennessee and Cumberland River systems. 

Four extant populations persist. Three are in the tributaries to the middle 

Cumberland River: 1) the Little South Fork River; 2) Buck Creek; and 3) Rockcastle 

River. The fourth population is in the Hiwassee River in Polk County, Tennessee on 

the CNF. This population is estimated to contain greater than 1000 individuals on 

CNF lands. Artificial propagation is not being developed. 

The population of Cumberland bean mussels in the Hiwassee River is located in the 

only suitable habitat for this species on the CNF. This population appears to be 

stable. Preservation of this population along with approximately 9.7 miles of 

occupied habitat on NFS lands is the recovery objective for the Cumberland bean on 

the CNF. 

Annually, a portion of this population will be monitored by CNF biologists and 

technicians. An index of mussels per hour of survey will be developed to document 

the status (age distribution) and trend. The results are reported in monitoring and 

evaluation report. At least once every five years, a professional malacologist will 

survey the entire suitable habitat managed by the CNF to evaluate the expansion or 

contraction in habitat being utilized. If augmentation of this sub-population is 

determined to be necessary, the forest will coordinate with USFWS and TWRA. 

This species is found in large streams and small rivers in fast current with gravel or 

sand and gravel substrate. Fish host is unknown. Freshwater mussels are filter 

feeders taking organic detritus, diatoms, phytoplankton, and zooplankton from the 

water column. Mussels require clean gravel riffles and are especially susceptible to 

stream degradation resulting from low dissolved oxygen levels or high chlorine 

concentrations in waterways. Furthermore, this mussel requires waters of low 

turbidity in order to be able to attract potential host fish to the glochidia. 

11.18.2 Potential Effects 

The decline and extirpation of most populations of Cumberland bean is attributed to 

dam construction and impoundments. Siltation from logging, mining, agriculture and 

construction; organic and inorganic pollutants from industrial, agricultural, and other 

point and non-point sources; and habitat loss do to channelization and dredging have 

aggravated the situation for the surviving populations. For the population of 

Cumberland bean on the CNF, potential management influences include: 

sedimentation and altered flow. Forestwide and riparian standards would protect the 

Cumberland bean and its habitat from sediment released during management 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

232 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

activities. Vegetation treatments would be limited within the streamside and riparian 

zones. 

Other sources of pollutants would, generally, not be permitted on the national forest 

with the exception of herbicide applications, which are governed by Forestwide 

standards to protect rivers and streams from accidental spills. Implementation of the 

Forestwide and riparian standards would insure that the selection of any of the 

alternatives is not likely to adversely affect the Cumberland bean. 

11.19 Duskytail Darter (Etheostoma percnurum) Jenkins 

11.19.1 Affected Environment 

The duskytail darter was federally listed as endangered in 1993. The species is 

endemic to the upper Tennessee and Cumberland River systems. Four extant 

populations persist: three in Tennessee and one in Virginia. One of these 

populations is in Citico Creek on the CNF (Monroe County, Tennessee). This 

population is estimated to contain greater than 1000 individuals on CNF lands. A 

population of duskytail darters has been established into Abrams Creek in the 

GSMNP from progeny of the Citico Creek population. An experimental population of 

duskytail darters has been authorized for the Tellico River in Monroe County, 

Tennessee on the CNF. Stocking will begin in 2003. Artificial propagation is being 

developed by Conservation Fisheries, Incorporated. 

 The population of duskytail darters in the Citico Creek on the CNF appears to be 

expanding up stream further onto the CNF. The experimental population being 

introduced into the Tellico River will be monitored and augmented. Preservation of 

the population in approximately four miles of occupied habitat in Citico Creek and 

restoration of the population to approximately seven miles of habitat in the Tellico 

River on NFS lands are the recovery objectives for the duskytail darters on the CNF. 

Annually, these populations will be monitored by professional ichthyologists familiar 

with the species and its habitat. CNF biologists and technicians will assist with this 

monitoring. An index (of duskytail darters per hour of survey) has been developed 

and is being used to assess the status (age distribution) and trend for the Citico 

Creek population. A similar index will be developed for the Tellico population. The 

results are reported in the annual monitoring and evaluation report. When recovery 

opportunities arise, they will be coordinated with USFWS and TWRA. 

This species is found in rocky areas with moderate to fast current in large creeks and 

large rivers. Slab rocks, free from sediment, are essential for nesting as well as 

hiding cover. The eggs are attached to the under side of the slab rock and the male 

remains with the nest guarding the eggs. Food items include midge larvae, mayfly 

nymphs, and micro-crustaceans. Sight feeding is probably important. 

11.19.2 Potential Effects 

The decline and extirpation of most populations of duskytail darters is attributed to 

the general deterioration of water quality resulting from siltation from logging, mining, 

and waste discharges. The relic populations are isolated by reservoirs. For the CNF 

population, potential management influences include: sedimentation and altered 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 233 

flow. Forestwide and riparian standards will protect the duskytail darter and its 

habitat from sediment released during management activities. Vegetation 

treatments would be limited within the streamside and riparian zones. Exceptions 

would allow the temporary loss of small patches of streamside forest canopies due to 

insect infestations and related control measures such as cut and leave or cut and 

remove. Primary effects to fish would be locally increased light and water 

temperature. 

Other sources of pollutants would, generally, not be permitted on the national forest 

with the exception of herbicide applications, which are governed by Forestwide 

standards to protect rivers and streams from accidental spills. Implementation of the 

forestwide and riparian standards would insure that the selection of any of the 

alternatives is not likely to adversely affect the duskytail darter. 

11.20 Fine-lined Pocketbook (Lampsilis altilis) Conrad 

11.20.1 Affected Environment 

The fine-lined pocketbook was federally listed as threatened in 1993. The species 

historically occurred in the Alabama, Tombigbee, Black Warrior, Cahaba, Tallapoosa, 

Coosa River systems, and their tributaries. The extant population that exists in the 

Conasauga River (Polk and Bradley Counties, Tennessee) is up stream and down 

stream of the CNF. This population is estimated to contain less than 100 individuals 

on CNF lands. Artificial propagation is being developed by Tennessee 

Aquarium/Tennessee Aquatic Research Institute. 

The sub-population of fine-lined pocketbook mussels in the Conasauga River is 

located in the only suitable habitat for this species on the CNF. The Conasauga River 

was surveyed in 1999 and this species was frequently collected; however, the status 

of the population was not determined. Preservation of the sub-population along with 

approximately 5.5 miles of occupied habitat on the NFS lands is the recovery 

objective for the fine-lined pocketbook on the CNF. 

Annually, the Conasauga River population will be monitored by CNF biologists and 

technicians. An index of mussels per hour of survey will be developed to document 

the status (age distribution) and trend. The results will be reported in the annual 

monitoring and evaluation reports. At least once every five years, a professional 

malacologist will survey all suitable habitat managed by the national forests to 

evaluate the expansion or contraction in habitat being utilized. Artificial propagation 

and augmentation are being supported by the Forest Service. When recovery 

opportunities arise, they will be coordinated with the USFWS and TWRA. 

This species is found in moderate to swift currents over stable sand, gravel, and 

cobble substrates in large rivers to small creeks. The largemouth bass, redeye bass, 

spotted bass, and green sunfish have been identified as suitable fish hosts for the 

glochidia (Haag et al. 1999). Freshwater mussels are filter feeders taking organic 

detritus, diatoms, phytoplankton, and zooplankton from the water column. Mussels 

such as the fine-lined pocketbook require clean gravel riffles and are especially 

susceptible to stream degradation resulting from low dissolved oxygen levels or high 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

234 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

chlorine concentrations in waterways. Furthermore, this mussel requires waters of 

low turbidity in order to be able to attract potential host fish to the glochidia. 

11.20.2 Potential Effects 

The decline and extirpation of most populations of fine-lined pocketbook mussels 

may be attributed to habitat modification, sedimentation, eutrophication, and other 

forms of water quality degradation. Passage of host fish may also be a factor. For 

the population of fine-lined pocketbook mussels on or near the CNF potential 

management influences include: sedimentation and altered flow. Forestwide and 

riparian standards would protect the fine-lined pocketbook and its habitat from 

sediment released during management activities. Vegetation treatments would be 

limited within the streamside and riparian zones. Exceptions include the temporary 

loss of small patches of streamside forest canopies due to insect infestations and 

related control measures such as cut and leave or cut and remove. Primary effects 

to mussels would be locally increased light and water temperatures, and altered 

planktonic food availability. 

Other sources of pollutants would, generally, not be permitted on the national forest 

with the exception of herbicide applications, which are governed by Forestwide 

standards to protect rivers and streams from accidental spills. Implementation of the 

Forestwide and riparian standards would insure that the selection of any of the 

alternatives is not likely to adversely affect the fine-lined pocketbook. 

11.21 Georgia Pigtoe (Pleurobema hanleyanum) Lea 

11.21.1 Affected Environment 

The Georgia pigtoe is designated as a candidate for federal listing. Prior to its 

rediscovery by Evans (2001), this species was believed to be extinct. The Georgia 

pigtoe is endemic to the Alabama River system and its tributaries. The only extant 

population that exists is in the Conasauga River (Polk and Bradley Counties, 

Tennessee) on and down stream of the CNF. This population is estimated to contain 

less than 100 individuals on CNF lands. Artificial propagation is not being developed. 

The population of Georgia pigtoe mussels in the Conasauga River is located in the 

only suitable habitat for this species on the CNF. The Conasauga River was surveyed 

in 1999 and this species was infrequently collected. The status of the population was 

not determined. Preservation of the sub-population along with at least one mile of 

occupied habitat on NFS lands is the conservation objective for the Georgia pigtoe on 

the CNF. Opportunities for expanding the population further up stream on the CNF 

may exist. Development of artificial propagation techniques and augmentation will be 

supported by the Forest Service. When such opportunities arise, they will be 

coordinated with USFWS and TWRA. 

Annually, this population will be monitored by CNF biologists and technicians. An 

index of mussels per hour of survey will be developed to predict the status (age 

distribution) and trend, although these animals are so rare that collection of any 

individuals would be significant. The results will be reported in the annual monitoring 

and evaluation report. At least once every five years, a professional malacologist will 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 235 

survey the entire suitable habitat managed by the CNF to evaluate the expansion or 

contraction in habitat being utilized. 

This species is found in areas with good current flowing over coarse sand and gravel 

substrate in small rivers. The fish host for the glochidia is unknown. Freshwater 

mussels are filter feeders taking organic detritus, diatoms, phytoplankton, and 

zooplankton from the water column. Mussels require clean gravel riffles and are 

especially susceptible to stream degradation resulting from low dissolved oxygen 

levels or high chlorine concentrations in waterways. Furthermore, this mussel 

requires waters of low turbidity in order to be able to attract potential host fish to the 

glochidia. 

11.21.2 Potential Effects 

The decline and extirpation of most populations of Georgia pigtoes is not well 

documented but sedimentation is given as the most likely threat (NatureServe 

2002). Passage of host fish may also be a factor. For the population of Georgia 

pigtoes on or near the CNF potential management influences include sedimentation 

and altered flow. Forestwide and riparian standards would protect the Georgia pigtoe 

and its habitat from sediment released during management activities. Vegetation 

treatments would be limited within the streamside and riparian zones. Exceptions 

have included the temporary loss of small patches of streamside forest canopies due 

to insect infestations and related control measures such as cut and leave or cut and 

remove. Primary effects to mussels would be locally increased light and water 

temperatures, and altered planktonic food availability. 

Other sources of pollutants would, generally, not be permitted on the CNF with the 

exception of herbicide applications, which are governed by Forestwide standards to 

protect rivers and streams from accidental spills. Implementation of the Forestwide 

and riparian standards would insure that the selection of any of the alternatives is 

not likely to adversely affect the Georgia pigtoe mussel. 

11.22 Slabside Pearlymussel (Lexingtonia dolabelloides) Lea 

11.22.1 Affected Environment 

The slabside pearlymussel is designated as a candidate for federal listing. The 

species is endemic to the Tennessee River system. Extant populations persist in the 

Clinch, Powell, Elk, Duck, and Hiwassee (in Polk County on the CNF) Rivers in 

Tennessee; in the North Fork and Middle Fork Holston Rivers in Virginia; and in the 

Paint Rock River of Alabama. The CNF population is estimated to contain less than 

100 individuals on CNF lands. Artificial propagation is not being developed. 

The population of slabside pearlymussels in the Hiwassee River is located in the only 

suitable habitat for this species on the CNF. This population appears to be stable. 

Preservation of this population along with approximately 9.7 miles of occupied 

habitat on NFS lands is the conservation objective for the slabside pearlymussels on 

the CNF. 

Annually, a portion of this population will be monitored by CNF biologists and 

technicians. An index of mussels per hour of survey will be developed to document 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

236 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

the status (age distribution) and trend. The results will be reported in the annual 

monitoring and evaluation report. At least once every five years, a professional 

malacologist will survey all suitable habitat managed by the CNF to evaluate the 

expansion or contraction in habitat being utilized. When recovery opportunities arise, 

they will be coordinated with USFWS and TWRA. 

This species is found in small streams to large rivers (Tennessee River) in moderately 

strong current with sand, fine gravel and cobble substrate. Fish hosts for the 

glochidia include the popeye shiner, rosyface shiner, telescope shiner, saffron shiner, 

silver shiner, and Tennessee shiner. Freshwater mussels are filter feeders taking 

organic detritus, diatoms, phytoplankton, and zooplankton from the water column. 

Mussels require clean gravel riffles and are especially susceptible to stream 

degradation resulting from low dissolved oxygen levels or high chlorine 

concentrations in waterways. Furthermore, this mussel requires waters of low 

turbidity in order to be able to attract potential host fish to the glochidia. 

11.22.2 Potential Effects 

The decline and extirpation of most populations of slabside pearlymussel is 

attributed to channel alterations, inundation by reservoirs, siltation by agriculture and 

clear-cutting, chemical and organic pollution, and commercial clamming. Gravel 

mining activities are a threat in the Powell and Elk Rivers as well as coal mining 

activities. For the population of slabside pearlymussel on the CNF potential 

management influences include sedimentation and altered flow. Forestwide and 

riparian standards would protect the slabside pearlymussel and its habitat from 

sediment released during management activities. Vegetation treatments would be 

limited within the streamside and riparian zones. 

Other sources of pollutants would, generally, not be permitted on the NFS lands with 

the exception of herbicide applications, which are governed by Forestwide standards 

to protect rivers and streams from accidental spills. Implementation of the 

Forestwide and riparian standards would insure that the selection of any of the 

alternatives is not likely to adversely affect the slabside pearlymussel. 

11.23 Smoky Madtom (Noturus baileyi) Taylor 

11.23.1 Affected Environment 

The smoky madtom was federally listed as endangered in 1984. Concurrent with 

that listing was the designation of 6.5 miles of critical habitat in Citico Creek. The 

species is known only from the Little Tennessee River system. One extant population 

persists in Citico Creek in Monroe County, Tennessee on the CNF. This population is 

estimated to contain 100-1000 individuals on CNF lands. A population of smoky 

madtoms has been established into Abrams Creek in the GSMNP from progeny of the 

Citico Creek population. An experimental population is authorized in the Tellico River 

in Monroe County, Tennessee on the CNF. Stocking will begin in 2003. Artificial 

propagation is being developed by Conservation Fisheries, Incorporated. 

The population of smoky madtoms in the Citico Creek on the CNF appears to be 

stable with some expansion down stream. The experimental population being 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 237 

introduced into the Tellico River will be monitored and augmented. Preservation of 

the population in approximately eight miles of occupied habitat in Citico Creek and 

restoration of the population to approximately seven miles of habitat in the Tellico 

River on NFS lands are the recovery objectives for the smoky madtom on the CNF. 

The Forest Service supported the development of propagation techniques for this 

species. When recovery opportunities arise, they will be coordinated with USFWS and 

TWRA. 

Annually, these populations will be monitored by professional ichthyologists familiar 

with the species and its habitat. CNF biologists and technicians will assist with this 

monitoring. An index (of smoky madtoms per hour of survey) has been developed 

and is being used to assess the status (age distribution) and trend for the Citico 

Creek population. A similar index will be developed for the Tellico River population. 

The results are reported in the annual monitoring and evaluation report. 

This species is found in large streams with slab rocks, free from sediment. These 

rocks are essential for nesting as well as hiding cover. The eggs are laid in a clutch 

under the slab rock and guarded by the male. Feeding occurs at night. Food 

includes aquatic invertebrates. Sight is probably not as important in feeding as are 

the barbels and other dermal taste buds. 

11.23.2 Potential Effects 

The extirpation of the first known population of smoky madtoms resulted from a fish 

removal project in the Great Smoky Mountain National Park. The greatest threat to 

the Citico Creek population is an accidental chemical spill that could destroy this 

population. Two other significant threats are sedimentation from ground disturbing 

activities (especially vehicles, horses, and people compacting and denuding the 

stream banks); and habitat destruction from recreational swimmers who pile slab 

rocks in the streams to create dams with deep pools. The slab rocks are essential to 

smoky madtoms for spawning and cover. The deep, slow flowing pools are not 

quality habitat for this species. Campsites and “pull offs” along Citico Creek have 

been closed and stabilized to protect these sensitive riparian areas. The Citico Creek 

population is isolated from the Abrams Creek and Tellico River populations by 

reservoirs. 

Forestwide and riparian standards will protect the smoky madtom and its habitat 

from sediment released during management activities. Vegetation treatments would 

be limited within the streamside and riparian zones. Exceptions would include the 

temporary loss of small patches of streamside forest canopies due to insect 

infestations and related control measures such as cut and leave or cut and remove. 

Primary effects to fish would be locally increased light and water temperatures. 

Other sources of pollutants would, generally, not be permitted on the NFS lands with 

the exception of herbicide applications, which are governed by Forestwide standards 

to protect rivers and streams from accidental spills. Implementation of the 

Forestwide and riparian standards would insure that the selection of any of the 

alternatives is not likely to adversely affect the smoky madtom. 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

238 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

11.24 Snail Darter (Percina tanasi) Etnier 

11.24.1 Affected Environment 

The snail darter was federally listed as endangered in 1975; reclassified to 

threatened in 1984. The species is endemic to the upper Tennessee River where it 

occurred in the main stem and in lower reaches of major tributaries. There are eight 

extant populations, all in Tennessee, including one in the Hiwassee River, Polk 

County, Tennessee which extends onto the CNF. This population is estimated to 

contain 100-1000 individuals on CNF lands. Artificial propagation is not being 

developed. 

The population of snail darters in the Hiwassee River is located in the only suitable 

habitat for this species on the CNF. This population appears to be stable and 

expanding further upstream on the CNF. Preservation of this population along with 

approximately two miles of occupied habitat on NFS lands is the recovery objective 

for the snail darter on the CNF. 

Annually, this population will be monitored by professional ichthyologists familiar with 

the species and its habitat. CNF biologists and technicians will assist with this 

monitoring. An index (of snail darters per hour of survey) will be developed for the 

Hiwassee River population with the results reported in the annual monitoring and 

evaluation report. When recovery opportunities arise, they will be coordinated with 

USFWS and TWRA. 

This species is found in large rivers in current over sand and gravel shoal areas. They 

rely on coloration for camouflage or they may burrow into the substrate for cover. 

The eggs are laid in loose gravel; no parental care is provided. Food includes aquatic 

snails and other invertebrates. 

11.24.2 Potential Effects 

The decline of most populations of snail darters is attributed to inundation by 

reservoirs and dredging of river channels. This species does have some sensitivity to 

sediment (food source and spawning). For populations of snail darters on or near the 

CNF, potential management influences include: sedimentation and altered flow. 

Forestwide and riparian standards will protect the snail darter and its habitat from 

sediment released during management activities. Vegetation treatments would be 

limited within the streamside and riparian zones. 

Other sources of pollutants would, generally, not be permitted on the NFS lands with 

the exception of herbicide applications, which are governed by Forestwide standards 

to protect rivers and streams from accidental spills. Implementation the Forestwide 

and riparian standards would insure that the selection of any of the alternatives is 

not likely to adversely affect the snail darters. 

11.25 Southern Pigtoe (Pleurobema georgianum) Lea 

11.25.1 Affected Environment 

The southern pigtoe was federally listed as endangered in 1993. The species 

occurred in the Coosa River system and its tributaries. Three extant populations 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 239 

include: Shoal Creek and Big Canoe Creek in Alabama; and the Conasauga River in 

Georgia and Tennessee on the CNF. This population is estimated to contain less than 

100 individuals on CNF lands. Artificial propagation is being developed by Tennessee 

Aquarium/Tennessee Aquatic Research Institute. 

The population of southern pigtoe mussels in the Conasauga River is located in the 

only suitable habitat for this species on the CNF. The Conasauga River was surveyed 

in 1999 and this species was frequently collected. The status of the population was 

not determined. Preservation of the population along with at least 5.5 miles of 

occupied habitat on NFS lands is the recovery objective for the southern pigtoe on 

the CNF. Development of artificial propagation techniques and augmentation will be 

supported by the Forest Service. When recovery opportunities arise, they will be 

coordinated with USFWS and TWRA. 

Annually, this population will be monitored by CNF biologists and technicians. An 

index of mussels per hour of survey will be developed to document the status (age 

distribution) and trend. The results will be reported in monitoring and evaluation 

report. At least once every five years, a professional malacologist will survey all of 

the suitable habitat managed by the CNF to evaluate the expansion or contraction in 

habitat being utilized. 

This species is found in sand, gravel, and cobble shoals and runs in small rivers and 

large streams. The fish host for the glochidia is unknown. Freshwater mussels are 

filter feeders taking organic detritus, diatoms, phytoplankton, and zooplankton from 

the water column. 

11.25.2 Potenatial Effects 

The decline and extirpation of most populations of southern pigtoe mussels may be 

attributed to habitat modification, sedimentation, eutrophication, and other forms of 

water quality degradation. Passage of host fish may also be a factor. For the 

population of southern pigtoe on or near the CNF potential management influences 

include sedimentation and altered flow. Forestwide and riparian standards would 

protect the southern pigtoe and its habitat from sediment released during 

management activities. Vegetation treatments would be limited within the 

streamside and riparian zones. Exceptions would include the temporary loss of small 

patches of streamside forest canopies due to insect infestations and related control 

measures such as cut and leave or cut and remove. Primary effects to mussels 

would be locally increased light and water temperatures, and altered planktonic food 

availability. 

Other sources of pollutants would, generally, not be permitted on the national forest 

with the exception of herbicide applications, which are governed by Forestwide 

standards to protect rivers and streams from accidental spills. Implementation of the 

Forestwide and riparian standards would insure that the selection of any of the 

alternatives is not likely to adversely affect the southern pigtoe mussel. 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

240 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

11.26 Spotfin Chub (Erimonax monacha) Cope 

11.26.1 Affected Environment 

The spotfin chub was federally listed as threatened in 1977. The species is endemic 

to the Tennessee River where it was widely distributed in major tributaries. Only four 

extant populations persist: 1) Little Tennessee River system in North Carolina; 2) 

Duck River in Tennessee; 3) Emory River in Tennessee; and 4) the North Fork of the 

Holston River in Virginia. These populations do not occur on or near the CNF. A 

population of spotfin chubs has been established into Abrams Creek in the GSMNP. 

An experimental population is authorized in the Tellico River in Monroe County, 

Tennessee on the CNF. Stocking began in 2002. All of the populations are isolated 

by reservoirs. This population is estimated to contain less than 100 individuals on 

CNF lands. Artificial propagation is being developed by Conservation Fisheries, 

Incorporated. 

The Forest Service supported the development of propagation techniques for this 

species. The experimental population being introduced into the Tellico River will be 

monitored and augmented. Restoration of this population to approximately seven 

miles of habitat in the Tellico River on NFS lands is the recovery objective for the 

spotfin chub on the CNF. 

Annually, this population will be monitored by professional ichthyologists familiar with 

the species and its habitat. CNF biologists and technicians will assist with this 

monitoring. An index (of spotfin chubs per hour of survey) will be developed for the 

Tellico River population with the results reported in the annual monitoring and 

evaluation report. When recovery opportunities arise, they will be coordinated with 

USFWS and TWRA. 

This species is found in large sized streams in slow to swift current over substrates 

free of sedimentation. As with most minnows, this species is found in schools. Eggs 

are laid in a crack in a rock; no parental care is provided. Spotfin chubs are diurnal 

feeders. Foods include aquatic insects, which are located through sight and tactile 

stimuli. 

11.26.2 Potential Effects 

The decline and extirpation of most populations of spotfin chubs may be attributed to 

the general deterioration of water quality resulting from impoundments, coldwater 

releases from dams, inundation of habitat by reservoirs, siltation from mining 

(especially coal mines), and waste discharges. This species does have some 

sensitivity to sediment. For the population of spotfin chubs on or near the CNF 

potential management influences include sedimentation and altered flow. 

Forestwide and riparian standards will protect the spotfin chub and its habitat from 

sediment released during management activities. Vegetation treatments would be 

limited within the streamside and riparian zones. Exceptions would allow the 

temporary loss of small patches of streamside forest canopies due to insect 

infestations and related control measures such as cut and leave or cut and remove. 

Primary effects to fish would be locally increased light and water temperatures. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 241 

Other sources of pollutants would, generally, not be permitted on the national forest 

with the exception of herbicide applications, which are governed by Forestwide 

standards to protect rivers and streams from accidental spills. Implementation of the 

Forestwide and riparian standards would insure that the selection of any of the 

alternatives is not likely to adversely affect the spotfin chub. 

11.27 Tan Riffleshell (Epioblasma florentina walkeri) Wilson and Clark 

11.27.1 Affected Environment 

The tan riffleshell mussel was federally listed as endangered in 1977. The species 

was widely distributed in the Cumberland and Tennessee River systems but only two 

extant populations persist: 1) in the Middle Fork of the Holston River; and 2) in the 

Hiwassee River on the CNF (Polk County, Tennessee). This population is estimated to 

contain less than 100 individuals on CNF lands. Artificial propagation is being 

developed by Virginia Technological University. 

The population of tan riffleshell mussels in the Hiwassee River is located in the only 

suitable habitat for this species on the CNF. This population is extraordinarily rare; 

only three live individuals have been seen since 1995. This population was 

augmented with juveniles from the Middle Holston River in 1999. Preservation of 

this population along with approximately 9.7 miles of occupied habitat on NFS lands 

is the recovery objective for the tan riffleshell on the CNF. 

Annually, this population is monitored by CNF biologists and technicians. An index of 

mussels per hour of survey has been developed to document the status (age 

distribution) and trend. The results are reported in monitoring and evaluation report. 

At least once every five years, a professional malacologist will survey all suitable 

habitat managed by the CNF to evaluate the expansion or contraction in habitat 

being utilized. When recovery opportunities arise, they will be coordinated with 

USFWS and TWRA. 

This species is found in small to moderate sized rivers in riffles with coarse 

substrates. Water willow is often present. Habitat conditions also need to meet the 

requirements of sculpins and greenside, fantail, and redline darters which may serve 

as the host for the glochidia. Freshwater mussels are filter feeders taking organic 

detritus, diatoms, phytoplankton, and zooplankton from the water column. Mussels 

require clean gravel riffles and are especially susceptible to stream degradation 

resulting from low dissolved oxygen levels or high chlorine concentrations in 

waterways. Furthermore, this mussel requires waters of low turbidity in order to be 

able to attract potential host fish to the glochidia. 

11.27.2 Potential Effects 

The decline and extirpation of most populations of tan riffleshell mussels may be 

attributed to dam construction and impoundments. Siltation from logging, mining, 

agriculture and construction; organic and inorganic pollutants from industrial, 

agricultural, and other point and non-point sources; and habitat loss do to 

channelization and dredging have aggravated the situation for the surviving 

populations. For the populations of tan riffleshell mussels on the CNF potential 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

242 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

management influences include: sedimentation and altered flow. Forestwide and 

riparian standards would protect the tan riffleshell and its habitat from sediment 

released during management activities. Vegetation treatments would be limited 

within the streamside and riparian zones. 

Other sources of pollutants would, generally, not be permitted on the national forest 

with the exception of herbicide applications, which are governed by Forestwide 

standards to protect rivers and streams from accidental spills. Implementation of the 

Forestwide and riparian standards would insure that the selection of any of the 

alternatives is not likely to adversely affect the tan riffleshell mussel. 

11.28 Yellowfin Madtom (Noturus flavipinnis) Taylor 

11.28.1 Affected Environment 

The yellowfin madtom was federally listed as threatened in 1977. The species is 

endemic to the Tennessee River system up stream of Chattanooga, Tennessee. Only 

three extant populations persist: 1) in Citico Creek in Monroe County, Tennessee on 

the CNF; 2) Powell River in Tennessee; and 3) Copper Creek and the North Fork of 

the Holston River in Virginia. A population of yellowfin madtoms has been 

established into Abrams Creek in the GSMNP from progeny of the Citico Creek 

population. An experimental population is authorized in the Tellico River in Monroe 

County, Tennessee on the CNF. Stocking will begin in 2003. The Citico Creek 

population is estimated to contain 100-1000 individuals on CNF lands. Artificial 

propagation is being developed Conservation Fisheries, Incorporated. 

 The population of yellowfin madtoms in the Citico Creek on the CNF appears to be 

stable to increasing. Development of artificial propagation techniques and 

augmentation was supported by the Forest Service. The experimental population 

being introduced into the Tellico River will be monitored and augmented. 

Preservation of the population in approximately four miles of occupied habitat in 

Citico Creek and restoration of the population to approximately seven miles of habitat 

in the Tellico River on NFS lands are the recovery objectives for the yellowfin madtom 

on the CNF. 

Annually, these populations will be monitored by professional ichthyologists familiar 

with the species and its habitat. CNF biologists and technicians will assist with this 

monitoring. An index (of yellowfin madtoms per hour of survey) has been developed 

and is being used to assess the status (age distribution) and trend for the Citico 

Creek population. A similar index will be developed for the Tellico River population. 

The results are reported in the annual monitoring and evaluation report. When 

recovery opportunities arise, they will be coordinated with USFWS and TWRA. 

This species is found in small to medium sized streams with moderate current free of 

sedimentation. Cover, especially flat slab rocks, is essential for nesting as well as 

hiding. The eggs are laid in a clutch under the slab rock and guarded by the male. 

Feeding usually occurs at night. Food includes aquatic invertebrates. Sight, tactile 

and chemical stimuli are used to locate food. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 243 

11.28.2 Potential Effects 

The decline and extirpation of most populations of yellowfin madtoms is attributed to 

pollution and siltation from logging, mining, agriculture and construction. The 

greatest threat to the Citico Creek population is an accidental chemical spill that 

could destroy the entire population. Two other significant threats are sedimentation 

from ground disturbing activities (especially vehicles, horses, and people compacting 

and denuding the stream banks); and habitat destruction from recreational 

swimmers who pile slab rocks in the streams to create dams with deep pools. The 

slab rocks are essential to yellowfin madtoms for spawning and cover. The deep, 

slow flowing pools are not quality habitat for this species. Campsites and “pull offs” 

along Citico Creek have been closed and stabilized to protect these sensitive riparian 

areas. All of the yellowfin madtom populations are isolated from each other by 

reservoirs. 

Forestwide and riparian standards will protect the yellowfin madtom and its habitat 

from sediment released during management activities. Vegetation treatments would 

be limited within the streamside and riparian zones. Exceptions would include the 

temporary loss of small patches of streamside forest canopies due to insect 

infestations and related control measures such as cut and leave or cut and remove. 

Primary effects to fish would be locally increased light and water temperatures. 

Other sources of pollutants would, generally, not be permitted on the national forest 

with the exception of herbicide applications, which are governed by Forestwide 

standards to protect rivers and streams from accidental spills. Implementation of the 

Forestwide and riparian standards would insure that the selection of any of the 

alternatives is not likely to adversely affect the yellowfin madtom. 

12.0 Demand Species 

12.1 WHITE-TAILED DEER 

12.1.1 Affected Environment

White-tailed deer use a variety of forest types and successional stage to meet their 

year-round needs. In the Southern Appalachians, regeneration areas and older 

forests provide complementary benefits to deer (Johnson et al. 1995). Older forests 

generally are most important in the fall and winter. When available, acorns are the 

dominant fall and winter food item (Wentworth et al. 1990a). When acorns are 

scarce, the bulk of the diet consists of leaves of broadleaf evergreen shrubs, 

primarily rhododendron (Rhododendron maximum). Deer nutrition, reproduction, 

weights, and antler characteristics are influenced by the availability of acorns (Harlow 

et al. 1975, Feldhammer et al. 1989, Wentworth et al. 1990a, 1992). Use of evenaged regeneration areas was very low in winter (Wentworth et al. 1990b). However 

in the spring and summer, regeneration areas provide an abundance of food and are 

heavily utilized (Wentworth et al.1990b, Ford et al. 1993). Young regenerating 

stands contain substantial quantities of woody browse, herbs, fungi, and soft mast, 

all of which are limited in older forests (Johnson et al. 1995). Food plots, especially 

those containing clover-grass mixtures, are used most intensively in early spring. 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

244 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

They also are an important source of nutritious forage in winter, especially when 

acorns are in short supply (Wentworth et al. 1990b). 

In eastern hardwood forests, Barber (1984) recommended that at least 50 percent 

of the acreage should consist of mature mast trees with the remainder containing an 

interspersion of evergreens, shrubs and vines, and openings with herbaceous and 

young-growth woody vegetation. Based on utilization data, current deer densities in 

the Southern Appalachians can be maintained by providing approximately five 

percent in regenerating stands (Wentworth et al. 1990b). Wentworth et al. (1989) 

concluded that approximately two percent of the area in high quality wildlife 

openings would be necessary to adequately buffer the effects of a poor acorn year. 

White-tailed deer are present throughout the SAA area. Population densities 

generally are medium to high in the Northern Ridge and Valley, Allegheny Mountains, 

Northern Cumberland Mountains, and Southern Appalachian Piedmont Sections, and 

low to medium in the remainder of the SAA area (SAMAB 1996: 50-60). High 

population densities are associated with greater amounts of cropland and lesser 

amounts of developed and coniferous forestland. Current deer densities generally 

are higher on private land, national forest, and state lands than other ownerships. 

Deer densities have greatly increased in the last 25 years. This increase likely is 

related to both nonhabitat factors such as extensive restoration efforts, protection, 

and conservative harvest strategies as well as increased acorn capability resulting 

from the increase in mid-to late-successional oak forests. 

Recreation generated by deer hunting produces $400 million annually in Tennessee 

(TWRA 2000). Game harvest regulations and habitat improvement techniques 

including prescribed burning and wildlife opening development have helped create 

healthy deer populations throughout the State. Harvest data are used to derive deer 

population estimates. In 1970, CNF deer densities were listed as low (less than 15 

deer per square mile) throughout the forest. In 1995, northeastern forest counties 

supported medium densities (15 to 30 deer per square mile) and southern counties 

continued to support low densities (SAMAB 1995:50-55). Higher northeastern densities 

presumably result from higher interspersion of privately owned agricultural lands with 

forested federal lands and predominance of hardwood sites. 

Future trends include continued expansion of the deer herd in eastern Tennessee, 

including the less productive mountain counties. In middle and western Tennessee, 

efforts are now focused on slowing herd growth due to human-wildlife conflicts 

(TWRA 2000). 

12.1.2 Direct and Indirect Effects 

As discussed above, white-tailed deer require a mixture of forest/successional stage 

habitats to meet their year-round habitat needs. Key requirements include the 

interspersion of mature mast-producing stands during the fall and winter, early 

successional habitats to provide browse and soft mast, and permanent openings. 

The effects of each of the alternatives on these key habitat features are discussed in 

detail in previous sections (hard mast in Oak and Oak-Pine Forests, Successional 

Forested Habitats, and Permanent Openings). Populations are controlled in part by 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 245 

harvest regulations set by the TWRA as well as habitat conditions managed by the 

Forest Service. 

Although all alternatives would support viable populations of white-tailed deer, 

implementation of Alternatives D and F would likely support highest population levels 

and highest levels of hunter demand until hard mast production became a limiting 

factor. 

12.1.3 Cumulative Effects 

White-tailed deer populations and opportunities for deer hunting on the CNF would 

be expected to remain stable or increase slightly during the planning period, with 

largest increases expected under alternatives that support higher levels of active 

vegetation management (Alternatives D and F). Herd expansion will likely continue 

throughout the state of Tennessee, particularly on state and private lands managed 

specifically for game enhancements. Although the CNF will not offer levels of hunting 

opportunity comparable to these lands, the CNF will continue to offer unique 

opportunities to hunt older and larger size classes of deer. 

12.2 EASTERN WILD TURKEY 

12.2.1 Affected Environment 

Wild turkey occupy a wide range of habitats, with diversified habitats providing 

optimum conditions ( Schroeder 1985). This includes mature mast-producing stands 

during fall and winter, shrub-dominated stands for nesting, and herb-dominated 

communities, including agricultural clearings for brood-rearing. Habitat conditions for 

wild turkey can be enhanced by management activities such as prescribed burning 

and thinning (Hurst 1978; Pack et al. 1988), and the development of herbaceous 

openings (Nenno and Lindzey 1979, Healy and Nenno 1983). 

For the eastern hardwood region, Wunz and Pack (1992) recommended maintaining 

50 to 75 percent of the area in mast producing condition and approximately ten 

percent in widely distributed permanent herbaceous openings in addition to the 

temporary openings that result from timber harvest and other activities. They 

suggest that regeneration area should be 30 acres in size or less. Light thinnings 

(less than 20% of BA) are recommended to enhance the herbaceous component of 

the stands. Heavier thinnings, which increase the quantity of woody species, are less 

desirable. Prescribed burning in conjunction with thinning in oak forests can be used 

to enhance brood habitat. Other important habitat components include spring seeps, 

especially in area with regular snow cover, and a diversity of soft mast producing 

plants (e.g. dogwood, black gum, grape, blueberries, etc). 

For the southern pine region, Hurst and Dickson (1992) recommended that at least 

15 percent of the area should be kept in mature hardwoods such as streamside 

zones or pine-hardwood corridors. Forest openings and soft mast species also are 

important habitat components. Pine plantations should be thinned frequently and 

burned on a 3-to-5 year rotation to enhance herbaceous vegetation and soft mast 

production. 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

246 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Eastern wild turkeys are present throughout the SAA area. Population densities 

generally are medium to high in the Northern Ridge and Valley, Allegheny Mountains, 

Northern Cumberland Mountains, and Southern Appalachian Piedmont Sections, and 

low to medium in the remainder of the SAA area (SAMAB 1996: 60-61). High 

population densities are associated with greater amounts of oak forest and cropland, 

and lesser amounts of developed and coniferous forestland. Current turkey densities 

generally are higher on private land, state, and NFS lands than other ownerships. 

Wild turkey populations have expanded in range and density in the last 25 years. As 

with deer, this increase likely is related to both nonhabitat factors such as extensive 

restoration efforts, protection, and conservative harvest strategies as well as 

increased acorn capability resulting from the increase in mid-to late-successional oak 

forests. 

In 1970, turkeys were essentially absent from the northern CNF, and densities were 

listed as low for the southern CNF (less than 6 turkeys per square mile). By 1995, 

populations had increased throughout--16 percent of the forest supported low 

densities, 83 percent supported medium densities (6-15 turkeys per square mile), 

and one percent supported high densities (greater than 15 turkeys per square mile) 

(SAMAB 1995:49, 55-60). Hunter harvest for the south CNF (Polk County) has 

declined since 1997. Causes are unknown but may be related to lack of interpersion 

of herb-dominated habitats for brood-rearing and possible law enforcement issues. 

12.2.2 Direct and Indirect Effects 

As discussed above, wild turkey require a mixture of forest/successional stage 

habitats to meet their year-round habitat needs. Key requirements include the 

interspersion of mature mast producing stands during fall and winter, shrub 

dominated stands for nesting, and herb dominated communities, including 

permanent openings for brood-rearing. Disturbance also may be a concern during 

the nesting season. The effects of each of the alternatives on these key habitat 

features are discussed in detail in previous sections (Oak and Oak-Pine Forests--hard 

mast), Successional Forested Habitats and Permanent Openings). Populations are 

controlled in part by harvest regulations set by the TWRA as well as habitat 

conditions managed by the Forest Service. 

Although all alternatives would support viable populations of wild turkey, 

implementation of Alternatives D and F would likely support highest population levels 

and highest levels of hunter demand unless hard mast production became a limiting 

factor. 

12.2.3 Cumulative Effects 

Turkey populations and opportunities for turkey hunting on the CNF would be 

expected to increase during the planning period, with largest increases expected 

under alternatives that support higher levels of active vegetation management 

(Alternatives D and F). Some localized declines may continue due to lack of 

interspersion of open habitats with forested habitats, especially on the southern CNF 

where federal ownership of land is consolidated. Turkey populations will likely 

continue to expand throughout the state of Tennessee, particularly on state and 

private lands managed specifically for game enhancements. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 247 

12.3 RUFFED GROUSE 

12.3.1 Affected Environment

Ruffed grouse utilize a variety of forest habitats and successional stages. Nesting 

cover generally is located in poletimber or larger hardwood stands (Harris 1981, 

Thompson and Dessecker 1997). Haney (1996) also reported use of old-growth cove 

hardwood forests in the Southern Appalachians for nesting and brood rearing. While 

nesting habitat does not appear to be limiting, close interspersion with secure adult 

cover and brood habitat is important (Thompson and Dessecker 1997). 

Key features of brood cover are security and an abundant high protein food source. 

Insects are most abundant in habitats characterized by lush herbaceous vegetation 

(Dimmick et al. 1996). Thompson and Dessecker (1997) describe brood cover as 3-

7 year-old regenerating stands containing significant herbaceous component and 

shrub-dominated old fields and herbaceous openings. In Georgia, broods preferred 

upland hardwood sapling (greater than 10 year-old) and poletimber habitats, but also 

used sawtimber stands, although not in proportion to availability (Harris 1981). 

Regeneration areas (less than 6 years-old) and evergreen shrub thickets were 

avoided. Brood habitats were characterized by dense and diverse herbaceous 

vegetation that provided low overhead cover with freedom of movement beneath. 

Dimmick et al. (1996) suggest that the lack of interspersion of areas with a well 

developed herb layer and areas of high stem density for protective cover may be one 

of the limiting factors in southeastern grouse populations. They suggest that brood 

habitat could be enhanced by the conversion of logging roads and log landings to 

linear food plots by planting clover/grass mixtures, which will provide bugging areas 

in close proximity to secure cover. 

Adult cover, including drumming habitat usually consists of young regenerating forest 

(6-15 year-old) or shrub cover (Thompson and Dessecker 1997). The dense cover 

provides protection from both avian and mammalian predators. Secure cover is 

provided in habitats with good vertical structure (8,000+ stems/acre) of 15-20 foot 

saplings (Kubisiak 1989). Dimmick et al. (1996) reported that males began to orient 

their drumming sites around or in clearcuts within three years post harvest. In 

Georgia, drumming habitat was associated with the presence of a relatively dense 

understory of heath shrubs, primarily flame azalea and mountain laurel (Hale et al. 

1982). No strong preference for timber types or stand condition classes was evident. 

Harris (1981) found that males preferred upland hardwood sawtimber, generally 

associated with evergreen shrub thickets during the breeding and postbreeding 

seasons. 

Dimmick et al. (1996) found that breeding male density (based on drumming counts) 

increased significantly in response to clearcutting in Tennessee. A similar response 

to timber harvest was reported from oak-dominated forests in Missouri (Wiggers et 

al. 1992). Highest grouse densities occurred where 7-to-15 year-old hardwood 

regeneration comprised greater than 14 percent of the area. 

In oak forests of the Central Hardwood region, Thompson and Dessecker (1997) 

recommended managing on an 80-year rotation, which would maintain approximately 

15 percent of the forest in brood or adult cover (3-15 years old). Appropriate 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

248 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

regeneration methods include clearcut, seedtree, and shelterwood methods. 

Residual basal areas should not exceed 20 ft2/acre. Cutting units should be greater 

than five acres, and preferably 10-40 acres in size. Group selection is not 

recommended since the regeneration patches are too small to provide large enough 

patches of contiguous habitat. In Missouri, Kurzejeski et al. (1987) also 

recommended managing oaks on an 80-year rotation, but suggested harvest units 

should be less than 20 acres in size. In another study in Missouri oak forests, 

Wiggers et al. (1992) recommended maintaining more than 14 percent in 7- to 15-

year-old hardwood regeneration. Kubisiak (1985) recommended the use of 

shelterwood cuts or clearcuts of 20 acres or less, leaving designated groups or 

scattered oaks (residual basal area less than 20 ft2) with potential as mast-bearers 

or den trees. Larger cuts up to 40 acres are acceptable if in linear strips. 

Dominant fall and winter foods in the Southern Appalachians include leaves and 

fruits of greenbrier (Smilax spp.), the leaves of mountain laurel (Kalmia latifolia), 

fruits of grapes (Vitis spp.) and oaks (Quercus spp.), and Christmas fern (Polystichum

acrostichoides) (Seehorn et al. 1981). Similarly, Stafford and Dimmick (1978) 

reported that greenbrier, mountain laurel, and Christmas fern were the dominant fall 

and winter food items in the Southern Appalachian region of Tennessee and North 

Carolina. When available, acorns comprise a significant proportion of the diet 

(Seehorn et al. 1981, Servello and Kirkpatrick 1987, Kirkpatrick 1989, Thompson 

and Dessecker 1997). They provide a high-energy food source during the critical 

winter period when forage quality is limited (Servello and Kirkpatrick 1987, 

Kirkpatrick 1989). However, lack of secure cover in open oak stands may limit their 

use by grouse (Stafford 1989, Thompson and Dessecker 1997). Kubisiak (1985) 

suggested that 40-60 percent of a compartment be maintained in stands of mastbearing age. 

Ruffed grouse are found primarily in the Northern Ridge and Valley, Allegheny 

Mountains, Northern Cumberland Mountains, Blue Ridge Mountains, Northern 

Cumberland Plateau, and Southern Cumberland Mountains (SAMAB 1996:66-67). 

Low-density populations also extend into the adjacent portions of the Central Ridge 

and Valley, Southern Cumberland Plateau, Southern Ridge and Valley, and Southern 

Appalachian Piedmont. Population densities generally are moderate in the Blue 

Ridge Mountains and low to moderate elsewhere. Current grouse densities generally 

are higher on NFS lands, national parks, and the Cherokee Indian Reservation than 

on other ownerships. Regional grouse population densities have declined over the 

last 25 years. The declining trend likely is largely due to the reduction of forest cover 

in the sapling-pole successional class, which is important to this species. 

For both 1970 and 1995, 39 percent of the CNF supported high grouse populations 

(greater than 10 grouse per square mile); 37 percent supported medium 

populations (5-10 grouse per square mile) and 24 percent supported low 

populations (less than 5% per square mile) (SAMAB 1995:66). Highest densities are 

found in the northern counties closer to the core range of the grouse, and lowest 

densities are found in Polk County closer to the southern range limits. Based on 

reported hunter success, Tennessee populations overall may have experienced a 

slight rate of decline since 1987. This decline is related to reduced availability of 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 249 

hardwood habitat in the 0-20 year age class due to reductions in timber harvest 

levels. Present supply and demand seems relatively stable (TWRA 2000). 

12.3.2 Direct and Indirect Effects 

Although ruffed grouse use a variety of forest habitats and successional stages, 

population responses are most strongly tied to the availability of early successional 

habitat, particularly hardwood shrub-seedling habitat. 

Table 3-70 shows the acres allocated to active vegetation management prescriptions 

with early successional habitat or timber volume objectives of at least eight percent 

in the 0-10 year age class (7.E.2, 8.A.1, 8.B, 8.C, 8.E.1, 9.H, 10.A, 10.B) by 

Alternative. The acreage allocated to these prescriptions varies among alternatives. 

Implementation of Alternatives D and F would offer highest levels of quality grouse 

brood habitat and adult cover, with 78,085 acres targeted specifically for grouse 

management (Prescription 8.E.1) in Alternative F. Prescription 8.E.1 would provide 

up to 17 percent acreage in the 0-10 year age class. Alternatives C and E would 

provide lowest overall opportunity to increase grouse brood habitat and adult cover; 

however, Alternative E would provide at least one emphasis area specifically for 

grouse management (Strawberry Mountain, 3,029 acres). 

Table 3-70. Acres allocated to Prescriptions with Early Successional 

Habitat or Timber Objectives of at least 8% by Alternative for the CNF 

Alternative 

Acres Allocated to All 

Rx with Early 

Successional 

Habitat/Timber 

Objectives 

Acres 

Allocated to 

8.E.1 (Ruffed 

Grouse Rx) 

Alternative A 214,559 2,615 

Alternative B 189,775 2,608 

Alternative D 440,419 0 

Alternative E 51,390 3,029 

Alternative F 485,235 78,085 

Alternative G 119,487 0 

Alternative I 341,011 0 

Many prescriptions will provide suitable and/or optimal conditions for grouse through 

the development of early-successional habitat. The effects of each of the 

alternatives on this key habitat feature is discussed in detail in previous sections 

(Successional Forested Habitats and High Elevation Early Successional Forest). 

Populations are controlled in part by harvest regulations set by TWRA as well as 

habitat conditions managed by the Forest Service. 

Although all alternatives would support viable populations of ruffed grouse, 

implementation of Alternative F, followed by Alternative D, would likely support 

highest population levels and highest levels of hunter demand. 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

250 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

12.3.3 Cumulative Effects

Present supply and demand seems relatively stable (TWRA 2000) and this trend 

would be expected to continue through the planning period. A continued or 

expanded program of active vegetation management would enhance grouse 

populations and hunter success rates. Because of the site factors found within the 

CNF (primarily high elevations), the forest will continue to provide a key base for 

grouse hunting within the state of Tennessee. 

12.4 Black Bear 

12.4.1 Affected Environment 

The black bear (Ursus americanus) uses a wide variety of habitats in the southern 

Appalachians, occurring primarily on national forests and national parks of the 

Southern Blue Ridge, Northern Cumberland, and Allegheny Mountains and the 

Northern Ridge and Valley. These public lands in Virginia, West Virginia, North 

Carolina, Tennessee, and Georgia connect to form a forested landscape of over six 

million acres where bears are generally distributed at low to medium densities. The 

increase of older oak forests in this large block of habitat, along with increased 

protection and conservative hunter harvest, has allowed bear populations throughout 

the southeastern mountain region to moderately increase over the past 30 years. 

Bears generally are absent from the Cumberland Plateau, Southern Cumberland 

Mountains, Southern Ridge and Valley and Piedmont (SAMAB 1996:61). 

Tennessee’s black bear population is estimated at 1,000 to 1,500 animals, half of 

which may occupy the CNF. Bait station survey data and legal harvest data indicate a 

significant population increase since 1980 (TWRA 2000). 

Much of this increase is attributed to the TWRA’s establishment of six black bear 

reserves on the CNF totaling 187,600 forest service acres (89% of total reserve 

acres). From south to north, these areas are Ocoee, Tellico, Andrew Johnson, Unicoi, 

Laurel Fork, and Kettlefoot Reserves. These are large, contiguous core areas 

protecting breeding female bears from excessive hunting mortality. The areas are 

closed to wild boar hunting with dogs and to bear hunting. The habitat in these areas 

is managed in support of TWRA’s goals to maintain existing bear population levels, to 

maintain bear habitat quality and quantity, and to sustain opportunities for bear 

hunting outside the reserves and for wildlife viewing opportunities. 

In the southern Appalachians, including the CNF, important habitat elements are 

habitat remoteness, habitat diversity, den site availability, and availability of hard 

mast. 

Levels of human access within bear habitat determine the degree of negative effects 

on bears (Beringer 1986; Brody and Pelton 1989). Generally, high bear population 

densities are associated with areas of low open road density (SAMAB 1995:87). Lowtraffic roads and trails are used by bears as travel ways and provide the benefit of 

additional edge and associated soft mast, whereas high traffic volumes have a 

negative impact (B. Fletcher, pers. comm.). Effects vary based on the duration and 

time of year the road or trail is open for use and the number and type of recreation 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 251 

users present. Recreation trails (hiking, mountain biking, ATV, or horseback) can 

potentially provide similar disturbance. 

Black bears are opportunistic omnivores and consume a variety of seasonal plant 

and animal foods including flowering plants, grasses, various roots and tubers, and 

especially soft mast (grapes, berries, apples, etc.). However, availability of hard mast 

(acorns and hickory nuts) is critical throughout the winter, and reproductive success 

is closely related to this habitat factor (Eiler 1981; Wathen 1983; Eiler et al. 1989). 

Total production of hard mast and production by individual trees can fluctuate from 

year to year due to climatic and other factors (Downs and McQuilkin 1944; Fowells 

1965). 

Under general southern Appalachian forest conditions, most oaks produce acorns 

from 40 years of age until death (150-200+ years), although production drops off in 

later years (USDA Forest Service 1990). Average annual white oak acorn production 

begins to decline when trees reach about 30 inches dbh (diameter at breast height) 

(Greenberg 1999; Johnson 1994), and northern red oak acorn production declines at 

about 30 inches (Greenberg 1994). Black and scarlet oaks are prolific producers at 

smaller size classes. Chestnut oaks production peaks at about 20 inches dbh and 

production remains relatively stable after that (Johnson 1994). Acorn production can 

be sustained over time by ensuring adequate regeneration of oaks, releasing “supercanopy” highly productive oaks and providing a wide variety of species and age 

classes of oaks across the landscape. 

Since bears utilize nearly any abundant plant or animal food, they are likely to thrive 

when a diversity of forest age classes and food sources are available. Vegetation 

management can provide much of this diversity (Reagan 1990). Naturally occurring 

events such as ice storms, wildfires, and hurricanes provide habitat diversity, but at 

random intervals and locations; benefits may be limited and unreliable. 

Bears den in a wide variety of sites including road culverts, abandoned buildings, and 

in vegetation (Carlock et al. 1983). Traditional dens are found on the ground in 

caves, rockfalls, or under the root mass of uprooted trees, and in hollow trees. 

Carlock et al. (1983) and M. Vaughan (pers. comm.) found that hollow trees are 

preferred dens. Brody (1984) found that ground dens are preferred in the North 

Carolina mountains. Preference may be related to availability and may be a learned 

behavior (Brody 1984). 

12.4.2 Direct and Indirect Effects 

Actions of the state game commissions, including regulation of hunter harvest and 

establishment of bear reserves, are primary influences on bear population levels. 

However, National Forest management determines habitat features such as levels of 

public access, levels of vegetation diversity, and availability of mast and den trees. 

Availability of potential den trees on the CNF is augmented by a forest wide standard 

requiring their retention during all vegetation management treatments. “For this 

reason, the black bear was selected as an MIS to help indicate management effects 

on meeting hunting demand for this species.” Potential dens are trees greater than 

20 inches diameter breast height that are hollow with broken tops (Carlock et al. 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

252 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

1983). This standard applies across all alternatives. Den availability is addressed 

under Section 9.2.0, Snags, Dens, and Downed Wood. Alternative D would likely 

maintain existing levels of dens, whereas other alternatives would likely provide 

increased amounts of late successional habitat with associated den recruitment. 

Alternative E would provide highest acreages of late successional habitat and 

potential dens. 

Due to the current healthy status of the CNF bear population (TWRA 2000), the 

assumption is made that sustaining existing levels of habitat remoteness is 

acceptable. Existing remoteness within TWRA’s bear reserves will be retained by a 

forest wide prohibition of a net increase in open road miles in each bear reserve, as 

well as forest wide prohibition of development of new motorized trail systems. These 

standards will apply across all alternatives. In many cases, bear reserves overlap 

with existing or proposed wilderness or roadless areas, including Big Frog, Citico, 

Sampson Mountain, and Pond Mountain Wildernesses. These areas provide 

unroaded habitat for bears. Alternatives G, E and C would provide highest total acres 

of unroaded remote habitats, and Alternatives B and D would provide least acres 

(Table 3-71). 

 

Table 3-71. Expected acres of unroaded habitat for forest 

plan alternatives on the CNF, October 30, 2002. 

Alternative Rx 1.A, 1.B, 12.B Acres 

Alternative A 111,571 

Alternative B 68,148 

Alternative D 66,704 

Alternative E 155,877 

Alternative F 99,575 

Alternative G 163,151 

Alternative I 125,578 

Also related to human access are issues of inappropriate food and trash disposal 

and occurrence of “nuisance bear” activity (Stiver 1988; Rogers 1976). The CNF 

developed a forest wide objective and a RX 8.C (Black Bear) standard to provide 

recreation facilities, recreation services, public information, and enforcement to 

minimize wildlife access to human food and trash where appropriate. This would 

minimize bear mortality and injury related to “nuisance” bear behavior. 

Habitat diversity is addressed under Section 8.1, Successional Habitats. Alternatives 

D and F would provide the most opportunities to generate early successional habitats 

to provide soft mast (emphasis on 6-10% of total forest acres), but would not 

increase availability of den trees. Alternative I would provide the next highest level of 

early successional habitats (3-6%) and would also increase availability of den trees. 

All other alternatives would offer opportunities to generate soft mast on less than 5% 

of the total forest landscape. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 253 

Hard mast issues are addressed in Section 6.4, Oak and Oak-Pine Forests. The 

quantity of mid- and late successional oak forests and related acorn availability is 

expected to increase under all alternatives during the planning period with the 

exception of Alternatives D and F, due to the emphasis on high levels of management 

targeting older oaks. An alternative that balances current mast production with 

future maintenance of the oak community type is likely best for bears. Quantity of 

mast will vary across alternatives but will be abundant and sufficient to maintain 

viability of oak mast dependent species in all alternatives. 

Black bear populations are expected to remain viable across the CNF throughout the 

planning period, across alternatives. Implementation of Alternatives D and F may 

cause availability of den trees to be a limiting factor to bear populations because 

dens would not increase on the landscape beyond current conditions (Section 9.2.0, 

Snags, Dens, and Downed Wood), and highest reproductive rates have been linked 

with suitable den trees in the southern Appalachians (Carlock et al. 1983; M. 

Vaughan 2002). Alternatives D, B and F would provide lowest sustained acreage of 

unroaded or remote habitats, and Alternatives D and F would provide lowest potential 

acreage for hard mast production. Alternative I would provide a combination of 

opportunities to manage for future oak regeneration, current production of den trees 

and both soft and hard mast, and an intermediate acreage of unroaded habitat 

condition. 

12.4.3 Cumulative Effects 

The current status of Tennessee’s black bear population is good (TWRA 2000). The 

overall regional forecast is for potential bear habitat to remain stable on public land, 

including the CNF and adjacent Great Smoky Mountains National Park. Decreases 

are expected on private lands due to continued loss of forested habitats and 

increased development (SAMAB 1996:87). 

12.5 Wild Trout 

12.5.1 Affected Environment 

Three species of trout are managed for sport fisheries on the CNF: rainbow, brown 

and brook trout. Only the brook trout is native to the Southern Appalachian 

Mountains. Both the rainbow and brown trout were introduced to the forest in the 

early 1900’s by the state of Tennessee. All three species are well established and 

are known to occur in many stream reaches on the forest (rainbow trout – 185 miles; 

brown trout -80 miles; brook trout – 90 miles). 

Trout have the highest water quality needs for both spawning and feeding of all fish 

species found on the CNF. They are sensitive to water temperature increases and to 

chemical changes. Trout are dependent on instream structures for hiding cover. 

Large logs and other forms of instream structure are in limited supply in most forest 

streams (Flebbe and Dolloff 1991). Trout will benefit from log installation. 

Annually, the populations of brown and rainbow trout are monitored in Beaverdam 

Creek, Laurel Fork and North River by TWRA in cooperation with the Forest Service. 

While the population levels fluctuate year to year, the overall trend for these 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

254 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

representative populations is stable (Habera et. al 2001). Brook trout are monitored 

by the above agencies with assistance from Trout Unlimited and appear to be stable. 

TWRA evaluated the status of all known brook trout streams in 1985 (Bivens, 

Strange and Peterson); they repeated the evaluation in 1998 (Strange and Habera) 

and found all populations on the CNF to still be present. Further, there was no 

significant loss in occupied miles of habitat. Portions of the habitats occupied by all 

three trout species are surveyed by Forest Service personnel each year. 

12.5.2 Direct/Indirect Effects 

TWRA has developed and enforced excellence regulations to manage the wild trout 

fisheries. On most streams the daily limit is seven trout with no minimum size. Some 

streams have restrictions on the number (3) and/or size (> 6 inches) of brook trout 

that may be harvested. Fishing pressure on wild trout streams does not appear to 

exceed the capacity of the resource. Most remote streams receive little fishing 

pressure; however, large trout are not produced because the life cycle of trout in the 

Southern Appalachian Mountains is usually limited to three years (Masterson 1991) 

and growth in these relatively infertile streams is slow. Other special regulations to 

protect the wild trout fisheries include restricted creel limits, minimum sizes, and 

tackle limitations on easily accessed and heavily fished streams (Tennessee Fishing 

Regulations). 

Wild trout would be affected from forest management activities that disturb the 

ground, open the riparian canopy, or remove large wood from the vicinity of the 

stream channel. Under all alternatives, the Riparian Prescription remains constant. 

While some alternatives allow different levels of ground disturbance, the standards in 

the Riparian Prescription require a filter strip between any ground disturbing activity 

and all perennial and intermittent streams. This filter strip is designed to prevent any 

significant amount of sediment from reaching the stream channel. Sediment 

destroys spawning habitat for trout and diminishes the macroinvertebrate production 

(primary food for trout) in streams. Disturbance of the riparian canopy is not 

permitted unless the activity benefits riparian dependent species, including wild 

trout, or to protect private land and infrastructure. Opening of the riparian canopy 

would increase the exposure of the stream channel to sunlight and alter the 

temperature regime of the water. Trees within the Riparian Corridor are managed to 

provide sufficient amounts and sizes of large woody debris to maintain habitat 

complexity and diversity for aquatic and riparian dependent species. 

Most streams on the forest lack sufficient quantities of large woody debris in the 

stream channel (Flebbe and Dolloff 1991). This condition is a relict of the 

exploitation logging that occurred prior to Forest Service management of the lands. 

The Forest Service cuts and anchors trees into the stream channel to provide some 

habitat structure for trout and other aquatic species. 

12.5.3 Cumulative Effects 

The Riparian Corridor standards not only insure that direct and indirect adverse 

effects do not occur to the aquatic community but also minimize the cumulative 

effects of sediment. Aquatic macroinvertebrate communities would be monitored 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 255 

prior to and following some ground disturbing activities to validate the effectiveness 

of the filter strip standards. 

Few changes have been made to trout regulations over the past decade with the 

populations remaining stable. Legal harvest levels are not causing declines in any 

wild trout populations. Some poaching may be occurring but is more significant to 

stocked trout populations (see Demand species: Stocked Rainbow Trout section). 

The viability of the three wild trout species on the CNF is not at risk. 

12.6 Stocked Rainbow Trout (“Put and Take”) 

12.6.1 Affected Environment 

Catchable size (7 to 10 inches) rainbow trout are stocked into 20 streams covering 

70 miles of water on the CNF. These “Put and Take” waters provide a coldwater 

stream fishing opportunity that is unique from the wild trout described previously 

(Demand Species: Wild Trout). All “Put and Take” streams are beside Forest Service 

maintained roads ensuring good public access. The objective for this fishery is to 

increase the number and quality of trout harvested. Based on Tennessee’s stocking 

schedule, most stocked rainbow trout are intended to be harvested within two weeks 

of their release. Fishing license sales (TWRA 1995) indicate the number of anglers 

that pursue stocked rainbow trout in Tennessee continues to increase. 

Water quality requirements for “Put and Take” trout fisheries are not as high as for 

wild trout. Spawning habitat, cover and macroinvertebrate (food) production are not 

issues for this recreational activity. Clean, clear water with a back drop of forested 

hillsides are important to the anglers (TWRA 1995). Waters that provide marginal 

(temperature gets too warm in the summer) habitat for wild trout have often been 

selected for “Put and Take” fisheries. 

12.6.2 Direct/Indirect Effects 

Harvest regulations provide the only management effects to the stocked rainbow 

trout fisheries. Poaching is a serious effect on this resource. Both state and federal 

law enforcement officers are involved in minimizing illegal fishing activities. Special 

regulations have been implemented in order to increase the availability of stocked 

trout to the broadest public. 

12.6.3 Cumulative Effects 

Enforcement of the harvest regulations across the CNF will ensure the continuation 

of this recreational fishery. Viability of “Put and Take” rainbow trout is not a concern 

since they are not intended to become permanent residents in the streams where 

they are stocked. 

12.7 Black Bass and Bream in Streams 

12.7.1 Affected Environment 

Four species of black bass (largemouth, smallmouth, spotted, and Coosa) and five 

species of bream or sunfish (bluegill, green sunfish, redbreast sunfish, rock bass and 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

256 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

shadow bass) occur in 65 and 235 miles, respectively, of cool water streams on the 

CNF. All are native to the CNF; however, the Coosa bass which is native to the 

Conasauga River system, has been introduced to Hiwassee River system. 

Habitat considerations for these species include: 1) clear water – all are site feeders 

(feeding on fish and invertebrates); and 2) large woody debris – all are dependent on 

instream cover. These species benefit from the maintenance and installation of large 

woody debris into coolwater streams. Sediment that has settled to the stream 

bottom is not a significant factor to any of these fish since they build nests and 

protect their eggs and young. 

Forest Service crews sample about ten percent of the coolwater streams annually to 

document the viability of the game and non-game fish and the condition of the 

aquatic habitat. 

12.7.2 Direct/Indirect Effects 

The Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency has established daily limits of five black 

bass, twenty rock bass and no limit for bream. There are no length limits or special 

gear restrictions. This fishery resource is not being over used. There are few streams 

on the forest where anglers regularly fish for black bass and even fewer where they 

seek bream. 

Bass and bream in coolwater streams would be affected by forest management 

activities that removed large wood from the vicinity of the stream channel. 

Temperature changes associated with riparian canopy removal and sediment 

associated with ground disturbance would have little effect on these species. Under 

all alternatives, the Riparian Prescription remains constant. Trees within the Riparian 

Corridor are managed to provide sufficient amounts and sizes of large woody debris 

to maintain habitat complexity and diversity for aquatic and riparian dependent 

species. The removal of large woody debris from the Riparian Corridor is not allowed 

except to protect private land and infrastructure. 

Most streams on the CNF lack sufficient quantities of large woody debris in the 

stream channel. This condition is a relict of the exploitation logging that occurred 

prior to Forest Service management of the lands. The Forest Service cuts and 

anchors trees into the stream channel to provide some habitat structure for black 

bass, bream, and other aquatic species. 

12.7.3 Cumulative Effects 

The Riparian Corridor standards not only insure that direct and indirect adverse 

effects do not occur to the aquatic community they also minimize the cumulative 

effects. Aquatic macroinvertebrate communities would be monitored prior to and 

following some ground disturbing activities to validate the standards. 

Few changes have been made to the coolwater stream fishing regulations over the 

past decade with the populations remaining stable. Legal harvest levels are not 

causing declines in any coolwater game species populations and poaching is not a 

significant issue. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 257 

The viability of the three black bass and five bream species found in coolwater 

streams on the CNF are not at risk. 

12.8 Black Bass and Bream in Ponds 

12.8.1 Affected Environment 

Largemouth bass, bluegill, redbreast sunfish, and channel catfish are managed in 

various combinations in 13 warmwater ponds that have been constructed and are 

managed for recreational fishing. They are generally less than two acres in size with 

two exceptions: Indian Boundary Lake – 96 acres and Chilhowee lake seven acres. 

All are managed for game fish but more emphasis is placed on recreational 

swimming at the two larger lakes. 

Monitoring of populations is conducted in conjunction with TWRA every three years. 

When Indian Boundary Lake was last surveyed crappie were present. Regulations 

have been relaxed for this species in an effort to control its population. 

Three ponds (total of 4 acres) are treated with lime every three years to raise the pH; 

liquid fertilizer is added monthly during the summer months to increase the fish 

production and recreational fishing opportunities. Habitat improvements including 

brush piles, anchored logs, and culverts (for channel catfish spawning) are installed 

into the ponds as needed. 

12.8.2 Direct/Indirect Effects 

The daily limit for largemouth bass is five fish. Bluegill, redbreast sunfish and 

channel catfish have no daily limit. There are no length limits or special gear 

restrictions. This fishery resource is not being over used. Electrofishing and seining 

surveys have shown balanced populations between largemouth bass and bream. 

The fish species managed in warmwater ponds are not likely to be affected by any 

forest management activities. Ponds constructed for recreational purposes are not 

included in the Riparian Corridor; however, because the ponds are managed for 

recreation, little disturbance should occur close to the ponds. Site specific analysis 

would be done for projects that could affect the ponds. 

12.8.3 Cumulative Effects 

Few changes have been made to the warmwater fishing regulations over the past 

decade with the populations remaining stable. Legal harvest levels are not causing 

declines in any warmwater game species populations and poaching is not a 

significant issue. Forest management activities generally, would not occur near 

these ponds. 

The viability of the largemouth bass, bluegill, redbreast sunfish and channel catfish 

found in warmwater ponds on the CNF are not at risk. 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

258 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

13.0 Migratory Birds 

13.1 Affected Environment 

Key migratory bird issues within plan revision national forests are related to 

landscape-scale forest fragmentation and availability of forest interior habitats, the 

distribution and relative amounts of varying age classes of forest, restoration of 

declining habitats such as spruce-fir forest and open woodland/grassland habitats, 

and need for consistent monitoring and data management across forests. These 

issues are discussed in detail in Section 8.4 (Forest Interior Birds) and Section 6.0 

(Major Forest Communities), and in Gaines and Morris (1996). 

National forests in the planning area provide millions of acres of forested land cover. 

As habitat quality continues to decline on many privately-owned lands due to 

conversion to urban and suburban land uses, these federal lands continue to provide 

good quality habitat for nesting, wintering and transient migratory birds. 

13.2 Direct and Indirect Effects 

National forests in the planning area evaluated management and conservation 

recommendations developed for land birds, including migratory birds, by Partners in 

Flight (PIF). PIF is a cooperative effort involving partnerships among federal, state, 

and local government agencies, foundations, professional organizations, 

conservation groups, industry, the academic community and private individuals. The 

effort was launched in response to growing concerns about declines in populations of 

land bird species and to emphasize conservation of birds not covered by existing 

conservation initiatives. 

PIF developed Bird Conservation Plans for each physiographic province within the 

planning area. The plans are science-based, long-term and proactive strategies for 

bird conservation across all land ownerships designed to ensure long-term 

maintenance of healthy populations of native land birds. 

Forest Service biologists worked with PIF regional and local coordinators to identify 

key management opportunities for high priority species on NFS lands, and 

considered incorporation into appropriate Land Management Plans. Effects of plan 

alternatives for high priority species will be addressed in Section 15.1 (Terrestrial 

Species Viability). 

Despite habitat protection on federal lands within the Southern Blue Ridge 

Physiographic Province, 30 percent of breeding species have declined sharply in the 

last 30 years, and an additional 18 percent have shown possible declines (Hunter et 

al. 1999). Key land bird conservation issues within this province are summarized 

below. 

Conservation and restoration of spruce-fir and northern hardwood forest 

communities and associated boreal bird species. Spruce-fir forests are 

treated as rare communities in the CNF plan; they will be maintained and 

restored to the extent possible across all alternatives. Standards protect 

the spruce-fir type from conversion to other forest types and from 

silvicultural practices except those designed to maintain or restore the type 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 259 

in all alternatives. An additional standard ensures that a minimum of 75 

percent of the northern hardwood forest type be maintained in mid-late 

successional stages, and that 50 percent of the type be maintained in late 

successional or old growth condition. 

Large patches of mature hemlock-white pine, northern hardwoods and mixed 

mesophytic (mesic hardwood) forests are uncommon due to past land 

management. Older stands of northern hardwood and mixed mesophytic 

hardwood forests cover only about one percent of the Southern Blue Ridge 

land base. There is a need to increase and maintain late successional 

acreage for these types. In addition, some low elevation forests, especially 

riparian forests, are fragmented on private lands. The CNF established a 

standard to maintain 75 percent of the total forestwide acreage of northern 

hardwood, mixed mesophytic and river floodplain forest in mid- to latesuccessional or older condition. Carolina hemlock forests are treated as 

rare communities in the CNF plan; they will be maintained and restored 

across all alternatives. Forests dominated by eastern hemlock will not be 

subject to regeneration harvest. Hemlock will be retained as patches 

during all silvicultural treatments. 

Many early successional species at mid- to high elevations have declined due 

to forest maturation, fire suppression, elimination of grazing, and decline in 

active forest management on federal lands. The CNF establishes an 

objective to create or maintain 1,000 acres of high elevation early 

successional habitat through forest regeneration and/or maintenance of 

old fields, and open woodlands, savannahs, and grasslands. 

A predominance of forest stands in the 40-80 year age class on NFS lands 

has resulted in a closed canopy condition with poorly developed understory 

and subcanopy. There is an overall lack of forest with “old growth” 

characteristics, including a multi-layered canopy, snags and downed woody 

debris. The CNF added an objective to cooperate with USFWS to increase 

structural habitat diversity in up to five percent of closed-canopied midand late-successional mesic deciduous forest, including old growth 

restoration areas, by retaining large trees and creating small canopy gaps 

suitable for Cerulean warbler and associated species. 

Development of private land to resort, urban and suburban uses is creating 

increased fragmentation effects at a landscape level. See Section 8.4 

Forest Interior Birds. 

Direct effects to specific habitats are discussed in the EIS sections referenced above. 

In addition to direct effects on forested habitat, effects of migratory bird collision with 

communications towers was considered. “Construction of these towers (including 

radio, television, cellular, and microwave) increases at an estimated six to eight 

percent annually in the U.S.A. According to the Federal Communication 

Commission’s 2000 Antenna Structure Registry, the number of lighted towers 

greater than 199 feet above ground level (AGL) currently number over 45,000 and 

the total number of towers over 74,000. Non-compliance with the registry program is 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

260 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

estimated at 24 to 38 percent, bringing the total to 92,000 to 102,000. By 2003, all 

television stations must be digital, adding potentially 1,000 new towers exceeding 

1,000 feet AGL.” (USDI Fish and Wildlife Service 2000). 

“The construction of new towers creates a potentially significant impact on migratory 

birds, especially some 350 species of night-migrating birds. Communications towers 

are estimated to kill 4-5 million birds per year.” 

Two mechanisms of bird mortality occur at communications towers (USDI Fish and 

Wildlife Service 2002). The first is when birds flying in poor visibility conditions do not 

see the structure (i.e., blind collision). Towers that are lighted at night for aviation 

safety may help reduce blind collisions, but they bring about a second mechanism for 

mortality. When there is a low cloud ceiling or foggy conditions, refracted light creates 

an illuminated area around the tower. Migrating birds lose their stellar cues for 

nocturnal migration and a broad orienting perspective on the landscape in these 

weather conditions. The lighted area may be the strongest cue for navigation, and 

birds remain in the lighted space by the tower. Mortality occurs when they collide with 

the structure and guy wires, or even other migrating birds, as more and more passing 

birds gather into the relatively small, lighted space. The lights apparently do not 

attract birds, but hold birds that pass within the vicinity. 

The CNF adopted forestwide standards requiring removal of obsolete 

communications towers, location of new communication equipment on existing 

towers where possible, and coordination of new tower planning and construction with 

USFWS in an effort to reduce tower collision mortality and to comply with the 

Migratory Bird Treaty Act, the ESA, and the Bald and Golden Eagle Act. 

13.3 Cumulative Effect 

Effects of the various alternatives on the viability of selected PIF priority species are 

discussed in Section 15.1 (Terrestrial Species Viability). 

14.0 Invasive Non-Native Plants and Animals 

14.1 Affected Environment 

A multitude of invasive, non-native plants threaten the integrity of native ecosystems 

in the southern Appalachian area. These include, but are not limited to, species such 

as kudzu, privet, Japanese honeysuckle, multiflora rose, and Nepal grass. The SAA 

(SAMAB 1996) provides a summary of the major threats from invasive plant species. 

Although not mentioned in the SAA, the wild boar (Sus scrofa) is another example of 

non-native species that is negatively affecting certain habitats in the southern 

Appalachians (Lacki and Lancia 1986, Singer et al 1984, Wood 1977, Bratton 

1975). Wild boars were introduced into the southern Appalachian mountains in the 

early 1900’s. Originally brought in to be hunted, they eventually escaped from their 

enclosed hunting reserves in North Carolina and over time have become a 

naturalized component of the area’s fauna (TWRA 2000). Management of this 

species is somewhat controversial in that it is desired by some hunters as a major 

game species, yet it’s impacts to the natural environment must be mitigated. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 261 

On the CNF, the following non-native invasive plant species are tracked through 

project level inventories: Tree of heaven (Ailanthus altissima), small carpetgrass 

(Arthraxon hispidus), autumn olive (Eleagnus umbellata), English ivy (Hedera helix), 

sericea lespedeza (Lespedeza cuneata), privet (Ligustrum sinense), Japanese 

honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica), Nepal grass (Microstegium vimineum), princess 

tree (Paulownia tomentosa), kudzu (Pueraria lobata), and multiflora rose (Rosa 

multiflora). While other invasive plant species may occur with scattered distributions 

on the CNF, these species are recognized as having significant occurrences with a 

high potential for impacts to native communities on the CNF. 

Portions of Polk and Monroe counties within the CNF comprise TWRA south Cherokee 

Wildlife Management Area. TWRA’s management goal for this area includes an 

annual harvest of 200 wild boar per year through the year 2006 (TWRA 2000). 

14.2 Direct and Indirect Effects 

In 1999 the Southern Region released a Noxious Weed Management Strategy that 

outlined five emphasis areas, 1) Prevention and Education, 2) Control, 3) Inventory, 

Mapping, and Monitoring, 4) Research, and 5) Administration and Planning. This was 

followed in 2001 with the development of the Regional Forester’s Invasive Exotic 

Plant Species list. 

The CNF LMP includes numerous Goals, Objectives, and Standards to address the 

potential impacts of non-native invasive species. These include control efforts and 

maintenance and restoration of native species. 

Negative effects from non-native invasive species will be minimized under all Plan 

alternatives through adherence to Regional policy and the implementation of Plan 

Goals, Objectives, and Standards. Previous work illustrating the success of this type 

of management include the conversion of a large kudzu patch near the Conasauga 

River to an open meadow supporting native grasses and wildflowers, fencing rare 

plant populations to exclude wild boars, and converting approximately 200 acres of 

fescue fields to native warm season grasses since 1997. 

14.3 Cumulative Effects 

With an increased emphasis on the management of non-native invasive species in 

the southern Appalachian area, particularly plant species, it is expected that impacts 

from these species will be reduced from current levels across federal lands. 

15.0 Species Viability 

15.1 Terrestrial Species Viability Evaluation 

National Forest Management Act regulations, adopted in 1982, require that habitat 

be managed to support viable populations of native and desirable non-native 

vertebrates within the planning area (36 CFR 219.19). USDA regulation 9500-004, 

adopted in 1983, reinforces the NFMA viability regulation by requiring that habitats 

on national forests be managed to support viable populations of native and desired 

non-native plants, fish, and wildlife. These regulations focus on the role of habitat 

management in providing for species viability. Supporting viable populations involves 
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262 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

providing habitat in amounts and distributions that can support interacting 

populations at levels that result in continued existence of the species well-distributed 

over time. 

The Southern Appalachian region supports extremely high levels of biological 

diversity relative to other regions, viewed both nationally and globally. As a result, 

large numbers of species are present for which population viability may be of 

concern. Detailed demographic or habitat capability analysis to evaluate population 

viability is not feasible for this large number of species. Therefore, our goal for this 

evaluation is to use a clearly defined, transparent process to identify species for 

which there are substantive risks to maintenance of viable populations, and to 

ensure consideration of appropriate habitat management strategies to reduce those 

risks to acceptable levels where feasible. 

For comprehensiveness and consistency, evaluation of species viability was 

coordinated across several national forests undergoing simultaneous plan revisions. 

These forests are the Jefferson National Forest, CNF, Sumter National Forest, 

Chattahoochee and Oconee National Forests, and National Forests in Alabama. 

These forests encompass portions of the Southern Appalachian, Piedmont, and East 

Gulf Coastal Plain ecoregions. However, the scale for this assessment is set by 

NFMA regulations as the “planning area,” or the area of the NFS covered by a single 

forest plan. Therefore, separate risk assessment was done for each national forest 

covered by a separate forest plan. Risk assessment was further split where national 

forest units under the same forest plan occur in different ecoregions, or are widely 

separated geographically. Although viability evaluation was coordinated across the 

ecoregions, analysis presented here focuses on information relevant to the CNF. 

Because NFMA regulations require providing habitat for species viability within the 

planning area, focus of this evaluation is on habitat provided on NFS land. 

Surrounding private lands may contribute to, or hinder, maintenance of species 

viability on NFS land, but are not relied upon to meet regulation requirements. For 

this reason, habitat abundance was assessed based on conditions found on NFS 

land. Habitat distribution, however, was assessed considering the condition of 

intermixed ownerships and conditions, which may affect the interactions of species 

among suitable habitat patches on NFS land. 

Evaluation of migratory birds focused on breeding populations only, unless otherwise 

indicated. This focus does not mean that wintering and migrating populations were 

not considered during planning, but that viability evaluation makes most sense when 

viewed in terms of the relative stability of breeding populations. 

Much of the foundational information used in this evaluation was compiled by 

NatureServe, under a participating agreement with the Forest Service. NatureServe 

is an international non-profit organization, formerly part of TNC. Its mission is to 

develop, manage, and distribute authoritative information critical to conservation of 

the world’s biological diversity. Partnership with NatureServe was sought as a means 

to ensure the best available information on species status and habitat relationships 

was used in this evaluation. Under this agreement, NatureServe staff engaged 

numerous species experts and state heritage programs to develop a relational 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 263 

database that includes relevant information on species’ status, habitat relationships, 

and threats to viability. 

Viability Evaluation Process 

Risk to maintenance of viability over the next 50 years was assessed for each 

species in relation to each of its principle habitat relationships by plan revision 

alternative. Risk assessment was based on three factors: 1) current species 

abundance, 2) expected habitat abundance in 50 years, and 3) expected habitat 

distribution in 50 years ( 

Figure 3-17). Once risk ratings were developed, we assessed how well management 

strategies across alternatives provide for species viability. 

Current Species Abundance 

(Forest Rank) 

Future Habitat Element 

Abundance 

Future Habitat Element 

Distribution 

Likelihood of Habitat 

Element Limitation 

Risk of Habitat 

Relationship to Species 

Viability 

Figure 3-17. Relationship of variables used to rate the risk to viability resulting from 

a species’ relationship with a habitat element. 

A comprehensive list of species with potential viability concern was compiled for the 

CNF. The list includes those species found, or having the potential to be found, on 

the national forest from the following categories: 

Species listed as proposed, threatened, or endangered under the federal ESA, 

Species listed on the Regional Forester’s Sensitive Species list, 

Species identified as potential viability concern, 

Birds of conservation concern as identified by the Partners In Flight initiative, 

and 

Declining species of high public interest. 

Species lists from all national forests in the Southern Appalachian and Piedmont Ecoregions, and Coastal Plain forests in Alabama, were pooled to create comprehensive 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

264 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

lists of species of potential viability concern. NatureServe staff and contractors 

assigned abundance ranks for each species on the comprehensive eco-region list for 

the CNF. These Forest Ranks, or F Ranks, follow the conventions used by 

NatureServe and others in defining State and Global Ranks (Table 3-72). 

F Ranks were used in viability risk assessment as a categorical variable representing 

a species’ current abundance. Forest Service biologists reviewed F Ranks developed 

by NatureServe to identify any inconsistencies between these rankings and Forest 

Service information. Discrepancies in this abundance variable were resolved through 

coordination with NatureServe and it’s contractors. Where conflicting information or 

opinion on species abundance occurs, the most conservative information (i.e., that 

indicating lowest abundance) was used. Refinements to the process were made to 

account for discrepancies in projected habitat outcomes resulting from the use of 

two different models (SPECTRUM and IMI). Habitat outcomes are discussed below in 

Table 3-72 and Table 3-73. 

Only those species that are both confirmed present and rare or of unknown 

abundance (F1 through F3, and F?) on the CNF were assessed for viability risk. 

Species ranked as F? were treated as F1 species to provide a conservative approach 

to those species for which abundance information is not available. Species that are 

currently abundant on the forest (F4, F5) are assumed to be at low risk of losing 

viability within the next 50 years, and, therefore, were not further evaluated for 

viability risk. 

Table 3-72. Forest Ranks (F Ranks) and definitions used to define status of species

on the CNF as part of species viability evaluation for LMP, 2002. 

F Rank F Rank Definition 

F0 Not present; no known occurrences on the forest unit, and forest is

outside species’ range or habitat not present. 

F1 Extremely rare on the forest unit, generally with 1-5 occurrences. 

F2 Very rare on the forest unit, generally with 6-20 occurrences. 

F3 Rare and uncommon on the forest unit, from 21-100 occurrences. 

F4 Widespread, abundant, and apparently secure on the forest unit. 

F5 Demonstrably secure on the forest unit. 

F? Present on the forest, but abundance information is insufficient to

develop rank. 

FP Possibly could occur on the forest unit, but documented occurrences

are not known. 

FH Of documented historical occurrence on the forest unit; may be

rediscovered. 

FX Once occurred but has been extirpated from the forest unit; not likely

to be rediscovered. 

Because viability regulations focus on the role of habitat management in providing 

for species viability, habitat condition was the primary factor used to drive species 

viability evaluation. NatureServe staff and contractors identified habitat relationships 

for all species of potential viability concern, linking each species to vegetation 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 265 

community types, successional stages, and habitat attributes as appropriate. Based 

on this information, each species was linked by Forest Service biologists to one or 

more habitat elements. These habitat elements (Table 3-73) roughly correspond to 

categories of management direction included in the revised LMP, and to sections of 

effects analysis included in this EIS. NatureServe staff reviewed and provided 

adjustments to species’ assignment to these habitat element groups. 

Table 3-73. Habitat elements and number of associated viability concern species (SA 

Ecoregion) used to plan for, and assess risk to, viability of terrestrial species during 

forest plan revision, CNF 

Habitat 

Element Element Description 

# Of Potential 

Viability Concern 

Species Associated 

With Habitat 

Element: Southern 

Appalachian 

Ecoregion 

Bogs, Fens, 

Seeps, 

Seasonal 

Ponds 

Bogs, fens, seeps, seasonal ponds 

characterized by saturated soils 242 

Open Wetlands 

Open wetlands, marshes, beaver ponds, 

generally characterized by having some 

permanent standing water 

63 

River Channels Riverine gravel and sand bars, and river 

banks subject to flood scour 51 

Glades and 

Barrens 

Glades and barrens characterized by shallow 

soils, exposed parent material, and sparse or 

stunted vegetation 

119 

Carolina 

Hemlock 

Forests 

Forests dominated by Carolina hemlock 4 

Table Mountain 

Pine Forests 

Forests and woodlands dominated by table 

mountain pine and maintained by periodic 

fire 

10 

Spruce-Fir 

Forests 

High elevation forests dominated by healthy 

red spruce and Fraser fir 90 

Beech Gap 

Forests 

Forests at high elevation mountain gaps 

dominated by American beech and subject to 

wind and frost effects. 

1 

Basic Mesic 

Forests 

Basic mesic or "rich cove" forests 

characterized by calciphilic herbs and usually 

dominated by maples, basswood, and 

buckeye. 

43 

Rock Outcrops 

and Cliffs 

Rock outcrops and cliffs characterized by 

exposed rock, shallow soils and sparse 

vegetation 

218 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

266 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Table 3-73. Habitat elements and number of associated viability concern species (SA 

Ecoregion) used to plan for, and assess risk to, viability of terrestrial species during 

forest plan revision, CNF 

Habitat 

Element Element Description 

# Of Potential 

Viability Concern 

Species Associated 

With Habitat 

Element: Southern 

Appalachian 

Ecoregion 

Spray Cliffs Rock that remains wet for all or most of the 

year, associated with waterfalls or seepage 36 

Grassy Balds Grassy balds 45 

Shrub Balds Shrub balds 20 

Caves and 

Mines 

Caves and mines with microclimates capable 

of supporting associated biota 58 

Mature Mesic 

Hardwood 

Forests 

Mid- and late-successional mesic deciduous 

forests, including northern hardwood, mixed 

mesophytic, mesic oak, and bottomland 

hardwood forests 

200 

Mature HighElevation Mesic 

Hardwood 

Forests 

Mid- and late-successional mesic hardwood 

forests at high elevations, primarily northern 

hardwood forests 

115 

Mature 

Hemlock 

Forests 

Mid- and late-successional eastern hemlock 

and eastern hemlock-white pine forests in 

native settings, typically on stream terraces 

and other mesic sites 

33 

Mature Oak 

Forests 

Dry to mesic mid- and late-successional oak 

and oak-pine forests subject to moderate 

levels of disturbance sufficient to maintain 

the oak component 

71 

Mature Yellow 

Pine Forests 

Mid- and late-successional southern yellow 

pine and pine-oak forests maintained in open 

conditions by frequent fire 

19 

EarlySuccessional 

Forests 

Early-successional forests, typically aged 0-

10 years and dominated by woody species 24 

High Elevation 

Early 

Succession 

Early-successional habitats at high 

elevations, including early-successional 

forests, open woodlands, and old fields 

19 

Mature Forest 

Interiors 

Mature forest interiors with minimal adverse 

effects due to forest edge. 9 

Canopy Gaps Mid- and late-successional mesic deciduous 

forests with a diverse vertical and horizontal 49 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 267 

Table 3-73. Habitat elements and number of associated viability concern species (SA 

Ecoregion) used to plan for, and assess risk to, viability of terrestrial species during 

forest plan revision, CNF 

Habitat 

Element Element Description 

# Of Potential 

Viability Concern 

Species Associated 

With Habitat 

Element: Southern 

Appalachian 

Ecoregion 

structure as a result of gaps in the canopy 

Woodlands, 

Savannas, and 

Grasslands 

Open woodlands and savannas characterized 

by low canopy cover and rich grassdominated understories, and maintained in 

open conditions by periodic fire. Grasslands 

with little to no overstory, usually occurring as 

patches within woodland and savanna 

complexes and maintained by periodic fire 

137 

Mixed 

Landscapes 

Landscapes characterized by a broad mix of 

successional habitats 27 

Late 

Successional 

Riparian 

Riparian areas dominated by mid- and latesuccessional deciduous forests 142 

Snags Forests containing an abundance of snags 14 

Downed Wood Forests containing an abundance of downed 

wood and thick leaf litter 81 

Den Trees Forests containing an abundance of large 

hollow trees suitable as den trees 4 

Hard Mast Forests producing abundant hard mast 0 

Remoteness Remote habitats away from frequent human 

disturbance 9 

Lakeshores Forested shores of lakes and ponds 7 

Water Quality High water quality in streams and lakes 6 

Effects to these habitat elements are analyzed in this EIS under other sections. 

Based on these analyses, each habitat element was assigned categorical values by 

alternative to indicate future abundance (Table 3-74) and distribution (Table 3-75), 

general likelihood that the habitat element would limit viability of associated species 

(Table 3-76), and overall effect of national forest management on the habitat 

element (Table 3-77). 

The future abundance variable (Table 3-74) is defined as the abundance of the 

associated habitat element in fifty years if the alternative were selected and 

implemented over that fifty-year period. This variable indicates the abundance of the 

habitat element on NFS land only, to provide focus on the role of the national forest 

planning area in supporting associated species. It’s focus on national forest land 

only reflects recognition that viability is to be provided within the “planning area” 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

268 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

(area covered by the forest plan). Definitions of abundance categories are stated in 

quantifiable terms in order to be objective as possible; however, in many cases 

quantifiable estimates of future abundance are not available. In these cases, 

knowledge of Forest Service biologists was used to assign abundance values based 

on current conditions and the magnitude and direction of effects expected under 

each alternative. 

Table 3-74. Values used to categorize projected abundance of each habitat element 

after 50 years of implementing each alternative. 

Habitat 

Abundance 

Value 

Description 

Rare 

The habitat element is rare, with generally less than 100 

occurrences, or patches of the element generally covering less than 

one percent of the national forest planning area. 

Occasional The habitat element is encountered occasionally, and generally is 

found on one to 10 percent of the national forest planning area. 

Common 

The habitat element is abundant and frequently encountered, and 

generally is found on more than 10 percent of the national forest 

planning area. 

Similar to the future abundance variable, the future distribution variable (Table 3-75) 

is defined as the distribution of the associated habitat element in fifty years if the 

alternative were selected and implemented over that fifty-year period. In contrast to 

the abundance variable, it includes consideration of intermixed ownership patterns 

and conditions, and their general effects on movements and interactions of 

individuals among the suitable habitat patches found on NFS land. Because 

assessing adequacy of habitat distribution for a species requires a level of knowledge 

not available for most species, and the number of species being evaluated is very 

large, we have defined habitat distribution in terms of a historical reference 

condition—that which was present prior to the major perturbations associated with 

European settlement of the planning area. This period is generally defined as 1000 

to 1700 A.D. This approach relies on the assumption that a habitat distribution 

similar to that which supported associated species during recent evolutionary history 

will likely contribute to their maintenance in the future, and that the further a habitat 

departs from that historical distribution, the greater the risk to viability of associated 

species. This approach has its own set of difficulties, as evidence of presettlement 

conditions relevant to the planning area is often anecdotal and scarce (see 

introduction to section 3.0, Biological Elements for a brief discussion on historical 

forest conditions). In addition, the reference period may have included a wide variety 

of local conditions in proximity to growing aboriginal population centers and their 

accompanying use of agriculture and fire during the early portion of this period, and 

then their subsequent dramatic decline due to disease epidemics following early 

European contact. Nevertheless, the precision required to assign the categorical 

values for this variable is not high, and may be supported by general positions 

described in mainstream conservation literature (see Wear and Greis 2002). 

Knowledge of Forest Service biologists was used to assign distribution values, based 

on interpretations of historical conditions supported by conservation literature, 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 269 

current conditions, and magnitude and direction of effects expected under each 

alternative 

Differences in scale between the Habitat Abundance and Habitat Distribution 

variables is intentional in order to bring two different pieces of information into the 

analysis. Habitat Abundance has been defined in terms of the amount of habitat on 

national forest land only. This definition reflects the amount of habitat available to 

support a species on the national forest, in recognition of regulation requirements 

that viability be provided within the “planning area” (area covered by the forest plan). 

Habitat Distribution, on the other hand, is defined to include the landscape setting of 

national forest lands, which includes the intermingled private lands and broken 

ownership patterns that provides the context for national forest populations and may 

affect ability of individuals living on national forest lands to interact with each other. 

Table 3-75. Values used to categorize projected distribution of each habitat element 

after 50 years of implementing each alternative 

Habitat 

Distribution 

Value 

Description 

Poor 

The habitat element is poorly distributed within the planning area 

and intermixed lands relative to conditions present prior to 

European settlement. Number and size of habitat patches and/or 

their evenness in distribution across the landscape is greatly 

reduced. 

Fair 

The habitat element is fairly well distributed within the planning 

area and intermixed lands relative to conditions present prior to 

European settlement. Number and size of habitat patches and/or 

their evenness in distribution across the landscape is somewhat 

reduced. 

Good 

The habitat element is well distributed within the planning area and 

intermixed lands relative to conditions present prior to European 

settlement. Number and size of habitat patches and/or their 

evenness in distribution across the landscape is similar to or only 

slightly reduced relative to reference conditions. 

Habitat element abundance and distribution variables were combined to create one 

variable to indicate the general likelihood that the habitat element would be limiting 

to populations of associated species (Table 3-76). In this general context, habitat 

limitation refers to a habitat factor—quantity, distribution, or quality—that results in 

risk to continued existence of the species within the planning area. Everything else 

being equal, quality habitat elements that are rare and poorly distributed are those 

most likely to cause risk to viability of associated species; those that are common 

and well distributed are least likely to cause risk to viability of associated species. 

Table 3-76. Likelihood of habitat limitation (High, Moderate, and Low) to associated 

species as derived from habitat abundance and distribution values. 

Habitat Habitat Distribution 

Abundance Poor Fair Good 

Rare High High Moderate 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

270 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Occasional High Moderate Low 

Common Moderate Low Low 

Providing for species viability requires providing abundant and well-distributed 

habitat in ways that allow existing populations to persist or expand. The ability of 

existing populations to respond to available habitat depends in part on their current 

robustness, which is generally a function of population size. In general, for a given 

habitat condition, small populations will be at more risk than large populations. To 

reflect this fact, likelihood of habitat limitation variable was combined with a 

species’ F Rank for each species/habitat element interaction to generate viability risk 

ratings (Table 3-77). Associations of very rare species with habitat elements that are 

likely to be most limiting were identified as those most at risk; associations of more 

common species with habitats less likely to be limiting received lower risk ratings. 

Ratings include three levels of “high” risk (Table 3-77) to ensure that results err on 

the side of caution. 

Table 3-77. Viability risk ratings for species/habitat interactions as a function of a 

species’ F Rank and likelihood of habitat element limitation variables. 

Likelihood of Species F Rank 

Habitat 

Element 

Limitation 

F1 or F? F2 F3 

High Very High High Moderately-High 

Moderate High Moderately-High Moderate 

Low Moderately-High Moderate Low 

Once viability risk ratings were developed for each species/habitat relationship, 

habitat elements most commonly associated with risks to species viability were 

identified by counting the number of very high, high, and moderately high ratings 

associated with each. To assess the role of national forest management in 

minimizing viability risk associated with each habitat element, a management effects 

variable was assigned to each habitat element by alternative. The management 

effects variable (Table 3-78) categorizes the goal of management for the habitat 

element, the expected resulting trend, and any additional opportunity for minimizing 

viability risk. Numbers of very high, high, and moderately-high risk ratings were 

summarized by management effects variable by alternative to assess how well 

alternatives address viability-related habitat needs. 

Table 3-78. Values used to categorize the effect of national forest management in 

minimizing or contributing to species viability risk associated with each habitat 

element by alternative 

Management 

Effect Value Description 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 271 

Table 3-78. Values used to categorize the effect of national forest management in 

minimizing or contributing to species viability risk associated with each habitat 

element by alternative 

Management 

Effect Value Description 

1 

Abundance and distribution of the habitat element is maintained or 

improved by providing optimal protection, maintenance, and 

restoration to all occurrences (with limited exceptions in some 

cases). Little additional opportunity exists to decrease risk to 

viability of associated species because management is at or near 

optimal. 

2 

Abundance and distribution of the habitat element is improved 

through purposeful restoration, either through active management 

or passively by providing for successional progression. Opportunity 

for decreasing risk to associated species is primarily through 

increasing rates of restoration, where possible. 

3 

The habitat element is maintained at approximately current 

distribution and abundance, though location of elements may shift 

over time as a result of management action or inaction. 

Opportunity to reduce risk to viability of associated species is 

primarily through adopting and implementing objectives to 

increase abundance and distribution of the habitat element. 

4 

Regardless of management efforts, the habitat element is 

expected to decrease in distribution and abundance as a result of 

factors substantially outside of Forest Service control (e.g., invasive 

pests, acid deposition). Opportunity to reduce risk to viability of 

associated species is primarily through cooperative ventures with 

other agencies and organizations. 

5 

The habitat element is expected to decrease in distribution and 

abundance as a result of management action or inaction. 

Opportunity to reduce risk to viability of associated species is 

primarily through adopting and implementing objectives to 

maintain or increase this habitat element. 

Distribution of viability risk was also summarized by species status, i.e., federally 

listed under the ESA, listed as Regional Forester’s sensitive species, or identified as 

locally rare or of other concern. The species status summary highlights the relative 

role of other provisions included in law and policy that result in additional 

consideration of at-risk species during planning. 

Viability Evaluation Results 

Species viability evaluation for the CNF included consideration of 1,202 species of 

the Southern Appalachian ecoregion. Of these species, 400 are considered rare and 

are known to occur on the CNF. Outcomes for habitat elements, as described under 

individual effects analysis sections, are summarized in Appendix E, Table K, using the 

four variables described in Table 3-74, Table 3-75, Table 3-76, and Table 3-78. 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

272 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

These variables indicate expected habitat condition following fifty years of 

implementing each forest plan revision alternative. 

Ratings of risk to viability for each species/habitat relationship by alternative are 

presented in Appendix E, Table L. To facilitate comparison of effects of alternatives 

on species viability, the number of very-high, high, and moderately-high risk ratings 

are summarized for each alternative by habitat element (Table 3-79), management 

effect (Table 3-80), and species status (Table 3-81). 

Viability risk rating summaries indicate relatively small differences among 

alternatives relative to effects on species viability for most habitat elements. This 

similarity results from planning efforts to include in all alternatives provisions to 

provide for species viability in compliance with NFMA regulations. Examples of such 

provisions common to all alternatives (except Alternative F, which represents the 

current forest plan) are the prescriptions for rare communities and riparian corridors. 

Similarity of viability outcomes among alternatives also results from the influence of 

external forest health threats, which represent serious risks to forest communities 

and associated species regardless of alternative. Differences among alternatives are 

also muted by the small scale of actions contemplated under all alternatives relative 

to the more extensive effects to ecological systems that have occurred to national 

forest landscapes since European settlement. Broader scale effects will likely 

continue to have similar important effects to species viability regardless of which 

alternative is selected. 

Despite similarities, some differences in effects of alternatives are apparent (Table 3-

79). Alternatives D and F (current Plan) result in greater risk to more species than 

other alternatives primarily because of the focus on establishing balanced age-class 

distributions. This focus results in reduced distribution and abundance of older 

forests and the diverse structure they provide. Alternatives F and D show higher 

numbers of very-high risk species/habitat relationships than other alternatives. 

Alternatives I, B, A, E, and G provide more optimal mixes of habitats for the full range 

of species’ needs. 

Evaluation results indicate, under all alternatives, high levels of risk to species 

viability are associated with certain key habitats. Highest risks are associated with 1) 

bogs, fens, seeps, and seasonal ponds, 2) rock outcrops and cliffs, 3) mature high 

and low elevation mesic hardwood forests, 4) spruce-fir forests, 5) late-successional 

riparian forests, 6) woodlands, savannas, and grasslands, and 7) basic mesic forests. 

These and other habitats are displayed in Table 3-79 along with the number of 

associated species of viability concern by alternative, broken into categories of 

viability risk. 

Bogs, fens, seeps, and seasonal ponds are critical to maintaining species viability 

due to their natural rarity on the landscape, their decline during European settlement 

due to beaver control and drainage for agriculture, and the number of rare species 

associated with them. Provisions of the rare community prescription provide for 

optimal protection and management of all occurrences of these habitats under all 

alternatives except Alternative F; therefore, opportunities for further reducing risk to 

viability of associated species are limited. Under Alternative F such habitats would 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 273 

likely be maintained, but would not receive the focused attention provided by the rare 

community prescription. 

Similar to the wetland habitats described above, other rare communities such as 

rock outcrops and cliffs, woodlands, savannas and grasslands, and basic mesic 

forests are critical to maintaining species viability due to their unique habitat 

attributes and relative rarity on the landscape. Provisions of the rare community 

prescription provide for optimal protection and management of all occurrences of 

these habitats under all alternatives except Alternative F; therefore, opportunities for 

further reducing risk to viability of associated species are limited. Under Alternative F 

such habitats would likely be maintained, but would not receive the focused attention 

provided by the rare community prescription. 

There are over 200 Southern Appalachian species of viability concern associated 

with mature mesic hardwood forests, including mature high-elevation mesic 

hardwood forests (Table 3-73). The majority of these forests would be allocated to 

prescriptions that would maintain the predominance of older conditions in all 

alternatives except D and F. For alternative I, about half would be allocated to older 

successional options, and half to younger successional stage options. For this 

reason, Alternatives F, D and I would result in risk to 58 associated species 

compared to all other alternatives, which would result in risk to 27 species (Table 3-

79). However, for alternative I, habitats for species at risk will be maintained, 

whereas in Alternatives D and F, habitats may decline (Table 3-80). Alternatives D 

and F would result in risk to 50 species associated with mature high-elevation mesic 

hardwood forests, compared to all other alternatives, which would result in risk to 38 

species. Implementation of Alternatives A, B, E, or G would provide highest emphasis 

on viability of this species group. Across all alternatives, forestwide objectives and 

standards have been established to minimize the acreage of these forests prescribed 

burned and reduce the impacts of prescribed fire in these communities when 

included as part of landscape-level burn units. In addition, a CNF standard ensures 

that a minimum of 75 percent of the northern hardwood, mixed mesophytic and river 

floodplain forest types would be maintained in mid-late successional stages, and that 

50 percent of each of those types be maintained in late successional or old growth 

conditions. 

Spruce-fir forests are critical to maintaining species viability because they are 

naturally limited to the highest elevations, and represent the edge of range for many 

associated species. They therefore support large numbers of species of potential 

viability concern. While their distribution may be somewhat reduced compared to 

historical conditions, the biggest threats to this community and associated species 

are impacts from the balsam woolly adelgid, for which effective control methods are 

not known. Additionally impacts from air pollution are substantial; significant broadscale coordinated efforts are needed to resolve this issue. Although spruce-fir forests 

are provided optimal protection and management under the rare community 

prescription, external threats are more likely to determine the fate of this community 

and viability of associated species. Little opportunity for reducing risks through 

typical national forest management is apparent under any alternative. 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

274 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Riparian habitats are critical to maintaining species viability due to their unique 

position on the landscape which includes the transitional zone between aquatic and 

terrestrial habitats. The majority of riparian dependent species need, or prefer, latesuccessional forest conditions for the diverse structure and the moist, temperaturemoderated microclimates that they provide. The riparian prescription is designed to 

produce late-successional forest conditions and provide optimal protection to 

riparian dependent species across all alternatives. With the implementation of the 

riparian prescription additional opportunities to further reduce risks to species 

viability through management are limited. Alternative F (the current Plan) is not 

subject to the proposed riparian standards, however it does contain substantive 

riparian protection, though perhaps less focused than in the other alternatives, 

particulary in respect to ephemeral channels. The viability of 31 species of 

moderately high risk associated with late-successional riparian habitats should be 

adequately protected under all alternatives through the implementation of the 

riparian prescription and associated standards. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 275 

Table 3-79. Number of species/habitat relationships rated as of very high, high, and 

moderately high risk to terrestrial species viability for each habitat element by 

alternative 

Alternative 

Habitat Element/Risk A B D E F G I 

 

Bogs, Fens, Seeps, Seasonal Ponds 

 Very High 43 43 43 43 43 43 43 

 High 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 

 Moderately High 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 

 Total 82 82 82 82 82 82 82 

Open Wetlands 

 Very High 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 

 High 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 

 Moderately High 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

 Total 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 

River Channels 

 Very High 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 

 High 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 

 Moderately High 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

 Total 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 

Glades and Barrens 

 Very High 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 

 High 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 

 Moderately High 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 

 Total 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 

Carolina Hemlock Forests 

 Very High 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

 High 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

 Moderately High 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

 Total 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 

Table Mountain Pine Forests 

 Very High 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

 High 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 

 Moderately High 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

 Total 2 2 1 2 2 2 1 

Spruce-Fir Forests 

 Very High 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 

 High 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 

 Moderately High 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 

 Total 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 

Beech Gap Forests 

 Very High 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

 High 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

 Moderately High 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

 Total 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 

Basic Mesic Forests 

 Very High 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

276 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Table 3-79. Number of species/habitat relationships rated as of very high, high, and 

moderately high risk to terrestrial species viability for each habitat element by 

alternative 

Alternative 

Habitat Element/Risk A B D E F G I 

 

 High 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 

 Moderately High 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 

 Total 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 

Rock Outcrops and Cliffs 

 Very High 0 0 0 0 36 0 0 

 High 36 36 36 36 21 36 36 

 Moderately High 21 21 21 21 4 21 21 

 Total 57 57 57 57 61 57 57 

Spray Cliffs 

 Very High 0 0 0 0 13 0 0 

 High 13 13 13 13 1 13 13 

 Moderately High 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

 Total 14 14 14 14 15 14 14 

Grassy Balds 

 Very High 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 

 High 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 

 Moderately High 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 

 Total 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 

Shrub Balds 

 Very High 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 

 High 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

 Moderately High 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

 Total 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 

Canebrakes 

 Very High 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

 High 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

 Moderately High 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

 Total 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

Caves and Mines 

 Very High 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 

 High 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

 Moderately High 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

 Total 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 

Mature Mesic Hardwood Forests 

 Very High 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

 High 0 0 27 0 27 0 27 

 Moderately High 27 27 31 27 31 27 31 

 Total 27 27 58 27 58 27 58 

Mature High-Elevation Mesic Hardwood 

Forests 

 

 Very High 0 0 23 0 23 0 0 

 High 23 23 15 23 15 23 23 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 277 

Table 3-79. Number of species/habitat relationships rated as of very high, high, and 

moderately high risk to terrestrial species viability for each habitat element by 

alternative 

Alternative 

Habitat Element/Risk A B D E F G I 

 

 Moderately High 15 15 12 15 12 15 15 

 Total 38 38 50 38 50 38 38 

Mature Hemlock Forests 

 Very High 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 

 High 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

 Moderately High 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 

 Total 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 

Mature Oak Forests 

 Very High 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

 High 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

 Moderately High 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 

 Total 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 

Mature Yellow Pine Forests 

 Very High 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

 High 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 

 Moderately High 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

 Total 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 

Early-Successional Forests 

 Very High 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 

 High 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 

 Moderately High 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 

 Total 2 2 1 2 1 2 2 

High Elevation Early Succession 

 Very High 3 3 0 3 0 3 3 

 High 3 3 0 3 0 3 3 

 Moderately High 0 0 3 0 3 0 0 

 Total 6 6 3 6 3 6 6 

Mature Forest Interiors 

 Very High 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

 High 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

 Moderately High 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

 Total 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Canopy Gaps 

 Very High 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

 High 0 0 6 0 6 0 0 

 Moderately High 6 6 7 6 7 6 6 

 Total 6 6 13 6 13 6 6 

Woodlands, Savannas, and Grasslands 

 Very High 17 0 17 17 17 17 0 

 High 9 17 9 9 9 9 17 

 Moderately High 4 9 4 4 4 4 9 

 Total 30 26 30 30 30 30 26 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

278 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Table 3-79. Number of species/habitat relationships rated as of very high, high, and 

moderately high risk to terrestrial species viability for each habitat element by 

alternative 

Alternative 

Habitat Element/Risk A B D E F G I 

 

Mixed Landscapes 

 Very High 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

 High 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

 Moderately High 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 

 Total 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 

Late Successional Riparian 

 Very High 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

 High 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

 Moderately High 31 31 31 31 31 31 31 

 Total 31 31 31 31 31 31 31 

Early-Successional Riparian 

 Very High 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

 High 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 

 Moderately High 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

 Total 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 

Snags 

 Very High 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

 High 0 0 4 0 4 0 0 

 Moderately High 4 4 2 4 2 4 4 

 Total 4 4 6 4 6 4 4 

Downed Wood 

 Very High 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

 High 0 0 19 0 0 0 0 

 Moderately High 19 19 20 19 19 19 19 

 Total 19 19 39 19 19 19 19 

Den Trees 

 Very High 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

 High 0 0 2 0 2 0 0 

 Moderately High 2 2 0 2 0 2 2 

 Total 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 

Hard Mast 

 Very High 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

 High 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

 Moderately High 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

 Total 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

Remoteness 

 Very High 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 

 High 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

 Moderately High 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

 Total 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 

Lakeshores 

 Very High 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 279 

Table 3-79. Number of species/habitat relationships rated as of very high, high, and 

moderately high risk to terrestrial species viability for each habitat element by 

alternative 

Alternative 

Habitat Element/Risk A B D E F G I 

 

 High 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 

 Moderately High 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

 Total 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 

Water Quality 

 Very High 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

 High 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

 Moderately High 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

 Total 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

All Habitat Elements 

 Very High 143 126 163 144 212 144 126 

 High 155 163 200 155 155 155 189 

 Moderately High 192 197 194 191 176 191 201 

 Total 490 486 557 490 543 490 516 

Of key interest are habitat elements that are associated with high risk to species 

viability, and for which risk may be reduced by improving abundance and distribution 

through management. Pine and pine-oak forests, Table Mountain pine forests, 

woodlands, savannas, and grasslands, mountain balds, early successional forests, 

and glades and barrens all fit this category. Potential restoration activities within 

these communities are described in sections 6 (Major Forest Communities), 7 (Rare 

Communities), and 8 (Successional Habitats). For early successional habitats, 

including high elevation, Alternatives D and F would provide the best abundance and 

distribution. For other habitat elements, emphasis varies across alternatives with no 

single alternative providing a clear benefit to all habitats (see Section 8). 

Alternatives D and F are the alternatives that would cause a relative decline in 

selected habitat elements as a direct result of management (Table 3-80). These 

elements include mature mesic hardwood forests, mature high-elevation mesic 

hardwood forests, mature oak forests, Table Mountain pine forests, mature forest 

interiors, snags, downed wood, and den trees (Appendix E, Table K). 

Table 3-80. Number of species/habitat relationships rated as of very high, high, and 

moderately high risk to terrestrial species viability for each category of management 

effect by alternative. 

 Alternative 

Management Effect/Risk A B D E F G I 

Provide Optimal Protection and Management for All Habitat Occurrences 

 Very High 93 93 93 93 0 93 93 

 High 99 99 99 99 2 99 99 

 Moderately High 51 51 51 51 1 51 51 

 Total 243 243 243 243 3 243 243 

Improve Habitat Abundance and Distribution Through Restoration 

 Very High 4 4 1 1 1 1 4 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

280 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Table 3-80. Number of species/habitat relationships rated as of very high, high, and 

moderately high risk to terrestrial species viability for each category of management 

effect by alternative. 

 Alternative 

Management Effect/Risk A B D E F G I 

 High 13 30 14 9 14 9 29 

 Moderately High 62 80 14 70 13 70 44 

 Total 79 114 29 80 18 80 77 

Maintain Habitat Abundance and Distribution 

 Very High 20 3 20 23 162 23 3 

 High 32 23 9 35 79 35 50 

 Moderately High 66 53 41 57 74 57 93 

 Total 118 79 70 115 315 115 146 

Reduce Habitat Abundance and Distribution as Result of External Factors 

 Very High 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 

 High 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 

 Moderately High 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 

 Total 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 

Decline in Habitat Abundance and Distribution as Result of Management 

 Very High 0 0 23 1 23 1 0 

 High 0 0 67 1 49 1 0 

 Moderately High 0 0 75 0 75 0 0 

 Total 0 0 165 2 147 2 0 

Total for All Management Effect Categories 

 Very High 143 126 163 144 212 144 126 

 High 155 163 200 155 155 155 189 

 Moderately High 192 197 194 191 176 191 201 

 Total 490 486 557 490 543 490 516 

Planning for, and evaluation of, species viability for forest plan revision has focused 

primarily on providing desired abundance and distribution of habitat elements, in 

compliance with NFMA regulations. Risks to species viability can be much reduced 

by additional provisions present in existing law and policy. These include specific 

consideration of effects to federally listed threatened and endangered species, those 

proposed for such listing, and Regional Forester’s Sensitive Species, in biological 

assessments and evaluations conducted as part of all national forest management 

decisions. These assessments and evaluations identify where additional protective 

measures are warranted to provide for continued existence of the species on NFS 

land. Projects that may affect federally listed or proposed species must be 

coordinated with the USFWS. In support of these requirements, these species are 

often the focus of inventory and monitoring efforts. Additional species-based 

provisions included in all forest plan revision alternatives supplement existing law 

and policy. All alternatives include general and species-specific provisions for 

federally listed species, developed through coordinated planning with the USFWS. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 281 

Table 3-81. Number of species/habitat relationships rated as of very high, high, 

and moderately high risk to terrestrial species viability for each category of 

species status by alternative. 

 Alternative 

Species Status/Viability Risk A B D E F G I 

Federally Listed or Proposed as Threatened or Endangered 

 Very High 7 7 8 7 13 7 7 

 High 6 6 7 6 2 6 6 

 Moderately High 3 3 1 3 1 3 3 

 Total 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 

Regional Forester’s Sensitive Species 

 Very High 26 23 30 27 46 27 23 

 High 38 38 43 37 28 37 42 

 Moderately High 37 39 45 37 40 37 43 

 Total 101 100 118 101 114 101 108 

Locally Rare and Other Species 

 Very High 110 96 125 110 153 110 96 

 High 111 119 150 112 125 112 141 

 Moderately High 152 155 148 151 135 151 155 

 Total 373 370 423 373 413 373 392 

Total for All Species Status Categories 

 Very High 143 126 163 144 212 144 126 

 High 155 163 200 155 155 155 189 

 Moderately High 192 197 194 191 176 191 201 

 Total 490 486 557 490 543 490 516 

In conclusion, differences in effects to viability risk among alternatives are relatively 

small for most habitat elements (Table 3-79). High- risk species/habitat relationships 

are primarily a result of forest health threats and historical influences that have 

further reduced distribution and abundance of naturally rare habitat elements. In 

general, effects of proposed management strategies are small relative to historical 

impacts and future external threats (Table 3-80). Risks to species viability are 

minimized by forest plan revision alternatives B, A, E, G, and I that provide more 

optimal mixes of habitats for the full range of species needs. 

Slight differences in results presented here from those in the DEIS are primarily the 

result of updates to species’ status information (F Ranks) made during the comment 

period through review and coordination with NatureServe and their contractors. 

Additional changes are the result of adding species inadvertently omitted from the 

DEIS. These adjustments have not resulted in substantial changes to overall 

patterns of risk, or conclusions relative to overall effects of alternatives. It is 

important to note that information on the status and ecology of this great diversity of 

species is constantly changing and will continue to do so as the revised forest plan is 

implemented. Lists of species of viability concern and related information will be 

maintained and updated as part of plan implementation; however, this updating will 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

282 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

typically be small and incremental, and is not expected to change the overall 

conclusions of this analysis during this planning period.. 

15.2 Aquatic Species Viability Evaluation 

National forests are required to manage aquatic habitats for the maintenance of 

viable populations of existing native and desired non-native vertebrate species in the 

planning area (36 CFR 219.19 and USDA Regulations 9500-004). The NFMA defines 

a viable population as “...one which has the estimated number and distribution of 

reproductive individuals to insure its continued ...” The Act further states, “...habitat 

must be provided to support, at least, a minimum number of reproductive individuals 

and that habitat must be well distributed so that those individuals can interact with 

others in the planning area.” The planning area is defined as the NFS lands included 

in the LMP. 

This assessment evaluates the viability risk for aquatic species by watershed. Where 

a viability risk exists at the watershed level, further assessment of the role of Forest 

Service management in mitigating or contributing to the problem is given. 

Methods and Assumptions 

Habitat alteration is the major cause of decline of aquatic diversity in the South. 

Channelization, impoundment, sedimentation, and flow alterations are the most 

common physical habitat alterations associated with the decline of aquatic species 

(Walsh et al. 1995; Etnier 1997; Burkhead et al. 1997). Other human-induced 

impacts to aquatic species include pollution, introduced species, and over-harvesting 

(Miller 1989). 

Habitat quality within a freshwater ecosystem is determined by activities within the 

watershed (Abell et al. 2000; Scott and Helfman 2002). Therefore, the number and 

intensity of activities in a watershed may be used to estimate the amount of quality 

habitat available for aquatic species. 

To determine if there is adequate quality habitat for aquatic species, the condition of 

individual watersheds needed to be determined. Watershed condition was 

determined from the physical and anthropogenic interactions within the watershed. 

Four stressors to aquatic habitats were identified: sedimentation, point-source 

pollution, alterations in water temperature, and altered stream flows. The extent and 

detail required to address all watersheds, including private land, made it necessary 

to determine values from geographic data. These values were compared among the 

watersheds and a condition or set of conditions was determined. 

Hydrologic units (HU) or watersheds are defined as areas that drain to a common 

point. Fifth level watersheds are generally between 40,000 and 250,000 acres. 

There are 24 fifth level watersheds that include NFS lands. These watersheds were 

digitally determined; then using GIS technology, overlain with other geographic 

information layers including ownership, streams, roads, point sources, dams, and 

land use from the 1970’s and 1990’s. 

The layers were intersected with the 5th level watersheds. The attributes of these 

layers were quantified as a percent of the watershed or as a density (miles per 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 283 

square mile). Table 3-82 shows the layers, the geographic data, attributes, the data 

sources, and the stressors they represent. 

Table 3-82. Data layers were used to display and develop stressors that 

caused degradation to aquatic habitats in the 5th level watersheds. 

Layer Geographic 

Data Attribute Source Stressors 

watersheds planning unit 5th level 

watershed 

NRCS and 

USFS ------ 

ownership ownership 

pattern 

percent NFS 

lands Forests GIS ------ 

streams riparian areas riparian acres EPA Basins III ------ 

land use land types erosion 

values 

National Land 

Use 

Classification 

Data 

Sediment 

slope class contour lines slope class 

Digital 

Elevation 

Models 

Sediment 

ecoregion physiographic 

zone 

erosion 

values EPA Basins III Sediment 

other land 

disturbances 

other 

disturbances 

not covered 

erosion 

values 

Forest 

personnel Sediment 

roads road density in 

riparian area 

miles of 

roads per 

square mile 

of land 

Tiger Census 

Data 

Sediment 

Temperature 

land use 

riparian areas 

with open 

forest canopy 

percent open 

canopy in 

riparian areas 

EPA Basins III 

[1970’s] and 

EPA Region 4 

[1990’s] 

Temperature 

dams density of 

dams 

number of 

dams per 

square mile 

of land 

EPA Basins III Altered Flow 

point 

sources 

density of point 

sources 

number of 

pollution 

point sources 

per square 

mile of land 

EPA Basins III 

(cerlis, ricris, 

and npdes 

sites) 

Point Source 

Pollution 

Current Watershed Conditions 

Each watershed was rated (as excellent, average, or below average) for sediment, 

temperature, altered flow and point sources of pollution. The ratings were 

determined from natural breaks in the data using Jenk’s optimization formula 

(Clingenpeel 2002). A sediment model (Clingenpeel 2002) predicted sediment 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

284 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

loads, above baseline, in each 5th level watershed (Watershed Condition Rank - 

WCR). Table 3-83 displays the ratings of each 5th level watershed. 

The stressors were evaluated to determine current watershed condition ranking and 

expected changes associated with each LMP alternative. The Watershed section 

(Chapter 3, Physical Elements, 2.0 Watershed) assessed the aquatic habitat changes 

by alternative for five decades. No significant differences are predicted between the 

current sediment loads and those expected under each alternative. The remainder 

of this aquatic viability assessment assumes that current levels of stress to that 

portion of the 5th level watershed managed as NFS lands will not change under any 

alternative during any of the five decades assessed. 

Table 3-83. Four habitat stressors were assessed in each 5th level watershed. 

Those watershed having a high viability risk are highlighted. 

5th Level 

Watershed 

Sediment 

(WCR) 

Point Source 

Pollution Temperature 

Altered 

Stream 

Flow 

6010103060 Below Average Below Average Below Average Average 

6010108060 Below Average Average Below Average Average 

6020003040 Below Average Average Average Average 

6010103020 Average Average Below Average Average 

6010102030 Average Average Below Average Average 

6010108050 Average Average Below Average Average 

5050001010 Average Average Average Average 

6010103010 Average Average Average Average 

6010103030 Average Average Average Average 

6010106010 Average Average Average Average 

6020002040 Average Average Average Average 

6010102010 Average Average Average Average 

6010108030 Average Average Average Average 

3150101010 Average Excellent Average Excellent 

6010103040 Average Average Average Average 

6010103050 Average Average Average Excellent 

6010105070 Average Average Average Excellent 

6010108010 Average Average Average Average 

6020002030 Average Average Average Average 

6020003020 Average Excellent Average Excellent 

6010105080 Excellent Average Average Average 

6010108031 Excellent Average Average Average 

6010204020 Excellent Average Excellent Excellent 

6010204040 Excellent Average Average Average 

Aquatic Species Sensitivity to Stressors 

Assessing the viability risk for each aquatic species documented on NFS lands and 

additional species not yet documented would be an impractical task. As a surrogate, 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 285 

the viability of the rarest aquatic species (federally threatened and endangered, 

Forest Service sensitive, and locally rare species [TES-LR]) are assessed at 5th level 

watersheds. If these TES-LR species are viable, then it is assumed other aquatic 

species with wider ranges are also viable. 

A stressor to an aquatic system is only a factor when a species sensitive to that 

stressor occurs within that watershed. For example, most aquatic species are not 

dependent on cold water temperatures in the summer. Consequently, a slight 

increase in summer water temperatures would not have an adverse affect on them. 

Temperature is a stressor to an aquatic system only when physical conditions in the 

watershed cause water temperature to rise and aquatic species sensitive to high 

water temperatures are present. 

In order to determine if the stressors identified above are affecting the aquatic 

systems, sensitivity levels to the four stressors were assigned to each TES-LR species 

(Table 3-84 and Appendix F, Table F-4). These ratings were based on published 

literature and personal communications (Terwilliger 1991; Etnier and Starnes 1993; 

Byron Freeman, Wendell Haag, Melvin Warren, Bernard Kuhajda, Stephen Hiner, and 

Arnold Eversole personal communications). Threats to aquatic species viability are 

not limited to these four variables; however, GIS coverages are not available for 

channelization, introduced species, over-harvest, and other variables. For forest level 

planning it is assumed that these four stressors adequately describe land 

disturbance activities in the planning area. 

Table 3-84. Federally threatened and endangered and CNF sensitive and 

locally rare aquatic species ( Status – E = federally listed as endangered; T = 

federally listed as threatened; S = CNF sensitive; LR = CNF locally rare) were 

evaluated for their sensitivity to the four stressors – sediment (S), point source 

pollution (P), temperature (T), and altered flow (A). 

Common Name Scientific Name Status Stressors 

Appalachian elktoe Alasmidonta raveneliana E SPA 

Helma's net-spinning 

caddisfly Cheumatopsyche helma S SP 

bog turtle Clemmys muhlenbergii S A 

blue shiner Cyprinella caerulea T SPTA 

tan riffleshell Epioblasma florentina walkeri E SPA 

spotfin chub Erimonax monacha T SPA 

sharphead darter Etheostoma acuticeps S SPTA 

holiday darter Etheostoma brevirostrum S SPTA 

coldwater darter Etheostoma ditrema LR SPTA 

duskytail darter Etheostoma percnurum E SPA 

trispot darter Etheostoma trisella LR SPTA 

wounded darter Etheostoma vulneratum S SPA 

Tennessee pigtoe Fusconaia barnesiana S SPA 

Cherokee clubtail Gomphus consanguis S SP 

green-faced clubtail Gomphus viridifrons S SP 

lined chub Hybopsis lineapunctata LR SPTA 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

286 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Table 3-84. Federally threatened and endangered and CNF sensitive and 

locally rare aquatic species ( Status – E = federally listed as endangered; T = 

federally listed as threatened; S = CNF sensitive; LR = CNF locally rare) were 

evaluated for their sensitivity to the four stressors – sediment (S), point source 

pollution (P), temperature (T), and altered flow (A). 

Common Name Scientific Name Status Stressors 

mountain brook lamprey Ichthyomyzon greeleyi S P 

fine-lined pocketbook Lampsilis altilis T SPA 

Tennessee heelsplitter Lasmigona holstonia S SPA 

green floater Lasmigona subviridis S SPA 

slabside pearlymussel Lexingtonia dolabelloides S SPA 

mountain river cruiser Macromia margarita S SP 

William's giant stonefly Megaleuctra williamsae S SP 

smoky madtom Noturus baileyi E SPA 

yellowfin madtom Noturus flavipinnis T SPA 

frecklebelly madtom Noturus munitus LR SA 

Allegheny snaketail Ophiogomphus 

alleghaniensis S SP 

Edmund's snaketail Ophiogomphus edmundo S SP 

Appalachian snaketail Ophiogomphus incurvatus S SP 

amber darter Percina antesella E SPA 

blotchside logperch Percina burtoni S SPA 

Consauga logperch Percina jenkinsi E SPTA 

longhead darter Percina macrocephala S SPTA 

bronze darter Percina palmaris S SPA 

olive darter Percina squamata S SPA 

snail darter Percina tanasi T SPA 

fatlips minnow Phenacobius crassilabrum S SPA 

Tennessee dace Phoxinus tennesseensis S SPA 

southern pigtoe Pleurobema georgianum E SPA 

Georgia pigtoe Pleurobema hanleyianum S SPA 

Tennessee clubshell Pleurobema oviforme S SPA 

Alabama creekmussel Strophitus connasaugaensis S SPA 

Alabama rainbow Villosa nebulosa S SPA 

Cumberland bean Villosa trabalis E SPA 

Coosa combshell Villosa vanuxemensis 

umbrans S SPA 

Stressors, TES-LR Sensitivity, and NFS lands 

Watersheds where aquatic species have a viability risk are those where a stressor 

(sediment, point source pollution, temperature and altered flows) is significant and a 

TES-LR species sensitive to that stressor is present. Sediment is a significant 

stressor when it is rated Average or Below Average; Point Source Pollution, 

Temperature, and Altered Flow are significant stressors when they are rated Below 

Average. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 287 

 Altered Flow 

Altered flow is not a stressor in any of the 24 5th level watersheds. The risk to 

viability for aquatic species in all of the 5th level watersheds from alter flow is low 

(Appendix F, Table F-3). 

 Point Source Pollution 

Only the Lower Watauga (6010103060) watershed is stressed from point source 

pollution. Eleven (Appendix F, Table F-4) TES-LR species sensitive to this stressor 

could occur in the Lower Watauga watershed. The point sources within this 

watershed are all downstream of NFS lands. Consequently, while the viability risk for 

aquatic species from point source pollution in the Lower Watauga watershed is high, 

point source pollution from NFS lands is not contributing to this stressor and Forest 

Service management activities cannot mitigate these impacts. 

 Temperature 

Five watersheds are stressed by temperature alterations, specifically - elevated water 

temperatures during the summer months (Appendix F, Table F-3). The sharphead 

and longhead darters are TES-LR species sensitive to temperature found in these five 

watersheds (Table 3-85). Two factors contribute to increased water temperatures 

based on the Sediment Model (Clingenpeel 2002): 1) road density in riparian areas; 

and 2) riparian areas with open forest canopy. Both of these factors are addressed 

by specific standards in this plan revision (Riparian Prescription) and in the current 

plan (Management Area 18). Based on these standards, the Cherokee National 

Forest did not contribute to increasing stream temperatures under the previous 

FLRM Plan and will not contribute under any of the alternatives. Viability is at risk to 

aquatic species sensitive to increases in water temperature in these five watersheds; 

however, management of NFS lands is not contributing to this stressor but, in fact, 

decreases the level of risk throughout the watersheds. 

Table 3-85. All of the watersheds stressed by temperature 

alterations, support TES-LR aquatic species that are sensitive 

to elevated water temperatures. 

Watershed Watershed Name Sharphead 

Darter 

Longhead 

Darter 

6010102030 South Holston Lake X X 

6010103020 Watauga River X 

6010103060 Lower Watauga River X 

6010108050 Camp Creek X 

6010108060 Nolichuky River X 

 Sediment 

Twenty watersheds are stressed by sediment and 43 of 45 TES-LR species are 

sensitive to sediment (Table 3-83). There is a concern for the viability of aquatic 

species in each of these watersheds; consequently, further evaluation was 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

288 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

conducted to determine if aquatic species would be stressed by NFS land 

management activities under the new FLRM Plan. The evaluation includes: 1) 

expected sediment sources; 2) on-going sediment monitoring; and 3) current status 

of sediment sensitive aquatic species. 

The Sediment Model (Clingenpeel 2002) was designed to isolate three sediment 

sources: roads, private lands, and NFS lands. The relative proportion each of these 

sources contributes to the sediment load is: roads - 16%; private lands – 81%; and 

NFS lands – 3%. The proportion of sediment in each 5th level watershed attributable 

to NFS lands management is small. The annual monitoring and evaluation report 

(CNF Monitoring and Evaluation Report FY2001 and FY2002) documents the habitat 

quality of monitored stream reaches. About 90 percent of the streams surveyed met 

the objective for stream substrate embeddedness (a measure of sediment rates). 

Again, a small proportion of the degraded habitat was attributable to Forest Service 

management activities. In most instances, Forest Service roads were identified as 

the primary sediment sources and recommendations were made to mitigate these 

adverse effects. 

The population trends for all aquatic TES-LR species surveyed on NFS lands were 

stable to upward. Finally, trout are among the most sensitive aquatic species in 

terms of their tolerance to sediment. In the watersheds where sediment is a 

stressor and trout occur, the populations of trout (brook, brown and rainbow) have 

remained stable over the past 17 years (CNF Monitoring and Evaluation Report 

FY2001 2002). 127 stream reaches support trout. Many of these streams were 

sampled multiple times during this time frame and the trout populations remained 

fairly constant. The presence of so many independent populations of trout strongly 

suggests that sediment is not a significant stressor to aquatic TES-LR species on NFS 

lands. The viability risk to aquatic species throughout the watersheds is high; 

however, on NFS lands the viability risk from sediment is low and the quality of water 

coming off NFS lands may be mitigating some of the adverse effects throughout the 

watersheds. 

Conclusions 

The level of risk to viability with respect to sediment is high for three watersheds, 

moderate for seventeen, and low for four at the coarse filter scale. Aquatic habitat 

stressors identified in specific watersheds should be considered during project 

analysis to insure that Forest Service proposals do not contribute to the adverse 

effects already existing and, to the extent feasible, mitigate some of those impacts. 

Many TES-LR aquatic species require miles of streams and rivers to ensure their 

viability. Often, NFS lands do not encompass sufficient habitat to insure their long 

term survival. Regardless of management on CNF lands, extirpations may occur in 

some 5th level watersheds. 

16.0 FOREST HEALTH 

Forest health concerns for the CNF include insects, diseases, and potential storm 

damage. Damage to forest communities occurs in varying degrees depending on 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 289 

community types and species composition, location on the landscape, age of the 

forested community, past disturbance, and weather conditions. 

16.1 Annosum Root Rot 

16.1.1 Affected Environment 

Annosum root disease, caused by (Heterobasdion annosum), is a root and butt rot of 

conifers. In the south, the disease is most often associated with pine stands that 

have been partially cut (thinned) and occur on sandy, well-drained soils; but can be 

found in pine stands on a variety of soils and forest conditions. In the Appalachian 

Mountains, white pines are very susceptible to annosum regardless of soil type. 

16.1.2 Direct/Indirect Effects 

Annosum root disease would be expected to increase in pine stands where partial 

cuts occur (i.e. thinning and unevenaged management of pine stands). In areas with 

no management activity, the incidence of annosum root rot should not change from 

current levels. Annosum would decrease as the management emphasis shifts to 

mixed pine and hardwood types rather than predominately pine. 

In alternatives where pine stands, especially white pine, would be 

maintained/restored and thinned regularly, the disease incidence would increase. 

This increase is based on the assumption that stump treatment with borax would not 

be used. Annosum root disease is predicted to remain at current levels or decrease 

for alternatives with little or no harvest activity. Alternatives where there would 

potentially be some vegetative management, but little or no pine thinning, annosum 

would remain at current levels or decrease. 

The following table displays acres of pine that would potentially be harvested in the 

first period, by Alternative, for forested communities with significant pine 

components. The larger the number of acres the higher risk for annosum root 

disease: 

Table 3-86. Displays acres by community type with pine component that 

could be harvested in the first period. 

Community Types Alt A Alt B Alt D Alt E Alt F Alt G Alt I 

Conifer/HdWd 765 453 1,370 674 1,078 744 747 

Virginia Pine 3,378 3,339 3,972 831 4,474 2,098 3,227 

Xeric Pine/Pine 

Oak 1,000 1,197 1,157 1,000 1,607 1,000 1,000 

Total Acres 5,143 4,989 6,499 2,505 7,159 3,842 4,974 

Alternative F would have the highest risk for annosum and alternative E would have 

the lowest risk. Alternative I would be slightly higher than the average for all 

alternatives. 

16.1.3 Cumulative Effects 

This LMP revision emphasizes management practices that establish and maintain 

naturally occurring species and their ecological distribution rather than pine 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

290 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

plantations. The risk of damage from annosum would potentially decrease on the 

CNF for all alternatives. Pine plantations on lands adjacent to the CNF would be 

managed on short rotations and would not normally be thinned. Incidence of 

annosum root disease on these adjacent lands would remain at current levels or 

possibly increase. 

16.2 Beech Bark Disease 

16.2.1 Affected Environment 

Beech bark disease (Nectria coccinea var. faginata) is a complex of the beech scale 

(Cryptococcus fagisuga) (a non-native insect), and at least two different fungal 

pathogens of the inner bark (one native and the other non-native) that can kill 

American beech. Without the scale insect to provide entrance wounds through the 

bark, the fungal pathogens cannot cause disease. There is a slight amount of 

resistance in the population of American beech to the scale insect, but it is not 

known how or whether this resistance can be practically exploited. Therefore, 

wherever American beech grows on the CNF, American beech would be considered 

susceptible to mortality from beech bark disease. However, impacts would vary 

depending on the density of beech. American beech occurs as a minor component 

in cove or upland hardwood stands and as a significant component of northern 

hardwood communities. This disease would result in mortality wherever beech 

occurs but would have the most impact in the northern hardwood communities. 

Northern hardwood forests occupy about 17,000 acres of the CNF, less than three 

percent of the total forest acres. 

16.2.2 Direct/Indirect Effects 

There are currently no known management actions that would reduce or eliminate 

the beech scale or beech bark disease. The trend of increased damage to American 

beech caused by this disease will continue for all alternatives. 

16.2.3 Cumulative Effects 

Decline in beech scale populations will occasionally occur over large areas 

suggesting that environmental factors would affect the insect. This disease is 

expected to increase for all alternatives. Currently, no monitoring program 

specifically addresses this disease and detection of beech mortality will rely on 

general detection flights conducted annually. 

16.3 Butternut Canker 

16.3.1 Affected Environment 

This disease, caused by a non-native fungus (Sirococcus clavigigentijuglandacearum), was introduced as early as the mid-1960s. During the past 30 

years the disease has killed 90 percent of the butternut population (SAMAB 1996). 

There may be some resistance to the disease but most trees are susceptible. The 

butternut population is currently very sparse due to natural distribution of the species 

and mortality caused by this disease. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 291 

16.3.2 Direct/Indirect Effects 

This LMP revision has no proposed treatments that would impact butternut. All 

alternatives will allow for Forest Health Protection and cooperators to identify, 

protect, and propagate individuals that exhibit adequate levels of resistance. 

16.3.3 Cumulative Effects 

Environmental conditions appear to have no impact on butternut canker and the 

incidence of this disease will likely continue and become more prolific for all 

alternatives. Butternut canker will continue to result in mortality of butternut trees 

regardless of management practices. The development and propagation of resistant 

strains of butternut is the only management action currently having positive results. 

All alternatives will allow for this to continue. 

16.4 Dogwood Anthracnose 

16.4.1 Affected Environment 

Dogwood anthracnose (Discula destructive) was first observed in the U.S.A in 

Washington State in 1976 and in New York two years later. The disease has spread 

rapidly down the Appalachians, primarily on Cornus florida, eastern flowering 

dogwood. Infection begins as leaf spots that may enlarge to kill the entire leaf. The 

fungus also infects twigs and spreads to the main stem. Later, the main stem of the 

infected tree develops cankers and epicormic shoots along the entire length. Stem 

cankers are capable of killing dogwoods, however, larger trees often die two to three 

years after the first symptoms are observed due to the stress of repeated defoliation. 

Dogwood is an important understory and midstory species in many forest 

communities on the CNF. 

Infection occurs wherever dogwood occurs but is most likely to occur at higher 

elevations and on moist sites. Shade increases the risk of infection and mortality 

due to slower drying conditions. Also, southern or western aspects tend to have less 

severe infection, possibly because of drier conditions and more sunlight. 

16.4.2 Direct/Indirect Effects 

Dogwood will not be harvested on the CNF and would not be targeted for removal 

during site preparation treatments for reforestation. Disturbances and opening of 

forest stands promotes more rapid foliage drying, which could decrease disease 

spread and intensification. Risk of infection increases in stands where there would 

be full crown cover, high humidity, and poor conditions for foliage to dry. 

Alternatives with the most disturbances would potentially provide additional sunlight 

and more favorable drying conditions that reduce the risk of infection to dogwoods in 

the understory of these forested communities. However, as the harvested areas 

regenerate and develop, canopy closure will occur, dogwood will again occupy an 

intermediate or overtopped position in the stand, and conditions more favorable to 

disease will return. 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

292 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Open canopy conditions provide better drying conditions that result in reduced 

mortality to dogwood by the anthracnose fungus. The table below displays impacts 

that influence drying conditions to the midstory. 

Table 3-87. Projected harvest acres per year by Alternative 

Alternatives A B D E F G I 

Acres 

thinned 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 

Acres 

Regenerated 1,602 1,710 3,268 384 3,228 878 1,740 

Alternatives D and F would have the most proposed harvest activity while alternatives 

E and G have the least. It would be expected that dogwood would have more 

favorable growing conditions in alternatives D and F. Some damage would occur to 

individual dogwood stems during harvest activities but sprouting and seedling 

development would occur. 

16.4.3 Cumulative Effects 

Dogwood mortality will continue on the CNF and on adjacent lands. Individuals that 

exhibit some resistance would continue to be identified by research and Forest 

Health Protection. No treatment for this disease exists for general forest conditions. 

Treatments and management practices for ornamentals and other high valued trees 

has improved survival rates for dogwoods in these settings. No alternative 

adequately addresses this disease and mortality from anthracnose will continue 

across the CNF. 

16.5 Gypsy Moth 

16.5.1 Affected Environment 

Gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar) is a major defoliator of hardwood trees in both forest 

and urban landscapes. It was introduced from Europe into Massachusetts sometime 

between 1867 and 1869. Because the favored host, oak, is widespread in the 

eastern deciduous forests, gypsy moth thrives and continues to escape its range 

west and south each year. By the 1980’s, gypsy moth was established throughout 

the northeast. Today the area considered generally infested includes parts of 

Virginia, just north of the CNF. Gypsy moth is projected to occur on the forest 

between the year 2010 and 2025 (SAMAB 1996). The CNF can anticipate gypsy 

moth attack on the north end of the forest as early as the year 2010 and for the 

south end of the forest as early as 2020. 

Gypsy moth larvae feed on more than 300 species of trees, shrubs, and vines. 

Favored hosts include oak, apple, birch, basswood, witch hazel, and willow. Hosts 

moderately favored include maple, hickory, beech, black cherry, elm, and sassafras. 

Least favored hosts are ash, yellow poplar, American sycamore, hemlock, pine, 

spruce, black gum, and black locust. Feeding on less favored host plants usually 

occurs when high-density larval populations defoliate the favored tree species and 

move to adjacent, less favored species of trees to finish their development. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 293 

The adult gypsy moth female cannot fly, so natural spread is limited to the distance 

that larvae can disperse on wind currents. Other methods of dispersal include 

transport of gypsy moth life stages, including egg masses, over very long distances on 

vehicles, outdoor household articles, and nursery products. Transporting of moth life 

stages by humans has been responsible for isolated infestation ahead of the general 

infestation. In Tennessee, isolated populations have been established in Rhea, 

Washington, Grainger, Johnson, Sequatchie, Unicoi, and Monroe counties. Counties 

within the CNF are Washington, Johnson, Unicoi, and Monroe counties. All isolated 

populations have been treated to eradicate the isolated population. 

Susceptibility to defoliation is defined as the likelihood of a forest stand being 

defoliated if an insect population is present (Smith 1962). A stand’s susceptibility for 

gypsy moth defoliation is determined by species composition, site factors, and stand 

history. Susceptible stands are defoliated more frequently than resistant stands and 

in many years are the only stands supporting a gypsy moth population large enough 

to cause noticeable defoliation. Stands that are resistant to defoliation are not 

defoliated or may be defoliated only in years of epidemic conditions, especially when 

they are located adjacent to susceptible stands. 

The single most important factor determining the susceptibility of a stand is species 

composition. Oak species are highly favored by gypsy moths. Stands that contain 

few susceptible species presumably would not support populations of young larvae 

and are resistant to defoliation. Conversely, stands with large numbers of 

susceptible species would support large gypsy moth populations. The following 

classification of trees preferred by gypsy moth is the result of the 1986 defoliation on 

the western Pennsylvania Allegheny Plateau. 

Table 3-88. Species preference for Gypsy Moth Defoliation (Fosbroke and Hicks 

1989) 

Immune Resistant Susceptible 

Serviceberry Black Birch White Oak 

Yellow-poplar Red Maple Northern Red Oak 

 Other Hardwood Scarlet Oak 

 Sugar Maple Chestnut Oak 

 Black Cherry Black Oak 

 Softwoods/Pine 

Other factors that characterize susceptible sites are slow growth, frequent drought 

stresses, and low foliage biomass. Dry, rocky ridge tops with shallow soils are prime 

examples of susceptible sites. Disturbances also are common in susceptible stands. 

Frequent fire, heavy cutting, slash disposal, grazing, windthrow, and ice storm 

damage are just a few of the disturbances associated with susceptible stands. 

Larvae also use human-made refuges such as signs, fences, buildings, and trash. 

Tree mortality depends on the condition of the tree and the number of consecutive 

defoliations. The proximal cause of death is oak decline, a disease that can be 

initiated or exacerbated by defoliation. The most severe losses occur in stands with 

high-risk oak decline attributes and suffering from recent drought stress. 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

294 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Although species vary in their ability to recover from gypsy moth defoliation, most 

would succumb after a few years of repeated attack. In some stands, trees die after 

several years of defoliation while in others a single defoliation would kill trees. 

Species composition and tree vigor are the major factors in tree mortality caused by 

gypsy moth defoliation. 

Tree mortality from gypsy moth infestations would be most significant for oak and 

mixed oak-pine communities. Dry and xeric sites occupied by oak would be impacted 

more than other sites. This includes the following forested communities found on the 

CNF: 

Table 3-89. Acres by community types most susceptible to GM damage for the CNF 

Dry to Mesic Oak Dry and Dry to Mesic Pine 

Oak Dry and Xeric Oak 

126,138 acres 61,080 acres 69,836 acres 

Southern Region Forest Health Protection staff at the Asheville, NC field office have 

developed a gypsy moth vulnerability rating system (GMV) that classifies the likely 

severity of mortality in forest stands after gypsy moth defoliation (SAMAB 1996). The 

rating system uses information contained in the CISC that are also important in oak 

decline risk rating. These variables include forest cover type, forest condition class, 

site index, and age of the forested community. It applies five categories for risk of 

mortality in the event of gypsy moth defoliation, Unaffected, Low, Moderate, High, 

and Extreme. Risk ratings for the CNF are as follows: 

Table 3-90. Current Conditions for gypsy moth vulnerability 

Risk Category Acres Percent of Total 

Forested Acres 

Insufficient Data 83,934 13.5 % 

Unaffected 26,963 4.3 % 

Low 43,869 7.1 % 

Moderate 171,736 27.6 % 

High 158,142 25.4 % 

Extreme 137,055 22.1 % 

16.5.2 Direct/Indirect Effects 

Gypsy moth defoliation for the CNF is approximately eight to 12 years away. All 

alternatives provide for suppression of gypsy moth but due to high costs and 

concerns for aerial application of insecticides only small portions of the CNF would 

potentially be treated. Populations are controlled by disease epidemics caused by 

fungal and viral pathogens. Priorities for control through the application of 

insecticides would be for areas of high value such as developed recreation sites or 

administrative areas. Suppression in the general forest could occur in the future. 

Impacts would be most severe for oak and mixed oak upland hardwoods 

communities. Outbreaks would be most severe in areas of the forest that would 

have been under drought conditions, have received damage from fire, or possible 

wind damage. Long-term losses following gypsy moth outbreaks would be more 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 295 

visible in forested communities that have a component of scarlet oak and black oak, 

especially on well drained soils. Defoliation from GM that occurs 2-3 years 

concurrently will result in greater tree mortality than infestations that occur 

intermittently. Where defoliation occurs, mast crops may decline or fail for the 

current year in white oak, and possibly two years for red oaks. 

Factors that are managed and result in changes to gypsy moth vulnerability would be 

stand condition class, species composition, and stand age. Achieving early 

successional objectives proposed for each alternative would provide opportunities to 

change vulnerability based on these three factors. The table below displays acres 

and percent of total forested acres by risk category that result from the 

establishment of early successional acres as proposed by each alternative. These 

acres and percentages can be compared to current conditions in Table 3-91 above. 

Table 3-91. Gypsy Moth Vulnerability in year 2017 

Risk Category Low Moderate High & Extreme 

Alt A 43,869 Ac (7%) 134,866 Ac (22%) 316,051 Ac (51%) 

Alt B 39,595 Ac (6%) 130,592 Ac (21%) 133,784 Ac (52%) 

Alt D 43,869 Ac (7%) 134,866 Ac (22%) 121,718 Ac (48%) 

Alt E 42,069 Ac (7%) 133,096 Ac (21%) 137,098 Ac (53%) 

Alt F 43,869 Ac (7%) 134,866 Ac (22%) 121,916 Ac (48%) 

Alt G 41,675 Ac (7%) 132,672 Ac (21%) 135,864 Ac (53%) 

Alt I 39,519 Ac (6%) 130,516 Ac (21%) 133,708 Ac (52%) 

Currently, there are approximately 295,000 acres in the High and Extreme 

vulnerability groups or about 47 percent of the total forested acres. Even if early 

successional objectives are achieved in the first period, seven out of nine 

alternatives would have more than 50 percent of the forested acres rated as High 

and Extreme vulnerability to gypsy moth. As forest communities get older, the more 

vulnerable they become. Even with projected harvest activities for each alternative 

the number of acres moving from the moderate level to the High and Extreme Level 

maintains the High and Extreme level above 50 percent. Alternatives with the 

highest level of High and Extreme acres would be C, E, G, and H. The lowest number 

of acres projected in the High and Extreme group would be found in alternatives D 

and F. 

As the active front of gypsy moth infestation approaches the CNF, mortality for 

susceptible forest types would be overwhelming. Defoliation and mortality would be 

especially heavy for older, upland oak sites during drought years. 

The mortality of canopy trees would result in an increase in understory vegetation. 

The effect is relatively short-lived. This vegetation provides forage and cover for 

some wildlife species, such as deer. 

16.5.3 Cumulative Effects 

Increasing recreational use of national forests, national parks, and state parks in 

east Tennessee provides opportunities for isolated infestations of gypsy moth ahead 

of the generally infested area now located in Virginia. As in the past, isolated 

infestations would be treated through the Slow The Spread (STS) program on all 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

296 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

ownerships to eradicate the isolated population. The STS pilot project (FY 1993-99) 

demonstrated that the rate of spread of the gypsy moth would be reduced at least 60 

percent by treating these isolated infestations. Trapping of male moths would 

continue on the CNF to monitor isolated populations. 

A small isolated population of gypsy moth was detected on private lands in Monroe 

County, located on the south zone of the CNF. In 2002 this small isolated infestation 

was treated to eradicate the population. Continued monitoring will provided 

information on the population and treatment would continue until it is determined 

the population has been eradicated. 

The general infestation of gypsy moth is projected to impact upper east Tennessee as 

early as 2010 and Southeast Tennessee by 2020. Possible responses to the general 

infestation range from no treatment, to aggressively implementing management 

strategies documented in the 1995 FEIS for Gypsy Moth Management in the U.S.A 

(SAMAB 1996). 

Introductions of isolated populations ahead of the general infestation may require 

the use of insecticides to eliminate (or eradicate) and prevent the gypsy moth from 

becoming established on the CNF (here, eradication is being used as a delaying 

tactic by not allowing accidental introductions of GM to become established on a 

Forest ahead of the natural expansion of the range of this insect). 

Gypsy moth impacts are most significant for stands in the oak, oak-pine, and pineoak community types. Gypsy moth outbreaks will be more frequent and damage 

more severe on drier sites. Gypsy moth outbreaks associated with severe spring 

droughts can lead to relatively high levels of mortality in affected oak stands (>15% 

mortality following a single year of severe drought and defoliation; greater than 30 

percent mortality following 2-3 years of severe drought and defoliation). Long-term 

losses following GM outbreaks will be more conspicuous in scarlet and black oak 

stands on excessively drained soils. Outbreaks that cause defoliation for 2-3 years in 

a row will lead to more severe levels of damage to affected stands and outbreaks 

that recur in the same stand after very short intervening time intervals will lead to 

greater levels of damage. Mast production would potentially decline or fail in 

affected oak stands during and following GM outbreaks. 

Young, thrifty oak stands will tolerate GM outbreaks somewhat better than older oak 

stands, although young stands would potentially be defoliated to about the same 

level as adjacent mature stands. Management actions that reduce oak density will 

be most effective for stands where oaks comprise less than 50 percent of the stand, 

assuming that the other tree species would not favor hosts of the GM. 

The table below displays forest communities that are vulnerable to gypsy moth 

infestation and portion of the host type proposed for harvest activities in the first 

decade by alternative. Harvest activities will regenerate stands with older trees to 

younger, more vigorous trees that better tolerate defoliation. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 297 

Table 3-92. Percent of community Acres Regenerated in first decade by Alternative 

Community 

Type Alt A Alt B Alt D Alt E Alt F Alt G Alt I 

Dry to Mesic 

Oak 

126,138 acres 

4.1% 4.4% 5.8% 1.6% 6.6% 2.5% 4.8% 

Dry and Dry to 

Mesic Pine 

Oak 

61,080 acres 

6.3% 6.4% 23.5% 0% 18.3% 1.7% 7.8% 

Dry and Xeric 

Oak 

69,836 acres 

1.4% 1.6% 5.2% 1.4% 3.6% 1.4% 1.5% 

Alternatives D and F would have the largest impact on establishing oak stands that 

would better withstand defoliation from gypsy moth. Alternatives E and G would have 

the least impact on oak stands. 

16.6 Hemlock Woolly Adelgid 

16.6.1 Affected Environment 

Hemlock woolly adelgid (Adelges tsugae) (HWA) was introduced into the eastern 

U.S.A from Asia in the early 1950's near Richmond, Virginia. The HWA was present 

on some exotic tree species that a private collector planted in his arboretum. The 

distribution of the HWA remained localized until the 1960's. The population has 

since spread throughout the Shenandoah Valley into the Blue Ridge Mountains of 

Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Georgia and the northeastern 

U.S.A. Impacts to the host species Tsuga canadensis and T. caroliniana, eastern and 

Carolina hemlocks, respectively, are severe. The entire range of eastern hemlock is 

threatened and could be infested within 30 years. Infestation by the HWA has been 

detected on the north end of the CNF. There are also well established populations in 

North Carolina and the GSMNP adjacent to much of the CNF. The CNF can expect to 

see much of its hemlock infested in the near future. 

Once infested, tree mortality usually occurs in less than seven years. Mortality is not 

restricted to any size or age of hemlock. This insect pest threatens the hemlock 

resource and also threatens the unique ecosystem it helps comprise. Hemlock 

provides habitat for a variety of plants and animals and helps to maintain stream 

temperatures for a variety of aquatic species. 

16.6.2 Direct/Indirect Effects 

The adelgid spreads predominantly by wind and birds. The CNF currently has one 

known isolated infestation located on the Watauga Ranger District. Infestation of the 

general Forest area would be expected in Tennessee in about ten years. 

Biological control would be the most promising prospect for control of HWA, however, 

to date there are no known native predators capable of limiting HWA impact. 

Researchers continue investigating the native range of HWA for predatory insects. 

This work looks promising and soon there will be a treatment to control the adelgid by 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

298 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

release of predators. Control of the HWA on individual trees in the urban landscape 

would be accomplished using a number of insecticides including horticultural oils and 

insecticidal soaps, providing there would be access to the trees for ground spraying 

equipment and the entire crown would be saturated. There are no insecticide 

treatment options available for controlling HWA in the general forest environment. 

There is no harvest activity proposed for Hemlock communities in any of the 

alternatives. However, hemlock would be harvested as an incidental tree occurring 

in other community types. Damage to hemlock by the HWA will continue for all 

alternatives. 

The mortality of hemlock trees in the canopy would result in an increase in 

understory vegetation. The effect is relatively short-lived. This vegetation provides 

forage and cover for some wildlife species, such as deer. 

Stream temperatures may rise until the canopy is restored. 

16.6.3 Cumulative Effects 

Hemlock woolly adelgid will continue to spread across the Southern Appalachian 

Forests and is expected to infest east Tennessee in about ten years. There is 

currently no detection method in place and isolated populations may be present on 

all ownerships in east Tennessee. Isolated infestations would be treated on the CNF, 

especially in areas where hemlock is important in recreation areas and where water 

temperature would be an important component of the aquatic habitat. 

16.7 Oak Decline 

16.7.1 Affected Environment 

Oak decline is a disease complex involving environmental stress such as drought, 

root disease (e.g. Armillaria root disease (Armillaria spp.), and insect pest of 

opportunity (e.g. two lined chestnut borer (Agrilus billineatus), and physiologically 

mature trees (SAMAB 1996). Oak decline is a natural ecosystem process that has 

always affected some component of the forested landscape in the Southern 

Appalachians. Susceptible trees die within a few years after dieback exceeds onethird of the crown volume. 

Factors that determine oak decline risk are forest type (oak density), site productivity 

(site index), age, and stress factors such as spring defoliation and drought. The 

highest risk conditions are stands with a large oak component (especially red oak) of 

advanced age, growing on sites of average or lower productivity, and with a recent 

defoliation history and prolonged growing season drought. Using forest type, age, 

and site productivity, risk levels can be predicted (Oak and Croll, 1995). A rating 

system has been developed by Forest Health Protection (Table 3-93) and is used to 

estimate the percent of total acres by risk category for current conditions on the CNF. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 299 

Table 3-93. Upland hardwood acres for CNF within 4 Oak 

Decline Risk categories. 

RISK CATEGORY 

UPLAND 

HARDWOOD 

ACRES 

PERCENT OF 

TOTAL FOREST 

ACRES 

Insufficient Data 25,898 Ac 10% 

Unaffected 59, 404 Ac. 23% 

Other Damage 5,824 Ac 3% 

Decline Damaged 77,390 Ac. 30% 

Vulnerable 87,955 Ac. 34% 

TOTAL 256,471 Ac. 100 % 

16.7.2 Direct/Indirect Effects 

Oak decline risks variables amenable to management action on tree species 

composition, and stand age. Risk could be reduced by favoring non-oak species in 

partial cuts of various types, but oaks are a critical wildlife habitat component and 

their removal carries undesirable consequences. Reducing stand age through 

harvest and regeneration of oak forest types provides the best opportunity for 

reducing risk. This would be accomplished by meeting early successional objectives 

and desired conditions in management prescriptions with these objectives. The 

tables below displays harvest acres by community types that are predominantly oak 

on dry sites. 

Table 3-94. Projected harvest acres for Oak community types, by alternative for the 

first planning period (10 years). 

 Alt A Alt B Alt D Alt E Alt F Alt G Alt I 

Dry 

Mesic 

Oak 

5,171ac 5,590ac 7,320ac 2,020ac 8,284ac 3,129ac 6,043ac 

Dry 

Mesic 

Oak 

Pine 

3,846ac 3,896ac 14,357ac 47ac 11,181ac 1,037ac 4,766ac 

Dry 

Xeric 

Oak 

1,000ac 1,144ac 3,629ac 1,000ac 2,748ac 1,000ac 1,051ac 

Totals 10,017ac 10,630ac 25,306ac 3,067ac 22,213ac 5,166ac 11,860ac 

Alternatives that provide the most opportunities to reduce the risk of oak decline by 

shifting stand age is alternatives D and F. Alternatives E and G provide the fewest 

opportunities to reduce oak decline risks. 

Oak decline potential for the CNF is widespread and no alternative would adequately 

address risk at the landscape scale over the short-term. Management actions would 

potentially lower risk locally and a sustained effort over the long-term will gradually 

lower the risk across the CNF. Prescribed fire on upland oak sites will provide 

needed disturbance to regenerate oak through sprouting of top killed stems, creating 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

300 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

adequate seedbeds for acorns, and control competing vegetation for established 

seedlings. 

16.7.3 Cumulative Effects 

Oak decline will continue to be a forest health issue in the Southern Appalachians, 

especially on NFS lands because they have a higher incidence of older, oakdominated stands. Oaks would not be eliminated from decline areas but their 

numbers are and would continue to be reduced. Oak diversity will also decline 

because of greater susceptibility of the red oak group to decline compared with the 

species in the white oak group. In the absence of restoration/reforestation 

treatments, including prescribed fire, much of the oak component will be replaced by 

other species already present in competitive positions in the understory. Oak will 

most likely be replaced by red maple, blackgum, rhododendron, and mountain laurel. 

The loss of oak will have effects on ecosystem structure and function. Structure 

becomes more complex as canopy density is reduced and the number of small 

openings increases. The number of snags and down wood will also increase. Overall 

susceptibility to decline and gypsy moth defoliation will be reduced due to fewer and 

smaller, more vigorous oaks. Hard mast production will continue to be reduced in 

quantity, quality, and diversity as oak decline incidence increases across the CNF. 

16.8 Southern Pine Beetle 

16.8.1 Affected Environment 

The SPB (Dendroctonus frontalis Zimmermann) is the most destructive pine bark 

beetle in Tennessee and the southern U.S.A (USDA Handbook #575). Pine trees are 

killed singly, in small groups, or in large numbers, sometimes exceeding hundreds of 

acres. The SPB is a native pest to the South and occurs in small numbers (endemic) 

until outbreak or epidemic population levels develop. Infestations can develop into 

outbreak levels when pine forests are stressed by crowded growing conditions, trees 

are damaged from ice or wind, during drought conditions, or when stands are 

considered biologically mature. These stress conditions can often prevent the tree 

from producing adequate resin flow to "pitch out" the attacking insect, which is the 

tree’s main defense in a SPB attack. Once pine stands are weakened, they become 

more susceptible to attack by SPB. Once populations develop in weakened trees, the 

beetles may spread to healthy trees that normally would resist attack. When beetle 

populations become large (epidemic), they can successfully attack healthy, vigorous 

trees and result in widespread mortality. Natural enemies, including diseases, 

parasites, and predators (primarily the clerid beetle) can help maintain beetle 

populations at endemic levels. However, these forces seem to have relatively little 

effect during the early stages of an epidemic when SPB populations explode faster 

than parasite and predator populations respond to the availability of new host beetle 

levels. Ultimately, however, these biocontrol agents catch up with and actually 

exceed the abundant host beetles (food source) and contribute to the collapse of the 

epidemic. Most major outbreaks last three to five years and occur in irregular cycles 

of about seven to ten years, sometimes longer in the mountain region. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 301 

The SPB attacks all species of pines including white pine, but prefers loblolly, 

shortleaf, Virginia, and pitch pines all of which are native to the CNF. Pine is a 

significant component of the forested communities on the CNF and represents large 

portion of the CNF. To help land mangers reduce stand susceptibility, hazard rating 

systems have been developed throughout the southeastern U.S.A. In the southern 

Appalachians, the Mountain Risk System is recommended by Forest Health 

specialists. A SPB Event monitor for use with the Forest Vegetation Simulator (FVS) 

has been developed to model the interaction of vegetation management and risk of 

SPB outbreaks (Courter 2002). This risk of a SPB event is but one of the many 

variables modeled by this program. Stands are categorized as either Low-, Moderate-

, or High-Hazard. The table below displays SPB host types for the CNF. 

Table 3-95. SPB Host types by community, CISC forest types, acres, and percent of 

total forested acres for CNF 

CISC Forest Types Community Type Acres Percent of Total 

Forested Acres 

White Pine (3,9,10) Conifer/Northern HdWd 45,148 7.2 % 

Shortleaf Pine 

(32,12) Xeric Pine and Pine-Oak 30,105 4.8 % 

Loblolly Pine (31) Xeric Pine and Pine 1,167 0.2 % 

Pitch Pine (38,15) Xeric Pine and Pine 29,314 4.7 % 

Virginia Pine 

(33,16) Xeric Pine and Pine 73,244 11.7 % 

Table Mtn. Pine 

(39,20) Xeric Pine and Pine 10,094 1.6 % 

TOTAL 189,172 30.2 % 

16.8.2 Direct/Indirect Effects 

The CNF is currently at the end of the most destructive SPB outbreak known in the 

history of the CNF. The current infestation began in 1999 and new attacks and spot 

growth continue to occur in October of 2002. This outbreak population has heavily 

impacted all pine communities and attacks have been recorded in hemlock and red 

spruce. Current estimates indicate that between 40,000 and 60,000 acres of host 

type have been lost to SPB during this outbreak. This is between 23 percent and 35 

percent, respectively, of the total host type acres for the CNF. 

Data for this LMP revision does not reflect pine mortality resulting from the current 

outbreak. The outbreak will result in changes to species composition, age, and 

condition class of pine communities. Discussion of direct and indirect effects would 

be based on data prior to the current outbreak. 

Factors important to SPB susceptibility are presence of host type, age, stand density, 

and environmental conditions like drought. Factors influencing SPB attack, that 

would be readily available for analysis, are host type (forest type) and stand age. 

Stocking data to determine stand density is available for only a small portion of the 

CNF. There is about 190,000 acres of SPB host type on the CNF and over 62 

percent of these acres are over 60 years old. About 30 percent is over 80 years old, 

making them very vulnerable to SPB attack. 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

302 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Proposed treatments that will influence change in forest cover type and ages of host 

type communities is restoration of pure pine communities to more naturally occurring 

mixed communities like southern yellow pine and upland hardwoods. This is 

especially true for Virginia pine where it occurs as dense, pure pine stands. These 

communities are very vulnerable to SPB attack and many acres of this type have 

been lost in the recent SPB outbreak. Goals for restoration of damaged stands and 

reforestation of harvested stands will achieve a mixture of pine and upland hardwood 

that will reduce SPB vulnerability by introducing younger, more vigorous pines and 

reducing pine density. The table below displays restoration/reforestation 

opportunities in pine communities by alternative. 

Table 3-96. Acres of proposed pine restoration/reforestation by alternative per 

decade 

Community 

Type Alt A Alt B Alt D Alt E Alt F Alt G Alt I 

Conifer/ 

HdWd 765ac 453ac 1370ac 674ac 1078ac 744ac 747ac 

Xeric Pine 

and Pine 

Oak 

1,000a

c 

1,197a

c 

1,157a

c 

1,000a

c 

1,607a

c 

1,000a

c 

1,000a

c 

Totals 1,765 1,605 2,527 1,674 2,685 1,744 1,747 

The current outbreak has left large acreages of dead pine presenting many 

opportunities for restoration to healthy and more diverse mixed pine hardwood 

communities. Alternatives D and F provide the most opportunities to reduce risk of 

future SPB infestations while all the other alternatives provide about 30 percent less 

than D and F. 

The mortality of canopy trees would result in an increase in understory vegetation. 

The effect is relatively short-lived. This vegetation provides forage and cover for 

some wildlife species, such as deer. 

16.8.3 Cumulative Effects 

Southern pine beetle impacts all ownships that have pine communities. The current 

infestation has devestated pine communitties on non industrial private lands, 

industry lands, national park service lands, state lands, and adjacent NFS lands. 

Since 1999 and especially in 2001 and 2002 private lands adjacent to the CNF, 

have harvested large areas of pine due to SPB. This outbreak has greatly reduced 

the amount of mature pine communities on the CNF and adjacent private lands. On 

much of the SPB damaged land regeneration will occur naturally with little or no site 

preparation to influence species composition. Where no site preparation, including 

fire, is used, a shift in species composition is expected. Where red maple, black gum, 

and mountain laurel are present in the midstory and understory they will develop and 

occupy canopy positions in the new stand. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 303 

16.9 Storm Damage 

16.9.1 Affected Environment 

Storm damage to trees from tornadoes, hurricanes, snow or ice loading with or 

without wind, is similar. These stresses cause hardwoods and pines to break off, 

split, be root sprung, bend and suffer branch and foliage losses. Stresses appear to 

be much the same, regardless of storm type. Tree crown configuration; age (old, 

large trees suffer greater damage); size and limberness of stems; branching habit; 

lean of bole; anchorage based on rooting characteristics and soil; and the presence 

of root and stem diseases have as much or more to do with tree damage as the 

intensity of the storm itself. 

Elevation can be important in the case of ice and snow damage. Frequently, a 

variation of one or two degrees in air temperature can result in bands of varying 

damage on the same hillside at different elevations, depending on the temperatures 

there at the time of precipitation. However, even here, pre-storm management to 

minimize damage is not possible because of the natural randomness of weather 

patterns. 

Damage-producing storms appear to have increased in frequency. Major damage 

has occurred about every four years on Southern Appalachian Forests since the 

1980s. Areas affected ranged in size from 100 to 17,000 acres. Affected areas may 

become larger in the future, as more susceptible older forests are a major 

component of desired conditions. 

Salvage or slash-down of storm-damaged trees and, in some cases, other 

surrounding trees can be important for several reasons: 1) to reduce safety hazards 

to visitors and employees; 2) to reduce the possibility of and intensity of fires that 

would endanger human life, wildlife, rare plants and property; and 3) reduce the 

possibility of insect and disease outbreaks in residual trees and surrounding stands. 

16.9.2 Direct/Indirect Effects 

Older forests would be more likely to suffer damage from storms because of larger 

crowns, larger limbs, and higher incidence of root and stem diseases. Forests over 

60 years of age make up about 77 percent of the forested acres on the CNF and 

would be considered more susceptible to storm damage than younger stands. Storm 

damage would result in additional stresses to individual trees increasing 

susceptibility to insects and diseases and in some cases establishing a foot hold for 

outbreak or epidemic conditions. 

The table below displays proposed annual harvests by alternative for the first decade. 

Proposed harvest acres would come from older age classes. 

Table 3-97. Projected harvest acres per year by Alternative 

Alternatives A B D E F G I 

Acres 

thinned 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 

Acres 

Regenerated 1,602 17,097 3,268 384 3,228 878 1,740 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

304 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Table 3-97. Projected harvest acres per year by Alternative 

Alternatives A B D E F G I 

Total Acres 1,802 19,097 3,468 584 3,428 1,078 1,940 

Alternatives D and F would potentially have the most harvest activity while 

alternatives E and G have the least. None of the alternatives would affect the overall 

percentage of older forests for the CNF. 

Alternatives where objectives include the creation of early successional habitat 

younger stands, there would be less overall storm damage because younger trees 

would be damaged less severely and in many cases survive, grow, and mature. 

16.9.3 Cumulative Effects 

Damage resulting from storms such as ice, snow, and wind would be more likely on 

national forests and national parks and less likely on state and private lands. State 

and private lands would generally have less acreage in older forests conditions. 

Additional stresses resulting from storm damage would potentially be more likely on 

national forest and national park lands than other ownerships. 

RESOURCE MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS

17.0 RECREATION RELATED PROGRAMS 

17.1 Developed and Dispersed Recreation 

17.1.1 Affected Environment 

National forests provide over 191 million acres of public land within the U.S.A. 

National Forests in the Southern Appalachian region contribute approximately four 

million acres to the national total and provide unique settings for a variety of outdoor 

recreation activities such as primitive and developed camping, hunting, fishing, 

hiking, backpacking, horseback riding, off-highway vehicle (OHV) driving, 

canoeing/kayaking and whitewater rafting as well as picnicking, sightseeing, nature 

watching and walking or driving for pleasure. 

Market Area 

Market areas have been established for different national forests to better evaluate 

public demand for recreation opportunities. Past research has demonstrated that 

most national forest visits originate from within a 75-mile (11⁄2 hour driving time) 

radius. Therefore, the market area has been defined as all counties that fall within a 

75-mile straight-line radius from a forest border. (Cherokee, Nantahala & Pisgah 

National Forests Recreation Realignment Report Overdevest and Cordell, 2001). 

The market area for the CNF includes the market areas defined for the Nantahala 

and Pisgah National Forests in North Carolina. These market areas were combined 

in recognition of shared local markets and similar geography and demographic 

patterns. (Cordell, 2001). The largest cities within this shared market area include 

Atlanta, Knoxville, Chattanooga, Charlotte and Winston-Salem. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 305 

Opportunities for outdoor recreation are not limited to national forests within the 

shared market area. CNF currently provides 639,930 acres of public land in east 

Tennessee. Great Smoky Mountains National Park divides the CNF into two separate 

sections with the southern section being located closer to urban populations. Other 

public lands that connect and expand the range of recreation opportunities include 

the Blue Ridge Parkway, congressionally designated National Recreation Areas, state 

parks as well as state designated wildlife management areas. 

The A.T. provides a unique long distance hiking opportunity across GSMNP and 

several national forests including Cherokee, Pisgah, Nantahala, ChattahoocheeOconee and George Washington & Jefferson National Forests. (Refer to Special 

Areas section on page 351 for further discussion of the A.T. ) The establishment of 

Cumberland Trail State Park is a recent response to a growing demand for additional 

long distance trails similar to the A.T. When completed, this linear state park will 

span 230 miles through ten Tennessee counties from Cumberland Gap National 

Historic Park on the Tennessee-Virginia-Kentucky border, to the Signal Point near 

Chattanooga. 

Other Tennessee State Parks like Fall Creek Falls provide higher levels of 

accommodation for visitor comfort and convenience. Lodges, stores, golf courses, 

swimming pools and restaurants are examples of facilities often found at state parks, 

but typically not provided on national forests. 

Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) manages the majority of water-based recreation 

opportunities within the market area and on CNF. The lakes and rivers in east 

Tennessee attract people to pursue a variety of activities such as fishing, whitewater 

rafting, kayaking and motor boating. The release of water to meet demand for 

recreational use versus generating power is a continual issue for managers. 

Recreation Demand & Trends 

Recreation demand is a complex relational mix of people’s desires and preferences, 

availability of time, price, and availability of facilities. The evaluation of current and 

future demand for recreation on the CNF is based on recent surveys that identify and 

quantify: 

Estimated number of current recreation visits to the CNF 

Participation rates for recreation activities within the forest market area 

Future activity demand based on projected population growth 

Activity demand by demographic strata. 

The recent National Visitor Use Monitoring (NVUM) effort by the Forest Service 

provided baselines for estimating current use of recreation sites on CNF. These 

numbers only account for people visiting developed or dispersed sites for the 

purpose of engaging in a recreation activity. They do not include the millions of 

people that drive through the national forest. 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

306 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Table 3-98. Baselines for Recreation Use on CNF 

Type of Recreation Areas 

Current Percentage of Total 

Estimated National Forest 

Recreation Visits 

Day-Use Developed Sites 26% 

Overnight-Use Developed Sites 10% 

Wilderness (Dispersed Sites) 4% 

General Forest Areas (Dispersed Sites) 60% 

Total Estimated Annual Visits 100% (1,365,527 visits) 

Based on the NVUM data, “developed recreation” areas on the CNF accommodate 

approximately 36 percent of the total estimated recreation visits. The remaining 64 

percent of recreation visits can be defined as “dispersed recreation” that occurs 

away from developed sites primarily in general forest areas and designated 

Wilderness. 

During a forest visit, people within the defined market area engage in a variety of 

activities related to either developed or dispersed recreation. Table 3-99 lists the 

most popular activities and identifies trends in public demand. Participation rates 

are based on the National Survey on Recreation and the Environment (NRSE), an ongoing national telephone survey sponsored by the USDA FS. 

Table 3-99. Number of People (in millions) over 16 years old Participating in 

Recreation Activities in the CNF Market Area with Projected Increase over next 50 

years 

Recreation 

Activity 

2001 

Participati

on Rate* 

2000 # Of 

People 

2010 

increase

* 

2020 

increase

* 

2030 

increase

* 

2040 

increase

* 

2050 

increase 

* 

View/photograph 

nature or scenery 63% 5.76 15% 

6.62 

31% 

7.54 

48% 

8.53 

66% 

9.56 

86% 

10.71 

Picnicking 58% 5.32 11% 

5.91 

23% 

6.54 

37% 

7.29 

53% 

8.14 

71% 

9.10 

Driving for 

pleasure 58% 5.28 15% 

6.07 

31% 

6.92 

48% 

7.81 

66% 

8.76 

86% 

9.82 

View natural 

vegetation, trees 47% 4.34 15% 

4.99 

31% 

5.69 

48% 

6.42 

66% 

7.20 

86% 

8.07 

View wildlife 47% 4.31 15% 

4.96 

31% 

5.65 

48% 

6.38 

66% 

7.15 

86% 

8.02 

Visit historic site 47% 4.28 22% 

5.22 

47% 

6.29 

77% 

7.58 

113% 

9.12 

155% 

10.91 

Swimming in 

streams, lakes 43% 3.92 6% 

4.16 

13% 

4.43 

20% 

4.70 

29% 

5.06 

41% 

5.53 

View birds 35% 3.22 15% 

3.70 

31% 

4.22 

48% 

4.77 

66% 

5.35 

86% 

5.99 

Visit wilderness 

or primitive area 35% 3.19 25% 

3.99 

57% 

5.01 

96% 

6.25 

108% 

6.64 

171% 

8.64 

Day hiking 34% 3.10 19% 

3.69 

38% 

4.28 

59% 

4.93 

78% 

5.52 

94% 

6.01 

Gather berries, 

mushrooms, etc. 31% 2.86 15% 

3.29 

31% 

3.75 

48% 

4.23 

66% 

4.75 

86% 

5.32 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 307 

Table 3-99. Number of People (in millions) over 16 years old Participating in 

Recreation Activities in the CNF Market Area with Projected Increase over next 50 

years 

Recreation 

Activity 

2001 

Participati

on Rate* 

2000 # Of 

People 

2010 

increase

* 

2020 

increase

* 

2030 

increase

* 

2040 

increase

* 

2050 

increase 

* 

Warm water 

fishing 29% 2.66 9% 

2.90 

17% 

3.11 

24% 

3.30 

26% 

3.35 

26% 

3.35 

Motor boating 27% 2.49 1% 

2.52 

3% 

2.56 

6% 

2.64 

11% 

2.76 

17% 

2.91 

View/photograph 

fish 24% 2.18 15% 

2.51 

31% 

2.86 

48% 

3.27 

66% 

3.62 

86% 

4.05 

Developed 

Camping 22% 2.04 27% 

2.59 

60% 

3.26 

98% 

4.04 

144% 

4.98 

201% 

6.14 

Drive off-road 20% 1.89 5% 

1.98 

10% 

2.08 

16% 

2.19 

23% 

2.32 

34% 

2.53 

Coldwater fishing 18% 1.64 9% 

1.78 

17% 

1.92 

24% 

2.03 

26% 

2.07 

26% 

2.07 

Mountain biking 18% 1.63 12% 

1.83 

26% 

2.05 

42% 

2.31 

61% 

2.62 

83% 

2.98 

Primitive 

camping 16% 1.48 -2% 

1.45 

0% 

1.48 

0% 

1.48 

5% 

1.55 

0% 

1.48 

Rafting 11% 1.03 5% 

1.08 

9% 

1.12 

16% 

1.19 

30% 

1.34 

51% 

1.56 

Backpacking 11% 0.98 23% 

1.21 

57% 

1.54 

96% 

1.92 

108% 

2.04 

171% 

2.66 

Water Skiing 10% 0.87 1% 

0.88 

3% 

0.90 

6% 

0.92 

11% 

0.97 

17% 

1.02 

Small-game 

Hunting 9% 0.83 97% 

1.64 

93% 

1.60 

89% 

1.57 

83% 

1.52 

76% 

1.46 

Big Game 

Hunting 8% 0.77 97% 

1.52 

93% 

1.49 

89% 

1.46 

83% 

1.41 

76% 

1.36 

Horseback riding 

on trails 8% 0.73 9% 

0.83 

19% 

0.90 

27% 

0.97 

30% 

0.99 

31% 

1.00 

Canoeing 7% 0.67 5% 

0.70 

9% 

0.73 

16% 

0.78 

30% 

0.87 

31% 

0.88 

Kayaking 2% 0.19 5% 

0.20 

9% 

0.21 

16% 

0.22 

30% 

0.25 

31% 

0.25 

Migratory bird 

hunting 1% 0.10 97% 

0.20 

93% 

0.19 

89% 

0.19 

83% 

0.18 

76% 

0.18 

*Participation rates based on Cherokee, Pisgah, Nantahala National Forests Recreation Realignment 

Report, Overdevest and Cordell, 2001. Projections based on Outdoor Recreation in American Life, A 

National Assessment of Demand and Supply Trends, H. Ken Cordell, Principal Investigator, 1999 with 

the projections converted to a base year of 2000 instead of original base year of 1995. 

Demographic information collected within the market area also revealed trends 

affecting recreation demand. As a large segment of the American population ages, 

demand is growing for less physically challenging activities such as viewing wildlife 

and driving for pleasure. The desire for easier access to facilities and forest settings 

is increasing as the physical abilities of the aging population decreases. 

Household sizes of two persons, one person and four persons are becoming more 

typical. Smaller families, couples and individuals seem to enjoy dispersed recreation 

activities such as fishing, backpacking and visiting wilderness or other primitive 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

308 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

areas. Demand for facilities that accommodate family reunions and social 

gatherings may increase as people seek opportunities to connect themselves with 

larger groups in natural settings. 

As population in the market area continues to grow and be developed, public lands 

such as CNF will increasingly be seen as a place of relaxation, a quiet retreat from 

the built community. As forest recreation demands grow, recreation activities are 

likely to conflict more with each other especially on trails, in backcountry, at 

developed sites, on lakes, streams, whitewater, and on roads and their near by 

environs. (Cordell, 2001). 

RECREATION OPPORTUNITY SPECTRUM 

Recreation Supply 

For planning purposes, recreation supply is defined as the opportunity to participate 

in a desired recreation activity in a preferred setting to realize desired and expected 

experiences. Recreationists choose a setting and activity to create a desired 

experience. 

Three components of supply are settings, activities and facilities. The USDA FS 

manages a supply of settings and facilities. The Southern Appalachian Assessment 

Social, Cultural, Economic Technical Report (SAA). 

The ROS is a planning tool used to identify and evaluate the supply of recreation 

settings on national forests. Five ROS classes have been inventoried on the CNF. 

These settings include Primitive (P), Semi-Primitive Non-Motorized (SPNM), Remote 

Roaded Natural (RN2), Roaded Natural (RN1) and Rural (R). 

Primitive (P) is the most remote, undeveloped recreation setting available on the 

CNF. These settings are generally located three miles or greater from any open road 

and 5,000 acres or larger in size. Primitive ROS class is limited to areas managed 

under the Wilderness Act on the CNF. Wilderness areas have been assigned the 

Primitive management objective even though they may not meet the requirements 

for size and distance from roads. 

Designated Wilderness areas currently range in size from 2,573 to 16,226 acres and 

do not contain any open roads. With few exceptions, the wilderness acts prohibit the 

use of mechanized equipment and motorized transport for recreational use, search 

and rescue, resource protection, trail construction, and maintenance. Groups of 

visitors are often limited to a specific size to create a sense of isolation and solitude. 

Semi-Primitive Non-Motorized areas are generally less remote and can be as small as 

2,500 acres in size and only a half-mile or greater from any open road. These 

settings accommodate dispersed, non-motorized recreation such as hiking, biking, 

hunting and horseback riding. 

Remote Roaded Natural (RN2) is a sub classification of Roaded Natural and 

accounts for areas on the CNF that either buffer SPNM areas or stand alone as tracts 

of land 1,500 acres or larger with a low road density of 1.5 miles of road/1,000 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 309 

acres. Inventoried RN2 areas are managed to provide additional semi-primitive 

recreation settings either motorized or non-motorized. 

Roaded Natural (RN1) is a subclassification of Roaded Natural. Settings are located 

within a half mile of an open road. These settings include the majoity of developed 

recreation sites such as campgrounds, picnic areas and river access points. RN1 

also accounts for undeveloped, but highly roaded settings popular for dispersed 

recreation activities such as hunting, fishing, camping and horseback riding. 

Rural (R) settings represent the most developed sites and modified natural settings 

on the forest including the Ocoee Whitewater Center constructed for the 1996 

Olympic Whitewater Venue. The majority of the rural settings are provided on private 

land with the national forest serving as mountainous backdrop for rural development 

and agriculture in the valleys. 

Table 3-100. Current Distributions of ROS Classes on the CNF 

Recreation Opportunity Spectrum 

 Class 

Current 

Percentage 

Of National Forest 

Current 

Inventoried Acres 

Primitive (P) - Wilderness on CNF 10% 66,661 

Semi-Primitive Non-Motorized (SPNM) 12% 75,294 

Remote Roaded Natural (RN2) 26% 167,473 

Roaded Natural (RN1) 52% 330,302 

Rural (R) <1% 200 

Total 100% 639,930 Acres 

The Southern Appalachian Assessment Social, Cultural, Economic Technical Report

(SAA) states that in the Southern Appalachian region approximately 45 percent of the 

region is in Rural Setting, 24 percent in Roaded Natural Setting, 18 percent in Urban, 

Suburban, or Transitional Setting, eight percent is considered Primitive or SemiPrimitive Setting. This indicates that Primitive and Semi-Primitive settings are in 

short supply. Great Smoky Mountains National Park, which divides the CNF into two 

sections, provides the largest Primitive setting in the region. 

DEVELOPED RECREATION 

A developed site is a discrete place containing a concentration of facilities and 

services used to provide recreation opportunities to the public and evidencing a 

significant investment in facilities and management under the direction of an 

administration unit in the NFS. Recreation sites are developed within different 

outdoor settings to facilitate desired recreational use such as camping or picnicking. 

Developed recreation sites provide different levels of user comfort and convenience 

based on the assigned ROS setting. Development Levels range from 1 to 5, with 

Level 1 representing the most primitive, natural settings with minimal or no site 

amenities. Level 2 improvements are designed primarily for protection of site rather 

than comfort of users. 

Level 3 sites such as Holly Flats Campground provide an equal amount of 

development for site protection and user comfort. These sites typically include a 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

310 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

vault toilet, designated campsites and a developed water source. Indian Boundary 

and Chilhowee Recreation Areas are examples of Level 4 campgrounds that offer 

more user conveniences including bathhouses, paved campsites and options for 

electric and water hook-ups. 

The Ocoee Whitewater Center is the only Level 5 developed site on the CNF. 

Different levels of the development scale may be present within the same 

campground or recreation site. For example Loops A and B of a campground may 

offer electrical hook-ups, but Loop C does not. The inventoried development level of 

a recreation site represents at least 70 percent of the total facilities. 

Supply of Developed Recreation Sites 

The Forest Service defines the capacity of developed recreation sites in terms of 

“people at one time” a site can support (PAOTs). A campsite typically represents five 

PAOTs and a parking space at a day use site represents three PAOTs. Currently, 

there are over 90 developed sites managed by the CNF to accommodate different 

recreation activities. Table 3-101 and Table 3-102 illustrate the different types of 

facilities provided across the forest and their current capacity in PAOTs. 

Table 3-101. Current Capacities of Day-Use Developed Areas on CNF 

Type of Day Use Developed Areas Total Number of Areas Total Capacity (PAOT) 

Picnic Areas 19 780 

Beaches & Swimming Areas 4 605 

Shooting Ranges 7 90 

Parking areas, overlooks, 

historical & minor interpretive 

sites 

6 355 

Visitor Centers 1 755 

Total Day-Use Capacity 37 2,585 

Table 3-102. Current Capacities of Overnight-Use Developed Sites on CNF 

Level of Campground Total Number of 

Campgrounds Total Capacity (PAOTs) 

Level 2 Campgrounds 10 (Including 2 horse 

camps) 605 

Level 3 Campgrounds 23 (Including 2 horse 

camps) 2,840 

Level 4 Campgrounds 3 2,172 

Total Overnight Capacity 36 5,617 

In addition to facilities represented in the tables, there are 76 recreation residences 

located on the CNF primarily around Parksville Lake. Lake Ocoee Inn also operates 

on Parksville Lake under a special use permit, and four organizational camps have 

been established across the forest. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 311 

Many Level 2 campgrounds on the CNF have evolved over time in response to 

riparian resource degradation and sanitation concerns. These sites have been 

developed in areas of concentrated use mostly along popular river corridors. Site 

rehabilitation usually includes discreet delineation of campsites and parking areas as 

well as the provision of a vault toilet either temporary or permanent. 

The number of Level 2 campgrounds and day-use sites on the CNF will likely increase 

as user controls become necessary to mitigate user impacts in popular dispersed 

sites. Presently, this trend is continuing with the Conasauga River and Spring Creek 

rehabilitation projects. 

Public demand for campsites with a development level of 4 or 5 currently exceeds 

supply on the CNF especially on weekends. Many visitors desire sites that are more 

accessible and have options for water and electrical hook-ups. As older 

campgrounds are reconstructed accessible sites and utilities are being provided. 

Public use has increased at the upgraded sites, but total site capacity (PAOTs) has 

remained the same. PAOTs have only shifted from Level 3 to a higher level. 

DISPERSED RECREATION 

Dispersed recreation is defined as those activities that occur outside of developed 

recreation sites such as boating, rafting, hunting, fishing, hiking and biking. There 

are nearly 20 developed recreation sites that facilitate dispersed use of the forest 

such as trailheads and boat ramps. 

Several rivers flowing west through the Appalachian Mountains provide unique 

recreation settings on CNF. The Nolichucky, Hiwassee, and Ocoee rivers all provide 

sections of whitewater for kayacking, canoeing and rafting. Other scenic rivers and 

creeks include the Elk, Tellico, Bald, North, and Conasauga Rivers and Citico and 

Beaverdam Creeks. Impounded lakes like South Holston, Watauga and Parksville 

provide flat-water bodies large enough to support motor boating and other recreation 

activities. 

Over 600 miles of non-motorized trails traverse the forest including five nationally 

designated trails. Refer to Special Areas section for A.T. Motorized trails appropriate 

for OHVs are limited with less than 30 miles of designated motorcycle/ATV trails on 

the forest. Open roads with low maintenance levels have traditionally provided some 

opportunities for street legal motorcycles and 4WD vehicles to access remote, scenic 

settings on the CNF. 

The Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency has designated the entire national forest 

as a Wildlife Management Area (WMA) making it the largest WMA within the state. 

Royal Blue WMA in middle Tennessee is the second largest with 48,000 acres 

available for hunting and other popular dispersed recreation activities like horseback 

and OHV riding. 

Table 3-103. Developed Access Points for Dispersed Recreation on CNF 

Type of Developed Site Total Number of 

Sites Total Capacity (PAOT) 

Trailheads 6 95 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

312 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Table 3-103. Developed Access Points for Dispersed Recreation on CNF 

Type of Developed Site Total Number of 

Sites Total Capacity (PAOT) 

River Access Points 5 455 

Lake Boat Ramps 5 265 

Fishing Sites 2 90 

Total 18 905 

Table 3-104. Miles of Non-Motorized Trails on CNF 

Type(s) of Non-Motorized Use Allowed Existing Miles of Designated Trails 

Hike only 449.2 

Hike and Bike only 60.1 

Hike and Horse only 20.6 

Hike, Bike and Horse only 108.7 

Total 638.6 

Table 3-105. Miles of Motorized Multiple Use Trails on CNF 

Type(s) of Motorized Use Allowed Existing Miles of Designated Trails 

Motorcycle only 11.1 

ATV only 0 

Motorcycle and ATV only 17.7 

Street Legal 4-WD, High Clearance 

Vehicles and Motorcycles only 207* 

Total 235.8 

*Street Legal Vehicle trails are defined as open NFS Roads with the road 

management objective Traffic Surface Level D and Maintenance Level 2. Less 

than 50 of the total 207 miles represented in Table 3-105. have traditionally 

been used as jeep trails and are typically 7 miles or less in length. 

Table 3-106. Acres of Current Fish and Wildlife Habitat Emphasis Areas 

Type of Fish & Wildlife Habitat Emphasis Unit of Measure 

General Big & Small Game Habitat (Equivalent to 

7.E.2, 8.A.1, 8.C, 9.H 10.A, and 10.B) 407,150 acres 

Early Successional Habitats (Equivalent to 8.B & 

8.E.1) 78,085 acres 

Stocked (Put & Take) Streams 67.8 miles of streams 

Stocked (Put & Take) Reservoirs 13,600 acres 

Management of dispersed recreation is becoming more complex as an increasing 

number of people depend on public land to provide settings for their preferred 

activities. The number of Southern private owners allowing the public to recreate on 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 313 

their land has been decreasing over time. Increasing demands for off-highway 

vehicle use, hunting, fishing, and other consumptive recreational activities are likely 

to bring about more recreation participant/land owner conflicts overtime. (Cordell, 

2001). 

The Royal Blue WMA in middle Tennessee and Upper Tellico OHV area on the 

Nantahala National Forest provide more opportunities for legal OHV use than the 

CNF. However, overnight-use associated with the Upper Tellico OHV area on the 

Nantahala primarily occurs on the CNF to the extent of displacing visitors that have 

traditionally used the Tellico area for camping, fishing and other dispersed recreation 

activities. 

Other areas on the forest have been evaluated for potential OHV recreation 

development, but Buffalo Mountain near Johnson City is the only area that has been 

identified as suitable and compatible with OHV use. As demand exceeds supply, 

recreational use off designated trails including OHVs, mountain biking, horseback 

riding and hiking is increasing and establishing patterns of use throughout the 

national forest. 

This unplanned, and sometimes illegal use degrades the quality of the environment 

especially riparian resources and the visitor experience. An increase in visitor 

controls and regulations may be necessary in the future to direct visitor use, prevent 

further resource degradation and avoid the high cost of restoring and rehabilitating 

damaged landscapes. 

17.1.2 Direct/Indirect Effects 

Existing recreation demand would potentially be expected to grow for a variety of 

activities including dispersed and developed recreation (See Table 3-99). Existing 

use on national forest would potentially increase as recreation demand and 

populations grow over the next ten years. No changes to existing Wilderness 

designations (1.A), the Appalachian National Scenic Trail footpath or other nationally 

designated trails have been proposed in any of the alternatives. 

Refer to other sections of the EIS for additional recreation environmental 

consequences related Wilderness and Roadless Areas, Scenery, Special Areas, Wild 

& Scenic Rivers and Heritage resources. Cumulative effects for all recreation-related 

programs are disclosed at the conclusion of the direct and indirect effects sections. 

Estimates of current recreation visits can be found in Appendix B. 

General themes were developed for Alternatives A, B, D, E, G and I that emphasize 

different resource management objectives. Alternative F represents the current 

management alternative and provides a baseline for evaluating other alternatives. 

Each alternative theme and its allocation of prescription areas provide the 

parameters for redefining the current distribution of the ROS as well as the level of 

facility development. 

National forest management would potentially affect recreation by improving or 

limiting roaded access; constructing or removing recreation facilities and 

improvements; changing their development level; restricting, prohibiting or 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

314 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

encouraging use; altering the land to make it suitable or unsuitable for use; and 

changing the landscape setting. Evaluation of potential recreation effects requires 

that these elements be considered: activities, setting, and experiences. 

RECREATION OPPORTUNITY SPECTRUM 

Table 3-107. Estimated Distributions of ROS Classes by Alternative (Area presented 

as acres) 

ROS 

Class ALT A ALT B ALT D ALT E ALT F* ALT G ALT I 

P (1.A 

& 1.B) 94,809 68,148 66,661 116,578 66,661 140,359 86,926 

SPNM 67,759 92,682 75,294 75,294 75,251 52,572 69,834 

RN2 188,637 198,063 190,255 195,490 167,473 236,745 195,080 

RN1 288,340 280,827 307,510 254,926 330,302 210,039 287,815 

R 385 210 210 350 200 215 275 

Total 639,930 639,930 639,930 639,930 639,930 639,930 639,930 

* Baseline = Alternative F, Existing ROS Inventory (Table 3-100) 

Table 3-107 displays estimated distributions of acres of ROS classes by alternative. 

The differences in distributions of the Primitive (P) ROS class are directly proportional 

to the allocation of wilderness study areas (1.B) for each alternative. Likewise, 

decreases in the limited supply of inventoried Semi-Primitive Non-Motorized (SPNM) 

are related to the reallocation of SPNM areas to the Primitive ROS class. 

Increases in SPNM are primarily based on the allocation of prescriptions that 

emphasize SPNM in the desired range of ROS including 12.B, 4.I and 6.A. Estimated 

increases in Remote Roaded Natural (RN2) also indicate an increase in the supply of 

semi-primitive settings on the CNF. 

The allocation of approximately 330,302 acres of inventoried Roaded Natural (RN1) 

is another good indicator for evaluating the supply of semi-primitive settings. To 

some extent, all alternatives convert a portion of the existing supply of Roaded 

Natural to more primitive or remote ROS settings. 

As illustrated in Table 3-107, Alternative G secures the greatest combined acreage of 

Primitive and Semi-Primitive Non-Motorized settings on the forest followed by 

Alternatives E, A and I respectively. These changes in settings would potentially be 

positive for those visitors seeking a more remote, backcountry experience and less 

positive for those seeking a more developed setting and motorized access. 

Alternatives E, A, and I provide the most similar distribution of ROS classes across 

the CNF. However, there are thematic differences between these alternatives. 

Alternative E emphasizes the provision of high quality scenery and diverse recreation 

settings throughout the forest including a greater increase in Primitive. Existing and 

new facilities support a wide range of dispersed and developed recreation activities. 

Alternative A is primarily focused on recreation development linked to commercial 

opportunities. The majority of facility improvements would accommodate popular 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 315 

activities that generate money for local economies. This strategy also includes 

maximizing use of outfitter guides in semi-primitive settings. 

Alternative I is similar to Alternatives E and A and allows for an increase in both 

Primitive, Semi-Primitive Non-Motorized and Remote Roaded Natural settings. 

Facility improvements support developed and dispersed recreation, but with an 

emphasis on maintaining existing facilities to visitor expectations and connecting 

existing trails to create more loop opportunities. 

Alternatives B and D place the least emphasis on recreation as compared to other 

alternatives. The current level of recreation facilities and infrastructure would remain 

close to the current level or decrease. Alternative D allows for the smallest decrease 

in inventoried Roaded Natural settings because road systems are maintained to 

implement vegetation management activities. Scenic integrity of dispersed settings 

would decline over time. 

Recreation access and settings are more temporal under Alternative B. Landscape 

restoration activities would potentially change the appearance and/or access to 

traditional dispersed recreation settings. Over the next 5-10 years, areas would 

potentially become more accessible and scenic integrity would decline. However, the 

long-term management objective would allow the area to become less accessible by 

closing temporary roads. Scenic integrity would be restored over time and the area 

would provide more primitive, natural settings. 

DEVELOPED RECREATION 

Table 3-108. Estimated Increase in Capacity of Developed Recreation Areas by 

Alternative 

Type of 

Development ALT A ALT B ALT D ALT E ALT F* ALT G ALT I 

Day-Use Areas High Low Low Mod 2,585 

PAOTs Low Mod 

Level 2 

Campground Mod Low Low Mod 605 PAOTs High High 

Level 3 

Campground Mod Low Low Low 2,840 PAOTs Low Decrease 

Level 4 

Campground High Low Low Mod 2,172 PAOTs Low Mod 

Total Mod Low Low Mod 8,202 

PAOTs Low Mod 

*Baseline = Alternative F, Existing Developed Recreation PAOTs (Table 3-101 & Table 

3-102) 

Low Increase = 0-5% increase in existing PAOTs 

Moderate Increase = 6-25% increase in existing PAOTs 

High Increase = > 26% increase in existing PAOTs 

Decrease = any net loss of existing PAOTs 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

316 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Table 3-108 displays estimated increase in capacity of developed recreation areas by 

alternative. Capacity is displayed in terms of People At One Time (PAOT) as 

previously defined for Table 3-101 and Table 3-102. 

Alternatives G, B, and D would provide the least amount of change in developed 

recreation. The existing capacity and development levels of recreation sites would 

remain similar to current conditions. Facility maintenance would focus primarily on 

improvements necessary for public health, safety and accessibility. Visitors would 

notice changes in accessibility as the required percentage of campsites, picnic 

tables, restrooms, access paths are reconstructed to accessible standards. Other 

improvements would be less noticeable including the replacement of septic and 

water systems. 

With little or no change in site capacities, popular sites would be consistently 

overused and crowded at peak times such as holidays and weekends. This would 

potentially lower visitor satisfaction over time. Alternative D would potentially create 

the most over crowding as proposed vegetation management activities in dispersed 

recreation settings displace visitors to developed recreation sites. 

Alternative G allows for new construction of developed recreation sites including 

trailheads and Level 2 campgrounds as dispersed recreational use increases. These 

improvements would be motivated by site and resource protection rather than 

providing visitor comfort and conveniences. 

Alternatives A, E and I allow for expansion and improvement of developed recreation 

on the CNF. Each alternative proposes only a moderate increase due the reality of 

limited fiscal budgets. With the exception of providing improvements necessary for 

public health, safety, and accessibility, the focus of recreation development differs 

between alternatives. 

Alternative A maximizes the development of day-use fee areas and the conversion of 

campgrounds to Levels 4 or 5. Recreation facilities are constructed to serve as a 

hub and central fee area to disperse recreational use within popular areas as well as 

accommodate specific user groups. 

Alternative E spreads the moderate increase across most development levels in dayuse and overnight-use sites. Some Level 3 campground loops would potentally be 

converted to Level 4 to accommodate existing demand. Likewise, some Level 2 sites 

would potentially be converted to Levels 3 or 4. New facilities and roads would 

potentially be constructed if necessary to facilitate a wide range of recreation 

activities and protect sites. 

Alternative I provides for an increase in developed recreation that would be greater 

than Alternatives D, B and G, but less than Alternatives A and E. Similar to 

Alternative E, Level 3 campground loops would potentially be upgraded to a Level 4, 

but only when the site requires heavy maintenance or reconstruction. As visitor use 

continues to increase at popular “hot spots” Level 2 development would potentially 

be necessary to help facilitate use and limit resource damage. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 317 

New day-use and overnight facilities would potentially be constructed at a 

development level appropriate for the desired ROS setting. However, maintenance 

and improvements to existing sites would be a higher priority than constructing new 

facilities. 

DISPERSED RECREATION 

Table 3-109. Estimated Increase in Non-Motorized Trails by Alternative 

Type of Trail ALT A ALT B ALT D ALT E ALT F* ALT G ALT I 

Hike only Mod Low Low High 449.2 

Miles High Mod 

Hike and Bike 

only High Low Low High 60.1 Miles Low High 

Hike and Horse 

only High Low Low High 20.6 Miles High High 

Hike, Bike and 

Horse only Mod Low Low High 108.7 Miles Mod High 

Total Mod Low Low High 638.6 

miles Mod Mod 

*Baseline = Alternative F, Existing Miles of Trail (Table 3-104) 

Low increase = 0-5% increase of existing miles of trail 

Moderate increase = 6-25% increase of existing miles of trail 

High increase = >26% increase of existing miles of trail 

Decrease = any net loss of existing trail 

Table 3-110. Acres of Off-Highway Vehicle Use Areas, 7.C Prescription by Alternative 

Type of Motorized 

Use ALT A ALT B ALT D ALT E ALT F* ALT G ALT I 

7.C Designated 

OHV Area 3,469 0 0 3,469 163 Acres 0 11,139 

*Existing trail 100-foot corridor along the 12.8 miles of Buffalo Mountain 

ATV/Motorcycle Trail. 

Table 3-111. Percent of Estimated Change in Motorized Trails by Alternative 

Type(s) of Motorized 

Use Allowed 

ALT 

A ALT B ALT D 

ALT 

E ALT F* ALT G ALT I 

Motorcycle and/or 

ATV only Mod Decrease Low Mod 28.8 Miles Low High 

Street Legal 4-WD, 

Vehicles and 

Motorcycles only 

Low Decrease Mod Mod 207 

Miles Decrease Low 

Total Mod Decrease Mod Mod 235.8 

Miles Decrease Mod 

*Baseline = Alternative F, Existing Miles of Motorized Trail (Table 3-105.) 

Low increase = 0-10% increase of existing miles of trail 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

318 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Table 3-111. Percent of Estimated Change in Motorized Trails by Alternative 

Type(s) of Motorized 

Use Allowed 

ALT 

A ALT B ALT D 

ALT 

E ALT F* ALT G ALT I 

Moderate increase = 11-50% increase of existing miles of trail 

High increase = > 51% increase of existing miles of trail 

Decrease = any net loss of existing trail 

Non-Motorized Trails 

Alternative E would potentially provide the most opportunities for a wide range of 

dispersed recreation activities. Alternative E proposes the greatest increase in nonmotorized trails with a balanced increase for all user groups including single and 

multiple use trails throughout the forest. 

Alternative A would propose the second highest increase in non-motorized trails. This 

increase targets single use trails to attract high numbers of mountain bike and horse 

user groups. New trail construction would be located to maximize connections to 

local communities and commercial ventures. 

Alternative I would potentially allow for a moderate level of trail expansion with the 

objective of networking existing trails and roads into an interconnected trail system. 

Single use mountain bike and horse trails would be constructed to reduce user 

conflicts when necessary for public safety and resource protection. Horse use would 

be confined to a 300-foot corridor along each side of designated trails and roads to 

address emerging patterns of user-created horse trails that cause resource damage 

and visitor confusion. 

Alternative G would allow for a moderate level of trail expansion to access the large 

tracts of proposed Wilderness study areas (1.B). Single use bike trail development 

would be minimal and some bike use would be displaced due to constraints of the 

Wilderness Act of 1964. Single use hike and horse trails would be added to the trail 

system through construction or closure of existing roads. 

Alternatives B and D would not support additional trail development. The integrity of 

scenic views from existing trails would potentially decline due to vegetation 

management including thinning, regeneration, insect and disease control, prescribed 

burning and pesticide use. 

Patterns of cross-country horseback riding, hiking and biking would continue to be 

established and degrade the quality of existing trails, affected resources and visitor 

experience. Only Alternative I limits horseback riding to a specified corridor along 

trails. Visitors that encounter unmapped or unsigned trail junctions would potentially 

exacerbate the problem by proceeding down user-created trails. However, a sense of 

freedom to roam the forest on bike or horseback, which would potentially be 

essential to the satisfaction of some users, would be retained. 

In general, more visitors would experience user conflicts as use increases on the 

limited supply of single and multiple use trails. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 319 

Motorized Trails 

Page 317 (Table 3-110) displays the opportunities for motorized trails for each 

alternative. Alternative I would potentially allocate the most acres to prescription 7.C, 

Off-Highway Vehicle Use Areas. These acres represent the expansion of the existing 

Buffalo Mountain ATV trail system that currently provides 12.8 miles of 

ATV/Motorcycle trail. Alternatives A and E dedicate an equal acreage to this 

expansion, but the amount is less than half of the allocation under Alternative I. No 

other alternatives specifically allocate acres to prescription 7.C. 

Other prescription areas would potentailly allow for OHV use on designated trails if 

“screening criteria” is met. Buffalo Mountain reflects the best opportunity to expand 

OHV opportunities in areas that have been screened. See Appendix J for a list of 

screening criteria. The allocations of OHV trail riding opportunities in Alternative A, E 

and I would potentially increase noise disturbance in the affected recreation setting 

and would potentially displace or lessen the recreation experience of others seeking 

solitude and quiet forest settings. 

Opportunities to provide additional 4WD roads or jeep trails would be limited across 

all alternatives. Road construction for the purpose of providing high maintenance 

jeep trails is not feasible especially technically difficult trails. Alternatives D and E 

would provide the best opportunity to manage the existing 200 miles of high 

clearance, rough roads to provide jeep trail systems. New road construction for 

purposes of vegetation management or recreation access would potentially help 

connect existing 4WD roads. 

Alternatives A and I would potentially provide fewer opportunities to connect and 

manage existing 4WD roads as a large trail system. However, these alternatives 

support recreation management of existing 4WD roads that would potentially provide 

opportunities for enjoying selected scenic and remote settings on the CNF if 

consistent with other resource objectives. Existing opportunities would potentially be 

decreased under Alternatives B and G.

River Access 

River access for purposes of dispersed recreation would be similar for most 

alternatives because the most practical and safe river access points have already 

been developed. Rivers identified as eligible for Wild and Scenic River designations 

are assessed in a separate section of the EIS. 

In general, Alternative A would promote development and expansion of sites on the 

most popular rivers such as the Ocoee, Hiwassee, Nolichucky and Tellico. These 

sites would be further developed to attract and facilitate additional day-use to boost 

local economies. 

Alternatives E and I would focus facility improvements primarily on public health, 

safety and accessibility concerns. Alternatives B, D and G would not expand existing 

river access facilities. Existing facilities would potentially be closed if solutions to 

public health or safety concerns exceed maintenance budgets. Tennessee Valley 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

320 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Authority or state agencies would become the primary providers of any additional 

water-related facilities. 

Table 3-112. Estimated Total Acres of Big & Small Game Emphasis Areas by 

Alternative 

Type of 

Game 

Habitat 

ALT A ALT B ALT D ALT E ALT F * ALT G ALT I 

General 

Habitat 211,944 169,156 440,419 48,361 407,150 119,487 293,580 

Early 

Successional 

Habitat 

2,615 20,619 0 3,029 78,085 0 56,517 

*General big & small game habitat includes Prescription Areas 7.E.2, 8.A.1, 8.C, 9.H, 

10.A & 10.B. Early successional habitat for game includes Prescription Areas 8.B & 

8.E.1. 

Alternatives that emphasize prescriptions that provide habitat for big and small game 

would potentially increase opportunities for hunting and wildlife viewing. Table 3-112 

displays the allocation of acres to these types of prescriptions by alternative. All 

alternatives maintain black bear reserves as designated by the Tennessee Wildlife 

Resources Commission. 

Changes in the quantity of stocked (put and take) streams and reservoirs are not 

displayed because changes were not proposed in any of the alternatives. However, 

some streams and reservoirs would potentially become more accessible to the public 

by increasing recreation access in Alternative E. 

In terms of general habitat, Alternative D would potentially allow the most 

management activity for big and small game habitat. Effects of this emphasis 

include increased opportunities for hunting and non-consumptive wildlife viewing on 

some parts of the forest. Visitor experience would potentially be enhanced as 

chances of encountering big and small game would be increased. 

Alternative I would potentially allocate fewer acres to general habitat prescriptions, 

but specifically provides for early successional habitat to promote grouse 

populations. Alternative A manages a lesser amount of general and early 

successional habitat, but promotes seasonal hunting and wildlife viewing 

opportunities in areas to support local tourism. 

Alternatives E and G would provide the least amount of opportunities for habitat 

manipulation. Opportunities to hunt or view wildlife would not be decreased, but 

chances of encountering game would potentially be diminished over time as game 

populations decrease. User conflicts between hunters and trail users would 

potentially be higher for these alternatives. Access would potentially be most limited 

under Alternative G due to the greatest increase in Wilderness study areas. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 321 

17.2 Wilderness and Roadless Areas 

17.2.1 Affected Environment 

Wilderness 

Congressionally designated wildernesses are protected by law and valued for their 

ecological, historical, scientific and experiential resources. 

Currently in CNF, there are 11 designated wilderness areas containing a total of 

66,389 acres or approximately ten percent of the total forest land base. There are 

no wilderness study areas or recommended wilderness study areas that have not 

been acted upon by Congress (Table 3-113). Existing wildernesses will be managed 

to maintain their natural characteristics. Natural occurrences such as outbreaks of 

insects or disease are allowed as part of the natural cycle. Human-caused intrusions 

are not allowed. Under emergency conditions, mechanical equipment and motorized 

transport may be approved for use to control fire that threatens life, property, or the 

wilderness resource. 

Table 3-113. Existing Designated Wildernesses 

Name of Wilderness Acreage Date 

Designated 

Bald River Gorge 3,721 1984 

Big Frog* 7,993 1984/86 

Big Laurel Branch 6,332 1986 

Citico Creek 16,226 1984 

Cohutta* 1,709 1975 

Gee Creek 2,573 1975 

Joyce Kilmer-Slickrock* 3,832 1975 

Little Frog Mountain 4,666 1986 

Pond Mountain 6,929 1986 

Sampson Mountain 7,992 1986 

Unaka Mountain 4,496 1986 

TOTAL 66,389 

*Acreages in adjacent states are not shown.

Roadless Areas 

The first step in the evaluation of potential wilderness is to identify and inventory all 

roadless, undeveloped areas that satisfy the definition of wilderness found in Section 

2 (c) of the 1964 Wilderness Act (FSH 1909.12, Chapter 7, item 7.1). Roadless 

areas are places that have retained or are regaining a natural, untrammeled 

appearance; any signs of prior human activity are disappearing or being muted by 

natural forces. Criteria provide for individual roadless areas to include no more than 

one half mile of improved road for each 1,000 acres. 

In the forest planning process, national forests are required to assess roadless areas 

on a forest (Chapter 7 of FSH 1909.12). A new Roadless inventory was conducted as 

a part of the SAA with additional guidelines developed by the SAA team and the 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

322 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Southern Regional Office of the Forest Service to facilitate consistent application of 

the process. 

CNF had 21 inventoried Roadless areas as a result of the RARE II process in the late 

1970s. Three of these (Citico Creek, Big Frog and Big Frog Addition A) were studied 

through the 1975 Eastern Wilderness act and were designated as Wilderness 

through the 1984 Tennessee Wilderness Act, along with Bald River Gorge. Two areas 

(Brushy Ridge and Upper Bald River) were released to non-wilderness uses through 

the Tennessee Wilderness Act. Fifteen areas remained for re-evaluation and two (Big 

Frog Extension and Sampson Mountain) were added. The two Beaverdam areas 

were treated as one, as were Pond Mountain and Pond Mountain Addition. A total of 

fifteen areas were described in Appendix C of the Environmental Impact Statement to 

CNF’s 1986 LMP. Six of these (Big Frog Study Area [combined with two other Big 

Frog areas already designated], Big Laurel Branch, Little Frog Mountain Study Area, 

the combined Pond Mountain areas, Sampson Mountain [the Buckeye Falls portion] 

and Unaka Mountain) were later designated Wilderness during the planning process 

and amendments to the LMP in 1988. (See Table 3-114) 

Table 3-114. Roadless Areas studied during 1986 Planning Process 

Area Name RARE II or Other 

Proposal 

Planning 

Acres 

1986 

Disposition 

Current 

Management 

Bald River 

Gorge 

RARE II 

Wilderness 

proposal 

3,887 1984 Wilderness 

designation 

3,721 

Wilderness 

acres; 

Roadless 

Inventory 

addition: 1,730 

acres 

Beaverdam 

Creek (2 

areas) 

RARE II 

4,900 

and 

2,000 

EIS 

Managed 

under MA 14, 

1988 

amendment; 

Roadless 

Inventory: 

5,240 acres 

Big Frog 

Study Area 

(a/k/a Big 

Frog 

Extension) 

Citizen Proposal 3,000 

EIS; 1984 WSA; 

1986 Wilderness 

designation 

Big Frog 

Wilderness 

Study Area 

RARE II 4,626 1984 Wilderness 

designation 

Big Frog 

Addition A 

Wilderness 

Study Area 

RARE II 547 1984 Wilderness 

designation 

All combined 

into Big Frog 

Wilderness, 

7,993 acres; 

Roadless 

Inventory 

addition: 370 

acres 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 323 

Table 3-114. Roadless Areas studied during 1986 Planning Process 

Area Name RARE II or Other 

Proposal 

Planning 

Acres 

1986 

Disposition 

Current 

Management 

Big Laurel 

Branch RARE II 6,251 

EIS, 1984 WSA 

1986 Wilderness 

designation 

6,332 

Wilderness 

acres; 

Roadless 

Inventory 

addition: 5,770 

acres 

Brushy Ridge RARE II 4,600 

Released for 

non-wilderness, 

1984 

Managed 

under MA 14, 

1988 

amendment; 

Roadless 

Inventory: 

7,580 acres 

Citico Creek 

Wilderness 

Study Area 

RARE II 16,000 1984 Wilderness 

Designation 

16,226 

Wilderness 

acres 

Devil's 

Backbone RARE II 4,100 EIS 

Deferred from 

management 

under MA 14, 

1988 

amendment; 

Roadless 

Inventory: 

4,370 acres 

Flint Mill 

RARE II 

Wilderness 

Proposal 

7,166 EIS 

Deferred from 

management 

under MA 14, 

1988 

amendment; 

Roadless 

Inventory: 

9,560 acres 

Hickory Flat 

Branch RARE II 4,500 EIS 

Managed as 

GFA, MA 15 

and/or 16 

Iron Mountain RARE II 13,700 EIS 

Managed 

under MA 14, 

1988 

amendment 

Laurel Fork RARE II 2,200 EIS 

Managed as 

GFA, MA 15 

and/or 16 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

324 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Table 3-114. Roadless Areas studied during 1986 Planning Process 

Area Name RARE II or Other 

Proposal 

Planning 

Acres 

1986 

Disposition 

Current 

Management 

Little Frog 

Mountain 

RARE II 

Wilderness 

proposal 

4,800 EIS/1984 WSA 

4,666 

wilderness 

acres; 2 

Roadless 

Inventory 

additions: 350 

and 660 acres 

Nolichucky RARE II 5,841 EIS 

Deferred from 

management 

under MA 14, 

1988 

amendment 

Pond 

Mountain and 

Pond 

Mountain 

Addition 

RARE II 

Wilderness 

Proposal 

4,365 

and 

2,300 

EIS/1984 WSA; 

1986 Wilderness 

designation 

Combined into 

6,929 

Wilderness 

acres 

Rogers Ridge RARE II 5,841 

Deferred from 

management 

under MA 14, 

1988 

amendment; 

Roadless 

Inventory: 

4,850 acres 

Sampson 

Mountain 

(formerly 

Jennings 

Creek) 

RARE II 19,684 EIS 

Deferred from 

management 

under MA 14, 

1988 

amendment; 

Roadless 

Inventory: 

11,620 acres 

(Bald 

Mountain) 

Sampson 

Mountain 

(formerly 

Jennings 

CreekBuckeye 

Falls) 

RARE II 8,319 

EIS/1984 WSA; 

1986 Wilderness 

designation 

7,992 

Wilderness 

acres; 

Roadless 

Inventory 

addition, 4,590 

acres 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 325 

Table 3-114. Roadless Areas studied during 1986 Planning Process 

Area Name RARE II or Other 

Proposal 

Planning 

Acres 

1986 

Disposition 

Current 

Management 

Unaka 

Mountain 

RARE II 

Wilderness 

Proposal 

4,700 

EIS/1984 WSA; 

1986 Wilderness 

designation 

4,496 

Wilderness 

acres 

Upper Bald 

River RARE II 14,900 

Released for 

non-wilderness, 

1984 

Managed 

under MA 14, 

1988 

amendment; 

Roadless 

Inventory: 

9,290 acres 

Generally, these areas offer a semi-primitive non-motorized (SPNM) recreation 

opportunity. Any portion of the inventoried areas that falls within 1⁄2-mile of a road or 

motorized trail would fall into the Forest’s Roaded Natural (RN) ROS class. Areas that 

are designated Wilderness are managed for a Primitive (P) recreation opportunity; 

however, CNF has no lands that meet the actual ROS “Primitive” criteria. 

Roadless Areas were inventoried in 1995, through a series of public meetings and 

comments and using inventory guidance issued by the Regional Forester and criteria 

from the Forest Service Handbook. An inventory of 18 areas was displayed in the 

SAA. Some are from the RARE II inventory, some are portions of land adjacent to 

designated wildernesses, and some of these are new areas. The inventory was 

refined as those Roadless Areas were evaluated for Appendix C. 

The CNF’s current Roadless Area Inventory is shown in Table 3-115. The 18 

inventoried Roadless areas total approximately 85,195 acres that could be 

recommended for wilderness study. Three of the areas are shared with Jefferson 

National Forest; however CNF administers the majority of all three. Two are shared 

with Pisgah National Forest; the majority of one, Slide Hollow, is administered by CNF. 

An additional 2,366 acres in these five roadless areas fall in adjacent national 

forests. Bald Mountain roadless area’s acreage falls within boundaries of two 

national forests and is currently administered separately by the two Forests. The 

entire acreage may be considered as one unit during Pisgah National Forest’s Plan 

revision at a future date. 

Table 3-115. SAA Roadless Area Inventory, CNF 

Roadless Area Total CNF Acres 

(Approximate) 

Total Acres, 

Adjacent Forests 

(Approximate) 

Bald Mountain (PNF) 11,744* 10,971 (PNF) 

Bald River Gorge Addition 1,737 

Beaver Dam Creek (JNF) 5,130 1,133 (JNF) 

Big Frog Addition 365 

Big Laurel Branch Addition 5,589 

Brushy Ridge 7,389 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

326 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Table 3-115. SAA Roadless Area Inventory, CNF 

Roadless Area Total CNF Acres 

(Approximate) 

Total Acres, 

Adjacent Forests 

(Approximate) 

Devil's Backbone 4,283 

Flint Mill Gap 9,629* 

Joyce Kilmer-Slickrock 

Addition 1,425 

Little Frog Addition NE 335 

Little Frog Addition NW 642 

London Bridge Branch 

(JNF) 3,431 853 (JNF) 

Rogers Ridge (JNF) 4,753 180 (JNF) 

Sampson Mountain 

Addition 3,069* 

Slide Hollow (PNF) 4,195 200 (PNF) 

Stone Mountain 5,373 

Sycamore Creek 6,994 

Upper Bald River 9,112 

 Total 85,195 13,337 

*changes in SAA-reported acreage 

A report evaluating the wilderness potential of each Roadless area was prepared. 

These evaluation reports consider wilderness potential in three main categories: 

Capability—the qualities that make a roadless area suitable or not suitable for 

wilderness 

Availability – an assessment of the non-wilderness resources and demand of 

the area 

Need—a consideration of the amount of wilderness already in the area and 

region. 

These reports are found in Appendix C and are in accord with 36 CFR 219.17. 

Outdoor recreation is one of the benefactors of wilderness and is one of the drivers 

of both wilderness demand and wilderness management. According to trend data 

collected from 1965 to 1994, the trend in recreation visits to national forest 

Wilderness has paralleled designations and increased over time. In the Southeast, 

participation rates and trends, in wilderness indicate a continued increase in 

visitation to wilderness with an estimated 8,640,000 visits to wilderness by the year 

2050 (see Recreation Activity, “Visit wilderness or primitive area”, Table 3-99 in 

Developed and Dispersed Recreation discussion). 

In addition to outdoor recreation participation in wilderness, there is a non-user 

component that values American wilderness. Understanding this value is important 

when analyzing wilderness and roadless allocations. Wilderness is valued for 

preserving representative natural ecosystems and local landscapes. The very 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 327 

existence of wilderness is valued by the American public as part of the natural 

heritage of the country. In support of this, the National Survey on Recreation and the 

Environment, 2000, found that 69.8 percent of those surveyed either agreed or 

strongly agreed to the question: 

“How do you feel about designating more federal lands in your state as 

wilderness?” 

Over 96 percent agreed or strongly agreed with the statement: 

“I enjoy knowing that future generations will be able to visit and experience 

wilderness areas.” 

Visits to Wildernesses in CNF make up approximately four percent total Forest visits, 

and have been estimated at 54,600 visits for 2002. (See Table 3-98, Baselines for 

Recreation Use on Cherokee NF in Developed/Dispersed Recreation section.) 

17.2.2 Direct/Indirect Effects 

Wilderness 

Wilderness has many positive effects, including preservation of natural systems and 

providing visitors with places of solitude. However, there are environmental effects 

within wilderness from many sources. Recreational use would potentially have 

negative impacts to the quality, character and integrity of the wilderness resource 

due to overuse. Some of these negative impacts caused by heavy recreation use 

include soil compaction, vegetation loss disturbance and/or replacement by nonnative species such as noxious weeds on trails and campsites crowding and loss of 

solitude, deterioration of water quality from improper disposal of human waste and 

waste water, and loss of or threats to biological/ecological processes and 

biodiversity, through human disturbance. 

Other environmental effects that impact integrity of natural systems in wilderness 

include air pollution from outside sources, interruption of naturally-functioning 

ecosystems by fire suppression, and threats to native plant species from the spread 

of noxious weeds from sources outside wilderness. 

No significant new management direction is being proposed for any of the existing 11 

designated Wildernesses in CNF under any of the alternatives. There would 

potentially be no significant direct, indirect, or cumulative effects to the existing 

wilderness resource. Expansion to existing wilderness would be proposed by 

allocating adjacent lands to wilderness study area. See the ROADLESS discussion 

below. 

Effects to forested community would be a continual development of older forests with 

no human caused disturbance. This is currently over 66,000 acres of existing 

wilderness with the following distribution of community types (Table 3-116): 

Table 3-116. Forest types communities within 

existing wilderness areas. 

Bottomland Hardwood 0% 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

328 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Table 3-116. Forest types communities within 

existing wilderness areas. 

Mesic Mixed Pine Hardwood 0.3% 

Mesic Oak 25% 

Mixed Mesophytic Hardwood 16% 

Montane Spruce-Fir 0% 

Northern Hardwood 6% 

Southern Yellow Pine 17% 

White Pine-Hemlock-Hardwood 9% 

Xeric Mixed Pine-Hardwood 9% 

Xeric Oak 10% 

Other communities 8% 

Roadless Areas 

Either decision, whether to designate wilderness study areas or not, would potentially 

have environmental consequences. Both decisions, to designate wilderness study 

areas or not to designate them, would potentially have environmental consequences. 

The magnitude of the effects would vary by alternative depending upon the number 

of roadless areas assigned. 

Three categories are used to summarize how each roadless area is allocated in the 

alternatives. These categories are 

Recommended Wilderness Study (W) 

Roadless Areas Maintaining Roadless Characteristics (R) 

Roadless Areas Not Maintaining Roadless Characteristics (N). 

Table 3-117 summarizes all roadless area allocations by category across the 

alternatives. 

Table 3-117. Summary of Roadless Area Allocations by Category by Alternative 

Roadless Area Alt A Alt B Alt D Alt E Alt F* Alt G Alt I 

Bald Mountain 

(PNF portion 

administered 

separately) 

W 84% 

N 16 % 

R 84%, 

N 16% 

R 4%, 

N 96% W 100% R 35%, 

N 65% 

W 39% 

R 61% 

R 96%, 

N 4% 

Bald River Gorge

Addition 

W 35% 

N 65% N 100% N 100% W 100% R 28%, N 72% W 100% R 100% 

Beaver Dam 

Creek (JNF) 

R 54%, 

N 46% 

R 32%, 

N 68% 

 R 32%, 

N 68% R 100% R 49%, N 51% W 100% R 85%, N15% 

Big Frog 

Addition 

W 68% 

R 23% 

N 9% 

N 100% N 100% W 100% R 28%, 

N 72% W 100% W 100% 

Big Laurel 

Branch Addition W 100% R 99%, N 1% 

R 40%, 

N 60% W 100% R 77%, N 23% W 100% W 86% R 14% 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 329 

Table 3-117. Summary of Roadless Area Allocations by Category by Alternative 

Roadless Area Alt A Alt B Alt D Alt E Alt F* Alt G Alt I 

Brushy Ridge R 8%, 

N 92% 

R 8%, 

N 92% 

R 8%, 

N 92% R 100% R 39%, N 61% W 100% R 90%, N 10% 

Devil's 

Backbone 

R 90%, 

N 10% 

R 89%, 

 N 11% N 100% W 100% R 55%, N 45% W 100% R 100% 

Flint Mill Gap R 96%, 

N 4% 

R 92%, 

N 8% 

R 35%, 

N 65% 

W 73% 

R 27% 

R 58%, 

N 42% 

W 83% 

R 17% 

R 

100% 

Joyce KilmerSlickrock 

Addition 

W 100% W 100% N 100% W 100% R 81%, 

N 19% W 100% W 100% 

Little Frog 

Addition NE 

W 78% 

N 22% N 100% N 100% W 100% R 47%, N 53% W 100% W 100% 

Little Frog 

Addition NW N 100% N 100% N 100% W 100% R 36%, N 64% W 100% W 100% 

London Bridge 

Branch (with 

JNF) 

R 37%, 

N 63% N 100% N 100% R 100% R 65%, N 35% W 100% R 100% 

Rogers Ridge 

(with JNF) R 100% R 99%, N 1% 

R 95%, 

N 5% R 100% R 40%, N 60% 

W 38% 

R 62% 

R 

100% 

Sampson 

Mountain 

Addition 

W 38% 

N 62% 

R 58%, 

N 42% N 100% W 100% R 57%, N 43% W 100% W 100% 

Slide Hollow 

(with PNF) R 100% R 6%, N 94% 

R 27%, 

N 73% W 100% R 52%, N 48% W 100% R 92%, N 8% 

Stone Mountain R 66%, 

N 34% N 100% N 100% N 100% R 52%, N 48% W 100% R 100% 

Sycamore Creek R 10%, 

N 90% 

R 11%, 

N 89% 

R 10%, 

N 90% R 100% R 52%, N 48% W 100% R 100% 

Upper Bald River W 96% 

N 4% 

R 96%, 

N 4% N 100% W 100% R 75%, 

N 25% W 100% W 97% N 3% 

Totals, by 

alternative 

W 33%, 

R 36%, 

N 31% 

W 2%, 

R 54%, 

N 44% 

R 16%, 

N 84% 

W 58%, 

R 36%, 

N 6% 

R 53%, 

N 47% 

W 86% 

R 14% 

W 23%,

R 74%,

N 3% 

W=Recommended Wilderness Study, R=Roadless Character Maintained, 

N=Roadless Character Not Maintained 

*Percentages for Alternative F are based on each area’s percent of Solitude Core. 

(See descriptions in Appendix C.) 

Note: Areas or portions of areas identified as having their Roadless character 

maintained may include prescriptions allowing temporary road construction. 

Recommended Wilderness Study Areas (1.B): Designation as wilderness study area

would allow additional areas to be managed (1) to allow natural processes to occur, 

(2) to provide areas for solitude and primitive recreation, and (3) to minimize the 

impacts of human activities on the land. These wilderness study areas would be 

islands within the forest where the naturalness, uniqueness, and representative 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

330 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

ecosystems of the designated areas would be maintained. The highest priority for 

management would be for the naturalness of the area. 

Roadless areas recommended for wilderness study would potentially be set aside for 

future designation as wilderness and would not be available for activities such as 

vegetative management or road construction. These areas would potentially be 

managed much the same as designated Wilderness until a final determination is 

made by Congress as to whether they would be added to the National Wilderness 

Preservation system. The number of roadless areas recommended for wilderness 

study are displayed in Table 3-118. 

Table 3-118. Numbers of Areas and Acres Allocated to Recommended 

Wilderness Study (1.B) by Alternative 

Alt A B D E F G I 

Number of 

Areas 

2 + 

portions 

of 6 

1 0 

11 + a 

portion 

of 1 

0 

15 + 

portions 

of 3 

6+ 

portion 

of 1 

Acres 27,750 1,425 0 49,240 0 73,100 20,265 

Note: The actual acreage of an individual Wilderness Study Area may include 

embedded Prescriptions like 4.A (A.T.), 9.F (Rare Community), etc, but these 

acres are not displayed here. Specific area acreages are derived from current 

Roadless Area descriptions (EIS Appendix C), and may not necessarily be 

consistent with those acreages published by SAA. 

Table 3-119 displays the ecosystems represented currently by designated 

Wildernesses in CNF as well as those that would potentially be added after 

wilderness studies are completed. None of the Roadless Areas represent new 

ecosystem sections or subsections and no new ones are proposed in any alternative. 

Table 3-119. Ecosystems represented by Wilderness or Wilderness Study Areas by 

Alternative 

Alternatives (by number of areas) 

Alternatives A B D E F G I 

Section/Subsection 

Name W / WS W / WS W / WS W / WS W / WS W / WS W / WS

Blue Ridge Section/ 

Southern Blue Ridge 

Subsection 

2 / 1 2 / 0 2 / 0 2 / 3 2 / 0 2 / 7 2 / 1

Blue Ridge Section/ 

Metasedimentary 

Mountains 

Subsection 

9 / 7 9 / 1 9 / 0 9 / 9 9 / 0 9 / 11 9 / 6

Total 11 / 8 11 / 1 11 / 0 11 / 12 11 / 0 11 / 18 11 / 7

W=Existing Designated Wilderness 

WS=Wilderness Study Areas 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 331 

Direct effects of managing wilderness study areas would potentially include 

maintaining soil, hydrologic and atmospheric conditions prevailing within the areas. 

Roads would potentially be closed and rehabilitated or allowed to return to natural 

state. Water quality and air quality would remain high and the imprint of human 

influence would not increase or would diminish over time. 

Opportunities for solitude and remoteness would increase as would the opportunity 

for primitive and unconfined recreation due to closing roads and prohibiting 

motorized use. Non-motorized dispersed recreation activities such as hiking, 

horseback riding, camping, fishing, and hunting would continue and use levels would 

be expected to remain about the same as currently takes place or increase based on 

trend statistics for this type of recreation activity. Visual and experiential contrasts 

between roadless areas and other timbered lands would potentially increase. 

Additional acreage for wilderness study would potentially increase the carrying 

capacity and allow for user impacts to be dispersed across a larger area, providing an 

increase in wilderness visitor satisfaction. However, road closures would result in 

decreased access for some activities. A decrease in opportunities for bicycling, offhighway vehicles and other forms of recreation requiring motorized transport or 

mechanized equipment would result (Table 3-120). Bicycle and motorized use would 

be displaced to other areas. 

In CNF, designated horse trails currently are open for bicycle use unless otherwise 

specified. Some trails are, or can be designated for bicycle use, but not for horse 

use. The table below shows miles of trails in Roadless Areas that currently allow 

bicycles, a use that would be eliminated if the area was designated as Wilderness 

Study Area (Rx 1.B). The most miles would be lost to this use under Alternatives G, E, 

and A. In Alternative I, 7.2 miles would be closed; one-half mile would be closed 

under Alternative B. Two ATV/motorcycle trails are currently maintained in Forest 

Roadless Areas. Both of these would be closed to motorized use in Alternatives A, E 

and G. Miles of trail overall that would be lost in Wilderness Study Areas vary in 

Alternatives G (the most miles lost), E, A, I, and B (the least miles lost). With no 

Wildernesss Study Areas, no miles would be lost in Alternative D. Maintenance and 

construction of trails and facilities, including the A.T., the proposed Benton McKaye 

Trail and any associated shelter sites, would be achieved using hand tools only. 

Access would be made using non-mechanized/non-motorized means. This would 

potentially affect up to 15.5 miles of the A.T., proposed 4.7 miles of A.T. relocation, 

two existing shelters, one potential shelter reconstruction, one potential shelter 

relocation and potentially 5.0 miles of proposed Benton McKaye in seven different 

Roadless Areas over a range of four alternatives (A, E, G and I). The minor amount of 

developed recreation use and other use associated with motor vehicles currently 

taking place in these areas would cease, except in those portions specifically 

excluded from the area boundary. (See Appendix C) 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

332 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Table 3-120. Bicycle and motorized trail closures in 1.B areas by alternative 

Alternatives A B D E F G I 

Bicycles 14.4 0.5 0.0 16.2 0.0 22.0 7.2

Motorcycles 5.4 0.0 0.0 5.4 0.0 5.4 0

Total 19.8 0.5 0.0 21.6 0.0 27.4 7.2

Bicycles are currently allowed on closed roads in CNF, unless otherwise specified. 

The table below enumerates miles of road inside Roadless Areas that would be 

closed to motorized and bicycle use if the area was designated Wilderness Study 

Area. The most miles (30.3) would be closed in 13 separate areas in Alternative G; 

17.7 miles would be closed in seven separate areas in Alternative E; 9.0 miles would 

be closed in four separate areas in Alternative A; and 5.7 miles would be closed in 

three separate areas in Alternative I. 

Table 3-121. Miles of interior roads to be closed in 1.B Areas by Alternative 

Alternative A B D E F G I 

Miles 9.0 0 0 17.7 0 30.3 5.6 

Research indicates that additional Wilderness would potentially increase national 

forest visitation in this area. This increase in tourism would increase economic 

benefits to surrounding local communities. However, since vegetation management 

activities would not be allowed (except to rare communities), there would also be a 

reduction in economic benefits associated with the management, harvesting, 

manufacturing and retail sale of timber and other products from the Wilderness 

Study Areas. There would potentially be reduced opportunities to recover commercial 

minerals and mineral exploration and development will be hindered. Little or no 

mineral development or its associated impacts would be expected under this 

alternative. 

Table 3-122. Acres of Potential Timber Management and Resource Extraction 

affected by 1.B Areas by Alternative 

Alternative A B D E F G I 

Total suitable acres 11,585 175 0 18,989 0 32,924 8,341 

Suitable acres of 

damaged/vulnerable 

timber 

3,426 0 0 5,142 0 8,190 2,729 

Mineral rights (acres) 2,614 0 0 17,136 0 17,149 2,614 

Oil/gas leases 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

In the 18 Roadless areas, there are currently 32,924 acres allocated to the suitable 

timber base. In individual areas, this ranges from four percent to 91 percent in 

individual Roadless areas. Within the suitable base of the 18 Roadless areas, there 

are also 8,190 acres of timber either currently suffering damage from disease or 

pests or that are vulnerable to disease or pest within the next ten years. These 

include acres of oaks, pines and hemlocks. There are also acres of damaged and 

vulnerable timber in each area’s unsuitable acreage, as well. The maximum number, 

approximately 48 percent of the entire Roadless area acreage, would be affected 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 333 

under Alternative G. A significant number of acres would be affected in Alternatives E 

(approximately 28%), A (approximately 18%), and I (approximately 12%). 

Inventory data indicates privately owned, outstanding or reserved mineral rights 

underlying Federal surface ownership in Big Laurel Branch Addition (1,989 acres), 

Flint Mill Gap (10,511 acres), London Bridge Branch (13 acres), Sampson Mountain 

Addition (625 acres), and Slide Hollow (4,011 acres). Requests for access to these 

interests would be recognized and reasonable access granted. There would be, 

however, a low potential for this occurring. There would be no existing Federal oil or 

gas leases or other Federal mineral leases in effect in any of the areas 

recommended for wilderness study. The potential for development of energy 

minerals and other leasable and common minerals would potentially be estimated to 

be low. These areas would be administratively unavailable for federal oil and gas and 

other federal mineral leases, pending final Congressional action. These areas would 

not be available for mineral materials for commercial purposes. Administrative use 

of mineral materials would be allowed but use and impacts would be extremely low. 

Educational opportunities for the scientific study of natural ecological processes 

would potentially increase. 

The naturalness, uniqueness, and representative ecosystems in these areas would 

be maintained. Natural ecological processes would continue including plant 

succession. Larger blocks of undeveloped land and reduction in open road density in 

areas recommended for wilderness study would favor area-sensitive and 

disturbance-sensitive species. Existing old fields, wildlife openings and other habitat 

improvements for fish and wildlife would not be maintained in areas recommended 

for wilderness study. Early successional habitat areas would succeed to forest. New 

permanent wildlife openings would not be created. These factors would potentially 

reduce habitat for early successional species. Fish stocking in areas recommended 

for wilderness study would be restricted to re-establishment or maintenance of 

indigenous, threatened, endangered, or sensitive species with Forest Supervisor 

authorization. Rare communities and threatened and endangered species would be 

managed within the limitation of activities allowed within wilderness study areas. 

Several of the Roadless Areas contain wildlife openings managed by mowing, as well 

as active fisheries monitoring projects. Some contain programs for fisheries 

stocking, restoration, or habitat structures. At least seven of the 18 areas contain 

TES species and/or rare communities. The significance of the effects depends upon 

the number of areas and the kinds and intensity of activities in the areas. See Table 

3-123, below. 

Table 3-123. Wildlife, Fisheries and Plants Potentially Affected by 1.B Areas, by 

Alternative. 

A 

27.5 acres + 0.25 mi. linear wildlife openings; fish monitoring; 

stocking/structures at Clark Creek; brook trout restoration in Brookshire Creek; 

monitoring Southern water shrew 

B Fisheries monitoring (1 area) 

D No areas proposed for Wilderness Study 

E 32.5 acres + 2.2 mi. linear wildlife openings; fish monitoring; 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

334 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Table 3-123. Wildlife, Fisheries and Plants Potentially Affected by 1.B Areas, by 

Alternative. 

stocking/structures at Clark Creek; brook trout restoration in Brookshire Creek; 

monitoring Southern water shrew, a sphagnum bog, at least 3 regionally 

sensitive plants and Whetstone Branch rare community; 

monitoring/management of Table Mountain pine 

F No areas proposed for Wilderness Study 

G 

45.25 acres + 2.2 mi. linear wildlife openings; fish monitoring; 

stocking/structures at Clark Creek; fish structures in Brookshire Creek; brook 

trout restoration in Brushy Ridge, Sycamore Creek and Upper Bald River areas; 

monitoring Carolina Northern Flying Squirrel and Southern water shrew, a 

sphagnum bog, at least 3 regionally sensitive plants and Whetstone Branch 

and North River Bog rare communities; monitoring/management of Table 

Mountain pine 

I 

5.5 acres wildlife openings; fisheries monitoring; stocking/structures at Clark 

Creek; fish structures in Brookshire Creek; brook trout restoration in Upper Bald 

River areas; monitoring Southern water shrew 

Note: Some of these activities may be excluded from final Roadless Area 

boundaries. See Appendix C for individual descriptions, including proposed 

exclusions. 

Fire management would potentially be effected by designation of additional 

wilderness study areas. Fire suppression of all human-caused wildfires would 

minimize the potential effects on wilderness values. However, fires in these areas 

would likely become larger in size than they would under current management 

because of the restrictions on use of motorized equipment such as dozers. Under 

emergency situations, mechanized equipment and motorized transport, use of 

helicopters, air tankers, and other aircraft would potentially be approved by Forest 

Supervisors and/or Regional Forester. These actions would impact wilderness 

character and visitor experiences and leave evidence of humans, although 

rehabilitation would help to reduce those impacts afterward. 

Lightning-ignited fires, if allowed to burn, enhance the natural systems that are fire 

dependent. These fires would benefit recreation by opening up the forest, reducing 

fuel loading to acceptable levels, and maintaining the vegetation. There would be a 

short-term negative impact to air quality, visual aesthetics and possibly water quality. 

Management-ignited fires to reduce hazardous fuels would potentially have negative 

results in wilderness through changes in vegetation types, impacts to wilderness 

visitors and experiences, water quality and habitat within wilderness. These fires 

would, however, benefit the wilderness by reducing fuel loadings to acceptable levels 

such that naturally ignited fires would potentially be returned to the wilderness or 

wilderness study area. Fire prevention strategies applied in the urban interface area 

on private land would potentially reduce the need for management-ignited fires. 

Several of the Roadless areas have a history of wildfire, either naturally ignited or 

human-caused. All or a portion of the acres in each of these areas would be included 

in the CNF’s system of prescribed burn blocks; a Wilderness Study designation would 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 335 

eliminate this management activity. Currently the high-elevation balds in Rogers 

Ridge Roadless area are kept open and maintained by management-ignited fire. 

Additional effects to Wilderness Study Areas would be similar to those found in 

wilderness. These include soil compaction, vegetation loss or disturbance, nonnative species, crowding and loss of solitude, deterioration of water quality from 

improper disposal of human waste and wastewater, and loss of or threats to 

biological/ecological processes and biodiversity through human disturbance. 

Special uses occur in at least seven of the 18 Roadless Areas. These include 

telephone and fiber optic lines, power transmission lines and associated access 

roads, spring box permits for domestic water, a dam related to the operation of 

Pheasant Fields fisheries, and outfitter recreation-related permits for horse use and 

fishing. Some of these would potentially be allowed in Wilderness/Wilderness Study 

Areas; others would need to be excluded from individual area boundaries. Future 

permits would be restricted by allocations to 1.B. (Refer to the number of areas 

affected in Table 3-118.) 

Roadless Areas Maintaining Roadless Character: Areas identified as Roadless Areas 

Maintaining Roadless Character would be assigned to prescriptions that would 

manage in some ways similar to those in Wilderness or Wilderness Study. These 

areas would also exhibit some overall effects similar to those in Wilderness or 

Wilderness Study. The management of these areas would strive to protect the 

natural process and minimize the impacts of humans. No active timber management 

or permanent road construction would be prescribed in any of the alternatives for 

these areas. However, sights and sounds of human activities would increase under 

these prescriptions, and some opportunity for solitude would be diminished due to a 

broader range of activities under the various prescriptions. Some recreation facilities 

would potentially be constructed to enhance the visitor’s experience. Trails would be 

maintained with mechanized equipment. Recreation would potentially include 

motorized trails and bicycle trails and be at a higher density than Wilderness Study 

Areas. Management-ignited fire would be used to maintain fuel loadings and 

mechanized equipment and motorized vehicles would be used. Prescriptions that 

prohibit permanent road construction, commercial timber harvest, or surface 

occupancy for minerals development are 1.A, 1.B, 3.C, 4.A, 4.K, 6.A, 9.F, 12.B, 12.C. 

CNFs prescription for 4.F includes restrictions for road construction where 

inventoried roadless areas coincide with the prescription allocation in Management 

Areas 8, 12, and 15. 

While timber harvesting would not be allowed, management for insects or disease 

and limited vegetation management for specific resource considerations would 

potentially be allowed. (See affected acres of damaged/vulnerable timber in Table 3-

122) Depending on prescription allocation, salvage logging of dead, dying or 

deteriorating timber potentially would or would not be permitted, and if permitted, 

would only be allowed in stands easily accessed from existing roads. Existing roads 

would remain open only in some prescriptions, while in some such as 12.B, all roads 

would be closed except for limited administrative use. Most activities described in 

Table 3-123 relating to wildlife, fisheries and plant monitoring and management 

would likely be allowed to continue, including use of management-ignited fire to 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

336 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

maintain high elevation mountain balds and viability of Table Mountain pine. Mowing 

of wildlife openings, however, would not remain an emphasis under certain 

prescriptions like 12.B. All Scenic Area designations in these Roadless areas would 

be retained. The 15.5 miles of A.T. that cross these Roadless areas would be 

maintained with mechanized equipment, as would the three existing shelters (Double 

Spring, Jerry Cabin, and Vanderventer shelters). Proposed relocation/construction of 

4.7 miles of trail and reconstruction of a burned shelter in Slide Hollow Roadless 

area would utilize mechanized equipment. Construction of Benton McKaye Trail 

through portions of Upper Bald River and Sycamore Creek Roadless areas would 

utilize mechanized equipment. Existing special uses could continue and new uses 

may be allowed. 

Roadless Areas Not Maintaining Roadless Character: In this category, areas would 

be made available for management allocations involving road construction and/or 

timber harvest. This means that changes would potentially be allowed that would 

affect the area’s suitability for wilderness designation or the presence of or potential 

for primitive or semi-primitive settings. Prescription allocations in this category do 

not necessarily commit an area to development. Site-specific analysis would be 

conducted before decisions would be made to build road or harvest timber in a 

roadless area. 

The Roadless character in many of these areas would potentially be diminished over 

time. The naturalness of these undesignated areas would be reduced through 

interruptions to natural ecological processes. Vegetation composition and structure 

would be manipulated, resulting in a greater diversity of age-classes among forest 

types. Opportunities for solitude and remoteness would decrease. Sights and 

sounds of human activities would be more obvious. Additional roads and trails would 

be constructed. Noise levels and soil erosion would increase. Air and water quality 

would decrease, but water quality would meet State and Federal standards. 

Roadless Area Conservation Rule: On January 12, 2001, the Forest Service issued 

the Final Rule for Roadless Area Conservation in the Federal Register. Since that 

time, numerous legal challenges have been made to this decision, including a ruling 

on July 14, 2003 from the United States District Court, Wyoming District, where 

Judge Clarence Brimmer found the Roadless Area Conservation Rule to be in 

violation of the National Environmental Policy Act and the Wilderness Act and 

enjoined its implementation. However, this issue is not settled. Appeals of the 

Wyoming District Court decision, other litigation, new rulemaking, or new FSM 

directives could result in a change in direction for inventoried roadless areas. 

The Roadless Area Conservation Rule (Roadless Rule) would place restrictions on the 

road construction and reconstruction activities; and the timber cutting, sale, or 

removal activities that could occur in inventoried roadless areas. 36 CFR 294.12 

and 294.13 identify the exceptions where road construction/reconstruction activities 

and timber cutting/removal activities would be allowed. 

In this EIS, the inventoried roadless areas were evaluated for possible wilderness 

study area recommendations. If areas were not recommended for wilderness study 

designation, other land allocations were considered for these areas, depending upon 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 337 

the overall emphasis of each plan alternative. In some alternatives, a particular 

roadless area’s characteristics would be maintained, while in other alternatives, the 

area’s roadless characteristics could be altered. Within those allocations where 

roadless character is not maintained, road building and/or timber harvesting 

activities may not be consistent with the Roadless Rule exceptions and could, 

therefore, not be allowed with the Roadless Rule in effect. The following describes by 

alternative, what would happen to these land allocations should the Roadless Area 

Conservation Rule restrictions go into effect. 

Alternative A 

Under this alternative, 66 percent of the acres in the inventoried roadless areas are 

either recommended for wilderness study designation or are allocated to 

management prescriptions that would maintain the area’s roadless characteristics. 

Any activities within these areas would be consistent with the Roadless Rule. 36 

percent of the acres in the inventoried roadless areas are allocated to management 

prescriptions 7.A, 7.D and 7.E.2, with an emphasis on scenic byways, concentrated 

recreation zones and dispersed recreation opportunities and 9.A.1, 9.A.2 or 9.A.3, 

with an emphasis on watershed protection or restoration. Within these allocations, a 

minimum level of road building and/or timber harvesting activities could be 

conducted. These activities may not be consistent with the Roadless Rule exceptions 

and could, therefore, not be allowed with the Roadless Rule in effect. 

Alternative B 

Under this alternative, 43 percent of the acres in the inventoried roadless areas are 

either recommended for wilderness study designation or are allocated to 

management prescriptions that would maintain the area’s roadless characteristics. 

Any activities within these areas would be consistent with the Roadless Rule. 31 

percent of the acres in the inventoried roadless areas are allocated to management 

prescriptions 9.A.1, 9.A.2 or 9.A.3, with an emphasis on watershed protection or 

restoration. Within these allocations, a minimum level of road building and/or timber 

harvesting activities could be conducted. Of the remaining acres in the inventoried 

roadless areas, 26 percent are allocated to management prescriptions 8.B, 8.C, 

9.C.2 and 9.H. Within these allocations, road building and/or timber harvesting 

activities would be conducted to manage for Early Successional Habitat, Black Bear 

Habitat, Plant Community Restoration and Dry-Mesic Oak Forests. These activities 

may not be consistent with the Roadless Rule exceptions and could, therefore, not be 

allowed with the Roadless Rule in effect. 

Alternative D 

Under this alternative, 14 percent of the acres in the inventoried roadless areas are 

either recommended for wilderness study designation or are allocated to 

management prescriptions that would maintain the area’s roadless characteristics. 

Any activities within these areas would be consistent with the Roadless Rule. 

Ten percent of the acres in the inventoried roadless areas are allocated to 

management prescriptions 7.A, 7.B, 7.D, 7.E.2 and 9.B.2. Within these allocations, a 

minimum level of road building and/or timber harvesting activities would be 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

338 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

conducted for the purposes of managing scenic byways, scenic corridors/sensitive 

viewsheds, concentrated and developed recreation areas, dispersed recreation and 

high elevation balds. Of the remaining acres in the inventoried roadless areas, 76 

percent are allocated to management prescriptions 8.A.2, 8.C, and 10.A and 10.B. 

Within these allocations, road building and/or timber harvesting activities could be 

conducted for the purposes of managing for a mix of successional habitats, black 

bear habitat, sustained yield timber and high quality forest products. These activities 

may not be consistent with the Roadless Rule exceptions and could, therefore, not be 

allowed with the Roadless Rule in effect. 

Alternative E 

Under this alternative, 94 percent of the acres in the inventoried roadless areas are 

either recommended for wilderness study designation or are allocated to 

management prescriptions that would maintain the area’s roadless characteristics. 

Any activities within these areas would be consistent with the Roadless Rule. 

Six percent of the acres in the inventoried roadless areas are allocated to 

management prescriptions 7.E.1. Within these allocations, a minimum level of road 

building and/or timber harvesting activities could be conducted for the purposes of 

managing dispersed recreation. These activities may not be consistent with the 

Roadless Rule exceptions and could, therefore, not be allowed with the Roadless 

Rule in effect. 

Alternative F 

Under this alternative, 51 percent of the acres in the inventoried roadless areas 

have been identified as the “solitude core,” and area where wilderness potential and 

roadless characteristics are most predominant. 49 percent of the remaining acres in 

the inventoried roadless areas lie outside this “solitude core.” A portion of these 

could be subject to management activities that include road building and timber 

harvesting activities not consistent with the Roadless Rule exceptions, and could, 

therefore, not be allowed with the Roadless Rule in effect. 

Alternative G 

Under this alternative, 100 percent of the acres in the inventoried roadless areas are 

either recommended for wilderness study designation or are allocated to 

management prescriptions that would maintain the area’s roadless characteristics. 

Any activities within these areas would be consistent with the Roadless Rule. 

Alternative I 

Under this alternative, 98 percent of the acres in the inventoried roadless areas are 

either recommended for wilderness study designation or are allocated to 

management prescriptions that would maintain the area’s roadless characteristics. 

Any activities within these areas would be consistent with the Roadless Rule. 

Two percent of the acres in the inventoried roadless areas are allocated to 

management prescriptions 2.B.3, 7.A, 7.B and 7.E.2. Within these allocations, a 

minimum level of road building and/or timber harvesting activities would be 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 339 

conducted for the purposes of managing recreation river corridors, scenic byways, 

scenic corridors/sensitive viewsheds and dispersed recreation. These activities may 

not be consistent with the Roadless Rule exceptions and could, therefore, not be 

allowed with the Roadless Rule in effect. 

17.3 Scenery 

17.3.1 Affected Environment 

About 62 percent of CNF (approximately 397,000 acres) can be seen from adjacent 

or interior roads, trails or waterways, largely due to the mountainous terrain. The 

more scenic landscapes - those allocated as Preservation, Retention and Partial 

Retention (VMS) or as Very High, High or Moderate (SMS) - are generally associated 

with or occur adjacent to lakes, rivers and streams, designated Wilderness, National 

Trails or highly developed recreation areas. Elevations in CNF range from high points 

over 5000 feet to lower elevations of less than 1000 feet along some rivers and 

streams. Views beyond the immediate foreground are influenced by terrain as well 

as vegetation type and density. The steep to rolling ridges and valleys characterizing 

the CNF are covered with an almost-continuous canopy of soft- to medium-textured 

rounded tree forms, creating a natural-appearing landscape character. Since the late 

1990s, as a result of the SPB infestation that killed large numbers of introduced and 

native pines, part of the canopy has opened. Groups of tall, gray, defoliated stems, 

varying in size from less than an acre to more than 25 acres, eventually give way to 

an emerging deciduous and evergreen understory. This process is speeded by active 

salvage operations in areas where human health and safety is critical. 

Landscape Themes and existing Landscape Character 

Of the Land Use Themes described for the Southern Appalachian Forests, CNF 

landscapes can be grouped predominantly into four: Natural Evolving, Natural 

Appearing, Rural-Forested and Rural – Pastoral/Agricultural. (Landscape Aesthetics, 

section 1-3) 

The vast majority of the CNF (more than 570,000 acres) is characterized as 

Natural Appearing. 

Designated Wilderness (66,637 acres), lands where ecological processes 

predominate, are characteristically Natural Evolving landscapes. 

Rural-Forested is a very small category that includes the CNF’s most highly 

developed recreation areas. 

Rural-Pastoral/Agricultural is an equally limited category composed mainly of 

some managed open areas along the A.T. (e.g.: portions of the Osborne 

Farm tract) and the Jackson Farm. 

Approximately 95 percent of CNF is located within the Blue Ridge Physiographic 

Province. The western portion of the CNF, approximately five percent, lies in the 

Ridge and Valley Physiographic Province. Portions of the CNF lie in three ecological 

sections, as described by Bailey and others (1994), including: 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

340 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

M221A – Northern Ridge and Valley Section – occurs only in the CNF’s 

northern districts, west of the Blue Ridge Mountains Section. Elevation 

ranges from 300 to 4000’, with parallel landforms characterized by narrow 

valleys and high ridges. Precipitation ranges from 30-45” annually, with 

mixed vegetation of Appalachian Oak and Oak/Hickory/Pine components. 

The northern districts’ South Holston Lake lies in this section. 

M221D – Blue Ridge Mountains Section – runs the entire width of the state 

along the eastern boundary and comprises most of CNF. Elevation ranges 

from 1000 to 6000’: the majority (80%) of this section is characterized by 

low mountains, but several high peaks occur in the 5-6,000+ elevations. 

One-fifth of the section is characterized by open, low mountains. 

Precipitation ranges from 40-50” annually, with mixed vegetation of 

Appalachian Oak, Southeastern Spruce Fir and Northern Hardwood 

components. 

221J – Central Ridge and Valley Section – classifies lands in the southern 

districts west of the Blue Ridge Mountains Section. Very little forest land 

lies in this section. Elevation ranges from 650 to 2000’, characterized by 

open hills. Precipitation less than 40” annually supports vegetation of 

Appalachian Oak components. 

Existing Visual Quality 

The scenic resources of CNF are currently managed in accordance with the 1986 

Land and Resources Management Plan, as amended. Scenic resource management 

direction in the LMP is through Visual Quality Objectives (VQOs), determined by the 

Visual Management System (VMS). The table (p. II-15) in the 1986 CNF LMP 

summarized the acres assigned to Visual Quality Objectives as follows: 

Table 3-124. Visual Quality Objectives 

Visual Quality Objectives Acreage % of Landbase 

Preservation 66,637 11% 

Retention 88,348 14% 

Partial Retention 83,544 13% 

Modification 161,169 26% 

Maximum Modification 223,867 36% 

Total 623,565 100% 

Lands assigned with VQOs of Preservation included existing and proposed 

wildernesses: Cohutta (Tennessee portion), Big Frog, Little Frog Mountain, Gee 

Creek, Citico Creek, Bald River Gorge, Joyce Kilmer-Slickrock (Tennessee portion), 

Sampson Mountain, Unaka Mountain, Pond Mountain, Big Laurel Branch. All of 

these are currently designated Wildernesses, and, with revised figures, total 66,389 

acres. 

Lands assigned with VQOs of Retention included 156 developed sites, a portion of 

the inventoried National Forest Recreation Survey (NFRS) sites that were proposed 

for development within the planning horizon, mapped foreground viewshed (200-foot 

minimum) from the A.T. along with John Muir and Warriors Passage National 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 341 

Recreation Trails and Overmountain Victory National Historic Trail; special areas, 

including scenic, botanical and zoological areas, corridors of rivers in the National 

Rivers Inventory (Ocoee, Tellico, Hiwassee, Nolichucky, French Broad, Conasauga, 

Watauga, Little Tennessee and Doe); Roan Mountain; 19 high elevation mountain 

balds on the Tellico and all northern districts; administrative sites within the forest 

boundary (ranger stations, work center, government quarters, Jacobs Creek Job 

Corps Center, and Jackson YCC Camp); four cultural resource areas, the Wasp 

community, Jackson Farm, Weavers Bend and Dutch Fields; and the foreground 

viewsheds of a number of trout streams. 

Lands assigned with VQOs of Partial Retention generally included some inventoried 

NFRS sites, middleground and background viewsheds from the A.T., middleground 

viewsheds from some river corridors, foreground viewsheds from most recreation 

corridors that access developed recreation areas and most major state and federal 

highways that run through CNF lands. 

Lands assigned with VQOs of Modification generally included forest acreage seen 

from primary and secondary travel routes and use areas, but where less than 1⁄4 

(along primary routes) or less than 3⁄4 (along secondary routes) of Forest visitors had 

a major concern for scenic qualities. 

Lands assigned with VQOs of Maximum Modification generally included forest 

acreage seen from secondary travel routes and use areas where less than 1⁄4 of 

Forest visitors had a major concern for scenic qualities, or lands considered 

“unseen” by general forest users. 

In 1995, the USDA Forest Service updated and refined its system for managing 

scenery, now called the Scenery Management System. To prepare for incorporating 

the new system into the Forest Planning process, Forest landscape architects 

conducted an inventory of CNF’s scenic resources during 1997-99 leaf-off seasons. 

Established distance zones and sensitivity levels from 1980s VQO maps were 

updated and newly acquired lands were inventoried. Scenery analysis reflected 

increased public interest in scenery and increased visibility of Forest lands. While 

Scenic Classes from 1 (highest level) to seven are allowed under the SMS, there are 

no Classes 6 or 7 on CNF lands in the updated inventory. 

For Forest Planning purposes, Scenic Integrity Objectives were established for each 

prescription. These range from Very High (VH: unaltered) to Low (L: moderately 

altered). Very Low is not scenery management objective in this analysis, however 

VQOs of Modification and Maximum Modification were in the VMS and in the 

previous Forest Plan. The SIOs define the different levels of acceptable alteration to 

the CNF’s scenery, by Prescription. 

The crosswalk between Visual Quality Objectives (Visual Management System) and 

Scenic Integrity Objectives (the updated Scenery Management System) is as follows: 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

342 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Table 3-125. VQO/SIO Crosswalk 

Visual Quality Objective (VQO) Scenic Integrity Objective (SIO) 

Preservation (P) Very High (VH) 

Retention (R) High (H) 

Partial Retention (PR) Moderate (M) 

Modification (M) Low (L) 

Maximum Modification (MM) Very Low (VL) 

Figure 3-18 is a flow chart showing how to apply the Scenery Management System to 

Forest Planning and site-specific activities. 

Special Places 

Special Places are those specific locations and expanses in outdoor settings with 

attractions and features that are identified as unique, different, distinctive, and 

extraordinary to people. Special Places are not necessarily components of the CNF’s 

designated “Special Areas.” 

A comprehensive inventory of constituents’ special places has not been conducted. 

However, drawing from places listed with high concern levels in the CNF’s Scenery 

Inventory, constituents’ comments to project analysis, sites inventoried in the CNF’s 

Interpretive Master Plan, sites inventoried in “Ocoee Scenic Byway Guidelines for 

Management and Interpretation,” nature viewing sites inventoried during 

development of the CNF’s National Geographic/Trails Illustrated trails maps, and 

sites listed in Tennessee Wildlife Viewing Guide and related publications, the 

following categories and numbers of sites have been developed: 

Table 3-126. Numbers of Special Places 

General Category Northern Districts Southern Districts Total 

Natural 35 25 60 

Cultural 15 12 27 

Natural/Cultural 35 32 67 

Total 85 69 154 

Most of the sites enumerated above fall within boundaries of designated Wilderness, 

developed recreation areas, officially-designated scenic areas, areas established as 

thematic cultural landscapes or rural historic districts or administrative sites or fall 

within corridors of scenic byways, rivers, nationally-designated trails. As such, each 

of these fall within areas with established Visual Management Objectives (SIOs), by 

management area (prescription). 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

DRAFT ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT 

STATEMENT 343 

Figure 3-18. Applying the Scenery Management System in CNF’s Plan Revision Process Inventory of forest lands Inventoried SIO Treatmby Scenic Class by Prescription 

Viewing distance Yields Combined with Determines 

Concern level Scenic attractiveness 

Notes: Viewing distance – foreground, middleground, background Concern level1 – 1 (the highest), 2, 3 Scenic attractiveness – A, B, C (CNF has no C) Inventoried Scenic Class – 1 (the highest) through 7 (CNF has no inventoried 6s or 7s at this time) SIO – Scenic Integrity Objectives – VH (Very High), H (High), M (Moderate), L (Low) 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

344 ENVIORNMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

17.3.2 Direct/Indirect Effects 

The scenic resource would potentially be affected by management activities altering 

the appearance of what would be seen in the landscape. Short-term scenic effects 

that result from management activities are usually considered in terms of degree of 

visual contrast with existing or adjacent conditions that result from management 

activity. The scenic landscape can be changed over the long term or cumulatively by 

the alteration of the visual character. Management activities, which result in visual 

alterations inconsistent with the assigned SIO affect scenery, even with mitigation. 

Management activities that have the greatest potential of affecting scenery would be 

road construction, vegetation management, insect and disease control, special use 

utility rights-of-ways, and mineral extraction. Other management activities that also 

would potentially effect the scenic resource at a lesser degree are threatened and 

endangered (T&E) species habitat management, prescribed burning, fire 

suppression, land exchange, old growth forest management, recreation, and 

administrative site facility construction, and wildlife management. Table 3-127 

describes acreage allocations to various Scenery Integrity Objectives (SIOs), by 

alternative. 

Table 3-127. SIO Acres by Alternative 

Alternative A B D E F* G I 

SIO 

Very High 145,365 145,650 81,602 188,869 66,389 205,123 148,757 

High 160,559 131,157 171,276 172,829 88,348 236,875 145,994 

Moderate 264,885 246,565 194,104 257,232 83,544 105,217 214,005 

Low 56,050 103,784 180,178 3,202 161,169 79,934 117,233 

Very Low 223,867 

No data** 12,820 11,708 10,390 17,584 15,547 12,522 11,732 

Total 639,679 638,864 637,550 639,716 638,864 639,671 637,721 

*No Action Alternative 

**This acreage indicates uninventoried land acquisitions, including recent A.T. 

acquisitions, tract on Starr Mountain, etc. 

Existing designated Wilderness consistently would be allocated to a Very High SIO in 

all alternatives. In Alternatives B, E, G and I, most or all of the CNF’s designated 

Scenic Areas received allocations to VH SIOs; most Rare Communities (for example, 

Whetstone Branch, Bullett Creek, Horsehitch Gap) were consistently mapped as VH. 

Except in Alternatives I and F, portions of Conasauga and Nolichucky Rivers were 

mapped as VH. High elevation mountain balds on Roan Mountain received 

allocations to VH SIOs in all alternatives. 

In all alternatives, Ocoee Scenic Byway and Cherohala Skyway corridors; Conasauga, 

Ocoee, Hiwassee, Tellico, French Broad, Nolichucky and Elk River corridors, Citico 

and Beaverdam Creek corridors; Watauga and South Holston Lake corridors; TN68 

near Coker Creek; Wasp and Weavers Bend cultural resource areas; and A.T. corridor 

would potentially receive a High SIO (unless they occurred in areas that received an 

SIO of VH). 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 345 

The central part of the south end Districts between Ocoee and Tellico Rivers, except 

Hiwassee River and Coker Creek corridors; portions of the western part of Tellico 

District; portions of Stone Mountain in Cocke County; Sol Messer Mountain area, 

portions of the western part of Chucky Mountain; Buffalo Mountain and parts of Iron 

Mountain would potentially receive a Low SIO in all alternatives except Alternative E, 

in which none of these areas except Buffalo Mountain would receive a Low SIO. 

In contrast to Alternative F (the no action alternative), all other alternatives would 

potentially result in increases in lands assigned Very High, High and Medium SIOs. 

Acreage allocations in VH SIOs in Alternative G represent 32 percent of all Forest 

lands. Other alternatives range from 30 percent (E) to 23-24 percent (A, B and I) in 

VH, except Alternatives D and F at 13 and 11 percent. 

Alternatives A, D and E reflect the highest percentage of allocation to H and M SIOs, 

all at 67 percent. Alternatives B, I and G reflect a moderate number at 59 percent, 

56 percent and 54 percent, respectively. Alternatives that receive the highest 

acreage to High and Medium SIOs would result in more protection and enhancement 

to the scenic resources than alternatives having fewer acres assigned to the higher 

SIOs. However, those alternatives with more acres assigned to SIOs of H would 

provide a greater amount of protection and enhancement. In descending order, 

these are Alternatives G, E, D, A, I, and B. Alternative E has a very low number of 

acres assigned to Low SIO (3,202 acres); Alternatives A and G each have less than 

100,000 acres in this category. Alternative D has the most and Alternatives F, I and 

B the next largest number of acres assigned to Low SIO. 

Negative impacts to scenery from road construction, vegetation management, insect 

and disease control, special use utility rights-of-ways, and other activities would be 

the greatest in Alternative F, the no-action alternative that also includes an SIO of VL 

(Very Low) on 35 percent of the total Forest acreage, and a combined total of 

385,036 acres (60%) in L and VL. VL is no longer a SIO in the updated Scenery 

Management System. Alternative D would potentially be second with the greatest 

number of potential negative impacts to scenery, at 28 percent total Forest lands 

assigned to at Low SIO. Many of these impacts would be avoided by implementing 

mitigation measures. Impacts would be the lowest in Alternative G because the 

emphasis is on wilderness, wilderness study areas, remote backcountry recreation 

and old growth with a decrease in roads and all kinds of vegetation management. 

Existing designated Wilderness (1.A) are lands currently considered Natural Evolving; 

the acreage remains the same across alternatives. With a greater amount of 

acreage allocated to Wilderness Study Areas (1.B) in Alternatives G (73,655 acres) 

and E (49,874), there would be a shift from Natural Appearing to Natural Evolving on 

approximately 18 to 23 percent of the CNF. Acreage allocations in Alternatives A and 

I would allow a shift from Natural Appearing to Natural Evolving on approximately 14-

15 percent of the CNF. By grouping acreages allocated to Prescriptions 1.A, 1.B, 4.A, 

4.F, 4.I, 4.K, the 6s, 9.F, 12.A and 12.B, the potential shift in landscape character 

into the upper ranges of Natural Appearing to becoming Natural Evolving would range 

from 20 percent (Alternative D) to a high of 59 percent in Alternative G. 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

346 ENVIORNMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

All alternatives propose prescribed burning. Efforts are underway to divide CNF into 

burn blocks; a maximum of 40,000 acres would potentially be burned each year. 

Drifting smoke and blackened vegetation and charred tree trunks would be the main 

negative effects to scenery. Visual contrast to the general forest from fireline 

construction would also be evident. The contrast levels and duration vary with fire 

frequency and intensity. Smoke would potentially only last one day; blackened 

vegetation usually lasts a short time, while charring of trees would potentially be 

evident for many years. Repetitive burning would potentially reduce overall visual 

diversity: it would potentially result in loss of valued mid- and understory species 

such as flowering dogwood, but would potentially promote herbaceous flowering 

species. Prescribed fire repeated over time produces stands with open, or park-like, 

understories that allow views farther into the landscape. Prescribed burning would be 

limited and/or prohibited in 20 to 32 percent of the CNF in each of the alternatives 

except Alternative F (11%, in designated Wilderness only). The alternatives with the 

most limits would be G (32%) and E (30%). Alternatives A and I provide limits in 25 

percent of the CNF. 

Insect infections and diseases would potentially cause strong, unattractive contrasts 

in the landscape. Management efforts to control insect infestations and diseases 

would potentially minimize or reduce effects. Control efforts that include removal of 

infected trees and buffer areas often appear as clearcutting to forest visitors. These 

impacts would occur in areas of high scenic value. Disease and insect controls 

would be limited and/or prohibited in 20-54 percent of the CNF in each of the 

alternatives except F (11%, in designated Wilderness only). The alternatives with the 

most limits would be G (54%), E (43%), I (34%) and A (29%). Alternatives B and D 

provide limits in 20-22 percent of the CNF. 

Utility ROWs possess a high potential for affecting the scenery resource for a long 

duration. Cleared ROWs and/or utility structures contrast, and would be incongruent, 

with the surrounding Forest landscape. Cleared ROWs contrast in form, line, color, 

and texture when compared to the natural appearing landscape. By alternative, 

utility structures and rights-of-ways are fully allowed and/or limited in 37–84 percent 

of the CNF. Alternatives E and G allow these structures and openings in the least 

amount of the CNF, ten percent and 21 percent, respectively, but allow limited use in 

another 56 percent and 38 percent respectively. Alternatives D (71%) and I (58%) 

allow the most unlimited presence on-forest; by adding allowed but limited uses 

increases these two alternatives to 84 and 81 percent respectively. 

Mineral management and development activities would potentially involve major 

alteration to landform, as well as contrasts to form, line, color, and texture, causing 

substantially adverse scenic impacts. No mineral extraction or drilling for gas or oil is 

common at this time in CNF. Allowed mineral activities would be the highest in 

Alternatives D (70%) and I (57%); Alternatives A and B allow 37 and 30 percent, 

respectively, while Alternatives E and G allow the least at eight percent and 19 

percent, respectively. Areas unavailable for mineral activity range from 14 to 27 

percent of total Forest lands across the alternatives. Alternatives G (27%) and E 

(23%) would be the most restrictive; Alternatives A and I, 19 percent, and Alternatives 

A, F and D would not allow mineral activity in 14-16 percent of Forest lands. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 347 

Road maintenance affects scenery, especially activities to rights-of-way. Mowing 

frequency and timing are factors that would potentially alter the appearance of the 

landscape. Road construction introduces unnatural visual elements into the 

landscape and causes contrasts to form, line, color, and texture. Having roads open 

or closed offers some control over how much of the landscape would be seen, 

especially the forest interior. Alternative D would allow more road construction, in 

approximately 48 percent of the CNF, with the others at eight percent and less. 

Alternative I allows increases in road construction in approximately two percent of the 

CNF; Alternative E would be less than two percent, and Alternatives B and G allow 

increases in less than one percent of the CNF. 

Vegetation management has a great potential to alter the landscape and impact the 

scenic resource. Timber harvest practices would potentially cause long-term effects 

on scenery. Species conversion, reduction in species diversity, manipulation of the 

prominent age class, and alteration of opening size, location, and frequency would 

potentially alter landscape character. The potential effects would be positive or 

negative, depending on their consistency with the desired future condition of the 

landscape. Of the management applications, even-aged management would be the 

most impacting. Among the even-aged regeneration methods, clearcutting and seedtree harvest produces the highest visual contrasts because they remove the most 

forest canopy and create openings. These openings would vary in their effects on 

scenery depending on size, shape, location, and nearness to other openings. 

Openings that repeat the size and general character of surrounding natural openings 

and landscape character of adjacent areas would have the least impact on scenery. 

Single-tree selection and group selection harvest are normally less evident because 

they do not cause large openings in the canopy. Uneven-aged regeneration methods 

would potentially affect scenery, causing contrasts in form, line, color, and texture 

from slash production. Impacts resulting from timber harvest would potentially be 

short-term in areas where vegetation growth would be relatively rapid. Allowed 

vegetation management would be the most prevalent in Alternatives D and I, across 

approximately 72 percent and 63 percent of total Forest acres, respectively. 

Alternatives E and A allow vegetation management over approximately 37-40 

percent, while Alternatives B and G would be the least at 30 percent and 25 percent, 

respectively. 

Site preparation activities affect scenery by exposing soil and killing other vegetation. 

These effects would potentially be generally short-term. Site preparation usually 

improves the appearance of the harvest area by removing unmerchantable trees and 

most of the broken stems. Stand improvement work would potentially affect scenery 

by browning the vegetation and reducing visual variety through elimination of target 

species. The allocations for prescriptions allowing this type activity would be very 

similar to those described in the Vegetation Management paragraph, above.

Wildlife openings are commonly created and maintained in CNF and help create 

rural-pastoral effects to an otherwise closed canopy. Forestwide prescribed burning 

and mid-story manipulation are sometimes used as wildlife management practices. 

These activities would reduce over-story diversity and result in loss of valued scenic 

resources such as flowering dogwoods. Mid-story removal and prescribed burning in 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

348 ENVIORNMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

time would potentially produce stands with open under-stories that allow views into 

the landscape. Wildlife management activities would be allowed most commonly in 

Alternatives I (in over 78% of the total Forest acres), G (57%) and E (55%). 

Alternatives A, B and D range from 45 to 39 percent, respectively. 

Recreation facilities are deviations to the natural landscape, but Forest Service 

recreation facilities are usually designed to blend into the landscape without major 

visual disruption. Alternative E provides an allowance for the greatest recreation 

development, in approximately 42 percent of the CNF. Alternative I allows 

development in approximately 30 percent, with alternative A allowing development in 

22 percent. The smallest allowance is in Alternative B, at five percent, followed by 

Alternative D (12%) and G (14%). 

Designation of wilderness would generally cause positive effects to the scenery. Oldgrowth forest character would potentially be created over time. A greater amount of 

acreage would be allocated to Wilderness Study Areas (1.B) in Alternatives G (73,655 

acres) and E (49,874). Acreage allocations in Alternatives A and I increase 

Wilderness potential on approximately 14-15 percent of the CNF. However, the 

scenic resource would suffer in some areas of the CNF with the low emphasis on 

controlling insects and disease in Wilderness. 

For the most part, Special Places are not affected across alternatives. However, the 

inventory list is not complete and would potentially change over time as more sites 

are inventoried. Buffers needed to protect the character of each individual special 

place would vary by site. 

17.4 Special Areas 

17.4.1 Affected Environment 

Special interest areas are designated to protect and, where appropriate, foster public 

use and enjoyment of areas with scenic, historical, geological, botanical, zoological, 

paleontological, archeological or other characteristics. Special interest areas may be 

designated administratively or may receive designation by law. Other uses are 

permitted in these areas to the extent that these uses are in harmony with the 

designation. 

For CNF, this section concentrates on designated Scenic Areas, Scenic Byways, and 

the A.T. Other sections of the EIS describe special areas with historical, geological, 

botanical, zoological, paleontological, archeological or other characteristics. For 

example, special botanical areas are discussed under Rare Communities, historic 

districts under the Heritage section and outstandingly remarkable streams under the 

Wild & Scenic Rivers section. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 349 

The special areas on the CNF are: 

Table 3-128. Special Areas: Scenic Areas and Scenic Byways. 

SCENIC AREA ACRES MILES DISTRICT 

Rock Creek Gorge 220 n/a Ocoee/Hiwassee 

Coker Creek 375 n/a Tellico 

Bald Mountain Ridge 8,653 n/a Nolichucky/Unaka 

Unaka Mountain 910 n/a Nolichucky/Unaka 

Doe River Gorge 1,783 n/a Watauga 

Stoney Creek 3,920 n/a Watauga 

Rogers Ridge 3,865 n/a Watauga 

SCENIC BYWAY 

Ocoee (USFS Scenic 

Byway) 6,578 26 Ocoee/Hiwassee 

Cherohala Skyway 

(National Scenic Byway) 7,916 23 Tellico 

Total 34,220 49 

The special characteristics of these areas are as follows: 

Bald Mountain Ridge Scenic Area is a mountainous area with a range of gently 

rolling to steep, rugged slopes, with some high elevation balds along the 

Tennessee-North Carolina line. The area is known for its diverse population 

of wildflowers and for a number of waterfalls, including 60-foot fan-shaped 

Margaritte Falls. The A.T. runs along the state line. 

Coker Creek Scenic Area is a narrow gorge approximately 4.5 miles long, on 

both sides of Coker Creek. The creek is characterized by a number of 

waterfalls, the largest of which is the 20-foot Coker Creek Falls. Diverse 

Appalachian plant species include hemlock, white pine, azalea, 

rhododendron, mountain laurel and a profusion of wildflowers. The area 

can be accessed by road or as a spur off the John Muir National Recreation 

Trail. 

Doe River Gorge Scenic Area is a steep, narrow gorge along Doe River, 

accessed by a grade along the abandoned East Tennessee and Western 

North Carolina rail line. The area is known for its diversity of Appalachian 

plant species. 

Rock Creek Gorge Scenic Area, located between Chilhowee Recreation Area 

and Ocoee Scenic Byway, is a steep, narrow gorge along Rock Creek. A 

series of waterfalls and cascades characterize the area, including 65-foot 

fan-shaped Benton Falls. 

Rogers Ridge Scenic Area features a rich cove hardwood community, high 

elevation grassy balds and Gentry Creek Falls, with two 40-foot horsetails. 

Elevations range from 3800 feet to above 5000 feet, with moderate to steep 

slopes. 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

350 ENVIORNMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Stoney Creek Scenic Area is known for its rich diverse vegetation and 

waterfalls and cascades along the area’s major streams, including North 

Fork Stony Creek. Holston Mountain Trail accesses the area from the A.T., 

near the northern side of Cross Mountain. 

Unaka Mountain Scenic Area lies on the west side of Unaka Mountain 

Wilderness. The area is characterized by dense upland hardwood forest. 

The A.T. and Forest Road #230 ramble along the area’s southern 

boundary. 

An additional area, Turtletown Creek Falls, has been considered locally as a Scenic 

Area, but no action has been taken to designate it through this Forest Plan revision. 

Two national forest scenic byways meander through CNF. 

Ocoee Scenic Byway. In 1988, Ocoee Scenic Byway became the first national forest 

scenic byway designated in the nation. The byway’s sections include 19 miles of US 

64 through the Ocoee River gorge from TVA’s Ocoee Dam #1 to the end of NFS land 

along the highway near Ducktown and seven miles on Forest Road #77 up Chilhowee 

Mountain to the byway’s terminus at Chilhowee Recreation Area. Heavy traffic on the 

US 64 portion includes a mix of commercial trucks, local commuters, seasonal 

outfitters’ transport for Ocoee River rafting, sightseers and drivers for pleasure. 

Views are confined through the Ocoee River gorge except along some sections of 

Parksville Lake and near the eastern terminus from Ocoee Whitewater Center east 

toward Ducktown. The climb on FDR #77 is a more serene experience, offering 

numerous overlooks to distant views of the Tennessee Valley and Georgia mountains. 

The season of heaviest use on both segments spans the months of May through 

October, although US 64 receives heavy use year-round. 

Cherohala Skyway is a 43-mile scenic byway that connects Tellico Plains, Tennessee 

with Robbinsville, North Carolina, snaking through Cherokee and Nantahala National 

Forests along TN 165 and NC 143. While no commercial outfitters operate on Tellico 

River, it is popular with anglers, swimmers, campers and kayakers. Indian Boundary 

and Horse Cove are popular national forest recreation areas, one on the byway about 

15 miles from the western portal and one near the eastern terminus. Joyce Kilmer 

Memorial Forest and two large Wildernesses, Citico and Joyce Kilmer/Slickrock, are 

popular destinations along the Skyway. More than 20 overlooks, ten of which lie on 

the Tennessee portion and managed by CNF, offer spectacular vistas. The highest 

seasonal use also occurs between May and October, with sightseeing/fall color traffic 

increasing during October, especially on weekends. 

Driving for pleasure is always in the top ten of recreational pursuits on national 

forest; people enjoy touring the rural communities and national forests by car In 

2000, 53 percent of the Southern population participated in this activity. 

(“Proposed, Southern Forest Resource Assessment”, Chapter SCIO-6, Table 2, pg. 

26.) 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 351 

Table 3-129. Special Areas: Appalachian National Scenic 

Trail 

 ACRES MILES 

Appalachian National Scenic Trail 45,146* Approx.150 

*Includes the pathway and up to 1⁄2 mile foreground corridor 

on either side. 

Designated a National Scenic Trail by Congress in 1968, the A.T. is a way, continuous 

from Katahdin in Maine to Springer Mountain in Georgia, for travel on foot through 

the wild, scenic, wooded, pastoral and culturally significant lands of the Appalachian 

Mountains. The famous A.T. is an icon of dispersed recreation on NFS lands in the 

Southern Appalachians. It is a magnet for day hikers and is matchless in its long 

distance backpacking opportunities. The A.T. meanders approximately 150 miles on 

forested mountain ridge tops, through open balds, along rocky streams, moving from 

wild to pastoral settings, often along the Tennessee-North Carolina state line. There 

are 18 shelters for overnight camping and a number of trailheads that provide 

access from primary road systems. Strong communities of volunteers work with the 

Forest Service to plan and maintain the AT; this relationship is formalized in the 

Appalachian Trail Conference (ATC) and its trail clubs. 

Sections of the A.T. are among the forest’s major dispersed recreation “hot spots.” 

These include the section of the A.T. at Carvers Gap on Roan Mountain, Beauty Spot 

on Unaka Mountain and the section in Pond Mountain Wilderness that includes 

Laurel Fork Falls. 

17.4.2 Direct/Indirect Effects 

The seven designated scenic areas (19,726 acres) and two scenic byway corridors 

(14,494 acres) comprise almost 19 percent (34,220 acres) of the forest. All 

alternatives propose new special areas for the corridors of the two Scenic Byways, 

designated after the 1986 plan. The mix of management prescriptions allocated to 

the existing scenic areas, the two newly proposed Scenic Byway corridors and the 

foreground corridor of the A.T. are described by the alternatives in Table 3-130. No 

existing scenic areas are recommended for deletion in any alternative. Alternative F 

is the “no action” alternative and represents current management conditions. 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

352 ENVIORNMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Table 3-130. Special Areas: Designated Scenic Areas, Scenic Byways and Appalachian 

National Scenic Trail, Allocations by Alternative 

Alternative A B D E F G I 

Scenic Area 

Rock Creek 

Gorge 100%P 100%P 100%P 100%P 100%P 100%P 100%P 

Coker Creek 100%P 100%P 100%P 100%P 100%P 100%P 100%P 

Bald 

Mountain 

Ridge 

14%P 

86%S 

92%P 

8%S 

4%S 

96%O 

97%S 

3%O 100%P 94%P 6%S 100%P 

Unaka 

Mountain 

67%P 

32%S 

1%O 

67%P 

32%S 

1%O 

61%P 

32%S 

7%O 

67%P 

33%S 100%P 68%P 32%S 100%P 

Doe River 

Gorge 100%P 100%P 100%P 100%P 100%P 100%P 100%P 

Stoney 

Creek 

64%P 

36%S 

64%P 

36%S 

64%P 

36%S 

64%P 

36%S 100%P 65%P 35%S 

99%P 

1%S 

Rogers 

Ridge 

95%P 

5%O 

95%P 

5%O 

95%P 

5%O 

95%P 

5%O 100%P 95%P 5%O 100%P 

Scenic Byway 

Ocoee 

Scenic 

Byway 

82%P 

17%S 

1%O 

17%S 

83%O 

82%P 

17%S 

1%O 

82%P 

17%S 

1%O 

49%S 

51%O 

82%P 

17%S 

1%O 

66%P 

20%S 

14%O 

Cherohala 

Skyway 

77%P 

12%S 

11%O 

26%P 

11%S 

63%O 

78%P 

10%S 

12%O 

60%P 

40%S 

86%S 

14%O 

65%P 

33%S 

2%0 

44%P 

39%S 

17%O 

National Scenic Trail 

Appalachian 

71%P 

25%S 

4%O 

76%P 

17%S 

7%O 

75%P 

17%S 

8%O 

68%P 

28%S 

4%O 

56%P 

64%P 

32%S 

4%O 

71%P 

25%S 

4%O 

P = Allocated to specific special area prescription (4.F for Scenic Area; 7.A for Scenic 

Byway; 4.A for A.T.) 

S = Scenic qualities emphasized (including Rxs 1.A, 1.B, 4.A, 4.F, 4.K, 5.A, 6.A, 6.E, 7.A, 

7.B, 7.D, 7.E.1 and 2, 12.A. 12.B) 

O = Other qualities/resources/communities emphasized (including Rxs 8.A.1 and 2, 

8.C, 8.E, 9.A.1, 9.A.2 and 9.A.3, 9.B.1 and 9.B.2, 9.C.2, 9.F, 9.H, 10.A, 10.B) 

Alternative A 

Scenic Areas: 99 percent of all designated scenic areas were allocated into 

prescriptions in which their scenic qualities would be emphasized (1.B, 4.A, 4.F). A 

large portion of Bald Mountain Ridge was allocated as Wilderness Study Area (86%). 

Rare communities would be managed in the Rogers Ridge area. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 353 

Scenic Byways: 98 percent of the seen area foregrounds of these scenic byways 

were allocated into prescriptions in which their scenic qualities would be emphasized 

(1.A, 5.A, 7.A, 7.D, 7.E.1 and 2, 12.A), including prescriptions for administrative sites 

(Ocoee Ranger Station and Ocoee Whitewater Center, for example) and developed 

recreation sites. The foreground of each byway includes designated wilderness. The 

remaining percentage of the foregrounds were allocated in prescriptions that 

emphasized watershed restoration, sustained yield timber production, black bear 

management and rare communities. 

A.T.: 96 percent of the seen area foreground was allocated into prescriptions in 

which scenic qualities would be emphasized, including ten percent designated 

Wilderness, five percent as Wilderness Study Area, six percent Roan Mountain and 

three percent with remote backcountry emphasis; four percent was allocated to an 

emphasis on rare communities. 

Alternative I allows recreational special uses only under certain conditions. Use of 

the trail will be monitored and evaluated periodically to determine if these limitations 

are still appropriate. 

Alternative B 

Scenic Areas: 99 percent of all designated scenic areas were allocated into 

prescriptions in which their scenic qualities would be emphasized (4.A, 4.F). Rare 

communities would be managed in the Rogers Ridge area. 

Scenic Byways: 27 percent of the seen area foregrounds of these scenic byways 

were allocated into prescriptions in which their scenic qualities would be emphasized 

(1.A, 5.A, 7.A, 7.D), including prescriptions for administrative sites such as Ocoee 

Ranger Station and Ocoee Whitewater Center and developed recreation sites. The 

foreground of each byway includes designated wilderness. The remaining 

percentages of the foregrounds were allocated with the greatest emphasis on 

watershed restoration (65%), ecological restoration (8%), and black bear 

management (less than 1%). 

A.T.: 93 percent of the seen area foreground was allocated into prescriptions in 

which scenic qualities would be emphasized, including ten percent designated 

Wilderness and six percent Roan Mountain; four percent was allocated to an 

emphasis on rare communities. 

Alternative D 

Scenic Areas: 85 percent of all designated scenic areas were allocated into 

prescriptions in which their scenic qualities would be emphasized (4.A, 4.F). Rare 

communities would be managed in the Rogers Ridge area. 45 percent of these 

scenic areas were allocated to prescriptions that emphasized sustained yield and 

high quality timber harvesting. This allocation was focused mainly on the largest 

scenic area, Bald Mountain Ridge (96% of the acreage in that area). 

Scenic Byways: 94 percent of the seen area foregrounds of these scenic byways 

were allocated into prescriptions in which their scenic qualities would be emphasized 

(1.A, 5.A, 7.A, 7.D), including prescriptions for administrative sites such as Ocoee 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

354 ENVIORNMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Ranger Station and Ocoee Whitewater Center and developed recreation sites. The 

foreground of each byway includes designated wilderness. Sustained yield timber 

harvest was an emphasis on five percent of the scenic byways’ foregrounds, mostly 

on Cherohala Skyway. Less that one percent (0.7%) fell into an allocation that 

emphasized black bear habitat, over approximately equal acreage for the 

foregrounds along both scenic byways. 

A.T.: 92 percent of the seen area foreground was allocated into prescriptions in 

which scenic qualities would be emphasized, including ten percent designated 

Wilderness and six percent Roan Mountain; four percent was allocated to an 

emphasis on rare communities. 

Alternative E 

Scenic Areas: 98 percent of all designated scenic areas were allocated into 

prescriptions in which their scenic qualities would be emphasized (1.B, 4.A, 4.F, 7.D, 

7.E.1). A large portion of Bald Mountain Ridge was allocated as Wilderness Study 

Area (85%); approximately 2.5 percent of the same area was allocated to an 

emphasis on black bear habitat (about 1% of total scenic area acreage). Rare 

communities would be managed in portions of Rogers Ridge and Stoney Creek. 

Scenic Byways: 99.5 percent of the seen area foregrounds of these scenic byways 

were allocated into prescriptions in which their scenic qualities would be emphasized 

(1.A, 1.B, 5.A, 7.A, 7.D, 7.E.1), including prescriptions for administrative sites such as 

Ocoee Ranger Station and Ocoee Whitewater Center and developed recreation sites. 

The foreground of each byway includes designated wilderness. This alternative 

included a variety of management options for Cherohala Skyway: 22 percent of the 

seen area foreground along Cherohala Skyway was allocated to Wilderness Study 

Area, three percent of the foreground was allocated to new recreation development 

and approximately four percent fell into an allocation with a dispersed recreation 

emphasis. 

A.T.: 96 percent of the seen area foreground was allocated into prescriptions in 

which scenic qualities would be emphasized, including ten percent designated 

Wilderness, ten percent Wilderness Study Area and six percent Roan Mountain; four 

percent was allocated to an emphasis on rare communities. 

Alternative F 

Scenic Areas: The Forest Plan acreage for Scenic Areas provided the basis for 

comparing other alternatives.1 In this no-action alternative, all scenic areas would be 

managed for their scenic qualities with an emphasis on semi-primitive non-motorized 

recreation opportunities. (See IV-88, 1986 Plan) Forestwide recognition of Scenic 

Area boundaries and significance has increased during recent Plan Revision efforts. 

Scenic Byways: The current scenic inventory of the foregrounds along these byways 

is approximately 70 percent of the acreage generated through a GIS line-of-vision 

analysis of the seen area within a 1⁄2 mile on each side of the two byway corridors. As 

 

1 GIS-calculated acres are slightly different, showing fewer acres for Stoney Creek, Rogers Ridge and Unaka 

Mountain and more acres for Coker Creek and Doe River Gorge. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 355 

nationally designed scenic byways, these corridors are considered distinctive 

landscapes (Class A) with the highest emphasis on the importance of scenery, 

“Concern Level 1.” The current scenic inventory should be adjusted to reflect the GIS 

seen area coverage. 

A.T.: Acres allocated specifically to the A.T. in the 1986 Plan are about 56 percent of 

the current GIS-calculated acres for the seen-area foreground. The remainder of 

lands seen within an area up to a half-mile from the A.T. tread, allocated to 1986 

Plan Management Areas in which scenic qualities are emphasized, have not been 

calculated. These could include some portions of designated Wilderness, Roan 

Mountain and other special emphasis areas, developed recreation areas, NFRS sites, 

semi-primitive recreation allocations and other areas. The current scenic inventory 

and trail coverage should be adjusted to reflect the GIS seen area. 

Alternative G 

Scenic Areas: 99 percent of all designated scenic areas were allocated into 

prescriptions in which their scenic qualities would be emphasized (1.B, 4.A, 4.F, 

12.B). In this alternative, approximately six percent of total acreage is allocated as 

Wilderness Study Areas, including 35 percent of Stoney Creek, 2.5 percent of Bald 

Mountain Ridge and one percent of Unaka Mountain. Rare communities would be 

managed in the Rogers Ridge area. 

Scenic Byways: Nearly 99 percent of the seen area foregrounds of these scenic 

byways were allocated into prescriptions in which their scenic qualities would be 

emphasized (1.A, 1.B, 5.A, 7.A, 7.B, 7.D, 7.E.1, 12.B), including prescriptions for 

administrative sites such as Ocoee Ranger Station and Ocoee Whitewater Center and 

developed recreation sites. The foreground of each byway includes designated 

wilderness. 

A.T.: 96 percent of the seen area foreground was allocated into prescriptions in 

which scenic qualities would be emphasized, including ten percent designated 

Wilderness, five percent Wilderness Study Area, three percent Scenic Areas 

allocation and six percent Roan Mountain; four percent was allocated to an emphasis 

on rare communities. 

Alternative I 

Scenic Areas: 99 percent of all designated scenic areas were allocated into 

prescriptions in which their scenic qualities would be emphasized (4.A, 4.F, 12.A, 

12.B). The majority of acres were allocated specifically for Scenic Area management. 

Specific allocation was dropped for Rogers Ridge rare communities. 

Scenic Byways: 85 percent of the seen area foregrounds of these scenic byways 

were allocated into prescriptions in which their scenic qualities would be emphasized 

(1.A, 1.B, 5.A, 7.A, 7.B, 7.D, 12.B), including prescriptions for administrative sites 

such as Ocoee Ranger Station and Ocoee Whitewater Center and developed 

recreation sites. The foreground of each byway includes designated wilderness. 14 

percent of the foreground of Cherohala Skyway was allocated to remote backcountry 

management, with an additional 14 percent falling into the scenic corridor/sensitive 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

356 ENVIORNMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

viewshed classification. Black bear management received a greater emphasis along 

Ocoee Scenic Byway corridor, with 11 percent of the foreground allocated to that 

prescription (6% of the total seen area foregrounds of the two byways). 17 percent 

of the seen area foreground of Cherohala Skyway was allocated to manage 

vegetation with emphasis on early successional habitat (11% of the total seen area 

foregrounds of the two byways). 

A.T.: 96 percent of the seen area foreground was allocated into prescriptions in 

which scenic qualities would be emphasized, including ten percent designated 

Wilderness, five percent Wilderness Study Area, three percent Scenic Areas 

allocation and six percent Roan Mountain; four percent was allocated to an emphasis 

on rare communities. 

Summary 

Scenic Areas: 

Alternatives A and E recommend about 7,300 acres of Bald Mountain Ridge Scenic 

Area as Wilderness Study Area, while Alternative G recommends about 35 percent of 

Stoney Creek and three percent of Bald Mountain Ridge as Wilderness Study Areas. 

With this allocation, these acres would be managed to provide primitive settings and 

opportunities. The effects would include less opportunity for motorized access in 

Bald Mountain Ridge, elimination of bicycle use and trails maintained to a lower 

standard. For more information on the advantages and disadvantages of wilderness 

management, see the Wilderness section. In Alternative D, most of Bald Mountain 

Ridge would be managed for timber harvest. The effects would include loss of scenic 

characteristics; the probability of additional roads would reduce or eliminate the 

opportunity for semi-primitive settings. The area would lack special protection from 

normal management activities and generally lack management designed to enhance 

its unique characteristics of an area. 

Scenic Byways: 

Ocoee Scenic Byway: Alternatives A, D, E, and G allocate the highest number of acres 

to the scenic byway prescription. Alternative I includes a larger amount (11%) of 

emphasis to black bear management and three percent for an emphasis on 

ecological restoration. Alternative B emphasizes watershed and ecological 

restoration. The effects of these allocations would include potential short- or longterm loss of scenic characteristics. 

Cherohala Scenic Skyway: Alternatives A and D allocate the highest number of acres 

(about 77%) to the scenic byway prescription, with Alternatives G and E at 65 and 60 

percent, respectively. Alternative I allocated 44 percent to the scenic byway 

prescription. Both Alternatives E and I allocated percentages (22 and 14%, 

respectively) to management for remote backcountry recreation, the result of 

allocating acres of adjacent Roadless Areas. Alternative G allocated 19 percent to 

Wilderness Study Area, the result of allocating acres of adjacent Roadless Areas. 

Alternative B emphasizes watershed and ecological restoration. The effects of these 

allocations could include potential short- or long-term loss of scenic characteristics. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 357 

Appalachian National Scenic Trail: 

In all alternatives, 92 percent or more of the total acreage is allocated to 

Prescriptions where scenic qualities are emphasized. Alternatives G, E, A and I 

contain allocations to Wilderness Study Areas (15 - 5%), the result of allocating acres 

of adjacent Roadless Areas. These allocations would affect management of the A.T., 

resulting in an increased primitive experience. Alternative A contains a three percent 

allocation for remote backcountry recreation, continuing the semi-primitive, scenic 

experience for which the A.T. is known. Alternatives E, G and I contain only a slight 

amount of allocated acres in remote backcountry recreation. Alternative I contains a 

three percent allocation to the Scenic Area prescription, with only slight allocated 

acres in other alternatives. Alternative D contains four percent allocations for black 

bear and timber management. Alternative B contains about three percent, and 

Alternative A less than one percent, allocations for black bear management and 

ecological/watershed restoration. These have the potential of negatively affecting 

the recreation experience along portions of the A.T., either short- or long-term. All 

alternatives contain four percent of the total acreage allocated to a Rare Community 

emphasis. 

17.5 National Wild and Scenic Rivers 

17.5.1 Affected Environment 

The Wild and Scenic Rivers Act (Public Law 90-542: 16 USC 1271-1287, October 2, 

1968) and its amendments provide for the protection of selected rivers and their 

immediate environments. To be eligible for designation rivers must possess one or 

more outstandingly remarkable scenic, recreational, geologic, fish and wildlife, 

historic, cultural, or other similar values. Designation preserves rivers in free-flowing 

condition, protects water quality and protects their immediate environments for the 

benefit and enjoyment of present and future generations. 

Most rivers are added to the National Wild and Scenic Rivers System (National 

System) through federal legislation, after a study of the river’s eligibility and suitability 

for designation. The Forest Service is required to consider and evaluate rivers on 

lands they manage for potential designation while preparing their broader land and 

resource management plans under Section 5(d)(1) of the Act. 

According to the SAA, the national forests in the Southern Appalachians were 

established early in the 20th century primarily to protect the headwaters of major 

rivers from land uses that encouraged flooding, erosion, and stream sedimentation. 

Some would argue that clean water for the surrounding cities is the region’s most 

important product. 

The Southern Appalachians contain parts of 73 major watersheds; 29 are wholly 

within the SAA region, 18 have more than one-half within the region. Nine major 

rivers that rise in the Southern Appalachians provide drinking water to the major 

cities in the Southeast. 

Increasing human population density and the resulting intensive human uses of the 

landscape put high stresses on aquatic systems in many areas through nonpoint 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

358 ENVIORNMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

source pollution and habitat degradation. Population density in the Southern 

Appalachians increased from 80 people per square mile in 1970 to 102 people per 

square mile in 1990, and the area’s population is expected to grow an additional 

12.3 percent by the year 2010. 

The SAA was not able to adequately estimate the impacts of increasing population on 

aquatic resources. However, they did report that land covers, which represent 

human activity, occupied over 50 percent of the land area at the time of publication 

(1996) on many large watersheds. Historically, riparian zones were largely forested, 

but human activities have reduced forestland cover to less than 60 percent in many 

large watersheds. 

Development along rivers and streams is not only reducing water quality and habitat 

on many rivers, but limiting public access for fishing and other river related activities. 

Protection of rivers and streams through the forest planning process helps to assure 

high quality, free flowing rivers and streams, as well as river related recreation 

opportunities. 

Rivers and stream corridors accommodate a diverse range of recreation activities on 

the CNF as previously discussed under Developed and Dispersed Recreation. Some 

of the most popular activities include picnicking, fishing, day hiking and walking for 

pleasure, primitive camping, boating (canoeing, kayaking, rafting, tubing), swimming 

and nature study. 

Demand for WSR designation is expressed primarily through public comment and 

responses to agency proposals. The degree to which public input favors designation 

indicates the demand for a wide range of uses, activities, and resource qualities 

associated with WSR management. Although demand is closely related to the 

current population and the projected growth of the local area, WSR designation 

would likely produce increased levels of recreation use in designated and potential 

WSR corridors. 

The Southern Appalachians currently have five Wild and Scenic Rivers totaling 191.1 

miles. All but 45.3 miles are managed by the national forests. Of the 145.8 miles of 

designated river managed by the forest service, 80.8 miles are classified as wild, 34 

miles as scenic and 31 miles as recreational. 

Eligible Rivers on CNF 

The Nationwide River Inventory (NRI) listed nine rivers on the CNF for wild and scenic 

study including four rivers already designated as state scenic rivers (Doe, French 

Broad, Watauga and Hiwassee rivers). The eight rivers found eligible were: 

Conasauga, Ocoee, Hiwassee, Tellico, French Broad, Doe, Watauga, and Nolichucky. 

The ninth river (Little Tennessee) was removed from the study list due to the 

construction of the Tellico dam that restricted the free flowing condition of the river. 

Amendment #14 to the 1986 Forest Plan addressed segments of these rivers that 

were determined to be eligible or ineligible (including the removal of the Ocoee River 

from the eligibility list). The Forest Service determined that it was inappropriate to 

undertake the suitability studies of the Watauga, Doe and French Broad rivers since 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 359 

little or no national forest frontage is involved with the eligible segments of the 

Watauga and Doe Rivers, and only six miles out of 134 miles of the French Broad. 

Since this determination, the state has also deferred to conduct suitability studies on 

these river segments. (AMS) 

A suitability study for the Nolichucky River has been completed with a 

recommendation to designate the eligible segment as “Scenic.” This 

recommendation was submitted to Congress in 1991 for approval, but no action has 

been taken to date. Suitability studies for eligible segments of the Tellico and 

Hiwassee Rivers have been initiated, but not completed. No formal 

recommendations have been made. 

An eligibility study of the Conasauga River on the CNF determined that the 4.5-mile 

segment downstream from the confluence of Taylor’s Branch was eligible for “Wild” 

classification. A shorter 1⁄2-mile segment upstream from Taylor’s Branch was studied 

in context with the larger upstream segment located on the Chattahoochee-Oconee 

NF. This section was determined to be eligible as “Recreational” river due to the 

presence of the Sheeds Creek/Peavine Road (221 Road) and bridge. 

A suitability study of the Conasauga River will be conducted in the future with the 

Chattahoochee-Oconee National Forest. 

In addition to the eligible segments of the Nolichucky, Tellico, Hiwassee and 

Conasauga Rivers, three other streams on CNF were suggested and reviewed for 

WSR eligibility. These streams include the Elk River, Beaverdam Creek and Laurel 

Creek all located on the north end of CNF. 

Streams were classified according to Section 2 of the WSR act (PL 90-542) (see 

Appendix D for more information). Table 3-131 lists all seven rivers that have been 

studied for eligibility, their recommended classifications and the status of their 

respective suitability studies. River classifications do not change between 

alternatives. 

Table 3-131. River Segments Studied for Wild and Scenic River Eligibility 

River 

(Segment) 

Total 

Length 

NFS 

Own Study Location Eligibility Classification 

Suitability 

Study 

Beaverdam 

Creek 16.5 6.5 Headwaters to TN/VA state line Recreational None 

Conasauga 

River (B & 

C) 

13.0 5.0* 

ChattahoocheeOconee 

NF/Cherokee NF 

boundary to private 

land 

Recreational 

& Wild None 

Elk River 10.2 3.6 Watauga Reservoir to 

TN/NC state line Scenic None 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

360 ENVIORNMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Table 3-131. River Segments Studied for Wild and Scenic River Eligibility 

River 

(Segment) 

Total 

Length 

NFS 

Own Study Location Eligibility Classification 

Suitability 

Study 

Hiwassee 

River (B) 10.5 7.2 

River Mile 43.0 to 

53.5 Appalachia 

Powerhouse to 

proclamation 

boundary 

Recreational Pending 

Laurel 

Creek 9.5 1.9 Headwaters to TN/VA state line Not Eligible N/A 

Nolichucky 

River 7.2 1.3* Headwaters to take out Scenic Recommended 

Tellico River 

(C) 22.8 17.0* 

River Mile 30.0 to 

48.0 TN/NC state 

line to McDaniel 

Bridge 

Recreational Pending 

*Segments of river located in Tennessee and Cherokee National Forest 

Recommended corridor width is an average of 1⁄4-mile from each riverbank with a 

maximum of 320 acres per river mile. 

17.5.2 Direct/Indirect Effects 

Outstandingly Remarkable Values 

The identification of a river for study through the forest planning process does not 

trigger any protection under the Wild and Scenic River Act until designation by 

Congress. Identifying rivers as eligible, or eligible and suitable, does not create any 

new agency authority; rather, it focuses the management actions within the 

discretion of the Forest Service on protecting identified river values. 

For agency-identified study rivers, the preliminary (inventoried) classification is to be 

maintained absent a suitability determination. The recommended classification is to 

be maintained throughout the duration of the forest plan. Under all alternatives, 

management emphasis for the eligible rivers and their corridors is focused on 

protection and enhancement of the values for which they were established, without 

limiting other uses that do not substantially interfere with public use and enjoyment 

of those values. 

In general, the free flowing condition and outstandingly remarkable values (ORVs) 

determined for the affected eligible rivers will be protected under all alternatives 

regardless of recommendations from suitability studies. River corridors have been 

allocated to prescriptions that adequately protect or enhance the identified ORVs and 

free flowing condition. 

Table 3-132 illustrates the prescription allocations of each alternative. Prescription 

11, riparian corridors, is embedded in all prescriptions across alternatives and is not 

represented in the table. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 361 

Table 3-132. Prescription Allocations of Eligible/Recommended Rivers by Alternative 

River ALT A ALT B ALT D ALT E ALT F* ALT G ALT I 

Beaverdam 

Creek 

9.A.2 

9.F 7.D 

9.A.2 

9.F 7.D 

8.C 9.F 

7.D 

12.B 

12.A 

9.F 7.D 

6.5 

River 

miles 

1.B 

12.B 

12.A 

9.F 7.D 

2.B.3 

7.D 

Conasauga 

River 2.B.1 2.B.1 2.B.1 2.B.1 

5.0 

River 

miles 

2.B.1 2.B.1 

2.B.3 

Elk River 12.B 8.C 8.C 7.E.1 

1.B 

3.6 

River 

miles 

8.A.1 

1.B 2.B.3 

Hiwassee 

River 

7.E.2 

7.D 

9.A.3 

7.D 

7.E.2 

7.D 7.B 7.D 

7.2 

River 

miles 

7.A 7.D 7.B 7.D 

Nolichucky 

River 9.F 4.A 9.F 4.A 9.F 4.A 9.F 4.A 

1.3 

River 

miles 

9.F 4.A 2.B.2 

9.F 4.A 

Tellico 

River 

1.A 

9.A.3 

7.A 7.D 

1.A 

9.A.3 

7.D 

1.A 

12.A 

7.A 7.B 

1.A 

12.A 

7.A 7.D 

17.0 

River 

miles 

1.A 1.B 

7.A 7.D 

1.A 7.A 

7.B 7.D 

*Baseline Miles of River classified as eligible. Prescription 11 is not shown. 

The ORVs to be protected or enhanced for each eligible river segments include: 

Beaverdam Creek: Recreational, scenic, fisheries/aquatics, wildlife, geologic, and 

botanical/ecological values are rated outstandingly remarkable and the segment is 

free flowing. (Classified Recreational) 

Conasauga River: River mile section 64 to 70 (1⁄2-mile segment upstream from 

Taylor’s Branch along 221 Road): Fish and wildlife, and cultural and historical values 

are rated outstandingly remarkable and the segment is free flowing. (Classified 

Recreational) 

River mile section 70 to 74.5 (downstream from Taylor’s Branch): Fish and wildlife, 

and botanical values are rated outstandingly remarkable and the segment is free 

flowing. (Classified Wild) 

Elk River: Recreational, scenic, fisheries/aquatics, wildlife and botanical/ecological 

values are rated outstandingly remarkable and the segment is free flowing. 

(Classified Scenic) 

Hiwassee River: Recreational, fisheries/aquatics, wildlife and botanical/ecological 

values are rated outstandingly remarkable and the segment is free flowing. 

(Classified Recreational) 

Nolichucky River: Recreational, scenic and geologic values were rated outstandingly 

remarkable and the segment is free flowing. (Classified Scenic) 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

362 ENVIORNMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Tellico River: Recreational, heritage/cultural, and botanical/ecological values are 

rated outstandingly remarkable and the segment is free flowing. (Classified 

Recreational) 

Classifications 

River classifications do not vary between alternatives. Sections of rivers classified as 

wild, will have the highest level of protection. Most impacts to wild rivers will come 

from upland activities outside of the river corridor. Vegetation management, road 

construction, and construction or removal of recreation facilities could cause erosion 

along the river, sedimentation from soil runoff, visual intrusions or noise from nearby 

activities. 

Fire management within the corridor including prescribed fire and fire suppression 

actions may result in smoke impacts, noise from aircraft, chainsaws and engines, or 

lasting visual effects from charred vegetation. Search and rescue operations may 

cause some impact from the use of equipment in the river corridor but these are 

predicted to be minimal. 

Increased public interest and use may result in development of additional trailheads, 

trails and river access points to accommodate use and minimize impacts to affected 

resources. Development necessary to facilitate recreational use or site protection 

would be emphasized in the upstream “Recreational” segment of the Conasauga 

River and existing railroad bed. 

River sections classified as scenic or recreational will be managed with a wider 

variety of activities allowed within the river corridor. However forest management 

would be subordinate the river’s outstandingly remarkable recreational or scenic 

values. In general, scenery will be managed at a higher level of integrity for wild 

versus scenic and recreational classified rivers, and scenic rivers at a higher level 

than recreational. Sights and sounds of man’s activities would be more apparent for 

scenic and recreational rivers. 

Management activities that have the greatest potential of affecting rivers and their 

potential suitability for WSR designation include road construction, vegetation 

management, insect and disease control and special use utility ROWs and mineral 

extraction. Other management activities that also can affect the river resources to a 

lesser degree are threatened and endangered (T&E) species habitat management, 

recreation and wildlife and fisheries management. 

Alternative Prescription Allocations 

Prescription 11, riparian corridors, is embedded in all prescriptions including 2.B. 

The desired conditions and standards associated with riparian corridors secure 

protection of aquatic and aquatic related ORVs across all alternatives. 7.D 

prescriptions represent existing concentrated recreation zones within the affected 

river corridors. 

Alternative I allocates the majority of eligible rivers to 2.B prescriptions (wild, scenic 

or recreational rivers). However, the Hiwassee and Tellico river corridors were 

allocated to scenic byway corridors (7.A) and/or scenic corridors/sensitive viewsheds 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 363 

(7.B) with the intent of protecting affected viewsheds and ORVs. The typical 1⁄4-mile 

river corridors were enlarged to encompass foreground scenery viewed from adjacent 

travel routes as well as the rivers. 

The 2.B prescription is retained for the Conasauga River in all alternatives. 

Alternatives G and E allocate the Hiwassee and Tellico river corridors in the same 

manner as Alternative I. Proposed Wilderness Study Areas (1.B) and backcountry 

prescriptions (12.A & 12.B) coincide with several river corridors under Alternatives G 

and E as well. The recommended Nolichucky River is mostly allocated the A.T. (4.A) 

and rare communities (9.F) prescriptions in all alternatives except for Alternative I 

that allocates the corridor to 2.B.2. 

Alternatives B, D and A allocate sections of the Elk River, Beaverdam Creek and 

Hiwassee River to black bear habitat (8.C), watershed (9.A), backcountry (12.B), rare 

communities (9.F) and/or dispersed recreation area (7.E) prescriptions. These 

prescriptions adequately protect ORVs within the context of the different alternative 

themes. 

Management direction for rivers determined to be non-eligible or non-suitable will 

continue to be directed by the prescription allocations shown in Table 3-132 

including the embedded riparian corridor prescription (11). Changes to a 2.B or 

other prescriptions would require a forest plan amendment and disclosure of 

environmental consequences. 

17.6 Cumulative Effects for Recreation Related Programs 

A discussion on cumulative effects of the alternatives presented in this EIS examines 

the how social and land use trends on public and private lands in the Southern 

Appalachians together influence the healthy and sound management of NFS lands. 

As discussed in the EIS sections dealing with recreation and scenery, overall demand 

for outdoor recreation opportunities, and the settings that provide them, is increasing 

and it is increasing at a rate greater than population growth. 

The demand for a particular type of recreation activity remains either stable with 

population growth, or increases more rapidly, depending on the activity. Generally, 

due to the aging population, the demand for less physically challenging activities, and 

therefore the demands for developed or improved settings, are likely to rise faster 

than demands for remote and primitive settings. Southern Appalachian Assessment, 

Summary report, p. 37

Trends on private lands are relevant to Forest Service lands. Currently, public 

holdings represent one-third of the roaded-natural appearing settings and two thirds 

of remote settings in the Southern Appalachians. These are the preferred settings 

for outdoor recreation experiences. Due to continuing development of roads and 

buildings, these settings on privately owned lands are being converted to rural 

forested settings. Southern Appalachian Assessment, Social Cultural Economic 

Technical Report p.140, 157, 173.
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

364 ENVIORNMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

The ability for the public to recreate on private lands is changing. About 1⁄4 of private 

landholders in the Southern Appalachians provide access for the recreating public for 

certain compatible activities. However, overtime, less private land is predicted to be 

available. Southern Forest Resource Assessment, Proposed, Chapter Socio-6, pp. 2 

and 12. 

Streams, rivers, and lakes draw people because of water’s importance in high quality 

scenery and the recreation opportunities offered. Today, national forests are seeing 

congestion and overuse on many of its waterways. Use is exceeding capacity and 

public access provided by private lands for water for recreation diminishing. 

Therefore, a general trend on private lands surrounding the CNF is the gradual loss of 

preferred settings for nature based recreation as well the potential to access private 

lands. Private lands are not expected to increase the supply for the settings 

preferred by outdoor recreationists for their activities. As a result, public lands will 

face most of increasing recreation demand. Southern Forest Resource Assessment, 

Proposed Chapter SOCIO-6.

Related to recreation demand are tourism and its importance to gateway 

communities and regional economies. Many communities are encouraging tourism 

that centers on using the attractions of national forest to stimulate their local 

economy. The Ocoee Whitewater Center and Cherohala Skyway are two examples of 

recent developments that have been promoted by local communities. 

Finally, nature-based settings are key ingredients for enhancing a sense of place in 

the Southern Appalachian communities. Rapid development of private lands in the 

South appears to be taking away the sense of place of long-term residents. Local 

communities identify with landscape features or have cultural practices related to 

natural settings. 

Also, traditional uses of the land by residents for hunting, fishing and gathering of 

natural forest products have transferred in part to Forest Service lands as private 

lands become unavailable. Conflicts between user groups will continue to arise 

between long time residents and new development related to tourism and outdoor 

recreation including the management of motorized versus non-motorized recreation 

settings. Southern Appalachian Assessment, Summary Report, pg. 38 

The primary challenge for recreation managers is how to maintain the integrity of the 

ecosystems and high quality natural settings as more and more people, who bring 

more impacts to the natural settings and want more user conveniences, recreate on 

the CNF. Alternatives E, A and I emphasize the provision of a diverse range of 

recreation opportunities throughout the forest with Alternative A promoting the 

greatest expansion of developed recreation. 

Alternative G proposes the largest increase in designated Wilderness creating more 

remote settings and challenging outdoor recreation opportunities. Alternatives D and 

B emphasize other values on NFS land and therefore provide less recreation 

opportunities. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 365 

Regardless of the alternative selected, recreation demand is increasing and effects 

will occur. Effects, such as user conflict and resource impacts to riparian corridors, 

will simply show up sooner in alternatives that do not emphasize recreation 

opportunities. User controls will be needed, in varying degrees, to protect the health 

of the natural systems and to maintain an acceptable recreation experience. These 

controls will begin in current problem areas. 

Regardless of alternative selected, it is unknown if future Forest Service budgets will 

be able to support the recreation staff, law enforcement and facilities (whether for 

developed or dispersed settings) called for by recreation demand. This is particularly 

important for high maintenance and operational cost facilities or trail systems such 

as OHV areas where on-going maintenance and on-the-ground personnel are needed. 

For those alternatives that generally emphasize recreation management, there will 

be a better opportunity to maintain scarce settings, provide high quality recreation 

experiences and manage impacts on the land. Also there will be a better opportunity 

to develop tourism linkages and partnerships to support local economies and sound 

recreation management programs.

18.0 HERITAGE RESOURCES 

18.1 Affected Environment 

Information accumulated from historic properties recorded to date demonstrates a 

long and diverse series of human occupation and land use that spans at least the 

last 10,000 years on the CNF. Tribal groups known to use the analysis area 

prehistorically and historically include tribes of the Cherokee and Creek and possibly 

other tribes of the Muskogee dialect. Contact with European cultures altered the 

human occupation of the region beginning with the influx of European diseases and 

cultural assimilation and finally culminating in the removal of the Cherokee in 1838. 

Subsequent Euro-American settlement of the area focused on farming, livestock 

grazing, and, to a lesser degree, mining, finally culminating in unregulated 

commercial logging of the analysis area in the period extending from approximately 

1900 to 1930. Forest Service acquisition for the CNF began in 1912. Remnants of 

all these activities and events, both historic and prehistoric, would be found 

throughout the analysis area. To date, over 1,700 cultural properties have been 

recorded on various landscapes and within all forms of the forest ecosystem 

represented in the analysis area. Site types range from temporary prehistoric 

hunting and gathering sites such as campsites, hunting sites, and lithic quarries and 

sites of semi-sedentary or sedentary settlement, to historic sites such as farmsteads, 

mining sites, lumbering camps, and Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) camps. 

Connecting many of these sites and environments provides a network of prehistoric 

and historic Indian trails, trade and military routes, railroad beds, and wagon roads 

and turnpikes. 

Prehistoric and historic cultural resources are a nonrenewable resource. Significant 

cultural resources (those resources determined to be eligible for listing on the 

National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA)) have many values, including their use to 

gather scientific information on human culture, history, interpretive and educational 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

366 ENVIORNMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

value, values associated with important people and events of significance in our 

history, and often aesthetic value, as in an historic landscape. Accordingly, and 

pursuant to and in compliance with the terms and conditions stipulated in the NHPA, 

as stipulated in the Programmatic Memorandum of Agreement (PMOA) between the 

Tennessee State Historic Preservation Office (Tennessee SHPO), the CNF and the 

Advisory Council on Historic Preservation, Washington, inventories are conducted on 

the CNF in consultation with the Tennessee SHPO prior to decisions on projects that 

would potentially affect significant heritage resources in order to provide 

assessments, protection, and mitigation measures for significant heritage resources. 

The documentation of significant cultural resources recorded for the CNF, as 

stipulated in the PMOA, illustrates that areas displaying five percent slope or less 

have a high probability for containing significant cultural resources, areas displaying 

slopes of between five and 15 percent slope have a moderate probability for 

containing significant cultural resources, while slopes greater than 15 percent have a 

low probability for retaining significant prehistoric or historic properties. Overall, 

approximately ten percent of the CNF displays a topography having a high probability 

of containing significant historic sites (less than 10 percent slope), 20 percent have a 

moderate probability, and 70 percent have low probability for containing significant 

sites. Across the CNF, 90 percent of all significant or potentially significant sites 

would be expected to occur in areas of high probability. Presently, over 1700 historic 

resources have been recorded on the CNF. Of these, over 1500 have been 

categorized, in agreement with the Tennessee SHPO, as Class II sites (unevaluated 

properties). Presently, unevaluated historic sites are evaluated for their eligibility for 

inclusion in the NRHP at a rate of one site per year. 

18.2 Direct/Indirect Effects 

Direct affects to historic properties could result from both natural and human-caused 

events. These include: 

Soil disturbance to varying depths 

Soil compaction or rutting 

Burning 

Alteration of a site’s immediate or proximal setting (for example, introduction 

of intrusive visual or auditory components) 

Diminished jurisdiction, as in the case of land exchange 

Indirect affects to historic properties may include looting or vandalism due to 

increased access, or site degradation or silting of a historic property resulting from an 

off-site project or construction of roads or trails. 

Accordingly, four types of ground disturbing land management activities that vary in 

magnitude (acres or miles) have the greatest potential to affect heritage resources. 

These include: timber management, road construction, fire management, and 

recreation use. To a lesser degree, other forms of land management, such as 

landownership adjustment (land exchange), special use permits, structures 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 367 

management, minerals management, and wildlife management can also affect 

historic properties. 

Projects where timber is harvested or manipulated comprise the largest source of 

potential direct affects to the heritage resource base. Timber harvests may directly 

affect unknown significant heritage resources when soil is significantly disturbed by 

heavy machinery and vehicles, when trees are felled on historic ruins or cemeteries, 

when logs are skidded across sites, or indirectly when erosion is caused by removal 

or disruption of vegetation cover or increased surface soil exposure. In general 

terms, even-aged harvesting may create moderate disturbance for significant 

properties located on the ground surface or at shallow depths, and such disturbance 

may occur over most of the stand or area being harvested. An uneven-aged harvest 

or single tree selection would similarly disturb the properties located on the surface 

and in the upper soil matrix, but disturbed areas would be dispersed within the 

harvest area. With either management practice the skid trails, log landings, and other 

areas where vehicle use is concentrated would receive the greatest depth of 

disturbance and thus provide the most significant direct affects to significant 

heritage properties. Indirect affects could include deterioration of sites and artifacts 

from subsequent erosion and increased site vandalism from increased access and 

surface exposure of historic sites. 

Apart from these common affects, potential maximum direct, indirect and cumulative 

affects to historic properties of the approximately 640 thousand acres that compose 

the CNF can be assessed according to the maximum extent (acres) within which 

ground-disturbing activities can potentially occur for each alternative. The principal 

proposed ground-disturbing activities include: timber, recreation and fire 

management. For timber management (timber production and manipulation) this 

includes principally prescriptions 10.A and 10.B., but also prescriptions 7.C and 

7.E.2, prescriptions 6.C to 7.B, prescriptions 8.A.1 to 9.A.3, and prescription 9.H, that 

also are considered suitable for timber harvesting and timber manipulation, 

regardless of their primary prescription designation. Recreation management 

includes: prescriptions 7.C (OHV trails), 7.D (concentrated recreation areas), 7.E.1 

(dispersed recreation areas), and 7.E.2 (recreation with vegetation 

management/timber harvesting). The acreage within which potentially grounddisturbance, and concomitant affects to heritage resources, can occur is presented 

by prescription and alternative in Table 3-133. 

Table 3-133. Total acreage by prescription and alternative in which prescribed grounddisturbing activities will potentially occur. 

RX Number Alt A Alt B Alt D Alt E Alt F Alt G Alt I 

*6.C Old Growth 

Management 2,093 - - - - - - 

*6.E Core Areas of 

OG 7,892 - - 6,094 - 6,094 18 

*7.A Scenic Byway 

Corridors 37,081 6,652 35,423 40,931 - 58,458 1,7561 

*7.B Scenic Corridors - 1,896 11,044 14,207 - 223 50,307 

*7.C Off Road Vehicle 

Areas 3,469 - - 3,469 - - 11,139 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

368 ENVIORNMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Table 3-133. Total acreage by prescription and alternative in which prescribed grounddisturbing activities will potentially occur. 

RX Number Alt A Alt B Alt D Alt E Alt F Alt G Alt I 

7.D Concen. Rec. 

Areas 2,125 2,773 2,142 5,942 3,511 1,966 2,093 

7.E.1 Dispersed Rec. 

Areas - - - 184,304 - 11,908 - 

*7.E.2 Dispersed Rec 

Areas with Veg. 

Management 

84,223 - 20,848 - - - 96,941 

*8.A.1 Mid-Late 

Succession - - - - 313,761 68,094 29,000 

*8.A.2 Sensitive 

Species Area 19,305 - 9,211 - - - 96,941 

*8.B Early Succession 

Area - 18,011 - - - - 56,517 

*8.C Black Bear 

Reserves 56,134 43,772 117,071 48,361 - 51,393 85,883 

*8.E.1 Ruffed Grouse 

Management 2,615 2,608 - 3,029 78,085 - - 

*9.A.1 Source Water 

Protection Watersheds 23,847 23,847 - - - - - 

*9.A.2 Ref. Watershed 18,112 18,076 - 34,453 - - - 

*9.A.3 Watershed 

Restoration Areas 86,754 154,576 - 34,453 - - - 

*9.H Restoration of 

Plant Assoc. 26,060 125,384 - - - - 72,670 

10.A Timber Manage. 45,527 - - 93,389 - - - 

10.B Timber Manage. - - 29,779 - - - - 

Total Acres Timber 

Manage. 438,752 258,595 498,239 150,544 485,235 184,262 422,129 

Total Acres Recreation 

Manage. 89,817 2,773 22,890 193,715 3,511 13,874 110,173 

Prescribed burning per 

year 16,000 16,000 10,000 16,000 16,000 16,000 20,000 

* prescriptions determined suitable for timber management 

Alternative D, with 498,239 acres within which timber management can potentially 

occur, provides the highest potential for timber management activities to affect 

heritage resources of all alternatives. Accordingly, the potential for timber 

management to affect heritage resources is followed, in descending order, by 

Alternatives F (485,235 acres, current/no action alternative), A (438,752 acres), I 

(422,129 acres), B (258,595 acres), G (184,262 acres), and E (150,544 acres). 

Compliance-related inventories or surveys would be conducted prior to timber 

harvest under any timber management program and prior to site preparation. On the 

CNF site preparation following timber harvest, or vegetation management performed 

apart from timber harvest, is usually performed with hand tools and herbicides and 

without the aid of heavy earth-disturbing equipment. Site preparation activities, 

therefore, result in few if any significant direct, indirect, or cumulative affects to 

archaeological sites. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 369 

New road construction may directly affect unknown sites, given variables specific to 

each portion of construction. Disturbance within a construction corridor may remove 

soil containing cultural deposits, depending on the local situation. In cases where fill 

is added, historic properties may be buried deeper. This may protect the site from 

compaction or rutting, while at the same time essentially precluding additional 

scientific study using conventional technology. Maintenance or reconstruction of 

existing roads presents less potential for direct affects to intact archeological sites 

because the majority of damage to an unknown site probably occurred during the 

original construction. Access to historic properties provided by roads, however, may 

result in indirect affects to significant properties by facilitating increased vandalism. 

Indirect affects also may include erosion of historic properties subsequent to road 

construction. Also, artifact exposure during construction could promote site 

vandalism. 

The potential affects of road construction to cultural resources would be determined 

by the amount of acreage for timber management and recreation proposed for each 

alternative. Accordingly, it can be projected that Alternative I, which provides for 

422,129 acres in which timber production can occur and 110,173 acres in which 

recreation management can occur, a total of 532,302 acres of the approximately 

640,000 that compose the CNF, provides the highest potential to affect heritage 

resources through road construction. Alternatives A with 528,569 total acres 

(438,752 acres for potential timber management and 89,817 acres for potential 

recreation management), D with a total of 521,129 total acres (498,239 acres for 

potential timber management and 22,890 acres for potential recreation 

management), and F with a total of 488,746 total acres (485,235 acres for potential 

timber management and 3,511 acres for potential recreation management) provide 

similar potential to affect heritage resources. Alternatives E with a total of 344,259 

acres (150,544 acres in which timber management can potentially occur and 

193,715 acres of potential recreation management), B with a total of 261,368 acres 

(258,595 acres within which timber management can occur and 2,773 acres within 

which recreation management can potentially occur), and G with a total of 198,136 

acres (184,262 acres for potential timber management and 13,874 acres for 

potential recreation management) provide the least potential to affect cultural 

resources through road construction of all alternatives. 

Historic properties may be directly and indirectly affected by heat damage to artifacts 

and sites and erosion of sites resulting from wildfires or fires employed to suppress 

or control wildfires (prescribed fires). High-temperature wildfire could pose direct 

affects to historic properties by damaging surface or shallow archeological sites, 

standing structures, and cemetery markers. Sites of the historic period are most 

subject to direct affects from these events because many of these properties are 

more likely to exhibit surface artifacts. Studies show that wildfire, and in some cases 

higher temperature prescribed burns, may alter the character and condition of 

surface artifacts such as melting glass, “crazing” lithic and ceramic artifacts, and 

burning wood structures. Prescribed fire could also similarly directly affect surface 

sites or very shallow site deposits and artifacts, but because of reduced temperature, 

to a much lesser degree than those fires resulting from wildfire. However, wooden 

structures and cemetery markers could still be damaged, as could surface artifacts. 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

370 ENVIORNMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Fire lines installed with tractor-plow units, whether for wildfires or prescribed burns, 

could directly affect historic properties by physically displacing artifacts located at 

shallow levels or on the ground. The nature of displacement is primarily laterally, as 

the plow folds soil and artifacts to each side of the fire line. When multiple parallel 

fire lines are used for wildfire control, it would be possible to disturb a large portion of 

a small site. Fire lines established using a disc harrow would have less impact than 

those made with a tractor plow. In these cases lateral soil displacement would be 

minimal, but some fragile surface artifacts or artifacts located in shallow deposits 

may be broken. Fires lines installed for prescribed burns are less likely to directly or 

indirectly affect historic resources since proposed fire plow lines in areas of 

prescribed burns are inventoried and field surveyed for the presence of historic 

properties prior to project implementation. Under normal conditions, however, 

heritage surveys do not precede emergency fire line construction. Thus, there is a 

high potential for unknown properties to be affected by wildfire suppression. Indirect 

affects following the installation of fire lines and burning may include erosion losses 

due to the removal or burning of vegetation cover or further deterioration of artifact 

or feature condition following damage by high temperatures. 

Alternatives A, B, E, F, G, all of which each propose 16,000 acres of prescribed 

burning per year, provide the same potential to affect cultural resources. Alternative 

D, which proposes 10,000 acres a year of prescribed burning, provides the least 

potential for a prescribed burning program to affect heritage resources of all 

alternatives. Alternative I, with a proposed annual prescribed burn program of 20 

thousand acres, the largest program of annual prescribed burning of all alternatives, 

provides the highest potential to affect heritage resources of all alternatives. Given a 

ten-year planning cycle, a program of prescribed burning under Alternative I would 

result in 200,000 acres, or 32 percent of the forest, being burned, if burning is not 

repeated in areas. 

Recreation management may be categorized as consisting of three types: 

concentrated (formal recreation areas), dispersed recreation areas, and trails (off 

road vehicle trails, horse trails, and foot trails), see Table 3-133. In general, direct 

affects to significant cultural resources can result from installation of recreation 

facilities and expansion of recreation facilities and recreation use areas. Indirect 

affects could include soil erosion and compaction of historic properties due to visitor 

use, and access to given locales could result in archeological site vandalism. These 

indirect affects could especially occur with illegal expansions off of established off 

road vehicle trails. 

The incidence of vandalism and illicit collection is very much influenced by visitor 

use. Greater visitor use to some areas will lead to the increase of vandalism, illicit 

collection, littering and disturbance to cultural sites under all alternatives. Opening 

areas to timber production and timber manipulation, recreation use, and roads and 

trails will result in an increase in site disturbance and vandalism in previously 

inaccessible areas that previously were naturally protected from direct, indirect, and 

cumulative affects. While cultural properties situated in recreation areas and along 

designated trails and road corridors can be signed, monitored, patrolled and 

protected, the impacts outside of these areas are largely uncontrolled and the extent 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 371 

of impact unknown. However, the Forest Service does have the authority to close a 

specific road, trail or area that has considerable adverse affects to cultural resources 

(36 CFR 295.5, 36 CFR 800.9, and 43 CFR 834.2) and prosecute, under 36 CFR 

296.4 and other laws, those who willfully destroy or loot significant historic 

properties. 

Based upon the potential acreage in which the range of significant ground-disturbing 

recreation activities can occur (prescriptions 7.C, 7.D, 7.E.1 and 7.E.2), Alternative E, 

with 193,715 potential acres for recreation management, followed by Alternative I 

with 110,173 acres, provides the highest potential to affect heritage resources. 

Alternative A, with 89,817 acres for potential recreation development, provides less 

potential to affect heritage resources. Alternatives D (22,890 potential acres) and G 

(13,874 potential acres) offer even less potential to affect cultural resources, while 

Alternatives F (3,511 potential acres for recreation development) and B (2,773 

potential acres for recreation development) offer the least potential for recreation 

development to affect heritage resources of all the alternatives. 

Exchange of federal land containing significant heritage resources to a non-federal 

agency or private ownership is considered a direct affect with no indirect or 

cumulative affects. This is because protection under federal laws and guidelines 

would no longer apply to the heritage resources contained within a tract that is 

exchanged out of federal ownership. 

Analysis of affects to significant cultural resources located on lands to be exchanged 

out of Forest Service ownership is performed programmatically in compliance with 

existing laws and regulations (36 CFR 296, 800, EO 13287 and the PMOA with the 

Tennessee SHPO) and occurs on a case-by-case basis apart from alternatives. As 

such, affects to heritage resources resulting from land exchange from federal 

jurisdiction is not affected by alternative. 

The potential direct affect to significant heritage resources located in special use 

areas would be low, in most cases. This is partially due to the small acreages 

involved in special use areas and the limitations imposed upon special uses for the 

purposes of resource protection. Indirect affects to significant cultural properties 

located in special use areas, however, can occur through erosion and vandalism of 

historic properties resulting from increased access and use of permit areas. 

Analysis of affects to significant cultural resources located on lands placed under 

special use permit is performed programmatically in compliance with existing laws 

and regulations (36 CFR 296, 800, EO 13287 and the PMOA with the Tennessee 

SHPO) and occurs on a case-by-case basis apart from alternatives. As such, affects 

to heritage resources resulting from special use permits are not affected by 

alternative. 

Historic iron, barite, copper and gold mining facilities, mines, tailings, and exploration 

davits determined to be historically significant are protected and maintained under 

existing federal laws and guidelines. Generally, exploration for minerals minimally 

impacts other significant historic sites as the nature of this activity and permits for 

mineral exploration throughout the CNF have historically involved small acreages. 

Mineral extraction, however, may produce severe, albeit localized, direct affects to 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

372 ENVIORNMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

significant cultural resources as the overburden containing historic resources are 

removed. Indirect affects could include damage to significant cultural resources 

located outside the area of immediate mining resulting from erosion, the installation 

of road accesses and equipment staging areas, and vandalism and looting resulting 

from increased access to these historic properties. 

Analysis of affects of minerals management to significant cultural resources is 

performed programmatically in compliance with existing laws and regulations (e.g., 

36 CFR 296, 800, EO 13287 and the PMOA with the Tennessee SHPO) and occurs 

on a case-by-case basis separate from alternatives. Therefore, affects to heritage 

resources resulting from minerals management is not affected by alternative. 

Individual and multiple structures located on the CNF that are determined to be 

historically significant are protected and maintained under the terms and conditions 

of existing federal laws and guidelines. The construction of new facilities could 

directly affect an unknown significant prehistoric or historic property. In most cases 

of concrete slab or footing construction, disturbance may extend into or below soil 

strata containing archeological deposits. Lighter facilities, such as boardwalks, piers, 

or structures located on pier foundations, would present less potential for damage. 

The construction of structures could also directly affect significant historic properties 

by introducing a visual affect that conflicts with or diminishes the setting and nature 

of an historic property. Indirect affects could include erosion or vandalism of 

significant historic properties facilitated by public access following construction of 

structures in the immediate vicinity. 

Analysis of affects to significant historic structures and the affects of the construction 

of structures to heritage resources is performed programmatically in compliance with 

existing laws and regulations (e.g., 36 CFR 296, 800, EO 13287 and the PMOA with 

the Tennessee SHPO) and occurs apart from alternative. As such, affects to heritage 

resources resulting from land exchange from federal jurisdiction is not affected by 

alternative. 

Areas in which wildlife food plots are traditionally installed are areas of high 

probability for containing significant historic sites. The construction of wildlife food 

plots through a program of disking may directly affect significant cultural properties, 

similar to that obtained by the creation of fire lines. Construction of helicopter ponds 

for fire fighting and wildlife management may also cause direct affects to significant 

cultural resources. Indirect affects could include vandalism of historic properties 

located in wildlife plots by exposing sites to collection and looting. 

The maintenance of the existing system of wildlife plots, as provided for in 

prescriptions 2.B.2, 4.A, 4.E.1, 4.K, 11, 12.A, and 12.B, and their affects to heritage 

resources, would be the same for all alternatives. The potential acreage in which 

new wildlife plots may be established include prescriptions 7.A, 7.B, 7.C, 7.D, 7.E.2, 

8.A.1, 8.B, and 8.C., and, for ruffed grouse management, prescription 8.E.1. The 

potential affects to heritage resources resulting from the construction of new wildlife 

plots, or the manipulation of vegetation for wildlife habitats, can be projected based 

upon the acreage within which these activities potentially can occur for each 

alternative. Alternative I, proposes 422,111 acres within which wildlife management 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 373 

can potentially occur, provides the highest potential to affect heritage resources of all 

alternatives. Alternative F provides the second highest potential to affect heritage 

resources with 395,357 acres. Alternatives A, B, D, and G offer roughly the same 

potential to affect heritage resources with 211,707 acres, 201,096 acres, 186,528 

acres, and 180,134 acres, respectively, in which ground-disturbing activities for 

wildlife management and the installation of wildlife plots potentially can occur. 

Alternative E, with 115,439 acres within which vegetation may be potentially 

manipulated for wildlife, provides the lowest potential to affect heritage resources of 

all alternatives. 

18.3 Cumulative Effects 

Pursuant to and in compliance with the terms and conditions of the National Historic 

Preservation Act, the Archaeological Resources Protection Act and other federal and 

Forest Service laws, guidelines, and regulations, and as stipulated by the terms and 

conditions in the PMOA between the Forest Service, the Tennessee SHPO and the 

Advisory Council on Historic Preservation, Washington, the CNF systematically and 

programmatically identifies, records, and protects all significant historic properties 

located on the CNF. This includes all significant historic properties that may be 

potentially affected by implementation of Forest Service project activities. However, 

cumulatively, the repeated implementation of all project activities would significantly 

affect historic resources by, over time, resulting in the degradation of sites and a 

reduction in the number of intact historic properties. The repeated installation of fire 

lines, whether for wildfires or prescribed burns, and a program of prescribed burns, 

would, over time, result in the degradation of sites and a reduction in the number of 

intact historic properties. Similarly, the increased installation and expansion of 

recreation facilities, particularly off road vehicle trails, could result in the increased 

degradation of sites and a reduction in the number of intact historic properties as a 

result of continued use, increased public access, erosion, and vandalism. 

Cumulatively, historic properties could be degraded, destroyed, or subjected to 

increased site vandalism with continuation of special use permits, increases in and 

the expansion of mineral extraction sites, the creation of new roads, and expansion 

and renewal of wildlife plots. 

19.0 FOREST PRODUCTS 

19.1 Affected Environment 

The 1986 LMP for the CNF had three goals that addressed forest products. They 

included providing for the consumptive uses of resources so long as the uses are 

compatible with the management of other resources values; improve the quality and 

quantity of sawtimber being produced; and provide for increased output of goods and 

services, such as timber harvest and mineral extraction, in coordination with other 

resource uses. 

The table below compares timber volume offered for sale with the allowable sale 

quantity (ASQ) for the LMP completed in 1986. Volumes are displayed in thousand 

cubic feet (MCF) and million board feet (MMBF). 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

374 ENVIORNMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Table 3-134. Comparison of Offered Timber Sales with 1986 LMP Goal (ASQ) of 

34.5 MMBF 

FY 1986 LMP (ASQ) ACTUAL OFFER 

86 34.5MMBF/Yr / 6,250 MCF/Yr 34.3MMBF/Yr / 6,215 MCF/Yr 

87 34.5MMBF/Yr / 6,250 MCF/Yr 35.6MMBF/Yr / 6,450 MCF/Yr 

88 34.5MMBF/Yr / 6,250 MCF/Yr 31.8MMBF/Yr / 5,762 MCF/Yr 

89 34.5MMBF/Yr / 6,250 MCF/Yr 38.4MMBF/Yr / 6,957 MCF/Yr 

90 34.5MMBF/Yr / 6,250 MCF/Yr 26.1MMBF/Yr / 4,729 MCF/Yr 

91 34.5MMBF/Yr / 6,250 MCF/Yr 30.1MMBF/Yr / 5,454 MCF/Yr 

92 34.5MMBF/Yr / 6,250 MCF/Yr 28.9MMBF/Yr / 5,236 MCF/Yr 

93 34.5MMBF/Yr / 6,250 MCF/Yr 27.7MMBF/Yr / 5,019 MCF/Yr 

94 34.5MMBF/Yr / 6,250 MCF/Yr 22.2MMBF/Yr / 4,022 MCF/Yr 

95 34.5MMBF/Yr / 6,250 MCF/Yr 12.8MMBF/Yr / 6,215 MCF/Yr 

96 34.5MMBF/Yr / 6,250 MCF/Yr 19.4MMBF/Yr / 3,515 MCF/Yr 

97 34.5MMBF/Yr / 6,250 MCF/Yr 16.4MMBF/Yr / 2,971 MCF/Yr 

98 34.5MMBF/Yr / 6,250 MCF/Yr 16.0MMBF/Yr / 2,899 MCF/Yr 

99 34.5MMBF/Yr / 6,250 MCF/Yr 16.5MMBF/Yr / 2,990 MCF/Yr 

2000 34.5MMBF/Yr / 6,250 MCF/Yr 4.0MMBF/Yr / 725 MCF/Yr 

2001 34.5MMBF/Yr / 6,250 MCF/Yr 3.5MMBF/Yr / 634 MCF/Yr 

The table below displays acres sold through commercial timber sales by method of 

cut for FY-86-2001 for the CNF. 

Table 3-135. Acres sold by method of cut form FY86-2001 

FY Clear Cut Seedtree Shelterwood Selection Other* 

1986 2874 0 0 0 588 

1987 3280 0 0 0 930 

1988 2724 0 0 0 710 

1989 3188 66 0 0 535 

1990 2982 180 27 0 97 

1991 2416 121 124 22 461 

1992 2011 127 81 205 385 

1993 892 42 150 211 570 

1994 503 74 459 364 625 

1995 103 13 186 561 223 

1996 245 0 365 559 264 

1997 336 35 528 269 510 

1998 170 7 387 71 809 

1999 176 70 891 43 255 

2000 0 0 458 127 128 

2001 0 0 20 75 57 

* Thinning, salvage, and sanitation 

The table below displays the allowable sale quantity (ASQ) and long term sustained 

yield in thousand cubic feet per year for the first decade, for all alternatives. 

Table 3-136. Allowable Sale Quantity and Long Term Sustained Yield in MCF/Year 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 375 

 Alt A Alt B Alt D Alt E Alt F Alt G Alt I 

ASQ 3,611 3,897 6,977 814 7,110 1,950 3,997 

LYSY 6,438 6,786 11,134 1,541 12,704 3,776 8,149 

The table below displays volume in millions of cubic feet (MMCF) for growing stock 

trees of all species, average annual growth of growing stock trees for all species, 

average annual removals (harvest) of growing stock trees of all species, and average 

annual mortality of growing stock trees for all species for the period 1989-1999 

(Schweitzer 2000). Growing stock trees are live trees of commercial species 

classified as sawtimber, poletimber, saplings, and seedlings. 

Table 3-137. Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) inventory, growth and mortality. 

Growing Stock Growth Removals Mortality 

1,322 MMCF 33 MMCF 11 MMCF 17 MMCF 

This LMP revision does not establish specific objectives for forest products but does 

allow for timber harvest to achieve objectives for other resources. The establishment 

and maintenance of early successional habitat may be achieved through timber 

harvest activities. Early successional objectives are established in management 

prescription descriptions that have objectives for these habitat conditions. There are 

management prescriptions that do not have early successional objectives but do 

provide for harvest activities in order to meet objectives such as insect and disease 

control, creation of vistas in scenic areas, and recreation development. 

The CNF experienced extensive SPB outbreaks from late 1999 through 2002 that left 

up to 35 percent of southern yellow pine and white pine communities’ devastated. 

The infestation continued during the preparation of this plan revision and the CISC 

was not updated to reflect pine mortality. Additional tables have been included in the 

following discussion to reflect pine mortality from SPB. The adjusted outputs are 

based on estimated SPB mortality and SPECRUM outputs for pine. 

19.2 Direct/Indirect Effects 

All alternatives provide for various levels of early successional habitat depending 

upon management prescription objectives and allocations. Alternative F has the 

most acres available for early successional habitat development, about 423,668 

acres, and alternative E has the least with 70,889 acres. The table below displays 

acres available for early successional habitat development for all alternatives. 

Table 3-138. Total suitable acres and suitable acres with early successional 

objectives. 

Alternative Alt A Alt B Alt D Alt E Alt F Alt G Alt I 

Total 

Suitable 

Acres 

301,228 302,174 377,928 121,951 423,783 188,310 320,389 

Acres with 

early 

successional 

objectives 

265,268 295,830 335,124 70,889 423,668 134,035 278,849 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

376 ENVIORNMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Outputs for forest products were generated and scheduled by the SPECTRUM model. 

The model calculated an allowable sale quantity (ASQ) based on a non-declining yield 

through the planning horizon. The model also calculates a long-term sustained yield 

capacity (LTSYC) that includes future tree growth in calculating potential long-term 

yields. Again, the alternative with the highest ASQ and LTSYC is alternative F and 

alternative E has the lowest. The table below displays ASQ and LTSY for all 

alternatives. 

Table 3-139. ASQ and LTSYC by Alternative 

Alternative Alt A Alt B Alt D Alt E Alt F Alt G Alt I 

ASQ 

MCF/Yr 3,611 3,897 6,977 814 7,110 1,950 3,968 

LTSYC 

MCF/Yr 6,438 6,786 11,134 1,541` 12,704 3,776 8,149 

Projected harvest acres and volumes for the first period are highest for alternatives D 

and F and the lowest for alternative E. The table below displays volumes and acres 

for all alternatives. 

Table 3-140. Projected acres and volume harvested for first 10 year period by 

alternative 

Alternative Alt A Alt B Alt D Alt E Alt F Alt G Alt I 

Projected 

Harvest Ac 18,016 19,212 35,334 5,862 34,406 10,777 19,902 

% of Acres 

Available 6.8% 6.5% 10.5% 8.3% 8.1% 8.0% 7.1% 

Harvest Vol 

MCF 36,113 38,969 69,967 8,143 71,096 19,500 39,968 

Southern pine beetle has impacted both white pine and southern yellow pine from 

1999 through 2002. Estimates of mortality are approximately 35 percent of the host 

type for SPB. Table 3-141 below displays harvest acres and volumes adjusted for 

SPB mortality. 

Table 3-141. Projected acres and volume harvested for first 10-year period by 

alternative adjusted for SPB mortality 

Alternative Alt A Alt B Alt D Alt E Alt F Alt G Alt I 

Projected 

Harvest 

Ac* 

16,216 17,466 33,059 4,985 31,900 9,432 18,161 

% of Acres 

Available* 6.1% 5.9% 9.9% 7.0% 7.5% 7.0% 6.5% 

Harvest Vol 

MCF* 33,519 36,410 65,531 7,579 71,096 19,500 39,968 

*adjusted to reflect southern pine beetle mortality 

The table below displays projected early successional acres by alternative. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 377 

Table 3-142. Percent of proposed early successional by management Prescription 

for first decade 

Management 

Prescription Alt A Alt B Alt D Alt E Alt F Alt G Alt I 

7.C 5% 5% 5% 

7.E.2 5% 6% 5% 

8.A.1 5% 5% 5% 

8.A.2 3% 

8.B 12% 12% 

8.C 5% 5% 5% 5% 5% 5% 

8.E.1 13% 13% 13% 12% 

9.A.1 5% 5% 

9.A.3 5% 5% 2% 

9.C 1.A 8% 

9.C.2 8% 

9.E 6% 

9H 5% 6% 6% 

10.A 12% 12% 12% 

10.B 12% 

Projected harvests by products (high value hardwood sawtimber (HVH), moderate 

value hardwood sawtimber (MVH), low value hardwood sawtimber (LVH), white pine 

sawtimber (WP), southern yellow pine sawtimber (SYP), hemlock sawtimber, and all 

pulpwood), does not vary to a large degree by alternative. The range of HVH for all 

alternatives is from a low of 14 percent for alternative D to a high of 20 percent for 

alternative E; MVH ranges from 19 percent in alternative D to 22 percent in 

alternative G; LVH ranges from 19 percent in alternative A to 24 percent in E; WP 

ranges from 17 percent in alternative B to 21 percent in alternatives D and E; SYP is 

seven percent for all alternatives except six percent for alternatives D and F; Hemlock 

is three percent for all alternatives except two percent for alternatives E and G; and 

all species of pulpwood ranges from a low of seven percent for alternative E to 16 

percent for alternatives A, B, D, F, and I. The table below displays projected product 

percentages for all alternatives. 

Table 3-143. Projected product harvested by percent of total harvest volume by 

alternative 

 Alt A Alt B Alt D Alt E Alt F Alt G Alt I 

HVH 16% 16% 14% 20% 15% 17% 16% 

MVH 21% 21% 19% 19% 21% 22% 21% 

LVH 19% 20% 21% 24% 20% 20% 20% 

WP 18% 17% 21% 21% 19% 18% 18% 

SYP 7% 7% 6% 7% 6% 7% 7% 

Hemlock 3% 3% 3% 2% 3% 2% 3% 

Pulpwood 16% 16% 16% 7% 16% 14% 16% 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

378 ENVIORNMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Pine represents about 25 percent of the projected volume for all alternatives. As a 

result of recent SPB activity and resulting pine mortality actual levels of pine 

harvested will be less. 

19.3 Cumulative Effects 

Cherokee National Forest timberlands comprise about 36 percent of the total 

timberlands in the nine county area where NFS lands are located. During the period 

1989 to 1999 harvest activities on the CNF contributed about 26 percent of the total 

harvested volume from the area. For sawtimber volume, the CNF contributed about 

28 percent during the same period (Schweitzer, 1999). 

All alternatives project a smaller percentage of harvested volume from NFS lands, for 

the nine county area, when compared to the earlier period. Alternatives D and F 

project about 16 percent of the total, based on the 1989-1999 period and 

alternative G is projected at about four percent of the total forestland acres for the 

nine county area. 

Table 3-144. Comparison of total volume harvested from the 9 county 

area for the period 1989-1999 to projected harvest volumes 

Alt A Alt B Alt D Alt E Alt F Alt G Alt I 

8.1% 8.7% 15.7% 1.8% 15.9% 4.4% 8.9% 

* not adjusted for SPB mortality 

Projected average net annual growth for the period 1989-1999 for timberlands from 

the nine county area exceeded harvest for the same lands by just over 50 percent. 

For NFS lands, during the same period, growth exceeded harvest by over 67 percent. 

When projected harvest levels are compared to average net annual growth for that 

same period, 1989-1999, growth greatly exceeds harvest for all alternatives. The 

following table displays growth from the 1989-1999 period to projected harvest 

levels. 

Table 3-145. Percent of projected harvest level for the first period versus 

growth from 1989-1999 

Alt A Alt B Alt D Alt E Alt F Alt G Alt I 

10% 11% 20% 2% 20% 5.5% 11% 

Alternatives D and F are projected to harvest about 20 percent of the estimated 

growth and alternative E is estimated to harvest only two percent of the growth for 

the CNF. 

Mortality will increase through time across the nine county area because estimated 

growth exceeds harvest levels on all ownerships. Mortality will be significantly higher 

on the CNF since only a fraction of the growth is being harvested. 

20.0 SPECIAL USES/LANDS 

20.1 Affected Environment 

The CNF consists of approximately 639,880 acres of publicly owned land within a 

proclamation boundary of 1.2 million acres. The acres within the proclamation 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 379 

boundary that are not owned by the U.S. Government and administered by the USDA, 

Forest Service are either privately owned or are administered by a state, local or 

other federal agency. With about half of the land in the proclamation boundary not 

administered by the Forest Service, the ownership pattern is broken with private and 

public lands closely intermingled. In the northern division, national forest ownership 

is largely confined to the sides and tops of ridges, with much of the land in the valleys 

privately owned. Since 1986 approximately 16,000 acres have been added to CNF 

through direct purchase from individuals or timber companies. 

Land Adjustment – Land acquisitions will be guided by the following criteria: 

Priority 1 Acquisitions: (not listed in any order of priority) 

1. Lands and associated riparian ecosystems on water frontage such as lakes 

and major streams. 

2. Critical habitat lands needed for the the protection of federally listed 

endangered or threatened fish, wildlife or plant species. Supports objective of 

protection of fish and habitats. 

3. Lands needed for the protection of significant historical or cultural resources, 

when these resources are threatened or when management may be 

enhanced by public ownership. 

4. Lands that enhance recreation opportunities, public access and protection of 

aesthetic values. 

5. Lands needed for protection and management of administrative and 

Congressional designated areas. 

6. Lands needed to enhance or protect watershed improvements that affect the 

management of national forest riparian areas. 

7. Enviornmentally sensitive lands such as wetlands and old growth. 

8. Buffer lands needed for protection of lands acquired for specific purposes 

listed. 

Priority 2 Acquisitions: (not listed in any order of priority) 

1. Key tracts of an ecosystem that are not urgently needed, but will promote 

more effective management of the ecossytem and will meet specific needs for 

vegetative management, valuable watershed management, research, public 

recreation or other defined management objectives. Generally, will supprot 

consolidation objectives. 

2. Lands needed to protect resource values by eliminating or reducing fire risks, 

soil erosion and occupancy trespass. 

3. Lands needed to reduce expenses of both the Forest Service and the public in 

administration and utilization. 

4. Consolidation of split estates. 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

380 ENVIORNMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Priority 3 Acquisitions: 

1. All other lands desirable for inclusion in the National Forest System. 

2. In the case of conflict between these priorities and land acquisition actions 

needed to meet the overall goals and objectives established in the LMP, the 

Forest Supervisor may recommend variation to the Regional Forester. 

Land conveyances will be guided by the following criteria: 

1. Lands inside or adjacent to communities or intensively developed private 

land, and chiefly valuable for non-National Forest System purposes. 

2. Parcels that will serve a greater public need in state, county, city, or other 

Federal agency ownership. 

3. Inaccessible parcels isolated from other National Forest System lands. 

Parcels intermingled with private lands. 

4. Parcels within major blocks of private land, the use of which is substantially 

for non-National Forest System purpose. 

5. Parcels having boundaries, or portions of boundaries, with inefficient 

configurations (projecting necks or long, narrow strips of land, etc.) Supports 

more logical and efficient management. 

Landlines 

The CNF has not sustained an active landline refurbishment program in the past 

decade due to budgetary limitations. The national forest maintains approximately 

1,600 miles of landlines with 70 miles of boundaries still to be located. Because 

landlines should be maintained on a 10-year interval, approximately 160 miles of 

maintenance should be accomplished each year. 

Special Uses 

Demands made on the national forest for special use permits for a variety of uses are 

growing each year. Each application for a permit is reviewed to determine if it is in 

the public interest and is allowed by law. No permits for occupancy of NFS lands can 

be issued unless authorized by a specific law. The national forest administers about 

576 permits. Outfitter/guide permits for river use is an area of permit issuance that 

has increased as well as horseback guiding. 

The CNF has 76 recreation residences within its boundaries, most of them in the 

southern division. Management of recreation residences under all alternatives will 

not change as a result of the revision process. 

Lake Ocoee Inn and Marina is the single largest recreation permit. Lodging, food, 

marinas and boat rentals are offered. 

Table 3-146. Distribution of Major Special 

Use Permits 

Type of Permit Amount 

Recreation 163 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 381 

Table 3-146. Distribution of Major Special 

Use Permits 

Type of Permit Amount 

Agriculture 18 

Community and Public 

Information 23 

Research, Study, and Training 2 

Transportation 147 

Communications 89 

Water Uses 103 

For communication sites, the forest will continue with sites officially designated. If 

single use sites (by the forest) or temporary sites are needed for permanent uses, the 

sites will be designated by following the formal designation process. 

20.2 Direct/Indirect Effects 

Wildlife and Fish 

Land Adjustment 

About 50 percent of the land within the proclamation boundary of the CNF is private 

land, thus the ownership pattern is very broken and scattered between federally and 

privately owned. Mammal, fish, and aquatic species would benefit from land 

acquisition or land exchanges that would consolidate or make the CNF more 

continuous. New land purchases would consolidate more habitat for controlled 

management and provide additional land for habitat. The highest priority for 

acquisition for wildlife reasons are those tracts that provide critical habitat needs. 

Other lands for high priority acquisition are those with wetlands or those that host 

species or habitat for federally endangered or threatened species. 

Land Use and Rights of Way (ROW) 

Utility construction and road ROW construction (access rights, or easements to 

private land owners) could affect various wildlife species during construction and 

maintenance of these corridors or access routes. Habitat alteration would potentially 

occur. On the other hand, many wildlife species can utilize and benefit from the early 

succession habitat provided by the construction and subsequently any vegetative 

cover for road banks or utility covers on the ROWs. 

Scenery 

Rights-of-way for utility corridors have a high potential to affect the scenic resources 

for long periods of time. The same potential exists for easements or ROW documents 

issued for access rights (to private land). Cleared ROWs (roads and utilities) can 

contrast in form, line, color, and texture compared with natural conditions. 

Recreation 

Land acquisition opportunities would improve the quality (and in same cases 

quantity) of recreation potential. Likewise, land adjustments through exchange, 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

382 ENVIORNMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

would potentially afford the same improvements in recreation opportunities. Those 

users favoring dispersed recreation would most probably benefit the greatest when 

acquisition opportunities are exercised. Utility and road rights-of-way would 

potentially provide improved recreation access to dispersed areas, but would 

potentially affect scenery as these uses conflict with a natural appearing landscape. 

National Scenic Rivers 

The acquisition of land in these corridors would improve protection, quality and the 

quantity of recreation opportunities offered. Acquisition could negate the future need 

for rights-of-way, thusly giving further protection to river values. Utility ROWs would 

provide improved access to dispersed areas. Scenery values, however, would 

potentially be adversely impacted. 

Widerness 

Wilderness related special uses authorized on a case-by-case basis would potentially 

result in benefits to the public while wilderness values are protected. Competitive 

events, research, military training and exercises, and other similar activities would 

potentially be authorized while wilderness values are protected. 

Special Use Permit Requirements 

By regualtion, non-commercial group use size is not regulated. Authorized 

commercial gorups entering wilderness for all alternatives would be restricted to the 

number of persons established for individual wildernessses during the LAC process. 

Commerical large groups would potentially not have the opportunity to experience 

wilderness values as a large group, but would have the option to divide into small 

groups before entering a wilderness. 

Transportation 

Because the CNF has a fragmented ownership pattern within the proclamation 

boundary, there are many requests by citizens to use the forest for many purposes. 

National forest (federal) ownership within the proclamation boundary comprises 53 

percent. The fragmented ownership pattern is conducive to ownership disputes, title 

claim problems, and access related issues. And, this broken pattern causes some 

difficulty in reaching desired management conditions. Acquisition priorities have 

been discussed in Chapter 2 (LMP), and there are ample opportunities to improve the 

ownership pattern. Land adjustments through exchange also have high potential for 

improving the ownership pattern. Generally, no adverse effects occur with exchanges 

and the greatest impact is from landowners owning property adjacent to the forest 

being opposed to forest land becoming private. 

As a general rule, special use authorizations are discouraged especially if the same 

benefits can be achieved from private land. Sometimes these benefits can only be 

obtained form NFS land, such as recreation uses, communication sites, and access. 

Each request for a special use authorization will be screened and evaluated to 

determine if the use can be authorized after mitigation. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 383 

Lands 

Land Adjustment 

The fragmented ownership pattern, for all alternatives will continue to provide many 

opportunities to improve the ownership pattern through land purchase, exchange, or 

donation. Land purchase is influenced heavily by congressional support for forest 

acquisitions. Exchanges are also budget driven, however a landowner can assist in 

this process by funding a large portion of the process. The forest averages one 

donation about every other year. If congressional interest is strong, the forest could 

have a very active purchase program. Exchanges can average one to two per year, 

again depending on funding for this program. Purchase and exchange would be 

essentially the same program for all alternatives. 

Special Use Authorization 

With a fragmented ownership pattern, the requests for the use of NFS land will not 

change substantially with any of the alternatives. As time passes, requests for 

authorizations will increase as rural lands are developed, thus alternative A may be 

the highest for demand. Land use authorizations are from outside the Forest 

Service, therefore the number of proposals can not be accurately predicted. These 

proposals will be assumed to be the same for all alternatives and will be assumed to 

have similar effects. 

Boundary Line Management, Encroachment, Trespasses, Claims 

New boundary line surveys will be limited to land adjustments (purchase, exchange, 

Small Tracts Act cases) and critical lines lost due to a lack of maintenance. Due to 

the fragmented ownership pattern, it’s critical that at least 160 miles of line be 

maintained per year. Routine maintenance is critical to prevent encroachments or to 

locate encroachments. Boundary line maintenance would not vary substantially by 

alternatives. 

Road Right-of-Way Acquisitions 

The CNF has access needs across private land for timber sale purposes, and other 

public needs such as recreation and general land management (silvicultural, fire 

management). Again, the fragmented ownership pattern is a strong contributing 

factor. These rights-of-way need to be acquired as a permanent easement for 

current and future needs. Alternative A would require the largest number of ROW 

needs due to an emphasis on commodity outputs. Alternatives B, D-G, I would 

require a range of ROWs lower than A. 

Heritage Resources 

Land Adjustment 

Land exchanges containing heritage resources on federal land would be an impact. 

Federal land becoming non-federal would no longer be under heritage protection 

laws. 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

384 ENVIORNMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Land Use 

In most cases, special use authorizations would have a low impact on federal land, 

especially if proper mitigation is addressed in all site specific environmental 

considerations and permit operating plans. 

Commodity Production 

Land Management 

The variation in lands management practices would vary little between alternatives, 

thusly effects to timber production would be minimal. 

20.3 Cumulative Effects 

Cumulatively, there would be no significant effects to Special Uses and Lands. There 

would be benefits to wildlife and aquatic species from potential land acquisition or 

land exchanges. Under all alternatives, the acquisition of land would have no effect 

on public land. Land management would not vary in effects from alternative to 

alternative. Land purchases and exchanges would essentially be the same for all 

alternatives. Land use authorization would have similar effects for all alternatives. 

Boundary line maintenance would not vary substantially by alternative. 

21.0 Prescribed and Wildland Fire 

21.1 Affected Environment 

Wildland fire in the Southern Appalachains results from two forces. One is natural, 

those caused by lightning and the anthropogenic, those caused by humans. 

Historically, fire has been used for thousands of years by Native Americans over the 

landscape to aid in hunting, clear land for travel, increase berry crops, improve 

grazing for bison and other reasons. It was this “prescribed fire” that has shaped the 

forest over the years. These fires were ignited with a designed purpose to achieve a 

specific vegetative response. A response that was a benefit to the indigenous Native 

American tribe. However, European settlers have populated the eastern U.S.A since 

the early 1700’s and modern fire suppression efforts have all but removed 

anthropogenic fire from the landscape. 

Science continues to teach us about fire’s role in the historic landscape of 

Tennessee, and how it modified the vegetation. Biologists have documented 

corresponding changes in vegetation, including the decline of many fire-adapted 

communities, since the removal of fire from the landscape. Fire-adapted 

communities are dependant on a historic disturbance regime. This is evident from 

the increase of dense understory vegetation, that no longer resembles the overstory, 

as a result of fire exclusion. Without fire or other disturbances the forest composition 

is slowly converting to species such as maple, beech, blackgum, and white pine. 

The following is a brief summary of just a few examples of Native American fire use 

research reports and books by various authors: 

From the Forests in Peril, by Hazel R. Delcourt (2002), states that the 

colonists encountered indigenous peoples that used fire to clear the 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 385 

understory of forests in the vicinity of their villages. The people of the Early 

Woodland cultural period girdled trees and set local fires to open up gaps 

in the forest canopy that allowed for forest succession to take place. These 

human-set fires burned the upper slopes, fire tolerant plant was favored 

and the ecological plant make-up between more moist lower slopes and dry 

ridge tops was transformed. Secondary forest growths that the early 

settlers saw in the 1700’s and 1800’s (after DeSoto) were perceived as 

“virgin” forests. Further, the location of charcoal ash particles found in the 

Cliff Palace study pond indicates Native Americans used fire to manage 

secondary shrub vegetation. 

From The Southern Appalachians – A Wilderness Forest, by Charlton Ogburn 

(1915), references from A History of the Valley of Virginia, by Samuel 

Kercheval (1902), that much of the greater part of the Shenandoah was 

one vast prairie and afforded the finest pasturage for animals. The 

conclusion stated by Ogburn was that the Indians had the habit of burning 

the land as an accident from hunts or on purpose to enhance the land for 

game. 

In Forests, Forest Fires, and Their Makers, by Paul and Hazel Decourt, Cecil 

Ison, William E. Sharp, and A. Gerynn Henderson (1999), conclusions are 

drawn from pollen and charcoal studies found in a mountaintop pond, Cliff 

Palace Pond, that fire was an historical event there for 10,000 years. This 

fire history is linked to local changes in human culture recorded in nearby 

rock shelters. During the Woodland period when Indians cultivated plants 

their success depended on their ability to open up spots in the forest. The 

pollen and core studies indicate fires were very frequent and are a result of 

deliberate set fires. Further, at all sites studied across Eastern Kentucky 

an increase in fires and fire tolerant species occurred at the same time 

native peoples turned to gardening as a way of life. These clearing fires 

were not intense fires of a major forest fire but were relatively cool fires to 

burn off surface materials and kill smaller trees and saplings. 

Cecil Frost in his “Presettlement Fire Frequency Regimes of the United States: 

A First Approximation” of (1998) states that there are many records of 

Native American burning but there is no consensus yet on relative effects 

of their fires versus lightening ignitions. He further states the effects of 

Native American burning varied drastically, and whether their burning 

influenced a local fire regime depended on the background lightning fire 

regime associated with the landscape they lived in. During pre-settlement 

periods past-lightning season fires in the fall and winter would have been 

the result of burning by Indians. He references Byrd (1728) as stating 

when he surveyed that there was smoke from late fall Native American 

fires in the Piedmont between Virginia and North Carolina. 

David H. Van Lear and Thomas A. Waldrop discuss “Native American Use of 

Fire in History, Uses, and Effects of Fire in the Appalachians (1989).” They 

state that in the Appalachians Native Americans did not begin to practice 

agriculture until about 800 to 100 A.D. 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

386 ENVIORNMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Reasons for burning were sometimes for other than hunting. Indians burned 

the forests to reduce the threat of dangerous forest fires, they burned to 

clear underbrush, to improve habitat for deer and buffalo and to make the 

forest open for gathering acorns and chestnuts. Stewart (1963) states 

where there were Indians there was fire. In the mid-1700’s the 

Shennadoah Valley was a vast prairie between the Blue Ridge and 

Allegheny Mountains. Leyburn (1962) states the area was fired annually by 

the Indians to keep it from reverting to forest. Van Lear and Waldrop go on 

to state the reason DeSoto was able to drive herds of livestock through the 

Appalachians and open understory was due to fire. 

In “Fire in Southern Forest Landscapes” by Stanturf, Wade, Waldrop, Kennard, 

and Achtemeier (2002), the writers describe Pyne’s (1997) research. Pyne 

cites that cereal grasses were fired annually by Native Americans, basket 

grasses and nut trees every three years and grass savannas every year. 

Forests were burned for visibility and game every seven to ten years. 

From the international symposium Fire and the Environment: Ecological and Cultural 

Perspectives, held in Knoxville, Tennessee March 20-24, 1990, the following are 

excerpts presented: 

Fire and Oak Regeneration in the Southern Appalachians, David H. Van Lear, 

professor, Clemson University – “At the turn of the century, summer fires 

were quite common as farmers burned the land to facilitate grazing. They 

had learned from early settlers, who in turn had learned from their Indian 

predecessors, that growing season fires best maintained an open forest 

with a rich herbaceous layer (Komarek 1974).” 

Forty Years of Prescribed Burning on the Santee Fire Plots: Effects on 

Overstory and Midstory Vegetation, Thomas A. Waldrop and F. Thomas 

Lloyd, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station – “Archeological evidence 

has established the presence of Palco – Indians in the region as early as 

12,000 years ago (Chapman 1985). The movement of Indian tribes for 

game and cropland created variable patterns of fire frequency across the 

landscape, thus producing a mosaic of vegetation types and stands ages 

(Buckner 1989). Southeastern forests described by the first white settlers 

of the 1600’s and 1700’s were often open pine and hardwood stands with 

grasses underneath. Early writers suggested these open forests owed their 

existence to frequent burning (Bartram 1791; Harper 1962; Van Lear and 

Waldrop 1989).” 

Indian Use of Fire and Land Clearance in the Southern Appalachians, Michael 

S. DeVivo, Oregon Institute of Technology – Abstract – “Accounts of 16th, 

17th, and 18th century explorers, however, document vast amounts of 

cleared land held by aboriginal inhabitants, who likely populated the 

continent in much higher numbers than have been traditionally accepted. 

Fire was the principal tool used by the Indians to clear vegetation”; and 

“...the role of fire has been largely underplayed. Fire was implemented for 

forest management, driving game, and preparing land for agriculture.” 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 387 

Also, “Indians used fire to clear land for agriculture, and it is likely that 

some fires burned larger areas than intended. On deep soils and open 

slopes hardwoods persisted or invaded after a fire.” For this article, 37 

references are cited. 

There is an ongoing debate over the use of fire to restore vegetative communities to 

the Pre-European settlement or “Natural” assemblage. Some publics argue that 

human-ignited fires are not “natural” and therefore should not be used in the 

management of national forests. This argument implies that the use of fire by Native 

Americans were not part of the “natural” system. However, converting the forest to 

vegetation that was here during the Native American dominance is no longer a viable 

option. The climate and vegetative species dominance has changed as well as the 

influence and abundance of the modern population. 

Patterson and Sassaman (1988) compared amounts of sedimentary charcoal to 

archaeological sites and found that fires were common near larger Indian 

populations and where their land-use practices were greatest. Charcoal records prior 

to European settlement and post-settlement show little difference, except during the 

slash fires associated with the logging boom at the turn of the century. These 

records clearly suggest that fires have been important in that area for the past 4,000 

years, during a period of low lightning incidence. Human use of fire has been 

important in determining plant community composition (see also Sutherland, and 

others, 1993). 

In the past, fire was likely the most common natural disturbance on the landscape 

that is now the CNF. Fire plays an important role in maintaining southern yellow pine 

ecosystems and appears to be a major factor in the development of oak forest. The 

current existence of oak-dominated forests is probably a result of periodic fire. 

Without periodic fire, many of these stands would eventually be replaced by more 

shade tolerant species such as red maple that are fire-intolerant. 

The CNF was established in 1936 and the national direction of the Forest Service 

was quite clear (Pyne, 1982)..."Forest fires have no place in any forest but as a result 

of ignorance, carelessness, and indifference (Anonymous, 1936)". The practitioners 

of "controlled burning" battled against an enormous campaign set at the national 

level to stop all fire. With that new direction of suppressing all fires, that major force 

of selection that had been present since the ice age was suddenly altered. The 

consequences of that well-intentioned but misguided policy would not be obvious for 

several decades. The selection process that influenced plant and animal 

communities now changed with the absence of fire. 

Perhaps, though, in defense of the dedicated firefighters during these times, this is 

the way it had to happen. Fire fighting equipment, intelligence, weather forecasts, 

budgets and fire behavior prediction have only recently enabled prescribed burning 

on a substantial level. Recent scientific literature regarding plant and animal 

reactions and effects are now better known. We have better data on preeurosettlement conditions. And now we are beginning to understand some of the 

more dramatic long-term impacts of fire exclusion, as plant and animal populations 

and conditions of forest ecosystems are altered. 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

388 ENVIORNMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Research suggests many reasons for the use of prescribed fire as a vegetation 

management tool. Foresters, wildlife managers, recreation managers, and fire 

managers all have valid uses for fire. The following is list for possible uses of fire on 

the CNF: 

Hazardous fuel reduction to reduce catastrophic fire 

Enhancement of wildlife browse and soft mast 

Regenerate fire dependant species, such as yellow pine, endangered and 

sensitive species 

Increase the regeneration of oaks, reducing competition from maple and 

poplar 

Reduce non-native species 

Improve over-all forest health by reducing diseases and insects 

Maintain successional stages, and unique habitats, such as balds, by 

inhibiting succession 

Maintain open stands for scenery enhancement and recreation use. 

Encompassing many of these uses is the utilization of fire to achieve ecosystembased management goals for ecological communities where fire has played a major 

role in natural stand replacement or maintenance. 

This is not a complete list and many of the uses overlap. Occasionally burning for 

one purpose precludes another benefit, but usually burning for one reason creates 

many other benefits. For instance, a hazardous fuel reduction burn will usually 

enhance browse, open up the stands for recreation use, and reduce competition of 

fire intolerant species, which improves the growing conditions for mast-producing 

oaks. 

The CNF has an active prescribed fire program. The CNF uses fire for several 

reasons including ecosystem restoration and management, site preparation in timber 

harvest areas, and fuel reduction in urban interface areas as well as areas that have 

had a large number of arson fires. The following table shows historically what the 

CNF has prescribed burned. 

Table 3-147 Historical Accomplishments for the Cherokee NF 

Year Fuels 

Seed 

Bed Site 

Prep 

CUS* Wildlife Other Total 

Acres 

2003 16,260 240 0 152 0 16,652 

2002 10,053 200 0 0 0 10,253 

2001 17,249 1,133 1,011 159 0 19,552 

2000 15,367 60 3,000 60 0 18,487 

1999 23,405 134 0 680 84 24,303 

1998 14,564 206 0 812 0 15,582 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 389 

Table 3-147 Historical Accomplishments for the Cherokee NF 

Year Fuels 

Seed 

Bed Site 

Prep 

CUS* Wildlife Other Total 

Acres 

1997 2,727 419 0 1,084 0 4,230 

1996 539 336 0 85 0 960 

1995 0 0 0 0 0 0 

1994 0 650 0 0 0 650 

1993 0 761 0 0 0 761 

1992 0 777 0 235 0 1,012 

1991 0 1,015 0 1,088 0 2,103 

1990 0 1,246 0 75 0 1,321 

1989 96 1,787 0 25 0 1,908 

1988 0 922 0 0 0 922 

1987 351 568 75 145 24 1,163 

1986 0 1,808 0 145 0 1,953 

* Control Undesirable Species 

Prescribed fire is an economical tool to manage large areas where other forms of 

management are not likely to be used. Commercial timber harvest has been greatly 

reduced in recent years. The amount of the CNF that could reasonably be managed 

by mechanical and manual methods is limited by personnel and funding restrictions. 

There is extensive acreage on the CNF where fire is the only form of management 

activity that could ever be reasonably accomplished. 

Prescribed fire, despite concerns about its use, remains an important, ecologically 

appropriate management tool. Both natural fuels and artificially produced 

management-activity fuels must be managed over time to meet long-term resource 

management objectives. Artificially produced fuels have been of little concern, 

because of the small volume generated, but may have to be managed in the future. 

The EPA states, in their 1998 policy document entitled Interim Air Quality Policy on 

Wildland and Prescribed Fires, that while future air quality concerns from prescribed 

fire may arise, the EPA is on record stating that fire should function, as nearly as 

possible, in its natural role in maintaining healthy wildland ecosystems and to protect 

human health and welfare by mitigating the impacts of air pollutant emissions on air 

quality and visibility. 

A natural fire regime is a general classification of the role fire would play across a 

landscape in the absence of modern human mechanical intervention, but including 

the influence of aboriginal burning (Agee 1993, Brown 1995). Coarsescale 

definitions for natural (historical) fire regimes have been developed by Hardy et al. 

(2001) and Schmidt et al. (2002) and interpreted for fire and fuels management by 

Hann and Bunnell (2001). The five natural (historical) fire regimes are classified 

based on average number of years between fires (fire frequency) combined with the 

severity (amount of replacement) of the fire on the dominant overstory vegetation. 

These five regimes include: 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

390 ENVIORNMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

I – 0-35 year frequency and low (surface fires most common) to mixed severity (less 

than 75% of the dominant overstory vegetation replaced); 

II – 0-35 year frequency and high (stand replacement) severity (greater than 75% of 

the dominant overstory vegetation replaced); 

III – 35-100+ year frequency and mixed severity (less than 75% of the dominant 

overstory vegetation replaced); 

IV – 35-100+ year frequency and high (stand replacement) severity (greater than 

75% of the dominant overstory vegetation replaced); 

V – 200+ year frequency and high (stand replacement) severity. 

As scale of application becomes finer these five classes may be defined with more 

detail, or any one class may be split into finer classes, but the hierarchy to the coarse 

scale definitions should be retained. 

The following table represents the acreage of fire dependent and adapted 

communities on the CNF with fire regime designation. 

Table 3-148 Fire Adapted Communities with Fire Regime Designation 

Community 

Type 

Forest Type(s) & CISC Codes Acres Fire 

Regime 

Dry to Mesic 

Oak Forest 

Post Oak-Black Oak (51), White Oak-Red OakHickory (53), White Oak (54), Northern Red 

Oak-Hickory (55) 

125,189 I 

Dry and Dry to 

Mesic OakPine Forest 

Upland Hardwoods-White Pine (42), Southern 

Red Oak-Yellow Pine (44), Chestnut OakScarlet Oak-Yellow Pine (45), Bottomlands 

Hardwood-Yellow Pine (46), White Oak-Black 

Oak-Yellow Pine (47), Northern Red OakHickory-Yellow Pine (48) 

56,465 I 

Dry and Xeric 

Oak Forest 

Chestnut Oak (52), Scarlet Oak (59), Chestnut 

Oak-Scarlet Oak (60) 69,984 I 

Xeric Pine and 

Pine-Oak 

Forest 

Shortleaf Pine-Oaks (12), Loblolly PineHardwood (13), Pitch Pine-Oak (15), Virginia 

Pine-Oak (16), Shortleaf Pine(32), Loblolly Pine 

(31), Virginia Pine (33), Pitch Pine (38) 

Table Mountain Pine (39), Table Mountain 

Pine-Hardwood (20) 

130,981 

9,891 

I 

II 

Prescribed fire and mechanical fuels treatments are designed to reduce the risk of 

catastrophic wildfires by decreasing the amount of available fuel that the fire is able 

to consume and thus carry the fire. Both methods are utilized to restore fire regimes 

within or near an historical range. Condition Classes are a function of the departure 

from historical fire regimes resulting in alterations of key ecosystem components 

such as species composition, stand structure, successional stage, stand age, and 

canopy closure. One or more of the following activities may have caused this 

departure: fire exclusion, timber harvesting, grazing, introduction and establishment 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 391 

of exotic plant species, insects and disease (introduced or native), or other past 

management activities. Fire Condition Class is a measure of general wildland fire risk 

and ecosystem condition defined as follows: 

Condition Class 1: 

Fire regimes are within or near an historical range. 

The risk of losing key ecosystem components is low. 

Fire frequencies have departed from historical frequencies by no more than 

one return interval. 

Vegetation attributes (species composition and structure) are intact and 

functioning within an historical range. 

Condition Class 2: 

Fire regimes have been moderately altered from their historical range. 

The risk of losing key ecosystem components has increased to moderate. 

Fire frequencies have departed (either increased or decreased) from historical 

frequencies by more than one return interval. This results in moderate 

changes to one or more of the following: fire size, frequency, intensity, 

severity, or landscape patterns. 

Vegetation attributes have been moderately altered from their historical 

range. 

Condition Class 3: 

Fire regimes have been significantly altered from their historical range. 

The risk of losing key ecosystem components is high. 

Fire frequencies have departed from historical frequencies by multiple return 

intervals. This results in dramatic changes to one or more of the following: 

fire size, frequency, intensity, severity, or landscape patterns. 

Vegetation attributes have been significantly altered from their historical 

range. 

The CNF uses both prescribed fire and mechanical treatments to reduce fuel loading, 

and to break-up fuel continuity, both vertically and horizontally, to reduce rates of 

spread and therefore fire size, intensity, and severity. Nationally, the direction is to 

increase hazardous fuels treatment in the wildland urban interface areas. Those 

areas are the most expensive areas to suppress wildland fires and pose the greatest 

threat to public and firefighter safety. Though there is not a one-to-one correlation 

between acres treated and suppression dollars saved, or fewer acres burned, there is 

sufficient evidence to show that areas that have been treated typically exhibit lower 

rates of spread, less intensity, less severity, and a smaller final fire size under normal 

conditions. 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

392 ENVIORNMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

21.2 Direct/Indirect Effects 

Management activities and natural processes both affect fire and its environment, 

commonly known as the fire environment. In order for a fire to burn it needs three 

things: heat (ignition), fuel, and oxygen. Management activities affect all three of 

these components, while manipulation of forest vegetation and fuels has the 

greatest influence. Activities in alternatives will differentially affect amount of wildfire 

and need for or ability to use fire, either management ignited fire or wildland fire use. 

Risk of Wildfire (Ignition Source) 

The primary ignition source for fires on the CNF is arson. As human activities 

increase, the potential for ignition increase as well. Access into and throughout the 

forest, whether motorized or not, will increase the potential of an arson fire. 

However, many of the management activities that reduce risk of human-caused 

ignition, also hamper suppression efforts by increasing both report and response 

times, and allowing fires to grow in size and intensity before suppression begins. 

Alternative E poses the greatest risk for human-caused fire to occur. 

Motorized and non-motorized roads and trails increase human activity on the forest 

and result in an increase risk of human-caused ignition of wildland fires. Motorized 

vehicles pose an additional risk of vehicle fire ignition. Decommissioning roads and 

reducing dispersed recreation can reduce human access and risk of ignition source. 

As recreation user density increases human activity on the forest, the risk of humancaused ignition increases. Campfires are a common source of wildfires across the 

NFS lands, dispersed sites pose a greater risk of escaped campfires, than do 

developed recreation. 

Fuels 

Fire like many processes depends on certain conditions to exist. Whether or not a 

fire burns and how it behaves is dependant on fuels, weather, and topography. While 

we cannot readily change weather or topography, we have a tremendous impact on 

fuels. Fuel characteristics affecting fire behavior include: horizontal and vertical 

arrangement (both live and dead fuels), loading, moisture, and temperature. 

Alternative E reduces the greatest amount of fuel, from logging (and prescribed fire). 

Dispersed and developed recreation temporarily rearrange fuels which may burn 

during a fire, generally reducing risk of damaging fire to the site by decreasing fuel 

loads. 

Timber harvest activities affect both the risk of ignition and fuel conditions. There is 

an increase ignition risk during harvest activity from machinery and humans. Timber 

harvesting temporarily increases fuel loads from slash and activity fuels, depending 

on utilization of cut material. However, both increase risks are mitigated in 

administration of the timber sale contract and provisions contained within. Contract 

provisions that require reduction or removal of slash mitigate activity fuels. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 393 

The general increase in fuel loads immediately following a timber harvest results in a 

temporary increased risk of destructive wildfire due to increasing fire intensity and 

rates or spread, making fires more difficult to control. These effects usually diminish 

within a few years as logging slash decay and deteriorate. In general the long-term 

benefits reduce natural fuel loadings and a breakup in fuel continuity, resulting in 

decreased fire intensity, reduced risk of catastrophic fire, and fires that are easier to 

control. Harvest prescriptions which reduce canopy closure and stems per acre, also 

reduce the potential for crown fires that are independent of surface fire. While it is 

difficult to predict the specific effects from each harvest treatment and amount of 

slash disposal required, in general the following can be expected: 

Clearcuts- in combination with slash treatment leaves less available fuel. But 

thinning is commonly required in subsequent years to reduce tree spacing. Fuels are 

more susceptible to drying from the sun and wind. While rates of spread are greater 

in open stands, intensities are often reduced and suppression more successful 

because line production rates are increased substantially. 

Precommercial and Commercial thinning- create additional fuel if left on ground until 

decay rates of slash result in a decreased fuel hazard. Thinning trees also reduces 

continuity and independent crown fire potential, as well as increasing growth rates on 

remaining trees, reducing chance of mortality caused by fire. 

Individual or selection cuts- Depending on actual prescription, can be similar to a mix 

between clearcuts and commercial thinning. 

Salvage Harvests- remove large fuels and potentially hazardous snags, increasing 

suppression control effectiveness. 

Alternatives D and F decrease crown densities, ladder fuels, and late successional 

structure on a greater number of acres. 

Timber harvests are lowest in alternatives E and G. This allows a greater potential of 

stands to grow into late successional vegetation stages. Increasing fire intensity and 

the probability of stand replacement fire due to accumulating dead and latter fuels. 

This in effect limits appropriate management response to suppression, greatly 

reducing the chance of using naturally-ignited fire for resource benefit. 

Suppression 

The factors listed above influence fuels and thus fire behavior. Fire behavior is a 

major concern to fire managers as it affects fire size, intensity, rate of spread, 

spotting and crowning. These factors in turn determine fire managers response to 

fire, suppression tactics versus wildland fire use for resource benefit. Restrictions on 

suppression tactics can decrease firefighter and public safety, and increase fire size 

and behavior. While it is important to allow natural processes to take place when 

and where appropriate, it needs to be addressed. 

Conversely, when roads are present, risk of ignition increases, but access can 

improve response time and effectiveness in suppression efforts. Roads and trails 

also redistribute fuels limiting the spread of wildfire or act as fire barriers by serving 

as control lines for wildlfire control. 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

394 ENVIORNMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Risk to Wildland Urban Interface (Prescribed Fire) or Risk to Resource Loss and WUI 

Management ignited fire (prescribed burning) is an important tool to mitigate 

negative impacts on fuels and ignition risk caused by management activities. 

Prescribed burning, more than any other management activity, has the greatest 

effect on reducing risk of destructive wildfires. It reduces fuel loads, reducing fire 

intensity, increases fire control efficiency, and results in less resource damage 

caused when a fire does occur. Most importantly, it offers the fire manager more 

options for appropriate management response to wildland fire, especially concerning 

wildland fire use for resource benefit. 

Table 3-149 Estimated annual prescribed fire activity by alternative: 

Alternative 

A 

Alternative 

B 

Alternative 

D 

Alternative 

E 

Alternative 

F 

Alternative 

G 

Alternative 

I 

16,000 Ac. 16,000 Ac. 16,000 Ac. 10,000 Ac. 16,000 Ac. 16,000 Ac. 25,000 Ac. 

According to the National Fire Plan, management-ignited fire will focus on treating the 

environment, with priority given to Wildland Urban Interface and then those in 

condition class 2 or 3. 

21.3 Cumulative Effects 

The risk of human-caused fires will increase in alternatives with projected increases 

in forest visitor use. 

In alternatives with less motorized access to the CNF, the risk of large fires increases 

due to a decrease in fire crew response time. 

Rural development will occur in areas bordering the CNF. As this occurs, emphasis 

will need to be placed on reducing hazardous fuels adjacent to these developments. 

22.0 Infrastructure 

22.1 Affected Environment 

Administrative sites along with National Forest System Roads (NFSRs) comprise the 

Infrastructure on the CNF. The NFSRs are addressed in section Roads and Access. 

There are approximately 38 administrative sites that include offices, work centers, 

the facilities of Jacobs Creek Job Corps Center, electronic communication sites, the 

Ocoee Whitewater Center and other scattered sites. Relatively new structures exist 

at the Tellico/Hiwassee Office and the Ocoee Whitewater Center. The 

Ocoee/Hiwassee Office is schedule for renovation and expansion. There are new 

lease facilities at the Nolichucky/Unaka Office and at the Watauga Office. 

22.2 Direct/Indirect Effects 

By the third decade, facilities costs would increase due to the aging of the three 

relative new sites described above. However, there would be no significant changes 

in Infrastructure among the alternatives. In all cases, offices, work centers and other 

various administrative sites would still be needed to manage the CNF under any 

alternative. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 395 

22.3 Cumulative Effects 

There are no known cumulative effects on infrastructure. 

23.0 Roads and Access 

23.1 Affected Environment 

The NFSRs total approximately 1,550 miles that vary from single-lane, unsurfaced, 

primitive roads suitable for only four-wheel drive or high clearance vehicle to doublelane, paved roads. Approximately 25 percent of these miles are arterial/collector 

roads serving large to medium land areas and connecting to public highways. The 

remaining 75 percent are local roads that serve specific resource activities and 

connect to the arterial/collector roads or to public highways. 

Table 3-150 table summarizes the total NFSRs. 

Table 3-150. Total NFSR Mileage 

Classification North South Total Percent 

Arterial 0 0 0 0 

Collector 117 290 407 26 

Local 558 585 1,143 74 

TOTAL 675 875 1,550 100 

23.2 Direct/Indirect Effects 

Table 3-151. Four road options would be used in the various prescription allocations 

ranging from unroaded interior to increase in open road density. Acres to which the 

four road options would be 1 among the alternatives. 

Percentage of CNF Land 

Alternative General Access Statement Road 

Option 

1 

Road 

Option 

2 

Road 

Option 

3 

Road 

Option 

4 

A 

Public access would be 

increased in high-use areas 

and/or improved to provide for 

more recreation opportunities. 

18 28 53 1 

B 

Access would be reduced as 

needed to restore and protect 

aquatic systems, soils, and 

plan/animal communities. 

11 27 61 1 

D 

Access would be developed, 

maintained and used as 

needed to meet the goal of 

balanced age classes, wildlife 

habitats and production of 

timber products. 

11 23 66 <1 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

396 ENVIORNMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Table 3-151. Four road options would be used in the various prescription allocations 

ranging from unroaded interior to increase in open road density. Acres to which the 

four road options would be 1 among the alternatives. 

Percentage of CNF Land 

Alternative General Access Statement Road 

Option 

1 

Road 

Option 

2 

Road 

Option 

3 

Road 

Option 

4 

E 

Public access would be 

increased in high-use areas 

and/or improved to provide for 

more recreation opportunities. 

25 21 52 2 

F 

Access would continue as 

provided under the current 

Plan. 

16 0 7 13 

G 

Road network mileage would 

be reduced through closure 

and obliteration of roads not 

needed for ecosystem 

stewardship or restoration. 

26 34 40 <1 

I 

A minimum transportation 

system would be available that 

improves access for forest road 

users while protecting forest 

resources. Generally, access 

will be limited to those areas 

that can be accessed by 

maintaining or reconstructing 

existing system roads, or 

through the construction of 

temporary roads. New 

permanent roads would only be 

constructed in a few situations. 

The pace of decommissioning 

unneeded roads would be 

accelerated. Highly used roads 

and roads adversely affecting 

surrounding resource values 

and conditions would be 

upgraded. 

20 19 59 2 

Road Options would be defined as follows: 

1. Although roads would serve as boundaries to the area, the interior would be 

unroaded throughout the year. 

2. Open road density decreases over the planning period through closure of 

roads [and motorized vehicle trails] that would be unneeded or would cause 

undesirable resource impacts. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 397 

3. Density of open roads [and motorized vehicle trails] remains near the current 

level throughout the planning period, with only small increases or decreases. 

4. Density of open roads [and motorized vehicle trails] would increase to provide 

improved access to national forest resources. 

Currently, there are no estimates of miles of road for construction and reconstruction 

used for other than timber purposes. However, the following table (Table 3-152) 

summarizes miles of timber road construction and reconstruction by decade for each 

alternative as generated by the Spectrum model. 

Table 3-152. Miles of Timber Road Construction/Reconstruction 

Alternative Construction 

Reconstruction 

Decade 

1 

Decade 

2 

Decade 

3 

Decade 

4 

Decade 

5 Total 

A C 

R 

1 

311 

2 

395 

3 

541 

1 

441 

3 

655 2,354 

B C 

R 

1 

342 

1 

438 

4 

669 

5 

557 

0 

682 2,697 

C C 

R 

0 

2 

0 

6 

0 

8 

0 

8 

0 

8 31 

D C 

R 

11 

636 

12 

848 

20 

1,014 

21 

978 

28 

1,110 4,678 

E C 

R 

0 

84 

0 

65 

0 

100 

0 

116 

0 

150 517 

F C 

R 

6 

655 

3 

730 

7 

951 

10 

1,107 

6 

1,300 4,776 

G C 

R 

0 

174 

1 

232 

2 

297 

0 

307 

1 

388 1,404 

I C 

R 

1 

357 

1 

491 

1 

639 

5 

659 

7 

824 2,984 

NOTE: Totals may not match due to rounding of original figures. 

Road reconstruction activity under the 1986 LMP (Alternative F) on the 

arterial/collector road system for other than timber purposes has been at a low rate 

of eight miles/year average for the past seven years. Using that as a base, an 

estimated change for each alternative is shown in the following table (Table 3-153). 

All changes are less than +/-7 percent of the base. Road construction could exist but 

would be rare under any alternative. 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

398 ENVIORNMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Table 3-153 Arterial/Collector Reconstruction Non-timber Roads 

Alternative Estimated Change from Alternative F 

A Higher 

B Lower 

D Approximately Same 

E Higher 

F Base 8 miles/year 

G Lower 

I Higher 

23.3 Cumulative Effects 

Cumulative effects upon transportation would be indeterminate and therefore would 

not be listed. 

SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT

24.1 Affected Environment 

The CNF is located in the Southern Appalachian Mountains within the Southern 

Appalachian Province, which includes the Appalachian Mountains and the 

Shenandoah Valley and extends southward from the Upper Potomac River Basin to 

northern Georgia and the northeastern corner of Alabama. It includes seven states, 

135 counties and covers approximately 37 million acres. 

One of the components of the SAA is the Social, Cultural, and Economic Technical 

Report, where a social and economic assessment of the southern Appalachian lands 

was performed. The following assessment of the CNF is tied to some of the more 

significant SAA findings, wherein comparisons of the forest’s environment are made 

with similar findings from Southern Appalachian lands. 

Social attitudes, values and beliefs are elements used to describe and understand 

the human dimension of resource management. This information is used to predict 

possible effects on local communities. These effects may include acceptance of or 

resistance to the decisions made. Social analysis coupled with economic and 

demographic information forms the human dimension of ecosystem management. 

This information is used with the biological and physical analysis to best understand 

potential effects on the land as well as the human environment. 

24.1.1 Demographic Changes 

One characteristic used to determine the dynamics of change for an area, is the 

growth of population and changes in its various racial and ethnic components. A 

static area will imply few possible issues affecting change. Conversely, a dynamic 

growing population may produce many conflicting or new issues for land managers to 

consider. Certain areas of the NFS and surrounding lands, which are seen to be 

attractive to urban dwellers for recreation and second or retirement home residence, 

may produce issues which conflict with traditional residents of the area. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 399 

Demographic changes for the region studied in the SAA are given first in the analysis 

followed by that of the CNF’s; then a contrast is given between the SAA region, the 

forest, and the primary state in which the forest resides. Many of the time frames 

used in the SAA were not available for the CNF and data more current than for 1990 

were not available in the Assessment. Therefore, direct comparisons between the 

two are not always possible. Some limited Census data is available from the 2000 

Census (mostly population, households and housing data from the “short form” most 

families completed). 

Population increased by 7.3 percent from 1980 to 1990 in the Southern Appalachian 

region. This compared with a 1.7 percent increase for the CNF, and a 6.2 percent for 

Tennessee, the primary state in which the CNF resides. More currently, the change 

from 1990 to 2000 was 12.8 percent increase for the counties of the CNF and a 

16.7 percent increase for Tennessee. Table B-125, Table B-126, Table B-127, and 

Table B-128 in Appendix B show population characteristics and their rates of change 

for each county within the forest proclamation boundary, while the table below (Table 

3-154) illustrates significant population variable changes from 1980 to 1990 and 

from 1990 to 2000 for all the counties within the forest boundary: 

Table 3-154. Minority and Percent Population Change 

 Population 

 1990 % 

Minority 

% Change 

’80-‘90 

2000 % 

Minority 

% Change 

’90-00 

Forest Counties 2.7 1.7 3.4 12.8 

Tennessee 17.0 6.2 18.7 16.7 

SAA 8.1 7.3 * * 

* No SAA number for 2000 

Source: U.S. Census Bureau 

Within the forest boundaries, minority population increased by 42.9 percent between 

1990 and 2000, a change from the 11.1 percent decrease that occurred during the 

1980’s (see Table B-128 in Appendix B). The minority population within Tennessee 

represented 18.7 percent of the entire population, a 28.2 percent increase from 

1990. Opportunities for minority participation resulting from local minority visits to 

the forest have increased very much over the decade of the 1990’s. The SAA had a 

minority population of 8.1 percent in 1990, which was about five percent more than 

that of the CNF at that time. 

Table 3-155. Population Density 

1980 

Population Density 

Persons/Square 

Mile 

1990 

Population Density 

Persons/Square 

Mile 

2000 

Population Density 

Persons/Square 

Mile 

Forest 

Counties 110.6 112.5 127 

Tennessee 111.4 118.3 138 

SAA 94 102 * 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

400 ENVIORNMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Table 3-155. Population Density 

1980 

Population Density 

Persons/Square 

Mile 

1990 

Population Density 

Persons/Square 

Mile 

2000 

Population Density 

Persons/Square 

Mile 

* No SAA number for 2000 

Source: U.S. Census Bureau 

Population density was 102 people per square mile in the SAA in 1990, while the 

population density for the forest counties was 113 people per square mile, and 118 

people per square mile for the state of Tennessee. Population density in 2000 

increased to 138 persons per square mile in the state while the forest counties 

increased to 127 per square mile. These rates of change in density are the same as 

the population rates of change over the past decade. While population density 

changed from about 94 persons per square mile during 1980 in the SAA, it changed 

from 111 persons per square mile in the forest analysis area and the state (see 

Table 3-155 above and Table B-129 in Appendix B). 

The significance of these population changes is that the forest boundary population 

grew at a slower rate for the 1980 to 1990 decade than did the population of the 

SAA or the state of Tennessee. However, population in the CNF counties grew rapidly 

from 1990 to 2000 (12.8 percent), only four percent less than the rate of growth for 

Tennessee. 

The minority population’s share of the total population still lags behind that of the 

SAA and the state of Tennessee. This is to be expected because of the larger urban 

populations found in the latter two areas. However, the rate of growth between 1990 

and 2000 was much greater in the CNF boundary counties than Tennessee. 

The rural nature of the area is contrasted with the state and SAA below in Table 3-

156 For a breakout of all counties within the forest boundaries, see Table B-130 in 

Appendix B. 

Table 3-156. Percentage Rural 

 1980 % Rural 1990 % Rural 

Forest Counties 51.8 53.0 

Tennessee 39.6 39.1 

SAA * 53.0 

* No SAA number for 1980 

Source: U.S. Census Bureau 

The CNF analysis area is predominately rural and this rural characteristic has 

increased slightly since 1980. The percentage of persons living in rural areas for the 

aggregated counties that make up this area has risen from 51.8 percent in 1980 to 

53 percent in 1990. This compares favorably with the rural character of the SAA (53 

percent). The fact that the CNF counties did become slightly more rural during the 

decade from 1980 to 1990 may be explained by a net decrease in population in 

urban Sullivan County (see Table B-128 in Appendix B). 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 401 

In short, there appears to have been an increase in population in the CNF analysis 

area in the 1990 decade---a characteristic that was absent during the 1980’s. This 

population appears to be moving not to urban areas within these counties but to the 

rural areas. 

Per capita income is a relative measure of the wealth of an area. It constitutes the 

personal income from all sources divided by the population of that area. For the SAA 

the per capita income average was $10,950 in 1990; for the forest analysis area it 

averaged $9,993 and for the state of Tennessee it was $12,255. 

Table 3-157. Per capita Income 

 1980 

Per Cap. 

Income 

1990 

Per Cap. 

Income 

Real Avg. Annual % 

Change ’80-‘90 

Per Cap. Income 

Tennessee $6,212 $12,255 2.2 

Forest Counties $5,167 $9,993 2.0 

SAA $6,377 $10,950 0.8 

Source: U.S. Census Bureau 

Income for both the forest area and Tennessee grew faster on a real basis (inflation 

adjusted) than the SAA during the 1980’s. The CNF area grew at a two percent rate; 

Tennessee grew at a 2.2 percent rate, while the SAA grew only by 0.8 percent (see 

Table 3-157 above and Table B-131 in Appendix B). Thus, a person’s financial well 

being increased at a greater rate in the CNF analysis area than for the SAA during the 

1980’s decade. The growth in earning power increased almost at the same rate as 

that of Tennessee. 

Table B-135 in Appendix B has income data for the CNF and state based on Bureau 

of Economic Analysis (BEA) measurements. This data is per capita personal income, 

which is not directly comparable with the Bureau of the Census per capita income

data shown above and in Table B-131 in Appendix B. The two data sets are not the 

same because census data is obtained directly from households, whereas the BEA 

income series is estimated largely on the basis of data from administrative records of 

business and governmental sources. Also the definitions of income are different. 

Additionally, caution must be used in comparing growth rates of Table B-131 and 

Table B-135 because growth in the former is based on real or inflation adjusted 

dollars while growth in the latter is based on nominal dollars (unadjusted for 

inflation). 

Thus, from the Per Capita Income table above, it is evident that the CNF area is still 

relatively poorer than either Tennessee or the SAA, but, economically, it did grow 

parallel with the State during the 1980’s. 

Another indicator of relative economic prosperity is the percent of the workforce out 

of work. Unemployment rates change dramatically over time, depending in large part 

on the national economy. Some areas, however, have experienced protracted 

unemployment problems because of educational attainment and lack of skills. 

As shown in Table 3-158, in 1990 the CNF analysis area had a higher unemployment 

rate (7.5%) than either the state (5.1%) or the SAA (6.5%). 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

402 ENVIORNMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Table 3-158. Unemployment Rate 

 Unemployment Rate 

1990 

Unemployment Rate 

1997 

Tennessee 5.1 5.4 

Forest Counties Avg. 7.5 6.4 

SAA 6.5 * 

*No SAA data for 1997 

Source: U.S. Census Bureau 

During the 1990’s the unemployment rate decreased by more than a percentage 

point for the CNF analysis area while the rate decreased by 0.3 percent for 

Tennessee. However, the unemployment rate within the CNF analysis area is still a 

full percentage point higher than that of the State. More resolution in unemployment 

rates for the CNF (by county) can be found in Table B-137 in Appendix B. 

People in poverty are represented in Table 3-159 (more specific forest information 

can be identified inTable B-132 in Appendix B): 

Table 3-159. Poverty Rate 

1989-Percent of People of 

All Ages in Poverty 

1995-Percent of People of 

All Ages in Poverty 

Tennessee 15.7 14.7 

Forest Average 18.8 16.8 

SAA-1990 rate 11.0 * 

No SAA number for 1995 

Source: U.S. Census Bureau

Many of the counties in the CNF analysis area had very high rates of poverty in 1989. 

The average was much higher for the CNF analysis area than either Tennessee or the 

SAA. In 1995 it is estimated that the State of Tennessee had a one percent lower 

poverty rate, and the CNF analysis area had a two percent lower rate than that found 

in 1989. The SAA was based on data through 1990 therefore more current data is 

not shown for this area. 

Another factor indicating relative poverty and social disunity for an area is the 

percent of households headed by a female member. The greater this percentage is, 

the more likely that these households may be on some form of government 

assistance. Table 3-160 below contrasts the experience for our three areas of 

comparison: 

Table 3-160. Female Head of Households 

 1980 Female Head 

of Households 

1990 Female Head 

of Households 

Tennessee 6.2 6.7 

Forest Avg. 4.2 4.5 

SAA * 10.5 

* No SAA number for 1980 

Source: U.S. Census Bureau 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 403 

The increase in female-headed households rose slightly from 1980 to 1990 for the 

CNF analysis area and for Tennessee overall. Both, however, were much lower than 

the SAA average (10.5%) for 1990. A lower female head of household for the CNF 

analysis area may indicate greater social cohesion of extended families in this area 

than in other areas of the SAA region. 

The number of persons per household also indicates economic status in a region. 

The greater the average number of persons per household in an area, the less 

prosperous that area tends to be. 

Table 3-161. Density of Households 

 1980 Persons Per 

Household 

1990 Persons Per 

Household 

2000 Persons Per 

Household 

Tennessee 2.8 2.6 2.5 

Forest Avg. 2.8 2.5 2.4 

SAA * 2.6 * 

* No SAA number for 1980 or 2000 

Source: U.S. Census Bureau 

The change in household size from 1980 to 1990 and from 1990 to 2000 decreased 

slightly for the CNF analysis area and the State. Household size for both of the 

former areas compares favorably with that of larger SAA area. Notably large 

households do not seem to be a characteristic of the CNF analysis area (see Table 3-

161). 

As shown in Table 3-162, the decade of the 1970’s appears to be a decade of more 

rapid growth than the decade of the 1980’s. Housing unit growth from 1970 to 

1980 was 33.2 percent for the CNF analysis area, while Tennessee showed a similar 

growth rate of 34.3 percent. Growth between 1990 and 2000 showed an increase 

from the 1980’s decade---an increase of 21.1 for the forest boundary counties and 

20.4 for the state. In the last three decades the growth in housing has been slightly 

higher in the forest analysis area than for the state. Housing unit change was not 

measured in the SAA. 

Table 3-162. Housing Units 

 Housing Units % 

Change 1970-1980 

Housing Units % 

Change 1980-1990 

Housing Units % 

Change 1990-2000 

Tennessee 33.2 11.9 20.4 

Forest Area Avg. 34.3 15.9 21.1 

Source: U.S. Census Bureau 

Median housing value is contrasted in Table 3-163 below. Housing values within the 

CNF analysis area tend to be substantially below that of Tennessee and the SAA. 

Housing values are determined principally by the extent of demand. The greater the 

demand the higher prices are bid up. Population increases and increases in jobs 

play a factor in the extent of demand for housing. In the forest analysis area, 

population only began to increase at a significant rate in the 1990’s. During the prior 

decade population grew at a slower pace. Housing stock increased at a significant 

rate in the decade of the 1970’s and 1980’s. However, value is still low compared 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

404 ENVIORNMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

with the State, which has the influence of urban areas that can support higher priced 

housing. It therefore appears that the CNF analysis area is fairly dynamic in regards 

to the creation of new housing but population and wage growth will have to increase 

significantly to warrant significant increases in housing values. 

Table 3-163. Housing Value 

 Housing Units 

Median Value 1980 

Housing Units 

Median Value 1990 

Tennessee $35,600 $58,400 

Forest Area Avg. $29,636 $46,555 

SAA * $59,700 

* No SAA number for 1980 

Source: U.S. Census Bureau 

Table B-134 in Appendix B shows more specific data for the CNF analysis area for 

both housing units and median value of housing units. 

24.1.2 Economic Trends 

Analysis of the major sectors of an economy provides insight into how diverse the 

economy is and what industries may be driving its growth. Table B-137 in Appendix B 

shows the entire economy broken out by major Standard Industrial Codes (SIC) and 

by important industry sub-sectors for wood products and for an estimate of the 

contribution of certain industries to tourism. 

Table 3-164 below shows the Manufacturing sector, the sub-sectors for wood based 

industries, and an estimate of the tourism industry according to the percentage of 

industry output and employment for 1985 and 1996. Tourism is not a 

manufacturing or industrial sector of an economy but comprises several of the 

services and retail industries. The percentage of each of these industries attributed 

to tourism was taken from the work of Gordon McClung at West Virginia University. 

Table 3-164. Economic Diversity 

 1985 %Total 1996 % Total 1985 % Total 1996 % Total 

Manufac 

Turing - 56.4% 44.1% 36.8% 44.1% 

Mfg. Lumber & 

Wood Prods 0.9% 1.1% 1.2% 1.1% 

Wood Furn & 

fix. 1.3% 2.2% 1.9% 2.2% 

Paper & Pulp 

Products 4.4% 3.5% 2.0% 3.5% 

Tourism 1.2% 1.2% 2.0% 1.2% 

Total 

Economy* $14,562.1 $21,924.2 204,538 287,987 

*in Millions of dollars. Source: IMPLAN 1985 and 1996 Data 

From this table it is evident that the economy of the CNF analysis area is becoming 

less reliant on the manufacturing sector and is becoming more diverse. From 1985 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 405 

to 1996, the importance of manufacturing declined by almost a 12.5 percent share 

of total output. Manufacturing, however, is still a very large proportion of the 

economy of the analysis area, representing 44.1 percent of the economy in 1996. 

Similarly, manufacturing constituted 42 percent of the economy of the SAA in 1991. 

At these levels, the SAA and the CNF analysis area show a concentration in 

manufacturing that is much higher than that of the U.S. economy in which 

manufacturing is less than 20 percent of the overall economy. 

For the manufacturing sector, wood products constituted 6.8 percent of the local 

economy’s total output in 1996. This is a slight increase from the 6.6 percent share 

it had in 1985. Employment grew from a 5.1 percent share in 1985 to 6.8 percent 

share in 1996. Employment in the wood products industries resulted in a 3.4 

percent share of the SAA economy in 1991. Industrial production had a 5.2 percent 

share. The wood products industries were relatively more important in the CNF’s 

economy than that of the SAA. 

Tourism is defined as any non-business related travel of 100 miles or more from 

home. Recreation would be a subset of tourism estimates; therefore its share of the 

economy would be something less than the overall tourism numbers. The estimate 

of tourism’s share of the economy was approximately the same output between 

1985 and 1996. Employment, on the other hand, decreased from a two percent to a 

1.2 percent share of the local economy’s total. Table B-137 of Appendix B compares 

the CNF analysis area’s economy for 1985 and 1996 for all nine major sectors of the 

economy. 

Besides the manufacturing change mentioned above between these two years, other 

significant changes include an increase in construction from 4.6 percent of output in 

1985 to 7.4 percent in 1996. Finance, insurance and real estate increased from 3.9 

percent share of the output to 7.3 percent in 1996 and the non-tourism related 

services sector increased from 8.2 percent to 15.1 percent in 1996. This illustrates 

that the local economy is becoming more diverse, but it is still heavily reliant upon 

the manufacturing sector for the majority of its activity. 

For the purpose of economic analysis, the years of contrast in the SAA were 1977 

and 1991 from the IMPLAN input-output model. The forest, meanwhile, used more 

current data, contrasting the 1985 and the 1996 regional economies. Because 

these years are dissimilar, many of the percentage changes are not directly 

comparable. Placing the comparison on an average annual rate of change does 

allow for measure of comparison. The following chart (Table 3-165) compares the 

rate of change between the SAA’s economy and that of the CNF analysis area: 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

406 ENVIORNMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Table 3-165. Economy Dynamics 

Employment 

Avg. Annual 

Change 

Industrial 

Output 

Avg. Annual 

Change 

Forest Area* 3.2 3.8 

SAA ** 1.9 2.6 

* Change from 1985 to 1996 

** Change from 1977 to 1991 

Source: IMPLAN 1985 and 1996 Data 

Output has grown faster for the CNF local economy (3.8 percent) than the SAA (2.6 

percent per year). Growth in employment has been greater. This disparity suggests 

that the industries within the CNF boundary counties have invested in capital 

equipment that has resulted in increased productivity, allowing the area to achieve a 

higher level of output growth relative to employee growth. 

A principle way an economy grows is by export of goods and services. Most typically, 

manufacturing activity is thought of as providing most of this export related activity. 

However, services and retail trade can be considered “export” industries if significant 

visitors come in from outside in travel related activities to bring in new dollars. 

Tourism is classified as an export driven activity. A manufacturing industry can be a 

net importer if it imports more of a commodity that it exports. 

Table B-137 in Appendix B illustrates all the major sectors and industries contributing 

to the tourism industry within the CNF analysis area. The table below (Table 3-166) 

compares the exporting characteristics of the CNF’s analysis area for 1985 and 

1996. 

Table 3-166. Exporting Industries 

Commodity Net Exports-Exports 

Less Imports 

Net Exporting Industries as a 

Percentage of Total Positive 

Exporting Industries 

 1985 1996 1985 1996 

Mfg. Lumber and 

Wood Products -$10.6 $46.5 0.0% 1.1% 

Mfg. Wood Furniture 

and Fixtures $142.6 -$264.7 4.9% 0.0% 

Mfg. Paper & Pulp 

Products $249.5 -$351.4 8.6% 0.0% 

Total Mfg. $2,288.1 -$1,702.2 78.9% 0.0% 

Estimate of Trade -$23.3 $37.0 0.0% 0.9% 

Total Net Trade 

(exports) -$39.2 $1,858.6 100.0% 100.0% 

Total Positive Export 

Industries $2,898.4 $4,065.5 --- ---- 

Source: IMPLAN 1985 and 1996 Data 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 407 

Table 3-166 shows that this local economy went from a net importing economy in 

1985 to a net exporting economy in 1996. Large changes occurred in the wood 

products industries whereby those industries became net importers. Total 

manufacturing also changed from an exporting sector in 1985 to that of an importing 

sector in 1996, changing from exporting $2,288.1 million to importing $1,702.2 

million. 

“Total positive export industries” dollars provide the basis for expressing the 

percentage of an industry, which is a net exporter, to determine its share of total 

exports. In 1985, manufacturing had exports totaling $2,228.1 million, which was 

78.9 percent of the $2,898.4 million of all net exporting industries in the area. 

The local economy changed from a net importer of $39.2 million in 1985 to a net 

exporter in 1996 ($1,858.6 million). While manufacturing turned into a net exporting 

industry, services and trade turned from net importing industries in 1985 to net 

exporting industries in 1996. The largest contributor to this change was the finance, 

insurance, and real estate sector, which went from an importer of services in 1985 

($1,045.3 million) to an exporter of services in 1996 ($1,472.2). Many of the service 

and trade industries also turned from importers to exporters over this period of time 

(see Table B-138 in Appendix B). Tourism is estimated to be an importer of $23.3 

million in 1985 to an exporter in 1996 ($37.0 million). Thus, travelers were coming 

from outside the analysis area at a greater rate in 1996 to spend money in the local 

economy than in 1985. 

This is contrasted with the SAA area, which was a net exporter in 1991 of goods and 

services of $15.8 billion. Manufacturing was the largest net exporting sector, 

representing $24.6 billion. Manufacturing represented 156 percent of the net 

exporting sectors. Construction ($6.7 billion) and services ($4.3 billion) were the 

largest net importers and contributed to a drain of money from the economy. 

In sum, the economy of the CNF analysis area changed from a net importer in 1985 

to a net exporter in 1996. This has provided additional money that has enabled the 

growth of the economy. Manufacturing’s importance as a net exporter declined from 

1985 to 1996 when this sector imported more than it exported. The wood products 

sector showed a similar trend over this time. Meanwhile, the estimated trade effect 

of tourism turned from a net importer (more people leaving the region for travel) to a 

net exporter (more people coming to the region for travel). Again, this has provided 

more money for the economy of the analysis area. 

Another means of determining the diversity of an economy is the Shannon-Weaver 

Entropy Indices of diversity. This process provides a relative measure of how diverse 

a county is with a single number. The entropy method measures diversity of a region 

against a uniform distribution of employment where the norm is equi-proportional 

employment in all industries. All indices range between 0 (no diversity) and 1.0 

(perfect diversity). These two extremes would occur when there is only one industry 

in the economy (no diversity) and when all industries contribute equally to the 

region’s employment (perfect diversity). In most cases diversity would be registered 

somewhere between 0 and 1.0. Another factor affecting the magnitude of the index 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

408 ENVIORNMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

is the number of industries in a local economy; the greater number the larger the 

index. 

The following table (Table 3-167), contrasts the change in diversity from 1977 to 

1993 at the four digit SIC, or at the industry level. For a point of reference 

Tennessee and the Untied States serve as comparison guides. 

 Table 3-167. SHANNON-WEAVER ENTROPHY INDICIES 

Forest Boundary Counties 1977 Four Digit SIC 1993 Four Digit 

SIC 

Tennessee Counties 

Carter 0.50839 0.59960 

Cocke 0.57273 0.62677 

Greene 0.60760 0.63824 

Johnson 0.37700 0.55403 

Mcminn 0.56874 0.64269 

Monroe 0.51297 0.62226 

Polk 0.39216 0.53718 

Sullivan 0.56289 0.66452 

Unicoi 0.50283 0.60532 

Washington 0.56447 0.66557 

North Carolina Counties 

Ashe 0.50801 0.59654 

Forest Boundary Area Weighted 

Average 0.55210 0.64380 

TENNESSEE 0.66887 0.74161 

UNITED STATES 0.66483 0.73973 

Source: USDA Forest Service, IMI 

In 1977 Johnson County, Tennessee was the least diversified county within the CNF 

boundary. It was 44 percent less diversified than Tennessee. The most diversified 

county in 1977 was Greene County, Tennessee, which was nine percent less 

diversified than Tennessee. 

Between 1977 and 1993 all forest counties became much more diversified. The 

least diversified county in 1993 was Polk County, Tennessee, which was 28 percent 

less diversified than that of the state. Johnson County in 1993 was next to the last in 

diversity. The most diverse county was Washington County, which was about ten 

percent less diversified than that of the state. Greene County did not improve its 

diversity standing much between these two years, increasing only five percent. 

On a weighted average aggregate employment basis, the CNF economy was about 17 

percent less diversified than the state in 1977 and about 13 percent less diversified 

than the state in 1993. 

In summary, the CNF area economy is less diverse than the regional Tennessee 

economy, but these rural counties have become more diversified over the 16 years of 

analysis data presented above. Johnson and Polk Counties have especially made 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 409 

great strides to improve their economic infrastructures in that they have added 

additional industries to their mix. In aggregate the total economy has improved its 

diversity only marginally over this time span. 

Payments in Lieu of Taxes (PILT) are funds that the federal government transfers to 

counties to help offset the non-tax status of federal lands within their boundaries. 

PILT is a payment from the Bureau of Land Management that covers shortfalls from 

natural resource consumption on the national forest. That is, if the Forest Service’s 

Twenty Five Percent funds (25% Funds) from timber harvesting, mining and 

recreation do not cover at least $1.75 per acre, PILT will make up the shortfall. 

Trends in 25 percent Funds and PILT are important to show a possible erosion of an 

area’s tax base. Table B-139 in Appendix B breaks out revenues for each of the 

eleven forest counties. Table 3-168 below shows forest counties in the aggregate 

changes from various years for data that was common between the two sources. 

Table 3-168. PILT Funds 

 % Change 1990 % Change 1997 % Change 1990-1997 

Forest Counties 

PILT $501,796 $621,175 23.8% 

25% Funds $483,892 $440,372 9.0 

Total $985,688 $1,061,574 7.7 

Source: U.S. Dept. of Interior 

County revenues from the federal government have been variable since 1986, the 

first year of available data for 25 percent funds. The trend has been down, however, 

because of a reduction in timber harvesting. At the same time PILT funds increased 

as a replacement of lost revenues from timber harvesting. Taking the two payments 

together, there was a 7.7 percent increase for the CNF analysis area from 1990 to 

1997. Still, this was only a 1.1 percent average increase per year, which is less than 

the rate of inflation. 

Land use and its change over time is an indicator of the dynamism of an area. Areas 

converting from rural uses to urban uses have implications of change that affect 

residents. The chart below (Table 3-169). shows the land use of weighted average 

acres of the counties, which comprise the CNF analysis area for 1982- 1992, for all 

uses except urban. Urban comprises a small share and can be found along with 

characteristics of all counties in the analysis area in Table B-141 in Appendix B. 

Table 3-169. Land Use 

 Forest 

‘82 

Forest 

‘92 

Farm 

‘82 

Farm 

‘92 

Residual 

‘82 

Residual 

‘92 

 % Share % Share % Share % Share % Share % Share 

Weighted 

Average 

Acres for 

Counties in 

Forest 

boundary 

34.4 33.3 33.3 32.6 28.2 28.6 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

410 ENVIORNMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Table 3-169. Land Use 

 Forest 

‘82 

Forest 

‘92 

Farm 

‘82 

Farm 

‘92 

Residual 

‘82 

Residual 

‘92 

Source: USDA Natural Resource Conservation Service 

This data set from the Natural Resource Conservation Service includes federal land 

within their residual category. Residual also includes highways and power line 

access ROW. This category has remained stable over the last ten years. Therefore, 

the forest category contains lands of private timber owners. 

Approximately two-thirds of this private area was either in farm or forest cover in 

1982. By 1992 this percentage had decreased slightly to about 65.8 percent. Thirty 

four percent (34.4%) was forested in 1992, and 33.3 percent was forested in 1992. 

The urban share of the land had increased from 4.1 percent in 1982 to 5.4 percent 

in 1992 (see Table B-141 in Appendix B). This land use has lost about one percent of 

its acreage in the last ten years. 

The SAA found that little forest land was lost between 1970 and 1990 in that region. 

However, urban, road and housing development growth caused by increased 

population in the area took farmland, pastures and open space. Retirees and 

commuters from nearby urban centers were responsible for part of that demand for 

development. 

The CNF, meanwhile, experienced small declines in the rural character of the 

landscape from 1982 to 1992 (about a two percent decline in share over this 

period). Urban areas gained about 1.5 percent of the total share of land use during 

this time. 

State and Private Forestry – Rural Community Assistance

The CNF affects, and is influenced by, citizens and communities of nine east 

Tennessee counties containing NFS land. These are the counties of McMinn, 

Monroe, Polk, Greene, Unicoi, Washington, Sullivan, Cocke and Johnson. The CNF 

occupies a low of four percent to about 60 percent of the land in these counties. 

There are other counties that are influenced by the CNF and are Bradley, Blount and 

Sevier. These eleven counties form a contiguous area in far east Tennessee that 

reflect a rural economy generally thought of as being dependent on natural 

resources, with natural resources including tourism. 

Manufacturing, tourism, farming, and the wood products industry are all sensitive to 

national economic recessions. Activities on the CNF and related to the CNF are tied 

to these industries. The Forest Service has long been a vital part of local and state 

communities. In addition to payments made to counties from receipts generated by 

the CNF, Forest employees and their families constitute an important facet of local 

economies and civic interactions. 

A new avenue of Forest Service/community involvement came about with the 

passage of the Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act of 1990. This is Public 

Law 101-624, usually referred to as the 1990 Farm Bill. A primary focus of this bill 

was assistance to diversify the economies of economically disadvantaged rural 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 411 

communities in or near national forests. It allows for federal grants, channeled 

through state foresters’ offices or directly through the NFS, to upgrade existing 

industries or to diversify economies and eliminate dependency on forest resources. 

Grants are available to communities through competition based on eligibility criteria. 

Grant information is routinely distributed to state and federally recognized Native 

American tribes, minority and non-minority rural communities, and nonprofit 

organizations. This law initiated the Rural Community Assistance (RCA) program in 

the State and Private Forestry arm of the Forest Service. 

Since 1990 the CNF and Tennessee Division of Forestry have administered 60 grants 

– derived from rural development, economic recovery, economic diversification 

studies, or Americorps grants – to more than 30 rural communities in 25 Tennessee 

counties. These federal RCA grant monies are intended as “seed money” to initiate 

worthy projects rather than to provide outright full federal funding for the work. The 

total amount of federal grants distributed to date is nearly $1,000,000. 

Communities receiving these funds have contributed almost $400,000 worth of 

matching funds or services. 

The range of approved grant assistance includes such direct forestry-related projects, 

such as remodeling a sawmill, improving the utilization of waste wood, growing 

shiitake mushrooms on hardwood logs, formulating business plans, cultural tourism 

development, economic diversification studies, and programs for minority children 

and their future careers, and projects with the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians, 

principally tourism and planning efforts. 

Community response has been universally favorable, with measurable results such 

as increased employment opportunities in disadvantaged communities and initiation 

of new businesses. Other less tangible but nevertheless real outcomes are 

enhanced community pride, cohesion, and stability. 

The CNF also works very closely with ten Resource Conservation and Development 

Councils (RC&D) in Tennessee. RC&D Councils are non-profit councils, hosted also 

by the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, formed to promote economic 

development and wise conservation practices for member counties. All previously 

listed national forest influenced counties are covered by RC&D strategic plans. Many 

communities in these counties also have strategic plans and the CNF assists other 

communities, upon request, with the development of their plans. In other Forest 

planning activities, and community plans, the CNF will consult with communities and 

review their strategic plans in order to strike an economic balance between 

commodity-related jobs, tourism-based development, and other community issues. 

24.1.3 Summary of Demographic and Economic Changes 

Population and economic dynamics are changing at a moderate rate within the CNF 

analysis area. While population grew very slowly from 1980 to 1990, growth 

increased substantially during the first seven years of the 1990’s. During this period, 

the rate of increase was 12.8 percent, which, while significant, is still almost four

percentage points behind the growth rate of Tennessee. Increased population 

suggests the analysis area may have new residents from outside the area that will 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

412 ENVIORNMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

follow non-traditional life ways different from those of long-standing residents and 

quite possibly these life ways will not be commodity based. 

The minority portion of the total population has changed slightly within the analysis 

area from 1990 to 1997, increasing about one percent from 2.7 percent to 3.4 

percent over this period. While these numbers are still less than the minority 

increase found in the overall State in 1997 (18.7 percent) and the nation 

(approximately 13 percent), there is indication that minority population is not leaving 

the area, and there are increased opportunities for minority participation in local 

recreation endeavors. 

The analysis area has become slightly more rural from 1980 to 1990. The reason for 

this event is that a substantial population loss occurred in urban Sullivan County. 

The rural character is still dominant in the CNF analysis area. Urban encroachment 

does not seem to be a significant factor in the analysis area at this time. 

The area’s economic health as measured by per captia income grew at a robust rate 

during the 1980’s---0.2 percent per year, greater than that of the Southern 

Appalachian region. Still, per capita income in 1990 was about $2,500 less than 

that of the State’s. The area’s unemployment rate has decreased by over one 

percent from 1990 to 1997; however, it was still one percent greater than 

Tennessee’s, which was at 5.4 percent in 1997. Income growth rate in this area has 

progressed steadily, indicating that the area is economically strong. People with 

strong incomes and jobs are more likely to have free time and need an outlet for 

recreation. The national forest is a prime outlet for these people. 

Accordingly, the area’s poverty rate has declined by two percent from 1989 to 1995, 

a rate faster than Tennessee’s. Percentage of female head of households was low 

and holding steady while persons per household was lower than the State’s average. 

These are all good signs of an area without protracted economic problems. 

Housing unit growth was greater than the State overall for the decade of the 1980’s 

and is an indicator of relative prosperity. Median housing value, however, is still 

about $12,000 less than the State average of $58,400, a condition that can be 

expected with a larger urban component. 

The economy of the CNF analysis area has become more diverse and less 

concentrated in the manufacturing sector. As measured by total output, 

manufacturing is about 44 percent of the economy. This is still a high share, but 

services and retail activity have gained increasing shares since 1985. Wood 

products manufacturing in 1996 constituted approximately a 6.8 percent share of 

the total CNF economy---an increase of 1.2 percent share from 1985. Tourism 

maintained a 1.2 percent share in both measurement periods. 

Since 1985, the area has grown from a net importing regional economy where money 

flows to other areas to a net exporting economy. However, wood products have 

turned from net exporting to net importing, indicating that money is leaving the 

economy from these industries. Economies that export more than they import are 

able to grow faster than those that are net importers. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 413 

Land use has changed very little since 1982. The analysis area has lost about one 

percent of its forest cover in private lands. It is assumed that public lands forest 

cover has remained constant. 

Thus, the economy and demography of this area appears to be healthy for a rural 

area. Population has grown steadily in the 1990’s, poverty has declined and housing 

construction is vigorous. The economy continues to restructure itself and relies less 

on the economically sensitive manufacturing sector. Finally, the economy is growing 

from having a surplus of net importing sectors to one with a surplus of net exporting 

sectors. All of these indicators suggest growing communities that will demand 

increasing leisure time activities. 

24.1.4 Demographic Changes and the Effects on Natural Resource 

Management 

The SAA found that little forest land has been lost since 1970 in the region, while 

urban, road and housing development growth, caused by increased population, has 

taken farmland, pastures and open space. Retirees and commuters from nearby 

urban centers are responsible for part of this demand for development. 

Newcomers to the region feel differently than long-time residents about natural 

resource preservation. Often, the latter’s livelihood depended upon manufacturing 

from natural resources. Managers of natural resources have had to respond to new 

sets of values and preferences, particularly increased demand from land and water 

resources for scenery, recreation and tourism. 

Population in the region is projected to grow by 12.3 percent by 2010, slightly less 

than the growth rate expected for the nation (13.1 percent). Most of the growth is 

expected to be in northern Georgia, western North Carolina, and portions of eastern 

Tennessee and northwestern Virginia. 

The increase in population density across all counties in the southern Appalachian 

region has impacted farms, forests, and pastures and has removed habitat for most 

species of wildlife and fish. More people entering the area has resulted in greater 

amounts of land conversion and impacts to water quantities, quality, and use. At 

higher elevations, development has impacted visual qualities. 

As certain areas of the southern Appalachians have been developed, more urban 

pressures have impacted the land. Additionally, more private lands have become 

posted as “off limits.” As a result of these greater restrictions on private land, there 

is more pressure on public land to accommodate increased demand for tourism and 

recreation. 

The following analysis details the CNF’s market area and presents estimates of the 

percentages of persons 16 or older fitting various personal and household profiles 

that live in the forest impact area. In essence, it describes how long residents have 

lived in the area and why they have chosen to do so. The results were taken from the 

Public Survey Report, Public Use and Preferred Objectives for Southern Appalachian 

National Forests (Cordell et. al, 2002). As defined in this survey, a forest market area 

includes all counties within a 75-mile radius of the boundary of the forest. A sub-
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

414 ENVIORNMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

region market area includes all the counties within the combined 75-mile radius of 

the forests covered by this report 

As with a number of other studies done to look at characteristics of persons living in 

regions such as the Southern Appalachians, it is notable that little difference exists 

between market areas of different forests or between the forests and the region. As 

shown in Table 3-170, there are considerable similarities between the CNF and the 

Southern Appalachian region.. 

Most people age 16 and over (97% to 98%), live year round in the CNF market area 

leaving only two to three percent as seasonal residents. Almost one third of the 

sample respondents for the CNF lived in Tennessee while 29 percent lived in 

Georgia and 20 percent lived in North Carolina. 

Almost 38 percent of the residents surveyed had lived in the areas within the 

Southern Appalachian Region their entire lives and 51 percent had lived in those 

areas more than 20 years. The main reason most (53.8 percent) of the people 

surveyed have remained in the area is because of family ties. Almost 15 percent of 

the survey respondents remain in the area because of an attachment to the area 

itself, while 25 percent remain for other reasons. Very few, around six percent, 

remain because of their job. 

Although a majority of the survey respondents had lived in the area for a relatively 

long period of time, there was a fairly sizeable percentage (29%) that had lived there 

less than ten years. This indicates that the population has been mobile and that 

there is a substantial contingent of recent immigrants. 

Around 16 percent of responding residents were owners of five or more acres of rural 

land. About 26 percent were under age 30; about 28 percent were over age 55. 

Most of the surveyed population was between the ages of 30 and 55. About 83 

percent was non-Hispanic White, 12 percent was Black, and around three percent 

was Hispanic. Between one and two percent were foreign born. Around nine percent 

have less than a high school education and around 20 percent have a college 

degree. Over 80 percent have at least attended some high school. About 59 percent 

work a job while over 41 percent are retired. More and more, the national forests 

with their natural and scenic amenities are seen as popular retirement locations. 

Table 3-170. Percentage of local residents 16 or older by personal or household 

characteristic for the CNF and the Southern Appalachian Region, 2002. 

Personal and Household 

Characterstics CNF (N=2352) Southern Appalachian Region 

Year-round resident 97.6 97.2 

Part-time resident 2.4 2.8 

TN 31.0 GA 24.2 

GA 28.8 AL 21.4 Percentage of residents in market 

 area by state NC 19.8 TN 14.3 

Lived in SA entire life 37.6 38.1 

Lived in SA 20+ years 51.2 51.7 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 415 

Table 3-170. Percentage of local residents 16 or older by personal or household 

characteristic for the CNF and the Southern Appalachian Region, 2002. 

Personal and Household 

Characterstics CNF (N=2352) Southern Appalachian Region 

Lived in SA 10-19 years 19.7 19.0 

Lived in SA <10 years 29.0 29.3 

Remain for job 6.3 7.4 

Remain for family 53.8 54.8 

Remain for area 14.8 14.6 

Remain for other reasons 25.0 23.2 

Own 5+ acres of land 15.8 13.1 

Age under 30 25.7 27.2 

Age over 55 27.9 27.3 

Anglo, non-Hispanic 82.8 74.5 

Black 12.1 19.7 

Hispanic 3.3 3.6 

Foreign born 1.8 1.8 

Education - 8th grade or less 8.6 7.3 

Education - Bachelor’s degree/more 20.0 21.0 

Work a job 58.5 59.9 

Retired 41.2 39.5 

Source: Public Survey Report, July 2002 

24.1.5 Impact of Natural Resource Management on the Economic and 

Social Status of Local Communities 

The SAA found that residents of communities near public land are sensitive to land 

management choices. Further, it found the region’s communities are still in a lower 

economic status than surrounding state populations. Their economies are more 

heavily dependent on the resources of the forest than are the overall economies of 

the states in which they are located. Of particular concern to residents of the SAA 

area, is the need to balance local interests to those interests of tourism and retirees 

to the area. 

The CNF provides a core set of resources that can provide a variety of economic 

stimuli to local communities. The significance of this potential is limited by the local 

community infrastructure. Roads, drinking water, sewage treatment, garbage 

disposal, health services, retail outlets all have an impact on the ability of local 

communities to fully utilize the resources available on the National Forest. As the 

infrastructure of the local area, particularly the roads, improves, the utilization of the 

forest should increase. 

A prevailing perception of the local residents of the CNF analysis area, especially 

within and adjacent the forest boundary, seems to be that significant changes in the 

management of the forest will affect their traditional uses of the forest. Perhaps just 

as important, there is a general perception among the native inhabitants that with 

the increase of retirees and influx of non-local people to the area, there will be a 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

416 ENVIORNMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

diminishment of local influence in management and traditional uses of the forest as 

well as an overall loss of a sense of place for the native population. 

24.1.6 Values and Attitudes of Southern Appalachia Residents Toward 

Natural Resources and Ecosystem Management 

Natural resources, public lands and national forests in particular are very important 

to the American people. As a result, it is extremely important for land managers to 

take into consideration the attitudes and values toward natural resource 

management held by Southern Appalachian residents. Research done during the 

SAA showed that most people felt it was possible for environmental protection and 

economic growth to be compatible. However, when people had to choose between 

the two, their first choice was the environment. Most people felt that environmental 

protection has not gone far enough and even indicated a willingness to put more 

personal funds toward collective environmental protection. It should be noted that 

as more retirees, urban transfers and other new residents move into the Southern 

Appalachian region, concerns for the health and aesthetic appearance of the region’s 

ecosystems would most likely increase. 

Although the SAA attempted to determine the values and attitudes of Southern 

Appalachian residents toward natural resources and ecosystem management, it was 

primarily regional information. In order to gain more specific information about 

people’s attitudes, beliefs and lifestyles at the local level, a public survey was 

conducted through the Southern Research Station in conjunction with the Human 

Dimensions Research Lab at the University of Tennessee (Cordell et. al., 2002). 

Providing insight into the values the public holds relating to natural resources, this 

public survey found that almost 95 percent of the sample in the market area thought 

protection of watersheds and sources of clean water was an important management 

goal for national forests. The next highest percentages in regards to importance 

were maintaining the forests in good condition for future generations (93 percent), 

providing protection for wildlife and habitat (almost 89 percent), maintenance of a 

healthy forest (88 percent), maintenance of a “natural appearing” forest (88 percent) 

and protection of endangered species (83 percent). 

In the middle to bottom half of the list of values that the public considered important 

were providing educational services to the public (80 percent), providing places of 

personal renewal (77 percent), providing outdoor recreation (73 percent), providing 

an abundant timber supply (71 percent), helping local tourism businesses (54 

percent), permitting grazing of livestock (42.5 percent) and providing raw materials 

and products for local industries (35 percent). It is interesting to note that the values 

most often emphasized in the management of national forests, such as outdoor 

recreation and timber, are in the second or lower half of the list of values. In sum, 

respondents in the survey area of the CNF put wildlife, ecosystems and naturalness 

above utilitarian objectives in the management of the forest. 

Not only were the findings for the CNF comparable to those of the Southern 

Appalachian Region, but they also were quite comparable to national attitudes and 

values regarding natural resource management (see Table 3-171). According to an 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 417 

article published in the Journal of Forestry (October/November 2002, pp. 31-32), 

which summarized a study done in the South, 

The magnitude of upward trends in population, changes in demographic 

makeup, and rising demand for recreation suggest there likely are other 

significant social changes in the South. Among such possible changes are the 

values and attitudes people hold toward the natural environment in general 

and forests in particular. In rapidly urbanizing areas of the South, there have 

been dramatic decreases in the amount of and access to forested or other 

natural lands. A changing population and decreasing forest resources have led 

to changes in the values and attitudes Southerners hold toward forests. Below 

is a discussion of values, attitudes, and demographics found in the Southern 

Forest Resource Assessment (SFRA). 

Values-- Published literature and survey results from the SFRA both indicate 

that private forest owners and the public as well rank “conservation” higher 

now than in past decades. Recently there has seemed to be growing concern 

in the public’s view that environmental quality is more important than 

commodity benefits from forests and other natural lands. In the survey 

designed specifically for the SFRA, Southerners confirmed that environmental 

benefits from forests are valued higher than commodity benefits. Wood as a 

production commodity was rated as least important of four listed values (wood 

products, clean air, scenic beauty, and heritage) associated with forests. Clean 

air was listed as most important. When survey respondents were asked about 

values of public forests as distinct from private forests, some differences were 

noted. Producing wood products was valued higher if it were to come from 

private forests while clean air was valued higher if coming from public forests. 

These results indicate that Southerners hold measurably stronger 

environmental values and more restrictive commodity values about public 

forests than they hold for private forests. 

Respondents to the SFRA survey were asked if they or their spouse owned any 

rural land of ten acres or more. When a comparison was made between those 

reporting owning land and those who did not, little to no significant differences 

regarding forest values were evident. The single exception was that 

landowners rated wood products as a more important use for private forests 

than did non-landowners. Furthermore, there were no significant differences 

between the two groups in attitudes toward the environment. Overall, results 

suggest that land ownership has relatively little bearing on southern residents' 

values of forests or attitudes toward the environment. 

Attitudes--While values indicate the relative good or worth of forests, attitudes 

represent levels of agreement with particular forest conditions or 

environmental issues, such as regulatory laws or policies. Based on results 

from the survey done for the SFRA, a majority of Southerners felt that “too little” 

was being spent on protecting the environment (62.5 percent). Only 9.2 

percent reported they felt “too much” was being spent. Similarly regarding 

environmental laws, 45.5 percent indicated environmental laws had “not gone 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

418 ENVIORNMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

far enough”, while only 13.1 percent thought environmental laws had gone “too 

far.” An overall mean score of 23.8 on the modified New Ecological Paradigm 

used in the SFRA survey (midpoint of 30 with a range of 10, highly favorable, to 

50, highly unfavorable) suggests a moderately strong pro-environmental 

attitude among people of the South. 

Demographic Differences in Values and Attitudes--A number of comparisons of 

values were made between different social groups in the South. They included 

urban-rural, age, length of residency, and gender. These comparisons revealed 

that where people live in the South (urban or rural) is not related to their values 

or attitudes toward forests and the environment. However, age did influence 

public values toward forests and environmental attitudes. For private forests, 

younger people placed significantly less importance on wood products and 

significantly more on heritage than did the older generation. For public forests, 

the younger generation valued scenic beauty significantly higher than did the 

older generation. Younger people were significantly more likely than older 

people to believe we are spending too little to protect the environment, and that 

environmental laws have not gone far enough. Generally, younger people tend 

to have more bio-centric values of forests than older people. There were no 

significant correlations between length of residency in the South and values of 

public or private forests or environmental attitudes. Females exhibited 

significantly stronger pro-environmental attitudes than males, and were more 

likely than males to believe that we have spent too little on the environment; 

and to believe that environmental laws and regulations have not gone far 

enough (Cordell and Tarrant, 2002). 

Table 3-171. Percentage of local and regional residents 16 or older indicating 

the stated value is important (left of /) and percentage indicating extremely 

important (right of /) to emphasize in management of national forest lands, by 

CNF, Southern Appalachian Region and the U.S.A 

CherokeeNF 

(N=2352) 

Southern 

Appalachian 

Region 

United States 

Protect sources of clean 

water 94.8/87.3 94.0/86.3 94.1/82.7 

Maintain for future 

generations 93.1/85.1 92.7/83.7 92.5/80.4 

Provide protection for 

wildlife 88.9/74.1 88.8/72.4 88.0/69.4 

Emphasize healthy forests 88.3/71.7 87.7/70.5 n/a 

Leave them natural in 

appearance 88.6/71.2 85.9/68.6 85.6/64.3 

Protect rare or 

endangered species 83.6/71.1 83.1/69.7 84.7/67.1 

Provide information and 

educational services 80.0/56.7 80.1/55.9 79.1/52.5 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 419 

Table 3-171. Percentage of local and regional residents 16 or older indicating 

the stated value is important (left of /) and percentage indicating extremely 

important (right of /) to emphasize in management of national forest lands, by 

CNF, Southern Appalachian Region and the U.S.A 

CherokeeNF 

(N=2352) 

Southern 

Appalachian 

Region 

United States 

Protect sources of clean 

water 94.8/87.3 94.0/86.3 94.1/82.7 

Provide natural places for 

personal renewal 77.1/55.4 75.8/54.2 73.9/49.1 

Provide outdoor 

recreation 73.2/47.0 74.1/47.8 73.4/44.8 

Provide abundant timber 

supply 71.5/53.0 72.3/54.8 77.7/57.6 

Help local tourism 

businesses 54.1/33.1 57.3/36.0 56.0/31.1 

Permit grazing of livestock 42.5/25.1 45.2/26.5 49.8/28.0 

Provide raw materials and 

products for local 

industries 

35.1/20.2 38.7/22.3 45.1/24.9 

Sources: Public Survey Report, July 2002 and National Survey on Recreation 

and the Environment, Versions 6, 7 and 12. 

24.1.7 Priorities for Management of Private Land by Non-industrial 

Owners 

The SAA found that approximately 75 percent of the 37 million acres of the SAA 

region are privately owned. Of these 37 million acres approximately 19 million are 

forested acres. Three-fourths of the forest land in the region is privately owned. 

Agriculture and timber harvesting are the overwhelming primary commodity uses of 

private undeveloped land. Recreation is the dominant non-commodity use. Raising 

livestock, recreation, enjoyment of a rural lifestyle, and having green space are most 

often listed as important reasons for owning land in the Southern Appalachians. 

Private land dominates the South. Typically, corporate private owners provide 

recreation access by leasing their land to clubs, counties or others. Individual 

owners, however, usually open very little, if any, of their land to the public. Whether 

corporate or private, the number of landowners allowing public recreational access to 

their land has been decreasing over the years. It is expected that public access to 

private land will continue to decrease as more and more individuals and families 

purchase land for their own personal recreational pursuits. According to Cordell and 

Tarrant (2002). 

A highly significant and growing issue nationally and in the South is that of 

conflict. Conflicts limit supply and increase the costs of management. Conflicts 

addressed in the SFRA included those between similar uses because of 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

420 ENVIORNMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

crowding; conflicts between non-similar uses because of incompatible norms, 

values and goals; and conflicts between users and providers. 

Perhaps the most worrisome type of recreation conflict is that between users 

and owners of private tracts. These conflicts can and often do lead to posting 

and other ways of denying access, which act to limit supply. Because most of 

the forest-land in the South is privately owned, conflicts between recreational 

users and private forest-land owners are especially significant. Results from 

the 1995 National Private Landowner Survey, NPLOS 95.... suggest a number 

of possibilities for owner-user conflict. For example, about 59 percent of 

individual southern landowners indicate that improving wildlife, water, 

aesthetics and other natural components of their land is an important 

emphasis in their land management. Because landowners sometimes 

encounter use problems they may perceive to be incompatible with their 

conservation goals, land closure can result. The more prominent of such 

problems include dumping garbage, littering, illegal hunting and fishing, 

damage to fences and gates, damage to roads, disturbance of wildlife, and 

careless shooting. 

Not all, maybe not even most, of these problems are the result of recreation 

use, although owners perceive them to be. As of 1995, about 41 percent of 

owners in the South posted their land. Among owners who already post some 

or all of their land, 16 percent anticipate posting more in the future. Very few 

anticipate posting less. Increasing demands for off-road vehicle use, hunting, 

fishing, and other of the more consumptive recreational activities are likely to 

bring about more recreation participant-land owner conflicts. In part as a 

response, many of the higher-income residents of the South are purchasing 

their own land for personal recreational pursuits. Very often these purchased 

lands end up being posted. 

24.2.0 Direct/Indirect/Cumulative Effects 

24.2.1 Social Impacts 

During the forest planning process, numerous public meetings were held to give 

interested people and parties an opportunity to express their wants, needs and 

demands in regards to use of, access to and management of the resources of the 

CNF. Many of these views were incorporated into the range of alternatives. These 

public meetings, however, represented only a portion of the interests of the overall 

publics. The so-called “silent majority,” those who could not or did not attend these 

meetings, were not represented. In order to gain input from this broader public, 

Region 8 commissioned the Southern Research Station to undertake a random 

telephone survey of the population within a 75-mile radius of the national forests that 

are under forest plan revision. This survey provided input from people that might not 

otherwise be heard concerning what they would like to see emphasized in national 

forest management (Cordell et. al, 2002). 

As noted previously, people that reside in areas near the CNF clearly put ecosystems 

and naturalness above utilitarian objectives in the management of the forest. Table 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 421 

B-144 in Appendix B lists 26 objectives of which all or any portion of which could be 

emphasized in the management of the CNF. The top seven management objectives, 

which over half of the respondents indicated to be extremely important, were as 

follows: 

Protect areas that are sources of water, such as streams, lakes and 

watersheds (79.2% indicated it is extremely important). 

Protect areas that are important wildlife habitats (74.5%). 

Protect old growth forest and allow natural processes to continue into the 

future (67.4%). 

Manage the forest to provide habitat for wildlife and birds for people to view 

and photograph (61.4%). 

Use controlled fire to reduce the threat of wildfires or to improve wildlife 

habitat conditions (53.4%). 

Allow different groups such as Native Americans to continue cultural uses of 

the forest (53.3%). 

Restrict mining, oil drilling, and other mineral removal (51.6%). 

The lowest seven objectives by percentage that voted them extremely important are 

as follows in order from least to greatest importance: 

Allow commercial leasing of oil and gas rights (11.2% rated it extremely 

important). 

Allow recreational gold prospecting and dredging (12%). 

Expand access for motorized off-highway vehicles (12.4%). 

Allow harvesting and mining to support local communities (18.5%). 

Expand commercial recreation opportunities (19.1%). 

Provide new paved roads for cars (19.5%). 

Allow trading of public for private land (23.2%). 

All of the bottom-ranked objectives are utilitarian in nature and three of the seven are 

extractive. Two of these lowest ranked objectives pertain to motorized uses of both 

on and off highway vehicles. Four of the seven are predominately commercial uses. 

The following section summarizes the alternatives and rates, relative to all 

alternatives, their potential for meeting the management objectives deemed most 

important in the Public Survey: 

Alternative F (current alternative): This alternative primarily promotes a 

program of timber management, with the continued management of 

concentrated recreation areas, as well as management of streams and riparian 

areas, wildlife, and threatened and endangered species. Of all alternatives, 

Alternative F provides medium to low potential to fulfill the seven highest 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

422 ENVIORNMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

management objectives deemed extremely important by the public in the Public 

Survey. 

Alternative A: This alternative emphasizes timber management for the 

sustained yield of wood products and an increase in commercial recreation and 

increased public access to forest, including off-highway vehicle trails, to provide 

more recreation opportunities to the public. Watersheds, water quality, and 

aquatic habitats would be restored or improved. A “natural” looking forest 

landscape would be provided for the public. Areas adjacent to existing 

wilderness would be recommended for wilderness designation. Relative to the 

other alternatives, Alternative A provides medium to low potential to fulfill the 

seven highest management objectives deemed extremely important by the 

public in the Public Survey. 

Alternative B: This alternative emphasizes restoring the natural resources of 

the forest and maintaining a mixture of wildlife habitats through management 

activity, for which timber production would be a tool. Recreation settings would 

occur in areas in which they would be compatible with forest restoration 

activities. Riparian areas would be managed to maintain water quality and 

restore watersheds. Scenic integrity in this alternative would be low to 

moderate with the implementation of this program. Roadless areas would not 

be recommended for wilderness. Invasive species and diseases would be 

actively managed under this alternative. Alternative B, as compared to all 

alternatives, provides medium to high potential to fulfill the seven highest 

management objectives deemed extremely important by the public in the Public 

Survey. 

Alternative D: This alternative emphasizes timber management of the forest on 

a rotation basis. Of all the alternatives, this alternative proposes the least 

“naturalness” of the forest. Recreation, stream restoration, water quality, 

threatened and endangered species are not emphasized. “Old growth,” semiprimitive areas, and roadless areas would be only those areas determined 

unsuitable for timber production. Insects, diseases and exotic plants and 

animals would be actively managed. Among all the alternatives, Alternative D 

has the lowest potential to fulfill the seven highest management objectives 

deemed extremely important by the public in the Public Survey. 

Alternative E: This alternative emphasizes a combination of hunting, wildlife, 

and timber management. A natural setting and an increase in concentrated 

and dispersed recreation facilities and off-highway vehicle trails would be 

provided that could attract a variety of recreation users. The forest would be 

managed for a variety of wildlife habitats, including ruffled grouse. Riparian 

areas would be designated and protected. A “natural” forest viewshed would 

be maintained for the public. Among all the alternatives, Alternative E has 

medium potential to fulfill the seven highest management objectives deemed 

extremely important by the public in the Public Survey. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 423 

Alternative G: Of all the alternatives, this alternative proposes the least overall 

management activity on the forest. Large contiguous areas of the forest would 

be maintained for movement corridors, threatened and endangered species 

and watershed restoration. Most roadless areas would be recommended for 

wilderness. Emphasis would be on the recovery of proposed, threatened, 

endangered, sensitive, and rare species. Recreation activities would occur 

within the context of ecosystem needs and function. Semi-primitive, wildlife 

and nature-oriented recreation activities would be emphasized. Developed 

recreation facilities would occur only where they did not conflict with ecosystem 

function. Exotic pests and diseases would be controlled. A “natural” appearing 

forest landscape would be maintained. Watersheds would be managed for 

water quality. Relative to the other alternatives, Alternative G has the highest 

potential to fulfill the seven highest management objectives deemed extremely 

important by the public in the Public Survey. 

Alternative I: This alternative proposes the most management activity on the 

forest of all the alternatives. This includes a program of active timber 

production over large areas of the forest, the most off-highway vehicle trails, 

and the largest amount of dispersed recreation areas. Under this program of 

timber/wildlife/vegetation management the forest would include a variety of 

“early, middle, and late succession” forest habitats, as well as large areas in 

which restoration of plant associations would occur. Areas of the forest would 

be managed for sensitive, threatened, and endangered species. There would 

be a decrease in concentrated recreation areas, but a marked increase in 

scenic byways and scenic corridors, the view sheds of which would provide a 

general “natural” appearing forest landscape. In comparison to the other 

alternatives, Alternative I has medium to low potential to fulfill the seven 

highest management objectives deemed extremely important by the public in 

the Public Survey. 

24.2.2 Economic Impacts 

Economic impacts of each proposed alternative are given in the tables below. Table 

3-172 illustrates how the proposed alternatives differ from the current management 

direction (Alternative F) by jobs. Due to substitution effects from competing nongovernment sources, these jobs are characterized as being associated with local 

economic activity initiated by Forest Service programs and activities, rather than 

caused by these activities. 

Table 3-172. Employment by Program by Alternative (Average Annual, Decade 1) 

 Total Number of Jobs Contributed 

Resource Current Alt A Alt B Alt D Alt E Alt G Alt I 

Recreation 1,167 1,318 1,170 1,185 1,327 1,202 1,274

Wildlife and Fish 112 129 112 113 127 114 122

Grazing 0000000

Timber 2,442 1,252 1,350 2,361 320 702 1,398
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

424 ENVIORNMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Table 3-172. Employment by Program by Alternative (Average Annual, Decade 1) 

 Total Number of Jobs Contributed 

Minerals 0000000

Payments to States/Counties 262 136 146 252 36 77 151

Forest Service Expenditures 437 528 439 444 503 468 476

Total Forest Management 4,420 3,363 3,218 4,355 2,314 2,562 3,420

Percent Change from Current --- -23.9% -27.2% -1.5% -47.7% -42.0% -22.6%

Employment changes from the current situation range from a decrease of 47.7 

percent for Alternative E to a decrease of 1.5 percent for Alternative D. Jobs vary 

from a low of 2,314 for Alternative E to a maximum of 4,420 under Alternative F, the 

current alternative. Timber and recreation provide the most jobs in the economy in 

all alternatives, except for Alternative E where Forest Service Expenditures provides 

more jobs than timber. In all alternatives, minerals and grazing provided no jobs. 

Either Wildlife and Fish or Payments to States and Counties provided the next least 

employment.. 

Labor income by alternative is given in Table 3-173 below. The current direction 

alternative has $108.9 million of labor income associated with it, which is the 

greatest amount of any alternative. Alternative D follows closely behind with $108.0 

million. Alternative E, with $49.1 million, has the lowest amount of income 

connected to it. The percent changes in income from current direction are decreases 

for all alternatives and are, in descending order, 54.9 percent for Alternative E, 47.1 

percent for Alternative G, 29.3 percent for Alternative B, 28.4 percent for 

Alternative A, 25.9 percent for Alternative I, and 0.9 percent for Alternative D. 

Timber contributes more income to the CNF total in five of the seven alternatives 

(Current, B, A, D, I) while Recreation contributes the most in the remining two (E and 

G). 

Table 3-173. Labor Income by Program by Alternative (Average Annual, Decade 1;

$1,000,000) 

 Millions of dollars 

Resource Current Alt A Alt B Alt D Alt E Alt G Alt I 

Recreation $24.2 $27.3 $24.3 $24.6 $27.5 $24.9 $26.4

Wildlife and Fish $2.4 $2.8 $2.4 $2.5 $2.8 $2.5 $2.7

Grazing $0.0 $0.0 $0.0 $0.0 $0.0 $0.0 $0.0

Timber $65.1 $33.3 $36.0 $62.9 $8.5 $18.7 $37.3

Minerals $0.0 $0.0 $0.0 $0.0 $0.0 $0.0 $0.0

Payments to 

States/Counties $8.4 $4.3 $4.7 $8.0 $1.1 $2.4 $4.8

Forest Service 

Expenditures $8.9 $10.2 $9.7 $9.9 $9.2 $9.0 $9.6

Total Forest 

M t

$108.9 $78.0 $77.0 $108.0 $49.1 $57.6 $80.7
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 425 

Table 3-173. Labor Income by Program by Alternative (Average Annual, Decade 1;

$1,000,000) 

 Millions of dollars 

Resource Current Alt A Alt B Alt D Alt E Alt G Alt I 

Management 

Percent Change from

Current --- -28.4% -29.3% -0.9% -54.9% -47.1% -25.9%

Employment and income found in Table 3-172 and Table 3-173 respectively, are 

divided into the major sectors of the CNF economy in Table 3-174 and Table 3-175. 

Although there is some variance in the order, Manufacturing, Services, Retail Trade 

and Government are the four sectors most affected by Forest Service programs and 

expeditures for all alternatives. Except for Alternative E and G, manufacturing is the 

sector most affected by Forest Service programs and expenditures and Services is 

the second most affected sector. For Alternatives E and G, Services occupies the top 

positon with Retail Trade in second. Government is the fourth most affected sector in 

all alternatives. Agriculture, Mining and miscellaneous are the sectors the least 

affected by the Forest Service programs and expenditures. Labor income in the form 

of wages and proprietors’ earnings, has a similar effect as employment on the 

Manufacturing, Services, Retail Trade and Government sectors of this economy. 

Table 3-174. Employment by Major Industry by Alternative (Average Annual,

Decade 1) 

 Total Number of Jobs Contributed 

Industry Current Alt A Alt B Alt D Alt E Alt G Alt I 

Agriculture 117 87 85 116 59 66 90

Mining 898998 9

Construction 111 68 70 108 33 45 73

Manufacturing 1,548 838 889 1,500 275 498 924

Transportation, 

Communication, & 

Utilities 145 98 98 142 57 70 103

Wholesale trade 143 105 102 141 70 79 108

Retail trade 790 743 684 793 649 631 735

Finance, Insurance,

& Real Estate 113 82 80 112 52 61 84

Services 920 804 753 921 652 659 803

Government 

(Federal, State, & 

Local) 511 519 440 501 453 437 483

Miscellaneous 13 9 9 12 6 7 9

Total Forest 

Management 4,420 3,363 3,218 4,355 2,314 2,562 3,420
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

426 ENVIORNMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Table 3-174. Employment by Major Industry by Alternative (Average Annual,

Decade 1) 

 Total Number of Jobs Contributed 

Industry Current Alt A Alt B Alt D Alt E Alt G Alt I 

Percent Change 

from Current --- -23.9% -27.2% -1.5% -47.7% -42.0% -22.6%

Forest Service revenues from program activities that result in payments to States and 

Counties are expected to decrease from the current direction for all proposed 

alternatives. The magnitude of payments to counties expected in the first decade is 

shown in Table 3-176 below. Payments to the counties within the CNF boundaries 

would range from a high of $10.7 million for the current alternative to a low of $1.5 

million for Alternative E. For the other alternatives, the payments to counties are as 

follows: $10.3 million for Alternative D to $6.1 million for Alternative I to $5.9 

million for Alternative B, $5.5 million for Alternative A and $3.1 million for 

Alternative G. 

Table 3-175. Labor Income by Major Industry by Alternative (Average Annual, Decade

1; $1,000,000) 

 Millions of dollars 

Industry Current Alt A Alt B Alt D Alt E Alt G Alt I 

Agriculture $2.2 $1.3 $1.3 $2.1 $0.6 $0.8 $1.4

Mining $0.1 $0.1 $0.1 $0.1 $0.1 $0.1 $0.1

Construction $3.8 $2.3 $2.4 $3.7 $1.1 $1.5 $2.5

Manufacturing $40.3 $22.6 $23.7 $39.1 $8.5 $13.9 $24.7

Transportation, 

Communication, & Utilities $5.9 $4.0 $4.0 $5.8 $2.3 $2.9 $4.2

Wholesale trade $5.1 $3.8 $3.7 $5.1 $2.5 $2.8 $3.9

Retail trade $14.0 $13.0 $12.0 $14.0 $11.2 $11.0 $12.9

Finance, Insurance, & Real 

Estate $3.2 $2.3 $2.3 $3.2 $1.4 $1.7 $2.4

Services $22.1 $17.9 $17.1 $22.1 $13.3 $14.1 $18.1

Government (Federal, State, & 

Local) $12.2 $10.7 $10.4 $12.7 $8.0 $8.7 $10.5

Miscellaneous $0.1 $0.1 $0.1 $0.1 $0.0 $0.1 $0.1

Total Forest Management $108.9 $78.0 $77.0$108.0 $49.1 $57.6 $80.7

Percent Change from Current ----28.4%-29.3% -0.9%-54.9%-47.1%-25.9%
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 427 

Table 3-176. Forest Service Revenues and Payments to Counties (Annual Avg, Decade 1; $1,000,000)

Forest Service Program Current Alt A Alt B Alt D Alt E Alt G Alt I 

Recreation $0.1 $0.1 $0.1 $0.1 $0.1 $0.1 $0.1

Wildlife and Fish $0.0 $0.0 $0.0 $0.0 $0.0 $0.0 $0.0

Grazing $0.0 $0.0 $0.0 $0.0 $0.0 $0.0 $0.0

Timber $42.4 $21.8 $23.5 $40.8 $5.6 $12.2 $24.3

Minerals $0.0 $0.0 $0.0 $0.0 $0.0 $0.0 $0.0

Soil, Water & Air $0.0 $0.0 $0.0 $0.0 $0.0 $0.0 $0.0

Protection $0.1 $0.1 $0.1 $0.1 $0.1 $0.1 $0.1

Total Revenues $42.6 $22.1 $23.8 $41.0 $5.8 $12.5 $24.5

Payment to States/Counties $10.7 $5.5 $5.9 $10.3 $1.5 $3.1 $6.1

Finally, Table 3-177 below illustrates the percentage contribution of the CNF’s 

current management program (Alternative F) to the area’s economy. The CNF is 

associated with 1.5 percent of the total local economy’s jobs, and 1.3 percent of the 

labor income. Manufacturing, Services, Retail Trade and Government are the sectors 

of the economy that show the most benefit from the forest’s activities. 

Table 3-177. Current Role of Forest Service-Related Contributions to the Area 

Economy 

 Employment (jobs) Labor Income ($ million) 

Industry Area Totals FS-Related Area Totals FS-Related 

Agriculture 18,056 117 $107.2 $2.2

Mining 476 8 $16.8 $0.1

Construction 22,997 111 $677.9 $3.8

Manufacturing 65,107 1,548 $2,684.5 $40.3

Transportation, 

Communication, & Utilities

10,588 145 $405.8 $5.9

Wholesale trade 9,520 143 $301.6 $5.1

Retail trade 52,977 790 $897.7 $14.0

Finance, Insurance, & 

Real Estate 

12,507 113 $316.7 $3.2

Services 72,745 920 $2,094.9 $22.1

Government (Federal, 

State, & Local) 

33,655 511 $1,047.5 $12.2

Miscellaneous 1,633 13 $12.5 $0.1

Total 300,260 4,420 $8,563.0 $108.9

Percent of Total 100.0% 1.5% 100.0% 1.3%
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

428 ENVIORNMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Timber and recreation are the CNF’s main contributors to the local economy in terms 

of employment and labor income except for Alternative E where timber is surpassed 

by Forest Service Expenditures. Timber provides at least 14 percent and as much as 

60 percent of the employment and labor income from the resources provided by the 

Cherokee National Forest while Recreation provides at least 22 percent and as much 

as 57 percent. In short, commodity-oriented alternatives have a greater effect on the 

economy of the analysis area. However, substitutions may occur in certain sectors, 

such as those related to the timber program, where non-government owners could 

supply the timber demanded in the local economy. Therefore, there would likely be 

no loss of jobs or income from a reduced federal timber program. The private sector 

can also provide recreational opportunites but they could not do so to the same 

degree or with the same scope as a Federal land management agency. Indeed, it is a 

goal of the Cherokee National Forest to provide a spectrum of recreation in a setting 

that is not available in the private sector. 

Present Net Value of the Alternatives 

Table 3-178 shows estimated benefits, costs, net benefits, and cumulative present 

net value (PNV) by alternative. All figures are in 2000 dollars. The benefits in Table 

3-178 include market values and non-market estimated values. Market values 

include those values where the Forest Service receives money such as for timber, 

range, special uses, etc. Non-market values are estimated values for amenities such 

as wildlife and recreation, which, for all alternatives, provide the greatest amount of 

benefits. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

DRAFT ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT 

STATEMENT 429 

Table 3-178. Cumulative Decadal Present Values of Costs and Benefits in Thousands of Year 2000 Dol Alt A Alt B Alt D Alt E Alt F Alt G Cumulative Total Present Net Value $2,331,442 $2,004,959 $2,032,321 $2,299,340 $1,990,286 $2,057,6Present Value benefits by Program: Range $0 $0 $0 $0 $0 Timber $63,903 $71,137 $118,169 $16,247 $49,300 $38,3Minerals $25 $25 $25 $25 $25 $Recreation $972,889 $856,441 $864,753 $962,600 $851,461 $883,3Wildlife $1,588,631 $1,374,639 $1,388,242 $1,560,003 $1,374,639 $1,394,9PV of Benefits $2,625,447 $2,302,241 $2,371,189 $2,538,874 $2,275,425 $2,316,7Present Value costs by Program: Range $0 $0 $0 $0 $0 Timber $30,352 $34,085 $57,576 $6,801 $22,398 $17,4Roads/Engineering $62,567 $64,425 $84,045 $50,251 $83,264 $52,6Minerals $1,413 $1,413 $1,413 $1,413 $1,413 $1,4Recreation $42,038 $37,676 $37,676 $41,989 $37,676 $37,6Wildlife $74,225 $77,318 $74,225 $55,669 $61,854 $68,0Soil, Water, Air $5,290 $4,245 $5,812 $5,290 $5,290 $3,7Protection/Forest Health $46,771 $46,771 $46,771 $46,771 $46,771 $46,7Lands $13,521 $13,521 $13,521 $13,521 $13,521 $13,5Planning, Inv., Monitoring $17,829 $17,829 $17,829 $17,829 $12,953 $17,8PV Costs $294,006 $297,283 $338,868 $239,534 $285,139 $259,0
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

430 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Alternative F (current alternative): This alternative has the lowest PNV because it has 

the lowest PV benefits. This is primarily the result of having the lowest recreation 

benefits of all the alternatives and the lowest wildlife benefits of all alternatives with 

the exception of Alternative B, which has the same amount of benefits. 

Alternative A: This alternative has the highest PNV. With its emphasis on the 

production of goods and services beneficial to local economies and communities and 

the concomitant higher recreation and wildlife benefits, this alternative provides the 

highest total PV benefits. 

Alternative B: With an emphasis on natural resources and creating and maintaining 

wildlife habitats, this alternative has the highest wildlife costs of all alternatives with 

the exception of Alternative I, which has the same amount of wildife costs. Overall, 

this alternative ranks sixth in terms of Total PNV, sixth in terms of total PV benefits 

and third in terms of PV costs. 

Alternative D: This alternative provides the fifth highest Total PNV. While in terms of 

total benefits this alternative ranks fourth, it has the greatest total costs. This high 

cost is primarily due to this alternative’s emphasis on increased timber production. 

Alternative E: This alternative with its emphasis on a variety of recreation uses, has 

both relatively high PV benefits and PV costs in regards to recreation. However, the 

overall PV costs are the lowest of all the alternatives primarily due to a substantially 

lowered cost of the timber program. Since timber output would be reduced there 

would not be as great a need for road construction and as a result, roads and 

engineering costs would also be lower than for the other alternatives. 

Alternative G: This alternative provides more PNV than Alternatives B, D and F but 

less than Alternatives A, E and I. It ranks fifth in terms of total PV benefits and sixth in 

regards to PV costs. 

Alternative I: This alternative provides more Total PNV than Alternatives B, D, F and G 

but less than Alternatives A and E. With regard to PV benefits it ranks third and with 

regard to costs it ranks second. 

By maintaining a forest ecosystem, the CNF also provides the public with many 

valuable, non-market/non-priced resource benefits that are not considered in the 

PNV analysis. These benefits are not available, or are of limited availability, on other 

lands, particularly private lands. These include: a forested landscape with high visual 

quality; clean water resources; and habitat for a wide range of forest plant and 

animal species. These values also are most beneficial to recreation and wildlife, the 

resources that provide the most benefit to the Forest Service. In assessing these 

non-market/non-priced resource benefits according to acreage proposed for 

management of these benefits (i.e., recreation and wildlife - concentrated and 

dispersed recreation, watershed restoration and protection, scenic corridors, and 

wildlife management) by alternative, Alternative I provides the most overall benefits, 

Alternative B the least benefits, and the remaining alternatives, approximately the 

same benefits. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 431 

Cumulative Effects 

Cumulative effects analysis is designed to reveal the context of alternative impacts 

within the planning area and over time. This is done by comparing total changes in 

the planning area with each alternative to total changes with no action. Such a 

comparison is done by estimating employment and income at the expected end of 

the forest planning horizon (15 years) and calculating the share of the total economy 

that each alternative represents of the entire economy. Estimates for employment 

and income growth were derived by calculating the average annual increase in 

employment and the real average annual income growth for counties in the analysis 

area from 1969 to 2000 using U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis county-level data 

(www.bea.doc.gov). 

The analysis assumes that the underlying economic relationships are held constant 

at the year 2000 levels. Forest Service data related to Forest Service programs are 

for the fifteen year planning horizon. Also, the assumption made is our analysis is 

that the same rate of growth experienced during the 1969 to 2000 time period will 

continue over the fifteen years of the forest plan. 

Table 3-179 displays the cumulative effects results using employment and labor 

income for the planning area. The first two columns present the 2000 base year 

data for the planning area and the portion of the base year attributable to use and 

management of the national forest. The next column shows projections made for 

2015. Included in the projections are employment and income effects attributed to 

the current direction (or no action) alternative. The remaining columns of the table 

show the cumulative effects for each alternative over the planning horizon, which 

ends in 2015. Forest program outputs for each alternative are for the 15-year 

planning horizon. 

In 2000 management of the national forest accounted for 1.8 percent of all 

employment under the no action alternative and 1.5 percent in 2015 for the no 

action alternative. For the proposed alternatives in the EIS, expected shares of the 

economy will range from 0.8 percent of the economy for Alternative E to 1.4 for 

Alternative D. The selected alternative, Alternative I, shows a 1.13 share of the local 

economy in 2015. 

Employment changes in 2015 from the no action alternative range from -1.47 

percent for Alternative D to -47.7 percent for Alternative E. The selected alternative I 

shows a -22.6 percent change.- 

In 2000 management of the national forest accounted for 1.7 percent of all labor 

income under the no action alternative and 1.2 percent in 2015 for the no action 

alternative. For the proposed alternatives in the EIS, expected shares of the 

economy will range from 0.6 percent of the economy for Alternative E to 1.2 for 

Alternative D. Alternative I, which is the selected alternative, shows a 0.91 percent 

share of the local economy in 2015. 

Income changes in 2015 from the no action alternative range from -0.9 percent for 

Alternative D to -54.9 percent for Alternative E. There is a -25.90 percent change for 

Alternative I. 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

432 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

The cumulative effects analysis shows that over time employment and income 

proportionate share of the economy that is attributable to national forest program 

management will decline for all alternatives. Alternative F, the no-action or current 

direction alternative will be the largest contributor to the economy. 

Table 3-179. Cumulative Economic Impacts in 2015 

2000 2015 

Forest Portion Economic 

Indicator Area 

Totals 

Forest 

Portion 

Area 

Totals Alt F Alt A Alt B Alt D Alt E Alt G Alt I 

Employment 

Total (jobs) 245,279 4,420 303,499 4,420 3,363 3,218 4,355 2,314 2,562 3,420

% or Area 

Totals 100% 1.8% 100% 1.5% 1.1% 1.1% 1.4% 0.8% 0.8% 1.1%

% Change 

from No 

Action 

--- --- --- 0.0% 23.9% 27.2% 1.5% 47.7% 42.0% 22.6%

Labor Income 

Total ($ 

million) $6,438.0 $108.9 $8,843.0 $108.9 $78.0 $77.0 $108.0 $49.1 $57.6 $80.7

% of Base 100% 1.7% 100% 1.2% 0.9% 0.9% 1.2% 0.6% 0.7% 0.9%

% Change 

from No 

Action 

0.0% -28.4% -29.3% -0.9% -1.2% -47.1% -25.9%

UNAVOIDABLE ADVERSE EFFECTS

Implementation of any alternative would result in some adverse environmental 

effects that cannot be avoided. The application of the management prescriptions, 

standards, best management practices (BMP’s), and monitoring and evaluation are 

intended to limit the extent, severity, and duration of these effects. Although the 

formulation of the alternatives included avoidance of potential adverse 

environmental effects, some adverse impacts to the environment that cannot be 

completely mitigated are expected to occur. 

Some adverse effects are of a transitory type. For example, air quality could be 

diminished on a recurring, though temporary, basis due to the use of prescribed fire 

used to restore plant communities or enhance wildlife habitat. Even though 

standards require prescribed burning to be scheduled for times when weather 

conditions would provide for smoke dispersion, the presence of smoke and haze over 

or adjacent to the CNF would detract from people’s expectation of clean air. 

Recreation traffic, timber hauling, and the operation of other internal combustion 

engines, could have localized and temporary adverse effects on air quality where 

these activities occur. 

The natural landscape would appear altered by management activities, particularly 

where activity is highly visible from travel routes. Prescribed burning in forest 

communities and their blackened appearance would also be apparent. These 

temporary adverse effects would eventually be reduced by regrowth of vegetation 

and weathering. Other impacts on the natural appearance of the landscape include 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 433 

roads and certain recreational structures that are highly visible despite efforts to 

blend them with landforms and mitigate the effect by landscaping. 

In inventoried roadless areas, management activities that would maintain roadless 

character such as wildlife habitat manipulations and some associated temporary 

road construction, recreational trails, or other purposes could have an adverse effect 

on the potential future management of these areas as designated wilderness, as 

research natural areas, or for other purposes requiring natural characteristics. 

Disturbance, displacement, or loss of fish and wildlife may occur as a consequence 

of habitat loss and increased human recreational activity in areas. Roads and their 

associated use can impact fish and wildlife due to human activities associated with 

new access. Improved access into areas that previously had low-standard roads 

would have similar effects. Other wildlife use could increase by increased 

management. 

Both the amount and distribution of mature stands would be changed through 

implementation of any alternative. The rate and severity of adverse impacts varies 

by alternative. Some wildlife species rely on habitat conditions provided by late 

successional habitats, a reduction or shift in the populations (range) of some wildlife 

species can be expected. 

Although standards, BMPS, and monitoring plans are designed to prevent significant 

impacts to soil and water, the potential for impacts does exist. Sediment production 

could exceed natural rates in locations as long as roads are being built or 

maintained, management activities that include harvesting and removal of timber, 

dispersed and developed recreation continues along riparian corridors, and forest 

communities/habitats are restored. Sediment would result from surface erosion, 

channel erosion, and mass movement. 

Fire hazard and resistance to control would increase subsequently to designating 

more areas to either wilderness or allocations that would not be favorable to 

management activities, this would result in increased accumulation of forest 

residues. The potential for these adverse impacts increases relative to the lack of 

emphasis on management activities in the alternatives being considered. Wildfire 

risk would increase where access results in more people being drawn into an area. 

Some risk would be mitigated by early detection, suppression, and prevention 

methods. Long-term increases in fuel hazard would be mitigated through fuels 

management activities that are responsive to forest health management objectives. 

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SHORT-TERM USES AND LONG-TERM PRODUCTIVITY

NEPA requires consideration of the “relationship between short-term uses of man’s 

environment and the maintenance and enhancement of long-term productivity” (40 

CFR 1502.16). As declared by Congress, this includes using all practicable means 

and measures, including the financial and technical assistance, in a manner 

calculated to foster and promote the general welfare, to create and maintain 

conditions under which man and nature can exist in productive harmony, and fulfill 

the social, economic, and other requirements of present and future generations of 

Americans (NEPA Section 101). 
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

434 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

The relationship between the short-term uses of man’s environment and the 

maintenance and enhancement of long-term productivity is complex. 

Short-term uses are those that generally occur annually on parts of the CNF, such as 

prescribed burning and dispersed recreational camping. 

Long-term refers to longer than a 10-year period, and productivity is the capability of 

the land to provide market and amenity outputs and values for future generations. 

Soil and water are the primary factors of productivity and represent the relationship 

between short-term uses and long-term productivity. The quality of life for future 

generations would be determined by the capability of the land to maintain its 

productivity. By law, the Forest Service must ensure that land allocations and 

permitted activities do not significantly impair the long-term productivity of the land. 

The alternatives considered in detail, including the selected alternative, incorporate 

the concept of sustained yield of resource outputs while maintaining the productivity 

of all resources. The specific direction and mitigation measures included in the 

Forestwide management standards ensure that long-term productivity would not be 

impaired by the application of short-term management practices. 

Each alternative Forest Plan was analyzed using the Spectrum linear programming 

model (See Appendix B – Description of the Analysis Process), to ensure that the 

minimum standards could be met. The alternative was changed if some aspect did 

not meet any of the minimum standards. Through this analysis, long-term 

productivity of the CNF’s ecosystems is assured for all alternatives. 

As stated earlier, the effects of short-term or long-term uses are extremely complex, 

and depend on management objectives and the resources that are emphasized. No 

alternative would be detrimental to the long-range productivity of the CNF. 

The management prescriptions and the effects of implementing the revised LMP 

would be monitored to provide data that ensures satisfying standards for long-term 

productivity. Monitoring requirements and standards would apply to all alternatives, 

and are included in Chapter 5 of the revised Forest Plan. 

IRREVERSIBLE/IRRETRIEVABLE COMMITMENT OF RESOURCES

Irreversible commitments of resources are those that cannot be regained, such as 

the extinction of a species or the removal of mined ore. Irretrievable commitments 

are those that are lost for a period of time such as the temporary loss of timber 

productivity in forested areas that are kept clear for use as a power line ROW or road. 

An irreversible commitment of resources results from a decision to use or modify 

resources that is renewable only over a long period of time, such as soil productivity; 

or nonrenewable resources, such as cultural resources or minerals. The revised 

Forest Plan and the alternatives examined were all based on the principles of 

multiple use and long-term productivity for all resources. Measures to protect natural 

resources that could be irreversibly affected by management activities were 

incorporated into Forestwide standards. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 3 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 435 

Irretrievable commitment of resources is the production of renewable resources lost 

due to allocation decisions that forgoes the production or use of renewable 

resources. Allocation decisions that do not allow for the production or use of most 

renewable resources for relatively long periods of time include those that establish 

wilderness, roadless, scenic areas, wild and scenic rivers, recreation sites, and the 

construction of new roads. The total number of acres committed to these uses 

remains essentially the same for all alternatives, although the types of allocated uses 

vary. By contrast, non-wilderness allocation for areas is considered an irretrievable 

loss of increased wilderness opportunities. Tradeoffs between wilderness, roadless, 

and other uses are discussed previously in Chapter 3. 

Under a given alternative, differences between output levels and the higher levels 

that otherwise could be produced also represent irretrievable commitment of 

resources. For example, a low level of forage use for livestock grazing or a low level 

of timber yield could be increased in the future, based on different management 

prescriptions, but the outputs between now and then would be “lost ” or not available 

for use. The production thus lost would be irretrievable, but the action is not 

irreversible. 

Archeological resources are part of an absolutely nonrenewable and irreplaceable 

resource base. Once disturbed, for whatever reason, the impacted portion of a 

property cannot be replaced or repaired, even though controlled data recording 

techniques may recover part of the information contained in the damaged site. 

Archeological surveys and evaluations routinely use small shovel tests or larger 

excavations to address research designs or potential. These excavations represent 

the controlled destruction of a portion of an archeological site. The results of such 

excavations are an irreversible effect. This is balanced by using conventional, 

accepted archeological techniques and methods with a commitment to high 

standards. 

Any other resource management action or result, whether planned or inadvertent, 

that diminishes the character or integrity of a heritage property, has irreversibly 

committed a portion of that site’s value. 

INCOMPLETE OR UNAVAILABLE INFORMATION

The CNF has used the most current scientific information available and state-of-theart analytical tools to evaluate management activities and to estimate their 

environmental effects. 

However, gaps exist in our knowledge. The Council on Environmental Quality 

regulations discuss the process for evaluating incomplete and unavailable 

information (40 CFR 1502.22 (a) and (b)). Incomplete or unavailable information is 

noted in this chapter for each resource, where applicable. 

Forest Plan monitoring is designed to evaluate assumptions and predicted effects. 

Should new information become available, the need to change management 

direction or amend the LMP would be determined through the monitoring and 

evaluation process.
CHAPTER 3 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

436 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE

A specific consideration of equity and fairness in resource decision-making is 

encompassed with the concerns of environmental justice. As required by Executive 

Order 12898, all federal actions must consider potentially disproportionate effects 

on minority or low-income communities. Principles for considering environmental 

justice are outlined in Environmental Justice Guidance under the National 

Environmental Policy Act (Council on Environmental Quality 1997). Those principles 

were considered in this analysis. 

The Economic and Social Environment section identified the demographics of 

minorities and low-income populations and the environmental effects of the 

alternatives. There are no disporoportionately adverse environmental or health 

effects to low-income or minority populations. Public involvement during plan 

revision was inclusive (refer to Appendix A – Summary of Public Involvement). 

Environmental Justice issues are typically found in connection with proposals having 

adverse environmental effects that may affect public health. Those kinds of effects 

are less likely in a forest plan decision because a plan revision does not normally 

include site-specific projects or effects. 
ENVRIONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 437 

CHAPTER 4: PREPARERS

CORE INTERDISCIPLINARY TEAM

INTERDISCIPLINARY TEAM MEMBERS

J.R. Anderson : Team Leader, B.S. Forestry, M.F. Forest Management, 22 years 

experience in recreation, special uses, land management planning. 

Ed Brown: Forester, BS in Forest Management, 27 years experience in Forest 

Management/Silviculture. 

Doug Byerly: Recreation Program Manager/Landscape Architect, B.S. Ornamental 

Horticulture & Landscape Design, Master of Landscape architecture, 10 years 

experience in landscape design/planning and facility construction. 

Jack Coleman: Recreation Specialist; Retired 

Delce Dyer: Landscape Architect/Recreation Planner, acting Recreation Program 

Manager; B.S., History/Historic Preservation; M.L.A., Landscape Architecture; 27 

years experience in landscape design/planning/management, historic 

preservation, interpretation and recreation. 

James Ehrlich: Data analyst, B.A., Mathematics/History, M.A., History, M.A.T., 

Physics, Kootenai National Forest: Computer Specialist, (Engineering), 8.5 years. 

Cherokee National Forest: Computer Specialist, (Engineering/Recreation), 1.5 

years. Responsible for data management and analysis relative to the 

development and operation of the Spectrum model. 

Roger Fryar: Silviculturist, BS Forestry, Region 8 Certified Sivliculturist, 25 years 

experience in timber and fire management. 

Steve Hendricks: Recreation and Wilderness Program Manager (transferred 03/02). 

Bach. Architecture, Master of Landscape Architecture, 27 years experience in 

land planning, recreation planning, facility construction, and special areas 

management. 

Jim Herrig: Fishery Biologist, B.S. Wildlife and Fisheries Science, M.S. Fisheries 

Science, 26 years experience in aquatics, Threatened and Endangered species, 

and administration. 

Tim Kolnik: Data Analyst, B. S. Forest Management; 24 years experience in timber 

management; 3 years experience in GIS and GIS related work such as data 

analysis. 

Laura (Mitchell) Lewis: Wildlife Biologist, B.S Zoology, M.S. Forest Wildlife Biology, 

20 years experience in natural resource inventory, research, management. 

Charlton Lewis: Engineering Specialist, BCE, MS in Engineering, 31 years experience 

in engineering and transportation planning. 

Bob Lewis: Silviculturist, B.S. Forest Resource Management, 15 years experience in 

forest resource inventory, silviculture and planning. 

Doris Mertz: Fuels Specialist, Assistant Fire Management Officer, Resigned 
CHAPTER 4 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

438 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Mike Nicolo: Hydrologist, B.S. Forest Resources (Hydrology), 25 years experience in 

forest hydrology and timber management. 

Mark Pistrang: Botanist/Ecologist, B.A. Biology, M.E.M Resource Ecology, 16 years 

experience in natural resource management. 

John Romanowski: Wilderness, Wild & Scenic River Program Manager, 25 years of 

Forest Service experience and special area management, land planning 

management, and Appeal Reviewing Officer for the Eastern Region. 

Bobby Scott: Soil Scientist, B.S. Agronomy, 27 years experience as soil scientist on 

three National Forest plus three years experience with Natural Resource 

Conservation Service. 

Dale Wine: Zone Fire Planner, B.S. Forestry, 17 years experience in recreation, fire 

management, timber, silviculture, fire planning. 

LEADERSHIP TEAM

Candace Allen: Leadership Team, B.S. Natural Resource Management, 12 years 

experience as service forester at all levels of Virginia Department of Forestry, with 

emphasis on fire, reforestation and urban forestry. 11 years experience in all 

aspects of national forest management on four national forests in CO, LA, AZ and 

TN (including 10 years as line officer). 

Alan Alsobrook: Leadership Team, Retired 

Terry Bowerman: Leadership Team, B.S. Soil and Water Science, 20 years 

experience as a Soil Scientist, 12 years experience in Ecosystems and Ecosystem 

management, 5 years experience in recreation, special uses, and planning. 

Sam Brocato: Leadership Team, Staff Officer Timber, Wildlife, Fisheries, T&E, B.S. 

Forest Management, 2 years graduate work in Forest Ecology, 31 years 

experience with Forest Service, Retired. 

Jack Callahan: Engineering & Recreation Staff, Leadership Team, Retired 

Larry Fleming: District Ranger, Leadership Team, Retired 

Lewis Kearney: Leadership Team/Forester, B.S. Forest Management, 37 years 

experience in Forest and Ecosystem Management. Past assignments include 6 

national forests in R8 plus the Regional office. Worked 13 years as district ranger 

on 2 ranger districts. 

Frank Lewis: Leadership Team 

Sheryl Maddux: Leadership Team, B.S. Forest Management, 21 years experience in 

Resource Management-emphasis timber and fire. 

George Martin: Deputy Forest Supervisor, Leadership Team, Retired 

Olin Mason: District Ranger, Leadership Team, Retired 

Terry Pierce: Leadership Team 

John Ramey: Leadership Team 

Steve Rickerson: Leadership Team 

Mike Sanders: District Ranger, Leadership Team 

Keith Sandifer: Leadership Team 

Reese Scull: Recreation Staff Officer, Leadership Team, Retired 

Mike Williams: Leadership Team 

Anne Zimmermann: Leadership Team 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 4 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 439 

OTHER SPECIALISTS

Anita Bailey: B.S. Biology with a minor in geography; MS biology; 15 years 

experience in GIS. 

Quentin Bass: Heritage Resource Specialist 

Christine Bassett: Archaeologist, B.A. Cultural Anthropology, M.A. Applied Cultural 

Anthropology 12 years with Forest Service in Heritage Resources and Recreation. 

Larry Byam: Timber Management Specialist, B.S. Forestry, 30 years experience in 

silviculture, recreation, fire, lands, special uses, timber, etc. 

Dave Carroll: Planning Specialist; B.S. Forest Management, 20 years experience in 

forest management and planning. Master’s of Ministry. 

Tom Coppinger: Recreation Specialist 

Amy Fore: Recreation Specialist, BS Forest Management, 18 years experience 

timber, planning, recreation. 

Mary Frye: Recreation Specialist 

Steve Goldman: Recreation Specialist, B.S. Forest-Watershed Management, 12 

years of experience with the USFS in Regions 3 and 8, with emphasis in 

recreation, fire management, watershed, and Wildlife & Fisheries programs. 

ReNee Haney: Resource Assistant, 2 year Secretarial Science Degree, 25 years with 

Forest Service. 

Janan Hay: Planning Specialist, B.S. Forestry, 15 years experience in planning, 

special uses. 

Kristy Kelly: Resource Typist 

Vern Maddux: Planning Specialist, B.S. Forestry, 25 years experience in Silviculture, 

Timber, Recreation, Fire, and Special Uses. 

Stephanie Medlin: Fishery Biologist, B.S. in Wildlife and Fisheries Science, M.S. in 

Biology with fisheries emphasis; 11 years experiences in fisheries, aquatics, and 

planning. 

Tom Rowe: Timber Specialist 

Jim Stelick: Forester 

Tracy Stiles: Lands Specialists, Senior Review Appraiser, B.S. Forestry, 20 years 

experience in lands. 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 441 

CHAPTER 5: DISTRIBUTION LIST

INDIVIDUALS

Bobby Joe Albright

Robert W. & Ruth J. Amburn

Deborah & Pat Bahr & Storm

Nancy Anne Bailey

Getahun Bakele

Mr. & Mrs. Roy E Barnett

Duke Barr

Earl Birmingham

Jacqueline M. Blackburn

Eula S. Blalock

Gerhard Blombach

Pat Bonham

David Borum

R. Dan & Kathy Bowden

Steven Bowers

David Broemel

Rosie Brown

James E. Brown Jr.

Bill Burchfiel

Jennie T. Burrell

Bill Burris

Michael E. Callaway

Louis H. Camisa

Ingrid Capparelli

Sarah Francisco & Davis W. 

Carr Jr

Waylon Carswell

J.H. Carter III

DiAnn B. Casteel

Franklin Delano Cathey

Billy Chism

Harriet Ciagne

Chip Cirillo

Mary Helen Cline

Carol T. Coffey

Gary & Linda Combs

Andrew S. Combs

Walter L. Cook, Jr.

Joyce A. Coombs

Charles M. Corn

Amber Cornett

Scott Correll

Charlie & Vinetta Croft

Jude Crowell

Ricky Darnell

Tye Daugherty

Katy A. Davenport

Alfred Denny

Terry Denny

John F. Derting

Hal DeSelm

Denis Dobosh

R. B, Donaldson

H.M. Draper

Carol Dulaney

Ms. Judith L. Duvall

Dana Eglinton

Robert H. Eklund MD

Emily Fletcher

H W. Fletcher

Sharon Foster

Kathleen Gehr

Alvin & Sally Gerhardt

Guy Gibbs

Enrique Gomezdelcampo

Mary F. Gore

Polly & Peter Gott

Alicia Gray

Bob Green

Dr. Clarence E. Greever

Randall Grimsley

Jerry Hamby

Kevin Hamed

Jeff Harris

Charles Fields Harrison

Leonard C. Harwood

Sarah Hawkins

Mary Allison Haynie

Allen Hedden

Kenny & Elizabeth Higgins

Mark L. Hill

Nyle R. Hillson

Eric Hirst

Tom Hodge

Michael L. Hodges

Jim Holbrook

Roy Hutsell

Cathy L. Hye

Albert Iannacone

P. James

R. Taber Jenkins

Ed Johnson

Bryan Jones

Larry Jones

Will Jorgensen

Lloyd Kaminski

Matt and Traci Kaufman

Hilda Kernodle

Steven Kiger

Vikki Kingslien

Frank Kinser Jr.

Joe Kirkpatrick

Chris & Amy Knox

Rich Kolehmainen

Hugh & Sherry Lamb

Frances Lamberts

Judith A. LaRocke

Fern M. Lavinder

Grant Law

Bill Leiper

Aaron & Mindy Levering

Susan Lewis

Audrey J. Little-Crawford

Don Lusk

Laura Maddux

Chris Mane

John Mason

J. B. Massingale

Thomas Massingale

Jim & Connie McCall

Eileen J. McCay

Mike McClelland

A. S. McConell

Owen McConnell

Howard McDonald

Tim McDowell

Mrs. Thelma McRee

Mr. & Mrs. Greg Merrell

James O. Mills

Linda C. Modica

Pete Moditz

Louise K. Morgan

J.D. Morrell

Bryan Morris

Keith Muller

M C. Murphy

Gary T. Myers

Colleen R. Nordstrom

E.G. Novotny

Frank Oakberg

Ken Ohmer
CHAPTER 5 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

442 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Diana Osborne

Leslie O'Toole

Clayton Pannell

Gary Parsons

Ernest Phillips

Jacqueline Pine

Mr. & Mrs. Dudley Porter

Richard K. Powell

Dwight & Carlene Presnell

David Ramsey

Elizabeth B. Reaves

Dana Reynolds

Michael Ritter

Chris Roberts

Frank Robey

Harb Rodriguez

Larry Rose

Eugene G. Rymer

Donald Sanders

Ron Saunders

Jeff Saylor

Lucy Scanlan

John E. Seward Jr.

Irine H. Shanks

Wendy Shaver

Pat Sherrer

Lisa Shoemaker

Jane Silver

Duane Simmons

Michael Sledjeski

Heather Smith

Jeffrey K. Smith

John Smith

Clyde E. Smith Jr

Cat Armstrong Soule

Marilyn Spoon

Howard A. Stacy

Elsie Stacy

Gottwald Starke

Shelton Stone

Gary K. Sturgill

Harry D. Switzer

Bert Thomas

Gerald A. Thornton

Jerald W. Tindell

Ambre Torbett

Ruth Tuft

Dick Urban

John Vann

Ray Vess

Charles & Charlene F. 

Wagner

Mike Walcher

Ethel Waldroup

Michael Walker

Mose L. Waller

Jo Walters

Annetta Watson

W. Allen & Carolyn Watson

Philip Watts

William Webb

Elizabeth Wells

Rupert O. Westfield Jr.

Jeffery A. White

Theodore Williams

Caroline Williams

R.C. Williams

T.A. Wingo

Jonathin G. Woods

B. Wright

Tim Yates

Traveis Eddie Yearwood

Pat York

Mark Young

Wade Young

ASSOCIATIONS, BUSINESSES, FEDERAL AGENCIES, STATE, CITY, AND COUNTY 

AGENCIES, AND ORGANIZATIONS

NFs in North Carolina

Appalachian State University Libraries

Appalachian Timber Council

Senator Lamar Alexander

Senator Bill Frist

Congressman Bill Jenkins

Congressman John Duncan

Congressman Zach Wamp

Bass; Berry & Sims PLC

Benton Public Library

Black Bear Society

Blount County Public Library

Caddo Ranger Distrct

Caribbean NF

Carter County Executive

Chattanooga-Hamilton County Bicentennial

Cherokee Family Riders

Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma

Choctaw Ranger Station

Cleveland Public Library

Cocke County Executive

Cold Springs Ranger District

County Executive

Daniel Boone NF

Division of Natural Heritage; TDEC

E.G. Fisher Public Library

Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians

Eastern Forest Action Center, The 

Wilderness Society

Elizabethton Carter County Public Library

Environmental Div P-14

Environmental Review Division

ETSU - Charles C. Sherrod Library

Federal Aviation Administration

Federal Highway Administration

Fourche Ranger District

Francis Marion/Sumter NFs

Greene County Executive

Greeneville-Greene County Public Library

GSMNP

GW/Jefferson NFs

Jessieville Ranger District

Johnson City Press

Johnson County Executive

Johnson County Public Library

Kialegee Tribal Town

Kiamichi Ranger District

Kisatchie NF

KT SAF

Lawson McGhee Library

Madisonville Public Library

McMinn County Executive
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 5 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 443 

Mena Ranger District

Monroe County Executive

Muscogee (Creek) Nation

Nashville Public Library

National Park Service

Natural Resouces Conservation Service

NFs in Alabama

NFs in Florida

NFs in Mississippi

NFs in Texas

Nolichucky/Unaka Ranger District

Ocoee/Hiwassee Ranger District

Ouachita NF

Ozark/St.Francis NFs

Partners of Cherokee National Forest

Poarch Creek Indians

Polk County Executive

Poteau Ranger District

Publications Control Officer

Region IV Environmental Protection Agency

Room 326-W, Whitten Bldg

Rural Utilities Service (RUS)

SABP

SAF

SAFC 

Cherokee Forest Voices

Sevier County Public Library

Southern 4-Wheel Drive Association

Southern Research Station

State Capital Building

Stokely Memorial Library

Sullivan County Executive

Sullivan County Public Library

TDEC

TDOA

Tellico Ranger District

Tennesse Forestry Commission

Tennessee Conservation League

Tennessee Department of Agriculture

Tennessee Division of Forestry

Tennessee Forestry Association

Tennessee Historical Commission

Tennessee Valley Authority

Tennessee Valley Authority

Tennessee Valley Sportsman Club

Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency

Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency; 

Region IV

TFC

Thlopthlocco Tribal Town

Tennessee Comm. Of Indian Affairs

Tennessee State Planning Office

TVA

U.S. Department of Energy

Un. Keetoowah Band of Cherokees

UNC - Asheville; D. Hiden Ramsey Library

Unicoi County Executive

Unicoi County Public Library

University of Tennessee

University of the South, DuPont Library

US Department of Housing and Urban 

Development

US Department of Interior

US Federal Railroad Admin, Office of 

Transportation & Reg.

US. Army Corps of Engineers

USDA APHIS PPD/EAD

USDA National Agriculture Library

USDA Office of Civil Rights, Policy & 

Planning Division

USDA, National Agricultural Library

USDI; Fish & Wildlife Service

USEPA REGION 4

UTC - Lupton Library

UTK - Hodges Library

Vanderbilt-Jean & Alexander Heard Library

Washington County Executive

Washington County-Jonesborough Library

Watauga Ranger District

Water Pollution Control, Tn. Environmental 

Assist Ctr.

Wilderness Society, Eastern Forest Action 

Committee

Wildlaw Alabama Office

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 445 

CHAPTER 6: GLOSSARY

Acronyms and Abbreviations

AA - analysis area

ACP – Agriculture Conservation Program 

AD - Administratively Determined 

ADA - Americans with Disabilities Act 

AGL – above ground level 

AMS - Analysis of the Management 

Situation 

APHIS - Animal and Plant Health 

Inspection Service 

AQRV – Air Quality Related Values 

ASQ - allowable sale quantity 

AT - Appalachian Trail 

ATC - Appalachian Trail Conference 

ATV – all-terrain vehicle 

AUM - animal unit month 

BA - basal area 

BBS – Breeding Bird Survey 

BF - board foot 

BMP - best management practice 

BIO – biological oxygen demand 

BSS - base sale schedule 

C2 – Category 2 

CAA - Clean Air Act 

CCC – Civilian Conservation Corps 

CCF - hundred cubic feet 

CEQ - Council on Environmental Quality 

CF - cubic foot 

Cfs – Cubic Feet per Second 

CFL - commercial forest land 

CFR - Code of Federal Regulations 

CFS - cubic feet per second 

CIP - Capital Investment Program 

CISC - Continuous Inventory of Stand 

Conditions database 

CMAI - culmination of mean annual 

increment 

CNF – Cheroee National Forest 

CompPATS - Computerized Project 

Analysis of Timber Sales 

CSU – Controlled Surface Use 

CVHW - cove hardwood. 

CWA - Clean Water Act 

CWS – coarse woody debris 

DBH - diameter at breast height 

DBRU - Drainage Basin Response Unit

DEIS - Draft Environmental Impact 

Statement 

DFC - desired future condition 

EA – Environmental Assessment 

ECOMAP - Ecological Classification and 

Mapping Task Team 

ECS - Ecological Classification System 

EIS - Environmental Impact Statement 

EMU - ecological management unit 

EPA - Environmental Protection Agency 

ESA - Endangered Species Act 

EWPP- Emergency Watershed Protection 

Plan 

F – Fahrenheit 

FDR - forest development road 

FRP - Forest Road Program 

FEIS - Final Environmental Impact 

Statement 

FH - Forest Highway 

FIA - Forest Inventory and Analysis 

FMAP - Fire Management Action Plan 

FR - Forest Road 

FSH - Forest Service Handbook 

FSM - Forest Service Manual 

FTE - full-time employee 
CHAPTER 6 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

446 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

FVS – Forest Vegetation Simulator 

FWRBE – Fish, Wildlife, Range, Botany 

and Ecology Team 

FY - fiscal year 

GAO - Government Accounting Office 

GFA – General Forest Area 

GIS - Geographic Information System 

GMV – Gypsy Moth Vulnerability rating 

GPD - gross domestic product 

GSMNP – Great Smoky Mountain 

National Park 

Ha - hectare 

HRP - Human Resource Program 

HUC – Hydrologic Units 

HVH – High Value Hardwood 

HWA Hemlock Woolly Adelgid 

IDT - Interdisciplinary Team 

IPM - integrated pest management 

IS - Interpretive Services 

Km - kilometer 

LAC – Limits of Acceptable Change 

LAR - Land Area Report 

LE - law enforcement 

LMP – Land Management Plan 

LOAP - Landownership Adjustment Plan 

LTA - landtype association 

LTP - landtype phase 

LTSYC - long-term sustained-yield 

capacity 

LUG - land-use group 

LVH – Low Value Hardwood 

L&WCF - Land and Water Conservation 

Fund 

LWD – large woody debris 

M – thousand (Roman Numeral) 

M$ - thousands of dollars 

MA - management area 

MAR - Management Attainment Report 

MAUM - thousand animal unit month 

MBF - thousand board feet 

MCF - thousand cubic feet 

MIL - management intensity level 

MIS - management indicator species 

MM - million 

MM$ - millions of dollars 

MMBF - million board feet 

MMCF - million cubic feet 

MMR - minimum management 

requirement 

MMRVD - million recreation visitor-day 

MOU - memorandum of understanding 

MRVD - thousand recreation visitor-day 

MVH – Moderate Value Hardwood 

MWFUD - thousand wildlife and fish 

user-day 

NAAQS - National Ambient Air Quality 

Standards 

NAPAP – National Acid Precipitation 

Assessment Program 

NEPA - National Environmental Policy Act 

NF - National Forest 

NFMA - National Forest Management Act 

NFRS – National Forest Recreation 

Survey 

NFS – National Forest System 

NFSR – National Forest System Road 

NHPA – National Historic Preservation 

Act 

NLFCA – National Listing of Fish 

Consumption Advisories 

NOI – Notice of Intent 

NPL – National Priorities List 

NPS – National Park Service 

NRCS - Natural Resources Conservation 

Service 

NRI – Natural Resource Inventory 

NSO – No Surface Occupancy 

NSRE - National Survey on Recreation 

and the environment 

NTMB - neotropical migratory birds 

NVUM – National Visitor Use Monitoring 

NWPS - National Wilderness 

Preservation System 

NWTF – National Wild Turkey Federation 

OHV - off-highway vehicle 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 6 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 447 

OMP - operation maintenance and 

protection 

ORV – Outstandingly Remarkable Value 

ORV - off-road vehicle 

P – Primitive 

PAOT - persons-at-one-time 

PETS - proposed, endangered, 

threatened, or sensitive 

PILT – Payment in Lieu of Taxes 

PIF – Partners in Flight 

PIN - yellow pine 

PNWR - Piedmont National Wildlife 

Refuge 

PL - public law 

PM - particulate matter 

PMOA – Programmatic Memorandum of 

Agreement 

PNV - present net value 

PNW - present net worth 

PRLRMP – Proposed Revised Land and 

Resource Management Plan 

PRODCL - productivity class 

PSD - prevention of significant 

deterioration 

PSI - pounds per square inch 

R – Rural 

RAP – Roads Analysis Process or 

Procedure 

RARE - Roadless Area Review and 

Evaluation 

RARE II - the second Roadless Area 

Review and Evaluation 

RBP – Rapid Bioassessment Protocol 

RCA – Rural Community Assistance 

RC&D – Resource Conservation and 

Development 

RD - Ranger District 

RIM - Recreation Information 

Management 

RMO – Road Management Objectives 

RN1 – Roaded Natural 

RN2 – Remote Roaded Natural 

RNA - research natural area 

RNAT - roaded natural 

ROD - record of decision 

ROS - Recreation Opportunity Spectrum 

ROW - right-of-way 

RPA - Resources Planning Act 

RVD - recreation visitor-day 

Rx – Prescription 

SAA - Southern Appalachian Assessment 

SAMAB – Southern Appalachian Man 

and Biosphere 

SAP – Southern Appalachian Planners 

SAMI – Southern Appalachian 

Mountains Initiatives 

SARRWAG – Southern Appalachian 

Recreation, Rivers, Wilderness 

Advisory Group (Rec Team) 

SCORP - State Comprehensive Outdoor 

Recreation Plan 

S&G - standard and guideline 

SH - state highway 

SHPO – State Historic Preservation 

Officer 

SIO – Scenic Integrity Objective 

SIP - State Implementation Plan 

SMS – Scenery Management System 

SPB - southern pine beetle 

SPMO - semiprimitive motorized 

SPNM - semiprimitive non-motorized 

STS - Slow the Spread 

SMZ – Streamside Management Zone 

T&E - threatened and endangered 

TES-LR - Threatened, Endangered, 

Forest Service Sensitive and Locally 

Rare Species 

TDEC – Tennessee Department of 

Environment and Conservation 

TNC - The Nature Conservancy 

TSI - timber stand improvement 

TSPIRS - Timber Sale Program 

Information Reporting System 

TVA - Tennessee Valley Authority 

TWRA – Tennesse Wildlife Resource 

Agency 

UPLD - upland hardwood/mixed 

U.S.A. – United States of America 

USC - United States Code 
CHAPTER 6 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

448 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

USDA - U.S. Department of Agriculture 

USDI - U.S. Department of Interior 

USFWS - U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

USGS - U.S. Geological Survey 

VIS - Visitor Information Services 

VMS – Visual Management System 

VQO - visual quality objective 

WFUD - wildlife and fish user-day 

WHI - wildlife habitat improvement 

WHI – Watershed Health Index 

WIN - Watershed Improvement Inventory 

WMA – Wildife Management Area 

WO - Washington Office 

WPIN - white pine 

WRD - Wildlife Resources Division 

WRP – Wetlands Reserve Program 

WSA - wilderness study area 

WSR – Wild and Scenic River 

WUI – Wildland Urban Interface 

WURR – Water Use Rights and 

Requirements 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 6 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 449 

Definitions

Definitions were taken from the following sources: 

Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Title 36, Parks, Forests, and Public Property, Chapter II, Forest 

Service, Department of Agriculture; Part 219, Planning, Section ANational Forest System Land 

and Resource Management Planning; Section 219.3, Definitions and Terminology, Revised July 1, 

1998. (Referred to as 36 CFR 219.3) 

Society of American Foresters. 1998. The Dictionary of Forestry. Edited by John A. Helms. 210 p. 

(Referred to as SAF) 

Forest Service Handbook (FSH) 2090.11, Ecological Classification and Inventory Handbook, WO 

Amendment 2090.11-91-1, Effective 4/26/91, 05 - Definitions. (Referred to as FSH 2090.11-05) 

FSH 2409.13, Timber Resource Planning Handbook, WO Amendment 2409.13-92-1, Effective 

8/3/92, 05 - Definitions. (Referred to as FSH 2409.13-05) 

FSH 2409.15, Timber Sale Administration Handbook, Amendment No. 2409.15-96-2, Effective 

Sept. 19, 1996, 05 - Definitions. (Referred to as FSH 2409.15-05) 

FSH 2409.17, Silvicultural Practices Handbook, 1/85 WO, Chapter 9 - Timber Stocking Guides 

and Growth Predictions, 9.05 - Definitions. (Referred to as FSH 2409.17-9.05) 

FSH 2609.13, Wildlife and Fisheries Program Management Handbook, WO Amendment 2609.13-

92-1, Effective 8/3/92, Chapter 70 - Analysis of Economic Efficiency of Wildlife and Fisheries 

Projects, 70.5 - Definitions. (Referred to as FSH 2609.70.5) 

FSH 2709.12, Road Rights-of-Way Grants Handbook, 9/85 WO, Zero Code, 05 - Definitions. 

(Referred to as FSH 2709.12-05) 

Forest Service Manual (FSM) 1900 - Planning, Amendment No. 1900-91-3, Effective March 15, 

1991, 1905 - Definitions. (FSM 1905) 

FSM 2163, Hazardous Waste Management, Chapter 2163.05, Definitions. (Referred to as FSM 

2163) 

FSM 2200, Range Management, WO Amendment 2200-91-1 Effective 3/1/91, Chapter 2230, 

Grazing and Livestock Use Permit System, 2230.5 - Definitions. (Referred to as FSM 2230) 

FSM 2300, Recreation, Wilderness, and Related Resource Management, Amendment No. 2300-

91-3 Effective March 12, 1991. Chapter 2355, Off-Road Vehicle Use Management, Executive 

Order 116-44, as amended by Executive Order 11989, Use of Off-Road Vehicles on the Public 

Lands 37 FR 2877 (Feb. 9, 1972), 42 FR 26959 (May 25, 1977). (Referred to as FSM 2355) 

FSM 2300, Recreation, Wilderness, and Related Resource Management, WO AFSM 2300 - 

Recreation, Wilderness, and Related Resource Management, WO Amendment 2300-90-1, 

Effective 6/1/90, Chapter 2310 - Planning and Data Management - 2312 - Recreation 

Information Management (RIM). (Referred to as (FSM 2312) 

FSM 2400, Timber Management, WO Amendment 2400-96-6 Effective 9/24/96. Chapter 2435 - 

Salvage Sales. 2435.05, Definitions. (FSM 2435) 

FSM 2500, Watershed and Air Management, Amendment No. 2500-94-4, Effective Dec. 20, 

1994. Chapter 2520, Watershed Protection and Management. 2521 - Watershed Condition 

Assessment. 2521.05 - Definitions. (Referred to as FSM 2521) 

FSM 2500, Watershed and Air Management, Amendment No. 2500-94-4, Effective Dec. 20, 

1994. Chapter 2520, Watershed Protection and Management. FSM 2526 - Riparian Area 

Management. 2526.05 - Definitions. (Referred to as FSM 2526) 

FSM 2600, Wildlife, Fish, and Sensitive Plant Habitat Management, Amendment No. 2600-91-8 

Effective Oct. 22, 1991, Chapter 2605, Definitions. (Referred to as FSM 2605) 
CHAPTER 6 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

450 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

FSM 2600, Wildlife, Fish, and Sensitive Plant Habitat Management, WO Amendment 2600-95-7, 

Effective 6/23/95, Chapter 2670, Threatened, Endangered, and Sensitive Plants and Animals, 

2670.5 - Definitions. (Referred to as FSM 2670) 

A User’s Guide to Forest Information Retrieval (FIR), Southeastern Forest Experiment Station, 

Forest Inventory and Analysis Unit, Asheville, NC, 1988. (Referred to as FIR) 

Interim Resource Inventory Glossary, File 1900, Washington, DC, 96 p., June 14, 1989. (Referred 

to IRIG) 

A

accessibility – The relative ease or difficulty of getting from or to someplace, 

especially the ability of a site, facility or opportunity to be utilized by persons of 

varying physical and mental abilities. 

accessible facility - A single or contiguous group of improvements, that exists to 

shelter or support Forest Service Programs that is in compliance with the highest 

standard of current Federal or Forest Service accessibility guidelines, at the time of 

construction. 

acid deposition - Rain, snow, or particulate matter containing high concentrations 

of acid anions (e.g. nitric and sulfate), usually produced by atmospheric 

transformation of the byproducts of fossil fuel combustion. Precipitation with a pH 

lower than 5.0 is generally considered to be acidic. 

acid neutralizing capacity - The total capacity of a water sample to neutralize 

acids, as determined by titration with a strong acid. Acid neutralizing capacity 

includes alkalinity (e.g. carbonate) plus base cations. 

acidification – To convert into an acid or become acid. 

acquisition of land - Obtaining full landownership rights by donation, purchase, 

exchange, or condemnation. 

acre-equivalents - The number of acres of forest habitat improved or affected by 

the installation of various wildlife habitat improvements in an area. Determined by 

multiplying by various coefficients. 

acre-foot - A measurement of water volume, equal to the amount of water that 

would cover an area of 1 acre to a depth of 1 foot (specifically 43,560 cubic feet or 

325,851 gallons). 

activity - A measure, course of action, or treatment that is undertaken to directly or 

indirectly produce, enhance, or maintain forest and rangeland outputs or achieve 

administrative or environmental quality objectives. 

adaptive management – A dynamic approach to forest management in which the 

effects of treatments and decisions are continually monitored and used, along with 

research results, to modify management on a continuing basis to ensure objectives 

are being met. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 6 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 451 

administrative unit - All the National Forest System lands where one forest 

supervisor has responsibility. The basic geographic management area within a Forest 

Service Region, station, or area. 

advance regeneration (reproduction) - Seedlings or saplings that develop, or are 

present, in the understory. 

aerial logging – A yarding system employing aerial means, (e.g., helicopters, 

balloons), to lift logs. 

afforestation - Establishment of a forest or stand in an area not recently forested. 

age class - A grouping of living things based on their age. 

age class (cohort) - A distinct aggregation of trees originating from a single natural 

disturbance or regeneration cutting. 

Age dependent relationships – Complex yield composite relationships between 

independent and dependent variables that vary by the age of the understory and/or 

the overstory. 

Agriculture Conservation Program – USDA cost-share program for steambank 

improvement. 

agricultural land - Areas used primarily for production of food and/or fiber 

(excludes wood fiber). Examples include cropland, pasture, orchards, vineyards, 

nurseries, confined feeding areas, farmsteads, and ranch headquarters. 

air pollution - Any substance or energy form (heat, light, noise, etc.) that alters the 

state of the air from what would naturally occur. 

air quality class - Three broad classifications used to prevent significant 

deterioration of air quality for all areas of the country. 

Class I - All areas where essentially any degradation of air quality would be 

considered significant deterioration. 

Class II - All areas where moderate degradation over baseline concentrations 

are allowed 

Class III - All others 

air quality (PSD) class – Three broad classifications established by the CAA to help 

prevent significant deterioration of air quality for all areas of the country that are 

known (or assumed) to be attaining NAAQS. 

Class I – Select wilderness areas and national parks where identified air 

quality related values might become (or currently are) adversely affected by 

even a small increment of additional air pollution. To date, there are 156 such 

areas, nationwide. 

Class II - All other areas, by default, where a moderate level of additional air 

pollution is deemed acceptable. The bulk of the U.S. 
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452 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Class III – Areas the states may designate to receive such additional amount 

of air pollution (even up to 30 times the Class I area increment) that air quality 

may deteriorate from baseline to (but not below) NAAQS. To date, there are no 

such areas, nationwide. 

air quality related values – Terminology used in the PSD portion of the CAA 

describing values associated with certain resources that may become impaired by air 

pollution. Typically, these include aquatic habitats, terrestrial habitats and visibility. 

all aged stand – A stand with trees of all, or almost all age classes, including those 

of exploitable age.

allocated fund - Funds transferred from one agency or bureau to another for 

carrying out the purpose of the parent appropriation and agency. 

allocation - The assignment of management prescriptions or combination of 

management practices to a particular land area to achieve the goals and objectives 

of the alternative. 

allopatric – Condition where one species lives in a section of stream without other 

closely related species. The species have disjunct distributions. Opposite of 

sympatric. 

allotment management plan - The basic land unit used to facilitate management 

of the range resource on National Forest System and associated lands administered 

by the Forest Service. 

allowable sale quantity - The quantity of timber that may be sold from the area of 

suitable land covered by the LMP for a time period specified by the LMP. This 

quantity is usually expressed on an annual basis as the “average annual allowable 

sale quantity.” 

all-terrain vehicle - Any motorized, off-highway vehicle 50 inches or less in width, 

having a dry weight of 600 pounds or less that travels straddled by the operator. 

Low-pressure tires are six inches or more in width and designed for use on wheel rim 

diameters of 12 inches or less, utilizing an operating pressure of 10 pounds per 

square inch (psi) or less as recommended by the vehicle manufacturer. 

alternative - In forest planning, a mix of resource outputs designed to achieve a 

desired management emphasis as expressed in goals and objectives, and in 

response to public issues or management concerns. 

amendment - A formal alteration of the LMP by modification, addition, or deletion. 

Forest Plan amendment requires an environmental analysis. Significant findings 

require an environmental impact statement and the amendment will follow the same 

procedure used for plan preparation. Insignificant findings allow the changes to be 

implemented following public notification. Amendments can take place at any time 

following plan approval. 

amenity values - Features or qualities which are pleasurable or aesthetic, as contrasted with the utilitarian features of a plan, project, location, or resource. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 6 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 453 

analysis area - A collection of lands, not necessary contiguous, sufficiently similar 

in character, that they may be treated as if they were identical. 

analysis area identifier - A resource characteristic used to stratify the land into 

capability areas and analysis areas. 

Analysis of the Management Situation - A determination of the ability of the 

planning area to supply goods and services in response to society’s demand. The 

Forest Plan includes a summary of the AMS. Information from it is contained 

throughout the EIS/Plan. 

animal unit month - The quantity of forage required by one mature cow and her calf 

(or the equivalent, in sheep or horses), for one month; 682 pounds of air-dry forage. 

annual forest program - The summary or aggregation of all projects that make up 

an integrated (multifunctional) course of action for a given level of funding of a forest 

planning area that is consistent with the LMP. 

annual work planning process - Preparation of technical plans that serve to 

implement land and resource management, and program decisions contained in the 

integrated land, resource plans, and budget allocations. 

appropriated fund - Funds available for obligation or outlay by Congress to a given 

agency. 

appropriate management response – The response to a wildland fire based on 

an evaluation of risks to firefighter and public safety. Circumstances under which the 

fire occurs, including weather and fuel conditions, natural and cultural resource 

management objectives, protection priorities, and values to be protected. The 

evaluation must also include an analysis of the context of the specific fire within the 

overall logic, geographic area, or national wildland fire situation. 

aquatic ecosystem - Component includes: the stream channel; lake and estuary 

beds; water; biotic community, and associated habitat features. Included are 

streams and lakes with intermittently, semi-permanently and seasonally flooded 

channels or streambeds. In the absence of flowing water, intermittent streams may 

have pools or surface water may be absent altogether.

aquatic habitat types - The classification of instream habitat based on location 

within channel, patterns of water flow, and nature of flow controlling structures. 

Habitat is classified into a number of types according to location within the channel, 

patterns of water flow, and nature of flow controlling structure. Riffles are divided 

into three habitat types: low gradient riffles, rapids, and cascades. Pools are divided 

into seven types: secondary channel pools, backward pools, trench pools, plunge 

pools, lateral scour pools, dammed pools, and beaver ponds. Glides, the third 

habitat type, are intermediate in many characteristics between riffles and pools. It is 

recognized that as aquatic habitat types occur in various parts of the country, 

additional habitat types may have to be described. If necessary, the regional fishery 

biologist will describe and define the additional habitat types. 
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454 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

arterial roads - Roads that provide service to large land areas and usually connect 

with public highways or other forest arterial roads to form an integrated network of 

primary travel routes. The location and standard are often determined by a demand 

for maximum mobility and travel efficiency rather than specific resourcemanagement service. They are usually developed and operated for long-term land 

and resource management purposes and constant service. These roads generally 

serve areas more than 40,000 acres. 

artificial regeneration (reproduction) - Creation of a new age class by renewal of 

a tree crop by direct seeding, or by planting seedlings or cuttings. 

ATV – (All Terrain Vehicle) Any motorized, off-highway vehicle 50 inches or less in 

width, having a dry weight of 600 pounds or less that travels straddled by the 

operator. Low-pressure tires are 6 inches or more in width and designed for use on 

wheel rim diameters of 12 inches or less, utilizing an operating pressure of 10 

pounds per square inch (psi) or less as recommended by the vehicle manufacturer. 

authorized use - Specific activity or occupancy, including a ski area, historical 

marker, or oil and gas lease, for which a special authorization is issued. 

B

bald - An early successional opening generally above 4,000 feet, characterized by 

grassy or heath vegetation. 

basal area - The area of the cross-section of a tree inclusive of bark at breast height 

(4.5 feet or 1.37 meters above the ground) most commonly expressed as square feet 

per acre or square meters per hectare. Used to measure the density of a stand of 

trees. For shrubs and herbs it is used to determine phytomass. Grasses, forbs, and 

shrubs usually measured at or less then 1 inch above soil level. Trees—the crosssection area of a tree stem in square feet commonly measured at breast height (4.5' 

above ground) and inclusive of bark, usually computed by using diameter at breast 

height (DBH), or tallied through the use of basal area factor angle gauge. 

basal spray – The application of a pesticide, usually a herbicide for controlling brush 

or weed trees, directed at the base of the stem. 

base sale schedule - A timber sale schedule formulated on the basis that the 

quantity of timber planned for sale and harvest for any future decade is equal to, or 

greater than, the planned sale and harvest for the preceding decade. The planned 

sale and harvest for any decade must not be greater than the long-term sustained 

yield capacity. 

BEIG - Built Environment Image Guide, is a guide for design of administrative and 

recreation buildings, landscape structures, site furnishings, wayside structures, and 

signs installed or operated by the Forest Service, its cooperators and permittees. 

best management practice (BMP) - A practice, or a combination of practices 

determined to be the most effective and practical means of preventing or reducing 

the amount of pollution generated by non-point sources to a level compatible with 

water quality goals. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 6 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 455 

biodiversity - The variety of life in an area, including the variety of gene pools, 

species, plant and animal communities, ecosystems, and the processes through 

which individual organisms interact with one another, and their environments. 

biological assessment - A “biological evaluation” conducted for major federal 

construction projects requiring an environmental impact statement, in accordance 

with legal requirements under Section 7 of the Endangered Species Act (16 U.S.C. 

1536(c)). The purpose of the assessment and resulting document is to determine 

whether the proposed action is likely to affect an endangered, threatened, or 

proposed species. 

biological evaluation - A documented Forest Service review of its programs or 

activities in sufficient detail to determine how an action or proposed action may 

affect any proposed, endangered, threatened, or sensitive species. 

biological growth potential - The average net growth attainable on a fully-stocked 

natural forest land. 

biological oxygen demand - Dissolved oxygen required by organisms for the 

aerobic biochemical decomposition of organic matter present in water. 

bladed skid road - A travel way through the woods formed by loggers to facilitate 

dragging (skidding) logs from the stump to a log landing. Skid roads are generally 

used in steep terrain and are cut into mountainsides with a bulldozer. 

board foot - A unit of timber measurement equaling the amount of wood contained 

in an unfinished board 1 inch thick, 12 inches long, and 12 inches wide. Commonly, 

1,000 board feet is written as 1 MBF, and 1,000,000 board feet is written as 

1MMBF (“M” is Roman numeral for 1,000). 

browse - Young twigs, leaves and tender shoots of plants, shrubs or trees that 

animals eat. 

burning (prescribed) - The application of fire, usually under existing stands and 

under specified conditions of weather and fuel moisture, in order to attain 

silvicultural or other management objectives. 

C

cable logging – A term for any system involving transport of logs along, or by means 

of steel cables with the load being lifted partly or wholly off the ground. 

canopy cover - The percent of a fixed area covered by the crown of an individual 

plant species or delimited by the vertical projection of its outermost perimeter. Small 

openings in the crown are included. Used to express the relative importance of 

individual species within a vegetation community, or to express the canopy cover of 

woody species. Canopy cover may be used as a measure of land cover change or 

trend. Often used for wildlife habitat evaluations. 

capability – The potential of a land area to produce resources, supply goods and 

services, and allow resource uses under an assumed set of management practices 

and a given level of management intensity. Note: capability depends upon the 
CHAPTER 6 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

456 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

current condition and site conditions including climate, slope, land form, soil and 

geology, and the application of management practices and protection from fire, 

insects, and disease. 

carrying capacity - The number of organisms of a given species and quality that 

can survive in, without causing deterioration of, a given ecosystem through the least 

favorable environmental conditions that occur within a stated interval of time. 

channel ephemeral streams - Ephemeral streams that have a defined channel of 

flow where surface water converges with enough energy to remove soil, organic 

matter, and leaf litter. Ones that exhibit an ordinary high watermark and show signs 

of annual scour or sediment transport are considered navigable waters of the United 

States (USACE, Part 330- Nationwide Permit program, 2000). 

channelization – Artificial change of a stream channel profile. 

Clean Air Act of 1970 – A congressional act, along with the amendments passed in 

1977 and 1990, that provides authority for the Environmental Protection Agency to 

develop specific regulations controlling air pollution. 

cleaning - A release treatment made in an age class, not past the sapling stage, in 

order to free the favored trees from less desirable individuals of the same age class 

which can overtop them. 

clearcutting - The harvesting in one cut of all trees on an area for the purpose of 

creating a new, even-aged stand. The area harvested may be a patch, stand, or strip 

large enough to be mapped or recorded as a separate age class in planning for 

sustained yield under area regulation. A method of regenerating an even-aged stand. 

Regeneration is from natural seeding, direct seeding, planted seedlings, and/or 

advance reproduction. Harvesting may be done in groups or patches (group or patch 

clearcutting), or in strips (strip clearcutting). In the clearcutting system, the 

management unit or stand in which regeneration, growth, and yield are regulated 

consists of the individual clearcut stand. 

clearcutting with reserves - A two-aged regeneration method in which varying 

numbers of reserve trees are not harvested to attain goals other than regeneration. 

climax - The culminating stage in plant succession for a given environment with the 

vegetation having reached a highly stable condition. 

closed road/trail - A road that is closed for public use. 

co-dominant crown class - Trees with crowns forming the general level of the main 

canopy in even-aged groups of trees. They receive full light from above, and 

comparatively little from the sides. 

co-dominant trees - Trees or shrubs with crowns receiving full light from above, but 

comparatively little from the sides. Crowns usually form the general level of the 

canopy. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 6 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 457 

cohort – a group of trees developing after a single disturbance, commonly consisting 

of trees of similar age, although it can include a considerable range of tree ages of 

seeding or sprout origin and trees that predate the disturbance. 

cold water fishery - Aquatic habitats that predominately support fish species that 

have temperature tolerances up to about 70OF, and exhibit their greatest 

reproductive success at temperatures below 65OF (18.3OC).

collector road - Roads that serve smaller land areas and are usually connected to a 

forest arterial or public highway. They collect traffic from forest local roads or 

terminal facilities. The location and standard are influenced by long-term multiresource service needs, and travel efficiency. Forest collector roads may be operated 

for constant or intermittent service, depending on land-use and resource 

management objectives for the area served by the facility. These roads generally 

have two or more local roads feeding into them and generally serve an area 

exceeding 10,000 acres. 

commercial forest land - Forest land that can produce crops of industrial wood, 

and has not been withdrawn by Congress, the Secretary of Agriculture, or the Chief of 

the Forest Service. Existing technology and knowledge must be available to ensure 

timber production without irreversible damage to soils productivity, or watershed 

conditions. Adequate restocking can be attained within five years after final 

harvesting. 

commercial thinning – Any type of thinning producing merchantable material at 

least equal to the value of the direct cost of harvesting. 

commercial tree species – (1) Tree species suitable for industrial wood produces. 

(2) Conifer and hardwood species used to calculate the commercial forest land 

allowable sale quality. 

commodity outputs - A resource output with commercial value. All resource 

products that are articles of commerce. 

compartment – A portion of a forest under one ownership, usually contiguous and 

composed of a variety of forest stand types, defined for purposes of locational 

reference. 

composition (stand) - The proportion of each tree species in a stand expressed as 

a percentage of the total number, basal area, or volume of all tree species in the 

stand. 

Concentrated Use Area (CUA) - An undeveloped site or area located within a 

general forest area, generally not in the Infrastructure system, but receiving 

investments of management time and/or dollars because recreation use leaves 

evident impacts such as litter, vandalism or soil compaction. Any amenities in a CUA 

are placed and managed for resource protection rather than user convenience. 

Concern Level - A particular degree or measure of viewer interest in the scenic 

qualities of the landscape, rated level (highest concern) to 3 (lowest concern). 

constraint - A restriction or limit that must be met. 
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458 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Continuous Inventory of Stand Condition (CISC) - A system that continuously 

reflects an up-to-date description of timber stands. It tells what and when actions 

are planned for stands and gives some information about actions that have taken 

place. It is also the name of the data base management computer system used for 

the storage and retrieval of data. 

conventional logging - A term used to identify methods commonly used in an area 

to move logs from stump to mill. 

conversion (forest management) – A change from one forest type to another in a 

stand on land that has the capability of both forest types. 

coppice - A method of regenerating a stand in which all trees in the previous stand 

are harvested and the majority of regeneration is from stump sprouts or root suckers. 

coppice with reserve - A two-aged regeneration method in which reserve trees are 

retained to goals other than regeneration. This method normally creates a two-aged 

stand.

cord - A unit of gross volume measurement for stacked, round wood based on 

external dimensions, generally implies a stack of 4 x 4 feet vertical cross section and 

8 feet long. Contains 128 stacked cubic feet. 

corridor - A linear strip of land identified for the present or future location of 

transportation or utility rights-of-way within its boundaries. It can also be identified 

for wildlife habitat connecting, or protecting forest resources. 

Council on Environmental Quality - An advisory council to the president established by the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969. It reviews federal programs 

for their effect on the environment, conducts environmental studies, and advises the 

president on environmental matters. 

creel survey – A survey of anglers.

critical habitat – Habitat, determined by the Secretary of Interior, essential to the 

conservation of the endangered or threatened species. 

crown class - A class of tree based on crown position relative to the crowns of 

adjacent trees. 

cubic foot - A unit of measure reflecting a piece of wood 12 inches long, 12 inches 

wide, and 12 inches thick. 

culmination of mean annual increment - Age at which average rate of annual 

tree growth stops increasing and begins to decline. Mean annual increment is 

expressed in cubic feet measure and is based on expected growth, according to the 

management intensities and utilization standards assumed in accordance with 36 

CFR 219.16(a)(2)(i) and (ii). Culmination of mean annual increment includes 

regeneration harvest yields, and any additional yields from planned intermediate 

harvests. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 6 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 459 

cultural resources - Physical remains of districts, sites, structures, buildings, 

networks or objects used by humans in the past. They may be historic, prehistoric, 

archaeological, architectural or spiritual in nature. Cultural resources are nonrenewable. 

cunit - Equivalent to 100 cubic feet of solid wood. Commonly, 100 cubic feet is 

expressed as 1 CCF. 

cut-offs - Analysis constraints that prevent the valuation of non-timber outputs 

produced in excess of demand plus x percent. It ensures that the assumptions of a 

horizontal demand curve are not violated. 

cutting cycle – The planned interval between partial harvest in a stand being 

managed with an uneven-aged regeneration method. 

D

daylighting - The practices of cutting back edges of roads or trails by removing 

shrub and tree growth. 

decision criteria - Rules or standards used to evaluate and rank alternatives. 

demand - The amount of an output that users are willing to take at specified price, 

time period, and condition of sale. 

den trees - Trees having rainproof, weather- tight cavities used by wildlife. 

desired future condition - An expression of resource goals that have been set for a 

unit of land. It is written as a narrative description of the landscape as it will appear 

when the goals have been achieved. The condition also includes a description of 

physical and biological processes, the environmental setting, and the human 

experience. 

desired landscape character - Appearance of the landscape character to be 

retained or created over time, recognizing that a landscape is a dynamic and 

constantly changing community of plants and animals. It includes the combination of 

landscape design attributes and opportunities, as well as biological opportunities and 

constraints. 

developed recreation - Recreation use or opportunities occurring at developed 

sites. 

developed site - A discrete place containing a concentration of facilities and 

services used to provide recreation opportunities to the public and evidencing a 

significant investment in facilities and management under the direction of an 

administrative unit in the National Forest System. (Chpt 5 and infra 97) 

Development Level - An indication of site modification based on classes in the 

Recreation Opportunity Spectrum. Development Level 1 equates to Primitive, with 

minimum site modification; 2 equates to Semi-Primitive Motorized/Nonmotorized, 

with little site modification; 3 equates to Roaded, with moderate modification; 4 
CHAPTER 6 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

460 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

equates to Rural, with heavy site modification; and 5 relates to Urban, with a high 

degree of site modification. See Facilities level, below, and FSM 2330.3, Exhibit 1. 

diameter at breast height – A tree’s diameter measured at about 4.5 feet (1.37m) 

above the forest floor on the uphill side of the tree. For the purposes of determining 

breast height, the forest floor includes the duff layer that may be present, but does 

not include unincorporated woody debris that may rise above the ground line. 

diameter class – Any of the intervals into which a range of diameters of tree stems 

may be divided for classification and use, (e.g., 10-inch class includes diameters 

from 9.5 inches to 10.49 inches. 

dispersed recreation – Recreation opportunities or use occurring in the general 

forest area. Not taking place in developed sites 

disturbance (ecology) – Any relative discrete event in time that disrupts the 

ecosystem, community, or population structure and changes resources, substrate 

availability, or the physical environment. 

disturbance-recovery regime – A natural pattern of periodic disturbance followed 

by a period of recovery. Examples include fire or flooding. 

diversity - The distribution and abundance of different plant and animal 

communities and species within the area covered by a land and resource 

management plan. 

dominant crown class - Trees with crowns extending above the general level of the 

main canopy of even-aged groups of trees. They receive full light from above, and 

partly from the sides. 

drainage area/basin - The total area above a given point on a stream that 

contributes to the flow at that point. Term is often used interchangeably with 

watershed. 

drum chopping - Method used to prepare areas for reforestation. Large drums with 

cutting blades attached are pulled over areas by vehicles that include crawler-type 

tractors and rubber-tired skidders. 

E

early successional forest – The biotic community that develops immediately 

following the removal or mortality of most or all of forest canopy, resulting in a 

predominance of woody species regeneration. As used in the Environmental Impact 

Statement and LMP, a stand age of 0 to 10 years is used to define this condition. 

See successional stage. 

early-successional habitat – A vegetative condition typically characterized by low 

density to no tree canopy cover and an abundance of herbaceous and/or woody 

ground cover. This condition may include early-successional forest, maintained 

openings, pastures, balds, and open woodlands. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 6 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 461 

early successional species - Plant or animal species characteristic of early forest 

successional stages. 

ecological classification system - A hierarchical system used to help organize 

and coordinate the classification of ecological types, units, and to make comparisons. Classification is ecologically based and integrates existing resource data 

including climate, topography, geology, soil, hydrology, and vegetation. The system 

includes many levels (from the top-down approach): domain, division, province, 

section, subsection, land type, land type association, land type phase, and site. 

ecological management unit - A grouping of one or more soil series that have 

similar characteristics including texture, structure, or water retention capacity. EMUs 

are used in soil mapping.

ecosystem - A complete interacting system of organisms and their environment. 

ecosystem/cover type - The native vegetation ecological community considered 

together with non-living factors of the environment as a unit. The general cover type 

occupying the greatest percent of the stand location. Based on tree or plant species 

forming a plurality of the stocking within the stand. May be observed in the field, or 

computed from plot measurements. 

electronic sites - Areas designated for the operation of equipment which transmits 

and receives radio signals. 

endangered species - Any species that is in danger of extinction throughout all or 

a significant portion of its range, other than members of the class Insecta that have 

been determined by the Department of Interior to constitute a pest whose protection 

under the provisions of this (Endangered Species Act of 1973) act would present an 

overwhelming and overriding risk to humans. It must be designated in the Federal 

Register by the appropriate secretary. 

Endangered Species Act of 1973 - An act that enables endangered and 

threatened species to be conserved. It provides a program for the conservation of 

such species, and takes appropriate steps to achieve the purposes of the (relevant) 

treaties and conventions. 

endemic – Species restricted to a particular geographic area. Usually limited to one 

or a few small streams or a single drainage.

ending inventory - The standing volume at the end of the planning horizon. It must 

be adequate for the maintenance of long-term sustained yield. 

environment - All the conditions, circumstances, and influences surrounding and 

affecting the development of an organism, or group of organisms. 

environmental consequence - The result or effect of an action upon the 

environment. 

environmental impact statement - A disclosure document revealing the 

environmental effects of a proposed action, which is required for major federal 

actions under Section 102 of the National Environmental Policy Act, and released to 
CHAPTER 6 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

462 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

the public and other agencies for comment and review. Final Environmental Impact 

Statement (FEIS) is the final version of the statement disclosing environmental 

effects required for major federal actions under Section 102 of the National 

Environmental Policy Act. 

environmental impact - Used interchangeably with environmental consequence or 

effect. 

ephemeral streams - Streams having flows that occur for short periods of time in 

direct response to storm precipitation or snowmelt runoff. Their bottoms are always 

above the water table and do not contain fish or aquatic insects that have larvae with 

multiple-year life cycles. Ephemeral streams may have a defined channel, but may be 

manifested as a natural swale or depression with vegetation and organic material 

covering the bottom. They also may serve as a conduit for much of the sediment that 

enters the stream system. Large woody debris associated with ephemeral streams 

may also contribute significantly to the stability of a stream system. 

Ephemeral streams that exhibit an ordinary high watermark, show signs of annual 

scour or sediment transport, are considered navigable waters of the United States. 

erosion - The wearing away of the land surface by the action of wind, water, or 

gravity. 

essential habitat - Habitat in which threatened and endangered species occur, but 

which has not been declared as critical habitat. Occupied habitat or suitable 

unoccupied habitat necessary for the protection and recovery of a federally 

designated threatened or endangered species. 

eutrophication – Condition of a lake where deleterious effects are caused by 

increased nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorous), and a decrease in oxygen. 

evapo-transpiration - The transfer of water vapor to the atmosphere from soil and 

water surfaces (evaporation), and from living plant cells (transpiration). 

even-aged methods – Regeneration methods designed to maintain and regenerate 

a stand with a single age class. 

even-aged silvicultural system - A planned sequence of treatments designed to 

maintain and regenerate a stand with one age class. 

even-aged stand - A stand of trees containing a single age class in which the range 

of tree ages is usually less than 20 percent of rotation. 

existing wilderness - Those areas already designated as wilderness by Congress. 

There are two such areas on the forests—the Cohutta Wilderness Area, and Ellicott 

Rock Wilderness Area. 

extirpation – Extinction of a species from all or part of its range. 

F

facilities level - A term that refers to campgrounds, expressed as Development 

Level 1-5. Customers in levels 1 and 2 campgrounds generally seek a relatively 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 6 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 463 

primitive experience with a minimum of facilities for comfort or convenience. Tent 

camping dominates and spurs are too short to accommodate most RVs. Utilities are 

not provided and access is most difficult. Level 3 developments are called 

“Recreational Vehicle/Travel Trailer Parks” in national electrical and plumbing codes. 

The focus is on tent campers and small RVs that do not contain a water closet or 

bathing facilities. Spur length is usually limited to 35’; low amperage electrical 

service may be provided. Water hydrants are centrally located to serve 3-5 sites, and 

flush toilets are typical. Traditionally, a moderate degree of accessibility is provided. 

Level 4 and 5 developments serve users with RVs of all types. Showers, flush toilets 

and other amenities are available; individual water, sewer and electrical hookups are 

commonly provided; service buildings are located within 200 - 300 feet of all sites. 

facility - A single or contiguous group of improvements that exists to shelter or 

support Forest Service Programs. The term may be used in either a broad or narrow 

context; for example, a facility may be a ranger station compound, lookout tower, 

leased office, work center, separate housing area, visitor center, research laboratory, 

recreation complex, utility system, or telecommunications site. 

farmer-owned land - Owned by farm operators, excluding incorporated farm 

ownerships. 

feathering - A treatment used along the edges of openings in the forest canopy to 

reduce shadow contrasts by manipulating the density and size of vegetation. 

featured species - The selected wildlife species whose habitat requirements guide 

wildlife management including coordination, multiple use planning, direct habitat improvements, and cooperative programs for a unit of land. In context of land 

management planning, featured species are similar to management indicator 

species. 

Federal Register - The designated document that notifies the public of federal 

actions and includes Notice of Intent, calls for public involvement, etc. It also 

publishes the regulations needed to implement those federal actions. 

felling – The cutting down of trees. 

final crop – That portion of the growing stock (to be) kept until final commercial 

harvest, (i.e., final product objective). 

fire condition class – Based on coarse scale national data, classes measure 

general wildfire risk: 

Class One – Fire regimes are usually within historical ranges. Vegetation 

composition and structure are intact. The risk of losing key ecosystem 

components from the occurrence of fire is relatively low. 

Class Two – Fire regimes on these lands have been moderately altered from 

their historical range by increased or decreased fire frequency. A moderate 

risk of losing key ecosystem components has been identified. 

Class Three – Fire regimes on these lands have been significantly altered 

from their historical return interval. The risk of losing key ecosystem 
CHAPTER 6 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

464 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

components from fire is high. Fire frequencies have departed from historical 

ranges by multiple return intervals. Vegetation composition, structure and 

diversity have been significantly altered. 

fire management effectiveness index - A measure of the effectiveness of annual 

fire management operational programs. Measured in dollars per thousand acres 

protected, the objective is to minimize the index value. 

fire management plan – Strategic plans that define a program to manage wildland 

fires based on an area’s approved land management plan. They must address a full 

range of fire management activities that support ecosystem sustainability, values to 

be protected, protection of firefighter and public safety, public health and 

environmental issues, and must be consistent with resource management objectives 

and activities of the area. 

fire regime – A generalized description of the role a fire plays in the ecosystem. It is 

characterized by fire frequency, predictability, seasonality, intensity, duration, scale 

(patch size), and regularity or variability. Five combinations of fire frequency exist. 

Groups One and Two include fire return intervals in the 0-35 range. One includes 

Ponderosa Pine, other long needle pine species, and dry site Douglas Fir. Group Two 

includes the drier grassland types - tall grass prairie, and some Pacific chaparral 

ecosystems. 

Groups Three and Four include fire return intervals in the 35-100+ year range. Three 

includes interior dry site shrub communities including sagebrush and chaparral 

ecosystems. Group Four includes Lodgepole and Jack Pine. 

Group Five is the long interval (infrequent), stand replacement fire regime and 

includes temperate rain forest, boreal forest, and high elevation conifer species. 

fire use – The combination of wildland fire use and prescribed fire application to 

meet resource objectives.

fisheries classification - Water bodies and streams classed as having a cold- or 

warm-water fishery. This designation is dependent upon the dominant species of fish 

occupying the water. 

fisheries habitat - Streams, lakes, and reservoirs that support fish. 

floodplains - Lowland or relatively flat areas joining inland and coastal water 

including, at a minimum, that area subject to a 1-percent (100-year return period) or 

greater chance of flooding in any given year. Although floodplains and wetlands fall 

within the riparian area, they are defined here separately as described in the Forest 

Service Manual. 

floor on first period production - The minimum harvest volume in the first period 

that should be produced to prevent a significant impact on the local economy. 

forage - All browse and non-woody plants that are available to livestock or game 

animals used for grazing or harvested for feeding. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 6 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 465 

forage production - The weight of forage that is produced within a designated 

period of time on a given area. The weight may be expressed as green, air dry, or 

oven dry. The term may also be modified as to time of production including annual, 

current years, or seasonal forage production. 

foreground - The area between the viewer and the middle ground in a landscape; 

generally from 0 to 1⁄2 mile distance. 

forest - An area managed for the production of timber and other forest products, or 

maintained under woody vegetation for indirect benefits as protection of a 

watershed, recreation, or wildlife habitat. 

forest type - A category of forest defined by its vegetation (particularly its dominant 

composition) as based on a percentage cover of trees. 

forest development road - A road wholly or partly within, or adjacent to, and 

serving a part of the National Forest System. It also has been included in the Forest 

Development Road System Plan. 

forest health – The perceived condition of a forest derived from concerns about 

factors as its age, structure, composition, function, vigor, presence of unusual levels 

of insects or disease, and resilience to disturbance. 

forest land - Land at least 10 percent occupied by forest trees of any size, or 

formerly having had such tree cover, and not currently developed for non-forest use. 

Lands developed for non-forest use including areas for crops, improved pasture, 

residential, or administrative areas, improved roads of any width, adjoining road 

clearing, and power line clearing of any width. 

Forest and Rangeland Renewable Resources Planning Act of 1974 - An act of 

Congress requiring the preparation of a program for the management of the national 

forests’ renewable resources, and of land and resource management plans for units 

of the National Forest System. It also requires a continuing inventory of all National 

Forest System lands and renewable resources. 

Forest Service Handbook (FSH) - A handbook that provides detailed instructions 

for proceeding with specialized phases of programs or activities for Forest Service 

use. 

Forest Service Manual (FSM) - Agency manuals that provide direction for Forest 

Service activities. 

forest trail system - Trails that are part of the CNF transportation system. It is a 

designated path commonly used and maintained for hikers, horse riders, bicycles, or 

two-wheeled motorized vehicles. 

forest type - A descriptive term used to group stands of similar composition and 

development because of given ecological factors, by which they may be differentiated 

from other groups of stands. 

forest supervisor - The official responsible for administering the National Forest 

System lands in a Forest Service administrative unit. It may consist of two or more 
CHAPTER 6 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

466 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

national forests or all the forests within a state. The supervisor reports to the 

regional forester. 

forest-wide standard - A performance criterion indicating acceptable norms, 

specification, or quality that actions must meet to maintain the minimum 

considerations for a particular resource. This type of standard applies to all areas of 

the forest regardless of the other management prescriptions applied. 

free-to-grow – A seedling or small tree free from direct competition from other 

trees, shrubs, grasses, or herbaceous plants. 

fuel break - Any natural or constructed barrier used to segregate, stop, and control 

the spread of fire, or to provide a control line from which to work. 

fuel treatment - The rearrangement or disposal of fuels to reduce fire hazard. Fuels 

are defined as living and dead vegetative materials consumable by fire. 

fuels management - The planned treatment of fuels to achieve or maintain desired 

fuels conditions. 

fuelwood - Wood used for conversion to some form of energy. 

G

game species - Any species of wildlife or fish for which seasons and bag limits have 

been prescribed, and which are normally harvested by hunters, trappers, and 

fishermen under state or federal laws, codes, and regulations. 

General Forest Area (GFA) - National Forest lands not categorized as developed 

recreation sites, trails or wilderness. A GFA can be a logical working area, like a 

drainage, geographic area, forest district, etc. Typically containing a wide spectrum 

of settings and opportunities, facilities and sites located inside the boundary of a GFA 

are sometimes considered concentrated use areas (CUA) that may include dispersed 

front- and/or backcountry campsites, parking areas, pullouts and landings, river and 

road corridors, lake surfaces and day use areas such as OHV areas, climbing areas, 

target shooting areas, etc. Amenities or constructed features inside GFAs are 

primarily for resource protection. 

geologic features - Landforms or other features of significant geologic interest that 

may require special management to protect the special qualities, or provide 

interpretation to the public. 

geologic formation - A mappable body of rock identified by distinctive 

characteristics, some degree of internal homogeneity, and stratigraphic position. The 

name normally consists of two parts. The first is the name of the geographic locality 

where the formation was first identified and described. This is followed by a 

descriptive geologic term, usually the dominant rock type. 

Geographic Information System - An information processing technology to input, 

store, manipulate, analyze, and display spatial resource data to support the decisionmaking processes of an organization. Generally, an electronic medium for processing 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 6 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 467 

map information, typically used with manual processes to affect specific decisions 

about land base and its resources. 

geological area - A unit of land that has been designated by the Forest Service as 

containing outstanding formations or unique geological features of the earth’s 

development, including caves and fossils. Areas of this type and all other special 

interest areas are identified and formally classified primarily because of their 

recreational and educational values. Areas with similar types of values of scientific 

importance are formally classified as research natural areas. 

global ranks – Ranks assigned by the Nature Conservancy and state heritage 

programs based on number of occurrences. 

grassland - Areas on which vegetation is dominated by grasses, grass-like plants, 

forbs, and/or cryptogams (mosses, lichens, and ferns), provided these areas do not 

qualify as built-up land or cultivated cropland. Examples include tall grass and short 

grass prairies, meadows, cordgrass marshes, sphagnum moss areas, pasturelands, 

and areas cut for hay. 

grazing - Consumption of range or pasture forage by animals. 

grazing capacity - The maximum stocking rate possible without inducing damage to 

vegetation or related resources. 

grazing permit - Official, written permission to graze a specified number, kind, and 

class of livestock for a specific period on a defined range allotment. 

gross receipts - A total of all funds received by the U.S. Treasury as a result of 

Forest Service activities. 

groundwater - Water in a saturated zone in a geologic stratum. Water stored below 

the water table where the soil (or other geologic material) is saturated. 

group selection – An uneven-aged regeneration method in which trees are removed 

periodically in small groups. Uneven age classes for trees are established in small 

groups. The width of groups is about twice the height of the mature trees, with small 

openings providing microenvironments suitable for tolerant regeneration, and the 

larger openings providing conditions suitable for more intolerant regeneration. 

growing stock trees - Live trees, meeting specified standards of quality or vigor, 

included in growth and yield projections to arrive at the allowable sale quantity. 

growing stock volume - Volume (cubic feet) of solid wood in growing stock trees 5 

inches DBH and larger, from a 1-foot stump to a minimum 4-inch top diameter, 

outside bark, on the central stem. Volume of solid wood in primary forks from the 

point of occurrence to a minimum 4-inch top diameter outside bark is included. 

H

habitat - The native environment of an animal or plant. 

harvest cutting – An intermediate for final cutting that extracts salable trees. 
CHAPTER 6 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

468 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

harvesting method - A procedure by which a stand is logged. Emphasis is on 

meeting logging requirements rather than silvicultural objectives. 

herbicide – A pesticide used for killing or controlling the growth of undesirable 

plants.

Heritage Sites/Assets - Remnants of past cultures that remind us of the centuriesold relationship between people and the land (from National Heritage Strategy); 

property, plant or equipment that are unique for one or more of the following 

reasons: (1) historical or natural significance; (2) cultural, educational or 

artistic/aesthetic significance; or (3) significant architectural characteristics. 

high-grading - The removal from the most commercially valuable trees, often 

leaving a residual stand composed of trees of poor condition or species composition. 

historic landscapes - Industrial, agricultural, pastoral or domestic landscapes that 

have evolved over many years from human alteration. They are commonly functional 

and often vernacular, and may not always be visually pleasing, often responding to 

specific functions or topography, not formally planned or designed. They may be 

informal to the degree that they appear to be natural occurrences, or the spatial 

organization of built and natural elements may be quite traditional or formal. They 

are identifiable and can be mapped, either as point-specific features or enclaves 

within a larger landscape, as entire landscapes themselves, or as a combination of 

both. 

human resource programs - Any of the federal labor programs providing work 

experience for local people. 

hydric soils – Soils developed in conditions where soil oxygen is limited by the 

presence of saturated soil for long periods during the growing season. 

I

immediate foreground - The area in the landscape from the viewer out to 300 

feet distance. 

improved pasture - Fenced, fertilized pastures intensively managed for livestock 

grazing. 

improvement cutting – The removal of less desirable trees in a stand of poles or 

larger trees, primarily to improve composition and quality. 

industrial fuelwood - Wood to be used specifically by industry for production of 

energy. 

industrial wood - All commercial round wood products, except fuelwood. 

infestation – The attack by macroscopic organisms in considerable concentration. 

Examples are infestations of tree crowns by budworm, timber by termites, soil or 

other substrates by nematodes or weeds. 

INFRA infrastructure - An integrated database for collection/storage/use of 

information about features, land units, facilities and utilities, accessibility and real 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 6 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 469 

property. For recreation management, INFRA holds information on O&M costs, 

recreation funding shortfalls, recreation use data, information on accessibility, and 

inventories of facilities. INFRA brings together Oracle, Arc Info and Arc View GIS 

technology, and supplements recreation management systems including SMS, ROS 

and Benefits Based Management. 

initial attack – The aggressive response to a wildland fire based on values to be 

protected, benefits of response, and reasonable cost of response. 

in-stream flow - The presence of adequate stream flow in channels necessary to 

maintain the integrity of the stream channel, and protection of downstream 

beneficial uses including fish and wildlife needs, outdoor recreation uses of water, 

and livestock watering needs. 

integrated pest management (IPM) – The maintenance of destructive agents, 

including insects at tolerable levels, by the planned use of a variety of preventive, 

suppressive, or regulatory tactics and strategies that are ecologically and 

economically efficient and socially acceptable. 

Interdisciplinary Team - A group of resource specialists (e.g.: forester, wildlife 

biologist, hydrologist, etc.) responsible for developing the LMP/Environmental 

Statement, and for making recommendations to the forest supervisor. 

intermediate crown class - Trees with crowns extending into the lower portion of 

the main canopy of even-aged groups of trees, but shorter in height than the codominants. They receive little direct light from above, and none from the sides. 

intermediate treatments - A collective term for any treatment designed to enhance 

growth, quality, vigor, and composition of the stand after establishment of 

regeneration and prior to final harvest. 

intermittent streams – Streams that flow in response to a seasonally-fluctuating 

water table in a well-defined channel. The channel will exhibit signs of annual scour, 

sediment transport, and other stream channel characteristics, absent perennial 

flows. Intermittent streams typically flow during times of elevated water table levels, 

and may be dry during significant periods of the year, depending on precipitation 

cycles. 

interpretive association - A nonprofit, tax-exempt corporation or organization 

whose purpose is extending and enhancing the ability of the Forest Service to provide 

customer service to National Forest visitors. Interpretive Associations work 

cooperatively with the Forest Service in educating the public about natural and 

cultural issues on public lands. 

interpretive services - Visitor information services designed to present 

inspirational, educational, and recreational values to forest visitors in an effort to 

promote understanding, appreciation, and enjoyment of their forest experience. 

intolerant – A plant requiring sunlight and exposure for establishment and growth. 
CHAPTER 6 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

470 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

L

land exchange - The conveyance of non-federal land or interests in the land in 

exchange for National Forest System land or interests in land. 

landing – A cleared area in the forest to which logs are yarded or skidded for loading 

onto trucks for transport. 

landline location - Legal identification and accurate location of national forest 

property boundaries. 

land management planning – A formal process of management planning involving 

four interactive steps: monitoring, assessment, decision making, and 

implementations as described in the Federal Code of Regulations. 

landscape - An area composed of interacting ecosystems that are repeated because 

of geology, land form, soils, climate, biota, and human influences throughout the 

area. Landscapes are generally of a size, shape, and pattern that are determined by 

interacting ecosystems. 

landscape character - Particular attributes, qualities, and traits of landscape that 

give it an image and make it identifiable or unique. 

land type - An intermediate level in the ecological classification system hierarchy 

that addresses land areas ranging in size from hundreds of acres up to ten 

thousands of acres. These units typically have similarities in landform, natural 

vegetative communities, and soils. 

land type association - A group of landtypes. The landtypes in the association are 

sufficiently homogeneous to be considered as a whole for modeling the future 

outputs and effects of planned management activities. Landtype associations may 

not follow watershed boundaries, and are defined on the basis of general similarities 

in climate, geology, landform, and vegetation. 

Landtype Phase – The most detailed level in the ecological classification system 

hierarchy that addresses local geology, soils, streams, and vegetation types. Land 

areas are generally less than 100 acres in size. 

large woody debris (LWD) (coarse woody debris) (CWD) – Any piece(s) of dead 

woody material, e.g., dead boles, limbs, and large root masses, on the ground in 

forest stands, or in streams. 

late- seral (successional) stage - .The stage of forest development at which 

overstory trees have attained most of expected height growth and have reached 

ecological maturity. As used in the Environmental Impact Statement and LMP, a 

stand age of greater than 80 years is generally used to define this condition. Oldgrowth forests occur during the later periods of this seral stage at ages that vary by 

forest type and in response to a variety of environmental conditions. See 

successional stage. 

lease - A contract between the landowner and another granting the latter the right to 

search for and produce oil, gas, or other mineral substances (as specified in the 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 6 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 471 

document) on payment of an agreed rental, bonus, or royalty. This right is subject to 

the terms, conditions, and limitations specified in the document. 

leave tree – A tree (marked to be) left standing for wildlife, seed production, etc, in 

an area where it might otherwise be felled. 

Limits Of Acceptable Change (LAC) - A nine step planning process used to 

establish acceptable wilderness resource and social conditions and prescribe 

appropriate management actions. 

Locally rare – Species for which representation on the CNF is a concern. 

Development of a locally rare species list is at the discretion of the CNF and may be 

completed in cooperation with state and other federal agencies as well as other 

interested groups, organizations, or individuals.

local road - Roads that connect terminal facilities with forest collector or forest 

arterial roads, or public highways. Forest local roads may be developed and operated 

for either long- or short-term service. These roads are generally single lane.

logging - The felling, skidding, on-site processing, and loading of trees or logs onto 

trucks. 

long-term facilities - Facilities that are developed and operated for long-term land 

management and resource utilization needs. They may be operated for constant or 

intermittent service. 

1. constant service - Facilities developed and operated for continuous or 

annual recurrent service. 

2. intermittent service - Facilities developed and operated for periodic 

service and closed for more than one year between periods of use. Closure is 

by means other than a gate. 

long-term sustained-yield capacity - The highest uniform wood yield from lands 

being managed for timber production that may be sustained under a specified 

management intensity, consistent with multiple-use objectives. 

low PSI skidder - A term used to identify any one of several types of vehicles used 

to move logs from stump to log loading area. Low PSI (pounds per square inch) 

identifies those vehicles that, because of design of tracks, wheels, or suspension 

system, exert much lower pressure on ground surface than other types of groundbased skidding vehicles. 

M

M&E - Monitoring and Evaluation, determining on a sample basis how well the 

objectives of Forest Plan management practices have been met and what effects 

those practices had on the land and environment. 

machine planting - A method by which tree seedlings are planted by mechanical 

means rather than by hand. 
CHAPTER 6 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

472 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

management action – A set of management activities applied to a land area to 

produced a desired output. 

management action controls – Specifies the acreage or the proportion of an 

analysis unit assigned to a set of management actions. The controls can be specified 

in terms of greater than or equal to, equal to, or less than equal to some amount, or 

proportion of the analysis unit acreage. 

management area - A selected grouping of capability or analysis areas selected 

through evaluation procedures used to locate decisions, and resolve issues and 

concerns. An area with similar management objectives, and a common management 

prescription. 

management attainment report (MAR) - A process used in determining whether 

work is progressing as planned. It provides the manager with information for 

measuring progress against objectives, information for measuring self and 

subordinates’ performance, and an indication of a reporting unit’s performance. 

management concern - An issue, problem, or condition which constrains the range 

of management practices identified by the Forest Service in the planning process. 

management direction - A statement of multiple-use and other goals and 

objectives. The associated management prescriptions, and standards and guidelines 

for attaining them. 

management emphasis - The multiple-use values to be featured or enhanced. 

management indicator species – An animal or plant selected for use as a 

planning tool in accordance with 1982 NFMA regulations (36 CFR 219.19). These 

species are used to help set objectives, analyze effects of alternatives, and monitor 

plan implementation. They are chosen because their population changes are 

believed to indicate the effects of management on selected biological components. 

management intensity - A management practice or combination of management 

practices and associated costs designed to obtain different levels of goods and 

services. 

management opportunity - A statement of general actions, measures, or 

treatments that address a public issue or management concern in a favorable way. 

management practice - A specific action, measure, course of action, or treatment 

undertaken on a forest. 

management prescription - Management practices and intensity selected and 

scheduled for application on a specific area to attain multiple-use and other goals 

and objectives. 

management situation - A comprehensive statement of the planning area 

resources, its history as it may influence planning, past and present uses, and a 

review of the public issus directly concerned with the area. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 6 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 473 

management team – A decision-making group consisting of the forest supervisor, 

staff officers, and district rangers. 

management type - The tree species or species group that should be grown on a 

specific site, whether or not it presently occupies the site that best suits the 

particular site soil, aspect, elevation, and moisture provided by the area and the 

forest plan’s objectives. 

mast tree - Generally hardwood trees of the heavy seeded variety including oaks, 

hickories, walnut, beech—25 years and older capable of producing frequent seed 

crops to feed a variety of wildlife species. 

mature timber - The stage at which a crop or stand of trees best fulfills the main 

purpose for which it was grown. 

maximum modification - A visual quality objective in which man’s activity may 

dominate the characteristic landscape, but should appear as a natural occurrence 

when viewed as background. 

mean annual increment of growth - The total increase in girth, diameter, basal 

area, height, or volume of individual trees or a stand up to a given age divided by that 

age. 

meaningful measures - A moniker for the Forest Service’s National Recreation 

Business Management System, MM is a six-step management system for 

professional, accountable and visitor-responsive site and project-level management. 

Accomplishment is measured by established standards of quality for recreation 

services; the system determines costs to attain those standards, sets priorities for 

work to be accomplished and budget allocations, and measures the actual success 

at attaining these quality standards. 

mechanical site preparation - Soil disturbance by mechanical chopping, furrowing, 

dozing, or disking to prepare areas for reforestation. Objective is to reduce plant 

competition for trees to be planted. 

mechanical transport - Any contrivance for moving people or material in or over 

land, water, or air, having moving parts, that provides a mechanical advantage to the 

user, and that is powered by a living or non-living power source. This includes but is 

not limited to, sailboats, hang gliders, parachutes, bicycles, game carriers, carts, and 

wagons. It does not include wheelchairs when used as necessary medical 

appliances. It also does not include skis, snowshoes, rafts, canoes, sleds, travois, or 

similar primitive devices without moving parts. 

mesic – Sites or habitats characterized by intermediate moisture conditions, i.e., 

neither decidedly wet or dry. 

middle ground - The space between the foreground and the background in a 

landscape; generally 1⁄2 mile to 4 miles distance from the viewer. 

mid-seral (successional) stage – The stage of forest development during which 

distinct overstory, midstory, and understory canopies are developed. As used in the 
CHAPTER 6 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

474 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Environmental Impact Statement and LMP, a stand age of 41 to 80 years is generally 

used to define this condition. See successional stage. 

mineral exploration - The search for valuable minerals on lands open to mineral 

entry. 

mineral soil - Weathered rock materials without any vegetative cover. 

mineral resource - A known or undiscovered concentration of naturally occurring 

solid, liquid, or gaseous material in or on the earth’s crust in such form and amount 

that economic extraction of a commodity from the concentration is currently or 

potentially feasible. 

minerals (leasable) - Coal, oil, gas, phosphate, sodium, potassium, oil shale, 

sulphur, and geothermal steam. All hard-rock minerals that occur on acquired lands, 

as opposed to public domain lands, are leasable. 

minerals (salable) - Common variety deposits that—although they may have value 

or use in trade, manufacture, the sciences, or in the mechanical or ornamental arts—

do not possess a distinct, special economic value for such use over and above the 

normal uses of the general sum of such deposits. These may include sand, stone, 

gravel, pumicite, cinders, pumice (except that occurring in pieces more than two 

inches on a side), clay, and petrified wood. 

minimum management requirement - Any constraint imposed to comply with 36 

CFR 219.27 and other legal restrictions that must be met by benchmark solutions as 

noted in 36 CFR 219.11(e)(1). These include requirements including conserving soil 

productivity, maintaining minimum viable populations of wildlife, preserving the 

habitat of endangered species’ habitat, dispersing openings, and limiting cut size. It 

also includes any other standards and guidelines, including best management 

practices that serve to define management prescriptions and resource response. 

mitigation - Actions to avoid, minimize, reduce, eliminate, or rectify the impact of a 

management practice. 

modification - A visual quality objective in which human activity may dominate the 

characteristic landscape but must, at the same time, use naturally established form, 

line, color, and texture appearing as a natural occurrence when viewed in foreground 

or middle ground. 

monitoring - Techniques used to validate standards, determine visitor expectations, 

needs and preferences and to assess resource conditions. 

montane – Relating to the zone of relatively moist, cool upland ;slopes characterized 

by the presence of large evergreen trees as a dominant life form. 

mortality - Dead or dying trees resulting from forest fire, insect, diseases, or climatic 

factors. 

motorized equipment - Machines that use a motor, engine, or other non-living 

power source. This includes but is not limited to such machines as chain saws, 

aircraft, snowmobiles, generators, motor boats, and motor vehicles. It does not 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 6 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 475 

include small battery or gas powered hand carried devices such as shavers, 

wristwatches, flashlights, cameras, stoves, or other similar small equipment. 

multiple use - The management of all the various renewable surface resources of 

the National Forest System so that they are used in a manner that will best meet the 

needs of the American people. Making the most judicious use of the land for these 

resources or related services over areas large enough to provide sufficient latitude 

for periodic adjustments in the use to conform to changing needs and conditions. 

multipliers - The ratio of a total impact to a component of the impact in 

input/output analysis. An example would be the ratio of the sum of direct, indirect, 

and induced impacts to direct impacts. 

N

National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) of 1969 - An act to declare a national 

policy that will encourage productive and enjoyable harmony between humankind 

and the environment. It was created to promote efforts that will prevent or eliminate 

damage to the environment, biosphere, and stimulate the health and welfare of 

humanity. In addition, the act was crafted to enrich the understanding of the 

ecological systems and natural resources important to the nation, and establish a 

Council of Environmental Quality. 

National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan (Forest Plan) - A plan 

developed to meet the requirements of the Forest and Rangeland Renewable 

Resources Planning Act of 1974, as amended, that guides all natural resource 

management activities and establishes management standards and guidelines for 

the National Forest System lands of a given national forest. 

National Forest Management Act (NFMA) of 1976 - Act passed as an 

amendment to the Forest and Rangeland Renewable Resources Planning Act, 

requiring the preparation of regional guides and forest plans, and the preparation of 

regulations to guide them. 

National Forest System (NFS) - All national forest lands reserved or withdrawn 

from public domain of the United States and acquired through purchase, exchange, 

donation, or other means. National Grasslands and land utilization projects 

administered under Title III of the Bankhead–Jones Farm Tenant Act (50 Stat. 525, 7 

U.S.C. 1010–1012), and other lands, waters, or interests that are administered by 

the Forest Service, or are designated for administration through the Forest Service as 

a part of the system. 

National Forest System Land - Federal land that has been legally designated as 

national forests or purchase units, and other land under the administration of the 

Forest Service, including experimental areas and Bankhead-Jones Title III land. 

National Recreation Trails - Trails designated by the Secretary of the Interior or the 

Secretary of Agriculture as part of the national system of trails authorized by the 

National Trails System Act. National recreation trails provide a variety of outdoor 

recreation uses, in or reasonably accessible, to urban areas. 
CHAPTER 6 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

476 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

National Register of Historic Places - The National Register of Historic Places is 

the Nation's official list of cultural resources worthy of preservation. Authorized 

under the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966, the National Register is part of 

a national program to coordinate and support public and private efforts to identify, 

evaluate, and protect our historic and archeological resources. Properties listed in 

the Register include districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects that are 

significant in American history, architecture, archeology, engineering, and culture. 

The National Register is administered by the National Park Service, which is part of 

the U.S. Department of the Interior. 

National Recreation Trails - Trails designated by the Secretary of the Interior or the 

Secretary of Agriculture as part of the national system of trails authorized by the 

National Trails System Act. National recreation trails provide a variety of outdoor 

recreation uses in or reasonably accessible to urban areas. 

National Visitor Use Monitoring (NVUM) - A systematic process to estimate 

annual recreation and other uses of National Forest lands through user surveys. 

National Wild and Scenic Rivers System - Rivers with outstanding scenic, 

recreational, geologic, fish and wildlife, historic, cultural, or other similar values 

designated by Congress under the Wild and Scenic Rivers Act of October 2, 1968 for 

preservation of their free-flowing condition. 

National Wilderness Preservation System - All lands covered by the Wilderness 

Act and subsequent wilderness designations, irrespective of the department or 

agency having jurisdiction. 

natural regeneration - An age class created from natural seeding, sprouting, 

suckering, or layering. 

net annual growth - The net change in merchantable volume expressed as an 

annual average between surveys in the absence of cutting (gross growth minus 

mortality). 

net public benefits - An expression used to signify the overall long-term value to the 

nation of all outputs and positive effects (benefits) less all associated inputs and 

negative effects (costs) whether they can be quantitatively valued. Net public 

benefits are measured by quantitative and qualitative criteria rather than a single 

measure or index. The maximization of net public benefits to be derived from 

management of units of the National Forest System is consistent with the principles 

of multiple use and sustained yield.

no-action alternative - The most likely condition expected to exist in the future if 

current management direction would continue unchanged. 

non-chargable volume - All volume not included in the growth and yield projections 

for the selected management prescriptions used to arrive at the allowable sale 

quantity. 

non-commodity output - A resource output that cannot be bought and sold. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 6 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 477 

non-declining yield - A level of timber production planned so that the planned sale 

and harvest for any future decade is equal to, or greater than the planned sale and 

harvest for the preceding decade. 

non-forest land - Land that has never supported forests and lands formerly forested 

where use for timber utilization is precluded by development for other use. Lands 

that never have had, or that are incapable of having 10 percent or more of the area 

occupied by forest trees; or lands previously having such cover and currently 

developed for non-forest use. 

non-game species - Any species of wildlife or fish which is ordinarily not managed 

or otherwise controlled by hunting, fishing, or trapping regulations. The designation 

may vary by state. 

non-point source pollution – A diffuse source of pollution not regulated as a point 

source. May include atmospheric, deposition, agricultural runoff, and sediment from 

land-distributing activities. 

non-stocked stands - Stands less than 16.7 percent stocked with growing stock 

trees. 

non-timber forest products - All forest products except timber, including resins, 

oils, leaves, bark, plants other than trees, fungi, and animals or animal products. 

O

objective - A concise, time-specific statement of measurable planned results that 

respond to pre-established goals. It forms the basis for further planning to define the 

precise steps to be taken and the resources to be used in achieving identified goals. 

off-highway vehicle (OHV) - Any vehicle capable of being operated off established 

roads; e.g., motorbikes, four-wheel drives, and snowmobiles. (Also referred to as OHV 

or off-highway vehicle) 

off-road vehicle (ORV) - Any motorized vehicle designed for or capable of cross 

county travel on or immediately over land, water, sand, snow, ice, marsh, swampland, 

or other natural terrain; except that term excludes (A) any registered motorboat, (B) 

any fire, military, emergency or law enforcement vehicle when used for emergency 

purposes, and any combat or combat support vehicle\when used for national 

defense purposes, and (C) any vehicle whose use is expressly authorized by the 

respective agency head under a permit, lease, license, or contract. 

offstream use – Water withdrawn or diverted from a ground or surface-water 

source for public water supply, industry, irrigation, livestock, thermoelectric power 

generation, and other uses. 

old growth forests – An ecosystem distinguished by old trees and related structural 

attributes. Old growth encompasses the later stages of stand development that 

typically differ from earlier stages in a variety of characteristics including tree size, 

accumulation of large dead woody material, number of canopy layers, species 

composition, and ecosystem function. Old growth is not necessarily virgin or primeval. 

It can develop over time following human disturbances, just as it does following 
CHAPTER 6 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

478 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

natural disturbances. Old growth encompasses older forests dominated by early seral 

species, and forests in later successional stages dominated by shade tolerant 

species. 

on-site - A term referring to species normally found on a site under natural 

conditions. The same or contiguous property that may be divided by a public or 

private right-of-way, provided that the entrance and exit between the properties is at 

a crossroads intersection, and that access is by crossing, as opposed to going along 

the right-of-way. 

operating plan - A written plan, prepared by those engaged in mining activity on the 

forests, and approved by a forest officer for prospecting, exploration, or extraction 

activities that are slated to take place on National Forest System land. 

ordinary high water mark - The line on the shore established by the fluctuation of 

water, and is indicated by physical characteristics including a clear, natural line 

impressed on the bank; shelving, changes in the character of soil, destruction of 

terrestrial vegetation, the presence of litter, debris, or other appropriate means that 

consider the characteristics of the surrounding area.

output - The goods, end products, or services that are purchased, consumed, or 

used directly by people. Goods, services, products, and concerns produced by 

activities that are measurable and capable of being used to determine the 

effectiveness of programs and activities in meeting objectives. A broad term for 

describing any result, product, or service that a process or activity actually produces. 

output, minimum level - The amount of an output that will occur regardless of management activity. 

outstanding mineral rights - Instances in which the minerals in federally- owned 

lands were severed prior to the transaction in which government acquired the land. 

Such rights are not subject to the Secretary of Agriculture’s rules and regulations. 

Removal or extraction of these minerals must be allowed in accordance with the 

instrument severing the minerals from the surface and under applicable state and 

local laws and regulations. 

overnight use developed sites (OUDS) - National Forest sites with facilities for 

overnight use, including campgrounds, cabins/fire lookouts, lodges, horse camps, 

etc. Recreation residences are not included in this definition. 

overstory - That portion of trees in a two- or multi-layered forest stand that provides 

the upper crown cover. 

overstory removal - The cutting of trees comprising an upper canopy layer in order 

to release trees or other vegetation in an understory. 

overtopped (suppressed) crown class - Trees of varying levels of vigor that have 

their crowns completely covered by the crowns of one or more neighboring trees. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 6 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 479 

P

PAOT - Persons-at-one-time; a measure of recreation carrying capacity, especially for 

developed sites. National conventions include 5 persons per family picnic/camp 

unit, 3.5 persons per parking lot stall at a trailhead or visitor center, 1.5 persons per 

motorcycle parking stall and 40 persons per tour bus parking stall. 

partial retention - A visual quality objective which in human activities may be 

evident, but must remain subordinate to the characteristic landscape. 

partnership - Voluntary, mutually beneficial and desired arrangement between the 

Forest Service and another or others to accomplish mutually agreed-on objectives 

consistent with the agency’s mission and serving the public’s interest. 

payments in lieu of taxes - Payments to local or state governments based on 

ownership of federal land, and not directly dependent on production of outputs or 

receipt sharing. 

per capita use - The average amount of water used per person during a standard 

time period, generally per day. 

perennial stream - Any watercourse that generally flows most of the year in a welldefined channel and is below the water table. Droughts and other precipitation 

patterns may influence the actual duration of flow. It contains fish or aquatic insects 

that have larvae with multi-year life cycles. Water-dependent vegetation is typically 

associated with perennial streams. 

person-year - About 2,000 working hours that may be filled by one person working 

during the course of one year or several people working a total of 2,000 hours. 

petrographic – The description and systematic classification of rocks. 

physiographic region - A region of similar geologic structure and climate that has 

had a unified geomorphic history. 

planning area - The area of the National Forest System covered by a regional guide 

or forest plan. 

planning criteria - Standards, tests, rules, and guidelines by which the planning 

process is conducted, and upon which judgments and decisions are based. 

planning horizon - The overall time period considered in the planning process that 

spans all activities covered in the analysis or plan. All future conditions and effects of 

proposed actions which would influence the planning decisions. 

planning period - One decade. The time interval within the planning horizon that is 

used to show incremental changes in yields, costs, effects, and benefits. 

Potential Natural Vegetation – the biotic community that would become 

established if all successional sequences were completed without additional human 

interference under the present environmental conditions. Classifications of Potential 

Natural Vegetation are based on existing vegetation, successional relationships, and 
CHAPTER 6 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

480 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

environment factors (e.g., climate, geology, soil, natural disturbances, etc.) 

considered together. 

PNV Sources: FSM 2060, Tuxen 1956 as cited in Mueller-Dombois and Ellenberg 

1974, USDA Forest Service Ecosystem Management Coordination, Resource 

Information Group, <http://www.fs.fed.us/emc/rig/includes/section1.pdf> 

pre-commercial thinning - The selective felling, deadening, or removal of tree in a 

young stand not for immediate financial return, but primarily to accelerate diameter 

increment on the remaining stems. To maintain a specific stocking or stand density 

range, or to improve the vigor and quality of the remaining trees. 

prescribed fire – Any fire ignited by management actions to meet specific 

objectives including disposal of fuels, and controlling unwanted vegetation. The fires 

are conducted in accordance with prescribed fire plans, and are also designed to 

stimulate grasses, forbs, shrubs, or trees for range, wildlife, recreation, or timber 

management purposes. 

present net value - The difference between the discounted value (benefits) of all 

outputs to which monetary values or established market prices are assigned and the 

total discounted costs of managing the planning area. 

preservation - A visual quality objective that provides for ecological change only. 

presuppression - Activities required in advance of fire occurrence to ensure 

effective suppression action, including: (1) recruiting and training fire forces, (2) 

planning and organizing attack methods, (3) procuring and maintaining fire 

equipment, and (4) maintaining structural improvements necessary for the fire 

program. 

primary trout stream - Streams that contain naturally-reproducing populations of 

brook, rainbow, and/or brown trout. 

Primitive ROS – SEE Recreation Opportunity Spectrum (ROS) 

primitive road - Roads constructed with no regard for grade control or designed 

drainage, sometimes by merely repeated driving over an area. These roads are single 

lane, usually with native surfacing and sometimes passable with four-wheel drive 

vehicles only, especially in wet weather. 

process records - A system that records decisions and activities that result from 

the process of developing a forest plan, revision, or significant amendment. 

proclamation boundary - The boundary contained within the presidential 

proclamation that established the national forest. 

productive deferred - Productive (capable) forest land which has been legislatively 

designated or administratively designated by the Secretary of Agriculture or Chief of 

the Forest Service for wilderness study or possible additions to the Wilderness 

System. This classification includes RARE II area designated as wilderness, but does 

not include RARE II areas designated as “further planning.” 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 6 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 481 

productivity class - A classification of the capacity of a given piece of land for 

timber growth is expressed in cubic feet per acre a year. 

Class I - Lands capable of producing 120 cubic feet or more per acre a year. 

Class II - Lands capable of producing 85 to 119 cubic feet per acre a year. 

Class III - Lands capable of producing 50 to 84 cubic feet per acre a year. 

Class IV - Lands capable of producing 20 to 49 cubic feet per acre a year. 

program - Sets of activities or projects with specific objectives, defined in terms of 

specific results and responsibilities for accomplishments. 

program budget - The schedule of projects and activities to be carried out on the 

forest for a year for which funds have been appropriated. 

program development and budgeting - The process by which activities for the 

forest are proposed and funded. 

project - A work schedule prescribed for a project area to accomplish management 

prescriptions. An organized effort to achieve an objective identified by location, 

activities, outputs, effects, time period, and responsibilities for execution. 

propagule - Any part of an organism that can be detached and disseminated that 

will grow to produce a new individual.

proposed action - In terms of the National Environmental Policy Act, the project, 

activity, or decision that a federal agency intends to implement or undertake. The 

proposed action described in the Environmental Impact Statement is the LMP. 

proposed wilderness – Areas recommended for wilderness by the Forest Service 

as a result of the RARE II study, but which have yet to be acted on by Congress. 

prospecting permit - A written instrument or contract between the landowner and 

another conveying to the latter the right to enter the former’s property and search for 

mineral materials. Two types of permits are used: (1) a BLM Prospecting Permit is 

issued by the Bureau of Land Management upon recommendation of the Forest 

Service. In most cases, these are preference right permits in which the prospector 

has the first opportunity, to the exclusion of all others, to lease any minerals 

discovered, and (2) a Forest Service Prospecting Permit issued by the Forest Service. 

No preference rights are conveyed under Forest Service permits, except in some 

cases of common varieties on acquired lands. 

public domain land - Original holdings of the United States that were never granted 

or conveyed to other jurisdictions or reacquired by exchange for other public domain 

lands. 

public issue - A subject or question of widespread public interest relating to 

management of the National Forest System. 

public participation activities - Meetings, conferences, seminars, workshops, 

tours, written comments, survey questionnaires, and similar activities designed or 

held to obtain comments from the general public and specific publics. 
CHAPTER 6 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

482 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

public roads - Roads across national forest land which were in place as public ways 

when these lands were acquired. These roads may be a part of the forest, state, or 

county system, and may be maintained by any of these agencies. 

public supply – Water withdrawn by public and private water suppliers and 

delivered to users. 

pulpwood - Wood cut and prepared primarily for manufacture into wood pulp. 

pure stand - A stand composed of essentially a single tree species, conventionally at 

least 85 percent based on numbers, basal areas, or volumes. 

Q

qualifiers – Measurable characteristics of outputs and activities. They characterize 

properties or attributes of activities or outputs. 

R

raking - A term used in land clearing whereby crawler tractors, or other types of 

similar heavy equipment, with a large rake device attached to the front end, are used 

to push clearing debris into piles or windrows. 

range allotment - A designated area of land available for livestock grazing upon 

which a specified number and kind of livestock may be grazed under a range. 

range management - The art and science of planning and directing range use to 

obtain sustained maximum animal production, consistent with perpetuation of the 

natural resources. Two types of range management are: 

1. extensive - To control livestock numbers within present capacity of the 

range, but little or no attempt is made to achieve uniform distribution of 

livestock. Range management investments are minimal and only to the 

extent needed to maintain stewardship of the range in the presence of 

grazing. Past resource damage is corrected and resources are protected from 

natural catastrophes. 

2. intensive - To maintain full plant vigor and to achieve full livestock 

utilization of available forage. This goal is achieved through implementation of 

improved grazing systems and construction and installation of range 

improvements. Cultural practices, (seeding and fertilizing), to improve forage 

quality and quantity may be used. 

ranger district - Administrative subdivisions of the forest supervised by a District 

Ranger who reports to the Forest Supervisor. 

rare species – Any native or once-native species of wild animal which exists in small 

numbers, and has been determined to need monitoring. May include peripheral 

species. 

real dollar value - A monetary value, which compensates for the effects of inflation. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 6 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 483 

receipt shares - The portion of receipts derived from Forest Service resource 

management that is distributed to state and county governments, including the 

Forest Service, 25 percent fund payments. 

reconstruction - Work that includes, but is not limited to, widening of roads, 

improving alignment, providing additional turnouts, and improving sight distance that 

improve the standard to which the road was originally constructed. Also undertaken 

to increase the capacity of the road or to provide greater traffic safety. 

Record of Decision - A document separate from, but associated with an 

environmental impact statement that publicly and officially discloses the responsible 

official’s decision on the alternative assessed in the environmental impact statement 

chosen to implement. 

recreation - Leisure time activity including swimming, picnicking, camping, boating, 

hiking, hunting, and fishing. 

Recreation Capacity - A measure of the number of people a site can reasonably 

accommodate at one time; sometimes measured as PAOT or RVDs. 

Recreation Information Management (RIM) - A computerized system for 

gathering and storing national forest recreation information for purposes of resource 

planning, management, and research. 

Recreation Opportunity Spectrum (ROS) - A method for classifying types of 

recreation experiences available or for specifying recreation experience objectives 

desired in certain areas. Classes are: Primitive, Semi-Primitive Non-Motorized, SemiPrimitive Motorized, Roaded Natural, Rural, and Urban. 

Primitive ROS - An area characterized by having essentially unmodified natural 

environment of fairly large size. Interaction between users is very low and evidence 

of other users is minimal. The area is managed to be essentially free from evidence 

of human-induced restrictions and controls. Motorized use within the area is not 

permitted. 

The recreation experience opportunity level provided would be characterized by the 

extremely high probability of experiencing isolation from the sights and sounds of 

humans, independence, closeness to nature, tranquility, and self-reliance through 

the application of woodsmen and outdoor skills in an environment that offers a high 

degree of challenge and risk. 

Semi-Primitive Non-Motorized (ROS) - An area characterized by a predominantly 

natural or natural-appearing environment of moderate-to-large size. Interaction 

between users (or concentration of users) is low, but there is often evidence of other 

users. The area is managed in such a way that minimum on-site controls and 

restrictions may be present but are subtle. 

The recreation experience opportunity level provided would be characterized by the 

high, but not extremely high (or moderate) probability of experiencing isolation from 

the sights and sounds of humans, independence, closeness to nature, tranquility, 

and self-reliance through the application of woodsman and outdoor skills in an 
CHAPTER 6 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

484 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

environment that offers challenge and risk. (The opportunity to have a high degree of 

interaction with the natural environment.) Motorized use is not permitted. 

Semi-Primitive Motorized (ROS) - An area characterized by a predominantly 

natural or natural-appearing environment of moderate-to-large size. Interaction 

between users (or concentration of users) is low, but there is often evidence of other 

users. The area is managed in such a way that minimum on-site controls and 

restrictions may be present but are subtle. 

The recreation experience opportunity level provided would be characterized by the 

high, but not extremely high (or moderate) probability of experiencing isolation from 

the sights and sounds of humans, independence, closeness to nature, tranquility, 

and self-reliance through the application of woodsman and outdoor skills in an 

environment that offers challenge and risk. (The opportunity to have a high degree of 

interaction with the natural environment.) Motorized use is permitted. 

Roaded Natural (ROS) - An area characterized by predominantly natural-appearing 

environments with moderate evidences of the sights and sounds of man. Such 

evidences usually harmonize with the natural environment. Interaction between 

users may be low to moderate, but with evidence of other users prevalent. Resource 

modification and utilization practices are evident, but harmonize with the natural 

environment. Conventional motorized use is provided for in construction standards 

and design of facilities. 

The recreation opportunity experience level provided would be characterized by the 

probability for equal experiencing of affiliation with individuals and groups and for 

isolation from sights and sounds of humans. Opportunities for both motorized and 

non-motorized forms of recreation may be provided. 

*Remote Roaded Natural (RN2) - A sub classification of Roaded Natural 

and accounts for areas on the National Forest that either buffer SPNM areas 

or stand alone as tracts of land 1,500 acres or larger with a low road density 

of 1.5 miles of road/1,000 acres. Inventoried RN2 areas are managed to 

provide additional semi-primitive recreation settings either motorized or nonmotorized. Interaction between users is low, but with evidence of other users 

prevalent. 

Roaded Natural (RN1) - A sub classification of Roaded Natural settings and 

are located within a half mile of an open road. These settings include the 

majority of developed recreation sites such as campgrounds, picnic areas and 

river access points. RN1 also accounts for undeveloped, but highly roaded 

settings popular for dispersed recreation activities such as hunting, fishing, 

camping and horseback riding. Interaction between users is moderate, but 

with evidence of other users prevalent. Opportunities for motorized forms of 

recreation may predominate. 

Rural (ROS) - A classification for areas characterized by a substantially modified 

natural environment. Resource modification and utilization practices are to enhance 

specific recreation activities and to maintain vegetative cover and soil, but harmonize 

with the natural environment. A considerable number of facilities are designed for 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 6 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 485 

use by a large number of people. Moderate densities are provided away from 

developed sites. Facilities for intensified motorized use and parking are provided. 

The recreation opportunity experience level provided would be characterized by the 

probability for experiencing affiliation with individuals and groups is prevalent, as is 

the convenience of sites and opportunities. These factors are generally more 

important than the setting. Opportunities for wildland challenge, risk taking, and 

testing of outdoor skills are generally unimportant. 

Urban (ROS) - An area characterized by a substantially urbanized environment, 

although the background may have natural-appearing elements. Renewable 

resources modification and utilization practices are to enhance specific recreation 

activities. Vegetative cover is often exotic and manicured. Sights and sound of 

humans, on-site, are predominant. Large numbers of users can be expected, both onsite and in nearby areas. Facilities for highly intensified motor use and parking are 

available with forms of mass transit often available to carry people throughout the 

site. 

The recreation opportunity experience level provided would be characterized by the 

probability for experiencing affiliation with individuals and groups is prevalent, as is 

the convenience of sites and opportunities. Experiencing natural environments, 

having challenges and risk afforded by the natural environment, and the use of 

outdoor skills are relatively unimportant. Opportunities for competitive and spectator 

sports and for passive uses of highly human-influenced parks and open spaces are 

common. 

recreation opportunity class - An assessment of the general potential of the site 

for outdoor recreation. 

Recreation Residence - A privately owned residence located on National Forest 

lands through special use authorization. 

recreation visit - The entry of one person upon a National Forest to participate in 

recreation activities for an unspecified period of time. A NF visit can be composed of 

multiple site visits. 

recreation visitor day (RVD) - Recreational use of National Forest sites, or areas of 

land or water, that aggregates 12 visitor-hours; may consist of one person for 12 

hours, 12 persons for one hour, or any equivalent combination of continuous or 

intermittent recreation use by individuals or groups. This was the basic use-reporting 

unit in the Recreation Information Management (RIM) System. 

reforestation – The re-establishment of forest cover either naturally (by natural 

seeding, coppice or root suckers) or artificially by direct by seeding, or planting. 

regeneration - Seedlings or saplings existing in a stand. The act of renewing tree 

cover by establishing young trees naturally or artificially.- Syn. Reforestation. 

regeneration cutting - Any removal of trees intended to assist regeneration already 

present or to make regeneration possible. 
CHAPTER 6 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

486 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

regeneration (reproduction) method - A cutting procedure by which a new age 

class is created. The major methods are clearcutting, seed-tree, shelterwood, 

selection, and coppice. 

regeneration (reproduction) period - The time between the initial regeneration 

cutting and the successful re-establishment of a new age class by natural means, 

planting, or direct seeding. 

Region 8 - The states that make up the Southern Region of the USDA Forest Service. 

Regional Forester - The official responsible for management of National Forest 

land within a USDA Forest Service region. 

regulated harvest – Includes any volume scheduled in calculations of the allowable 

sale quantity which is harvested from suitable forest land. 

release and weeding – A silvercultural treatment designed to free desirable trees 

from competition with overstory trees, less desirable trees, or grasses and other 

forms of vegetative growth. It includes release of natural and artificial regeneration. 

removal cut - The cut which removes the last seed bearers of a seed tree or 

shelterwood regeneration method after the new seedling stand is considered to be 

established. 

research natural area - An area set aside by the Forest Service specifically to 

preserve a representative sample of an ecological community, primarily for scientific 

and educational purposes. Commercial exploitation is not allowed and general public 

use is discouraged. 

reserve trees - Trees, pole-sized or larger, retained after the regeneration period 

under the clearcutting, seed-tree, shelterwood, or coppice methods. 

reserved mineral rights - Refers to those cases wherein the minerals were severed 

from the surface during the transaction whereby the government acquired the land. 

These rights are subject to the Secretary of Agriculture’s rules and regulations that 

were applicable at the time of the transaction. 

resource - An aspect of human environment which renders possible, or facilitates 

the satisfaction of, human wants, and the attainment of social objectives. 

resource allocation model - A mathematical model using linear programming that 

will allocate land to prescriptions and schedule implementation of those 

prescriptions simultaneously. The end purpose of the model is to find a schedule and 

allocation that meets the goals of the forest and optimizes some objective function 

including minimizing costs. The model used for this planning is called spectrum. 

resource use and development opportunities - A possible action, measure, or 

treatment and corresponding goods and services identified and introduced during 

the scoping process. It may subsequently be incorporated into and addressed by the 

land and resource management plan in terms of a management prescription. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 6 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 487 

responsible line officer - The Forest Service employee who has the authority to 

select and/or carry out a specific planning action. 

retention - A visual quality objective in which man’s activities are not evident to the 

casual forest visitor. 

revegetation - The re-establishment and development of a plant cover. This may 

take place naturally through the reproductive processes of the existing flora or 

artificially through the direct action of humans (e.g.: afforestation and range 

reseeding). 

revision - To make the plan new or up-to-date. Plan revision must be considered and 

approved in accordance with the requirements for the development and approval of 

a forest plan. Revisions take place every 10-15 years, but may occur more frequently 

if conditions or public demands change significantly. 

right-of-way - A right of use across the lands of others. It generally does not apply to 

absolute purchase of ownership. Land authorized to be used or occupied for the 

construction, operation, maintenance, and termination of a project or facility passing 

over, upon, under, or through such land. 

riparian – Land areas directly influenced by water. They usually have visible 

vegetative or physical characteristics showing this water influence. Streamside, lake 

borders, and marshes are typical riparian areas. 

riparian areas - Areas with three-dimensional ecotones of interaction that include 

terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems that extend down into the groundwater, up above 

the canopy, outward across the floodplain, up the near-slopes that drain to the water, 

laterally into the terrestrial ecosystem, and along the watercourse at a variable width. 

riparian corridor - An administrative zone applied to both sides of a stream or along 

side a pond, lake, wetland, seep or spring. It is a fixed width by stream type that may 

fall within or beyond the true riparian area. 

riparian dependent species - Species that are dependent on riparian areas during 

at least one stage of their life cycle. 

riparian ecosystem – A transition area between the aquatic ecosystem and the 

terrestrial ecosystems; identified by soil characteristics or distinctive vegetation 

communities that require free or unbound water.

riparian functions - Activities that occur in a riparian area without the influence of 

management activities. Functions include erosion and deposition by the streams, 

nutrient cycling, movement and storage of water, vegetative succession, etc.

ripping - A process where the soil is mechanically sliced or broken to improve tilth, 

aeration, and permeability. 

river classifications - (1)Wild river areas -- Those rivers or sections of rivers that 

are free of impoundments and generally inaccessible except by trail, with watersheds 

or shorelines essentially primitive and waters unpolluted. These represent vestiges of 

primitive America. 
CHAPTER 6 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

488 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

(2) Scenic river areas -- Those rivers or sections of rivers that are free of 

impoundments, with shorelines or watersheds still largely primitive and shorelines 

largely undeveloped, but accessible in places by roads. 

(3) Recreational river areas -- Those rivers or sections of rivers that are readily 

accessible by road or railroad, that may have some development along their 

shorelines, and that may have undergone some impoundment or diversion in the 

past. 

road – A motor vehicle path more than 50 inches wide, unless classified and 

managed as a trail. It may be classed as a system or non-system road. 

road - constant service - A facility on the transportation system developed and 

operated for long-term land management and resource utilization needs. It is also 

operated for continuous or annual recurrent service. System-open roads generally 

remain open for public use except for seasonal closures to prevent road damage due 

to bad weather conditions. 

road - intermittent service - A facility on the transportation system that is 

developed and operated for long-term land management and resource utilization 

needs. It is operated for periodic service and closed for more than one year between 

periods of use. System-closed roads are generally built to access logging sites and 

are closed once logging activities are completed. They can be re-opened several 

years later, however, when access is once again needed to the site. 

road closure - A technique used by management to regulate and control the use of 

facilities to achieve transportation economy, user safety, protection of the public 

investment, and accomplishment of forest resource objectives. It may be intermittent 

or long term. 

road density - A measure of the total length of road in any given unit of area (e.g.: 4 

miles/square mile.) 

road maintenance levels - A formally established set of objectives that describes 

the conditions necessary to achieve the planned operation of a road. The levels vary 

from Level I, basic custodial care, to Level V, which is assigned high use roads in 

which user safety and comfort are important considerations. 

Roaded Natural (ROS) - SEE Recreation Opportunity Spectrum (ROS)

roadless area - Undeveloped federal land where there are no improved roads or 

roads maintained for travel by means of motorized vehicles intended for highway 

use. 

Roadless Area Review and Evaluation (RARE) II - The assessment of “primitive” 

areas within the national forests as potential wilderness areas as required by the 

Wilderness Act. This refers to the second such assessment that was documented in 

the final environmental impact statement of the Roadless Area Review and 

Evaluation, January 1979. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 6 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 489 

RARE II area - An area of land identified during the RARE II and the re-evaluation 

process as having potential for inclusion in the National Wilderness Preservation 

System. 

RARE II inventory boundary - A boundary established with public input surrounding 

large areas of primarily Forest Service lands for the purpose of evaluation during the 

RARE II process. These lands meet minimum Forest Service criteria for potential 

wilderness. 

rollover - A maximum PNV solution with an individual good or service production 

constrained at its maximum potential level. It provides an economically efficient basis 

for comparing all benchmark levels. 

rotation - The number of years required to establish, including the regeneration 

period and grow timber crops, to a specified condition or maturity for harvest. Evenand two-aged management prescriptions in the LMP use a rotation. 

roundwood - Timber and fuelwood prepared in the round state - from felled trees to 

material trimmed, barked, and crosscut (e.g.: logs and transmission poles). 

RPA Program - The recommended direction for long-range management of 

renewable resources of National Forest System lands. This direction serves as the 

basis for the regional targets assigned to the forest. The development of this 

direction is required by the Forest and Rangeland Renewable Resources Planning 

Act. 

runoff - The total stream discharge of water from a watershed including surface and 

subsurface flow, but not groundwater. Usually expressed in acre-feet. 

Rural (ROS) - SEE Recreation Opportunity Spectrum (ROS) 

rural water use – Term used in previous water-use circulars to describe water used 

in suburban or farm areas for domestic and livestock needs. The water is generally 

self-supplied. 

S

SAA - Southern Appalachian Assessment 

sacred sites - Any specific, discrete, narrowly delineated location on Federal land 

that is identified by an Indian tribe, or Indian individual determined to be an 

appropriately authoritative representative of an Indian religion, as sacred by virtue of 

its established religious significance to, or ceremonial use by, an Indian religion; 

provided that the tribe or appropriately authoritative representative of an Indian 

religion had informed the agency of the existence of such a site. 

sale schedule - The quantity of timber planned for sale by time period from an area 

of suitable land covered by a forest plan. The first period (usually a decade) of the 

selected sale schedule provides the allowable sale quantity. Future periods are 

shown to establish that long-term sustained yield will be achieved and maintained. 
CHAPTER 6 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

490 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

salmonids – Fish of the family salmon idea, the chars, trouts, salmons, and white 

fishes. 

salvage cutting - The removal of dead trees or trees being damaged or killed by 

injurious agents other than competition. To recover value that would otherwise be 

lost. 

sanitation cutting - The removal of trees to improve stand health and to reduce 

actual or anticipated spread of insects and disease. 

sapling - A usually young tree that is larger than a seedling, but smaller than a pole. 

Size varies by region. 

sawtimber - Trees suitable in size and quality for producing logs that can be 

processed into dimension lumber. 

scalloping - The undulating vegetative edge treatment given to a travel way or 

opening for aesthetic purposes. 

Scenery Management System - A system for the inventory and analysis of the 

aesthetic values of the National Forest Lands. It replaces the Visual Management 

System (VMS) as defined in Agriculture Handbook #462. 

Scenic Attractiveness - The scenic importance of a landscape based on human 

perceptions of the intrinsic beauty of landform, rockform, waterform, and vegetation 

pattern. Classified as A (Distinctive), B (Typical or Common), or C (Undistinguished). 

Scenic Class - A system of classification describing the importance or value of a 

particular landscape or portions of that landscape. Values range from 1 (highest 

value) to 7 (lowest value). 

Scenic integrity – A measure of the degree to which a landscape is visually 

perceived to be “complete.” The highest scenic integrity ratings are given to those 

landscapes which have little or no deviation from the character valued for its 

aesthetic appeal. Scenic integrity is used to describe an existing situation, standard 

for management, or desired future conditions. 

scenic integrity objective (SIO) - A desired level of excellence based on physical 

and sociological characteristics of an area. Refers to the degree of acceptable 

alterations to the valued attributes of the characteristic landscape. Objectives 

include Very High, High, Moderate, and Low. 

Very High (VH) - Generally provides for only ecological changes in natural 

landscapes and complete intactness of landscape character in cultural 

landscapes. 

High (H) - Human activities are not visually evident to the casual observer. 

Activities may only repeat attributes of form, line, color, and texture found in 

the existing landscape character. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 6 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 491 

Moderate (M) - Landscapes appear slightly altered. Noticeable human created 

deviations must remain visually subordinate to the landscape character being 

viewed. 

Low (L) - Landscapes appear moderately altered. Human created deviations 

begin to dominate the valued landscape character being viewed but borrow 

from valued attributes such as size, shape, edge effect, and pattern of natural 

openings, vegetative type changes, or architectural styles outside the 

landscape being viewed. 

scoured channel - A definable channel of flow where surface water converges with 

enough energy to remove soil, organic matter, and leaf litter. 

secondary processor - A mill that processes partially manufactured wood (a wood 

product such as chips or lumber), into a finished product. Examples include paper 

and furniture. 

secondary trout streams - Streams that do not contain naturally-reproducing trout 

populations, but will sustain trout throughout the year. Populations must be 

maintained by stocking. 

sediment - Solid mineral and organic material that is in suspension, is being 

transported, or has been moved from its site of origin by air, water, gravity, or ice. 

seedling/sapling stands - Stands at least 16.7 percent stocked with growing stock 

trees, of which more than one-half of total stocking is seedlings and saplings. 

seed tree – An even-aged regeneration method where in a single cut, the removal of 

all merchantable trees in a stand, except for a small number of widely dispersed 

trees retained for seed production, and to produce a new age class in a fully-exposed 

microenvironment. 

seed-tree with reserves method - A two-aged regeneration method in which some 

or all of the seed trees are retained after regeneration has become established to 

attain goals other than regeneration. 

seep - A wet area where a seasonal high water table intersects with the ground 

surface. Seeps that meet the definition of a wetland are included in the Riparian 

Corridor. 

selected species - Species selected as indicators of the effects of management. 

Term is the same as management indicator species. 

selection cutting - The removal of selected trees, particularly mature trees at 

planned intervals (cutting cycle), individually or in small groups, from an uneven-aged 

forest to realize the yield, and establish a new crop of desired tree species. 

Additionally, the tending of immature stand components is accomplished at each 

cutting cycle. 

Semi-Primitive Motorized (ROS) - SEE Recreation Opportunity Spectrum (ROS) 
CHAPTER 6 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

492 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Semi-Primitive Non-Motorized (ROS) - SEE Recreation Opportunity Spectrum 

(ROS) 

sensitive species - Those species that (1) have appeared in the Federal Register as 

proposals for classification, and are under consideration for official listing as 

endangered or threatened species; (2) are on an official state list, or (3) are 

recognized by the Regional Forester to need special management to prevent the 

need for their placement on federal or state lists. 

sensitivity analysis - A determination of the consequences of varying the level of 

one or several factors while holding other factors constant. 

sensitivity level - A particular degree or measure of viewer interest in the scenic 

qualities of the landscape. 

sequential lower bounds - The maximum percent decrease in harvest volume in 

any decade as compared to the preceding decade. This prevents the forest from 

significantly decreasing its share of the market, which would violate the assumptions 

of the horizontal demand curve. 

sequential upper bounds - The maximum percent increase in harvest volume in 

any decade as compared to the preceding decade. This prevents the forest from 

significantly increasing its share of the market, which would violate the assumptions 

of the horizontal demand curve. 

shearing - A method used in land clearing whereby tree stems are severed at ground 

line by large bladed mechanisms mounted on crawler tractors (e.g.: serrated tooth Vblade or KG blade). 

shelterwood - A regeneration method of regenerating an even-aged stand in which 

a new age class develops beneath the partially shaped microenvironment provided 

by the residual trees. The sequence of treatments can include three distinct types of 

cuttings: (1) an optional preparatory harvest to enhance conditions for seed production; (2) an establishment harvest to prepare the seed bed, and to create a new 

age class; and 3) a removal harvest to release established regeneration from competition with the overwood. 

shelterwood with reserves - A two-aged regeneration method in which some or all 

of the shelter trees are retained, well beyond the normal period of retention, to attain 

goals other than regeneration. 

short-term facilities - Facilities developed and operated for limited resource 

activity or other project needs. It will cease to exist as a transportation facility after 

the purpose for which it was constructed is completed, and the occupied land is 

reclaimed and managed for natural resource purposes. 

silvicultural system - A management process whereby forests are tended, 

harvested, and replaced, resulting in a forest of distinctive form. Systems are 

classified according to the method of carrying out the fellings that remove the mature 

crop, and provide for regeneration and according to the type of forest thereby 

produced. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 6 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 493 

silviculture - The art and science of controlling the establishment, growth, 

composition, health, and quality of forests and woodlands. Silviculture entails the 

manipulation of forest and woodland vegetation in stands and on landscapes to 

meet the diverse needs and values of landowners and society on a sustainable basis. 

silvics – The study of the life history and general characteristics of forest trees and 

stands, with particular reference to environmental factors, as a basis for the practice 

of silviculture. 

single-tree selection - A regeneration method of creating new age classes in 

uneven-aged stands in which individual trees of all size classes are removed 

uniformly throughout the stand to achieve desired stand structural characteristics. 

site - An area in which a plant or stand grows, considered in terms of its 

environment, particularly as this determines the type and quality of the vegetation 

the area can carry. 

site class - A classification of site quality, usually expressed in terms of ranges of 

dominant tree height at a given age or potential mean annual increment at 

culmination.

site preparation - The preparation of the ground surface prior to reforestation. 

Various treatments are applied as needed to control vegetation that will interfere with 

the establishment of the new crop of trees or to expose the mineral soil sufficiently 

for the establishment of the species to be reproduced. 

site index – A series-specific measure of actual or potential forest productivity (site 

quality, usually for even-aged stands), expressed in terms of the average height of 

trees included in a specified stand component (defined as a certain number of 

dominants, codominants, or the largest and tallest trees per unit area) at a specified 

index or base age. 

site productivity class - A species-specific classification of forest land in terms of 

inherent capacity to grow crops of industrial, commercial wood. Usually derived from 

the site index. 

site quality (productivity) - The productive capacity of a site, usually expressed as 

volume production of a given species. 

site visit - See Recreation visit. 

skid trails - A travel way through the woods formed by loggers dragging (skidding) 

logs from the stump to a log landing without dropping a blade and without 

purposefully changing the geometric configuration of the ground over which they 

travel. 

skidding - A term for moving logs by dragging from stump to roadside, deck, or other 

landing. 

slash - The residue left on the ground after felling, silvicultural operations, or as a 

result of storm, fire, girdling, or poisoning. All vegetative debris resulting from the 

purchaser’s operations. Slash associated with construction of roads is subject to 
CHAPTER 6 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

494 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

treatment according to construction specifications, all other is subject to the terms of 

contract provision B/BT6.7. 

SMS - Scenery Management System, a system for the inventory and analysis of the 

aesthetic values of the National Forest Lands. The SMS replaces the Visual 

Management System (VMS) as defined in Agricultural Handbook #462. 

snag - A dead or partially dead (more than 50 percent) hardwood or pine tree which 

is used by many bird species for perching, feeding, or nesting. 

social analysis - An analysis of the social (as distinct from the economic and 

environmental) effects of a given plan or proposal for action. It includes identification 

and evaluation of all pertinent desirable and undesirable consequences to all 

segments of society, stated in some comparable quantitative terms, including 

persons or percent of population in each affected social segment. In addition, social 

analysis also includes a subjective analysis of social factors not expressible in 

quantitative terms. 

soil enhancement - Application of methods or materials to the soil to increase its 

productivity and stimulate growth of vegetation. 

soil productivity - The inherent capacity of a soil to support the growth of specified 

plants, plant communities, or a sequence of plant communities. Soil productivity 

may be expressed in terms of volume or weight/unit area/year, percent plant cover, 

or other measures of biomass accumulation. 

soil survey - A term for the systematic examination of soils in the field and in laboratories; their description and classification; the mapping of kinds of soil; the interpretation of soils according to their adaptability for various crops, grasses, and trees; 

their behavior under use of treatment for plant production or for other purposes; and 

their productivity under different management systems. 

soil and water resource improvement - The application of preplanned treatment 

measures designed to favorably change conditions of water flow, water quality, rates 

of soil erosion, and enhancement of soil productivity. 

southern pine beetle - One of the many species of pine bark beetles that are 

present in the forest at all times. When environmental and forest conditions become 

favorable, the beetle populations can increase and cause substantial timber losses 

over extensive areas in a relatively short period of time. 

spatial feasibility testing - A process for verifying on a sample basis that land 

allocation and scheduling is actually implementable on the ground. 

special concern species – Species that is federally listed as Category 2 or ranked 

as globally rare by state heritage programs and The Nature Conservancy. Also used 

by some states for any species of wild animal native or once-native to the state which 

is determined by the state to require monitoring. 

special places - Those specific locations and expanses in outdoor settings that have 

attractions and features that are identified as unique, different, distinctive, and 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 6 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 495 

extraordinary to people. Special places can range in size from small areas to very 

large areas. 

special-use authorization - A permit, term permit, or easement that allows 

occupancy, use, rights, or privileges of National Forest System land. 

special use permit – A permit issued under established laws and regulations to an 

individual, organization, or company for occupancy or use of National Forest land for 

some special purpose. 

splash dams – Dams, usually temporary, built of wood across mountain streams to 

pond up large amounts of water. 

spring - A water source located where water begins to flow from the ground due to 

the intersection of the water table with the ground surface. Generally flows 

throughout the year. Springs that are the source of perennial or intermittent streams 

are included in the riparian corridor. 

stand - A contiguous group of trees sufficiently uniform in age-class distribution, 

composition, and structure, and growing on a site of sufficiently uniform quality, to be 

a distinguishable unit. 

stand density - A quantitative measure of stocking expressed either absolutely per 

unit of land in terms of number of trees, basal area, volume per unit area, or relative 

to some standard condition. 

stand improvement - A term comprising all intermediate cuttings made to improve 

the composition, structure, condition, health, and growth of even-aged, two-aged, or 

uneven-aged stands. 

Standard - Requirement that precludes or imposes limitations on resource 

management practices and uses. Usually for resource protection, public safety, or 

addressing an issue. 

state, county, and municipal land - Land owned by states, counties, and local 

public agencies or municipalities, or land leased to these governmental units for 50 

years or more. 

stocking - The degree of occupancy of land by growing stock trees, measured by 

basal area or number of trees per unit area and spacing compared with a minimum 

standard - which varies by tree size and species or species group - to the occupancy 

that is required to fully utilize the growth potential of the land. 

stratified mixture - A stand in which different tree species occupy different strata 

of the total crown canopy. 

stratigraphic – Pertaining to strata or layers, as in a description of layers of rock 

types. 

stratum (canopy layer) - A distinct layer of vegetation within a forest community. 

streamside management zones - Land areas adjacent to natural streams, lakes, 

ponds, and seeps. These zones are typically designed to reduce, minimize or prevent 
CHAPTER 6 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

496 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

non-point source pollution from entering a stream system (e.g.: sediment from a road 

or timber harvesting activity). Specific SMZ buffer widths are often defined in State 

Best Management Practice handbooks. 

stressors – Pressure or change brought upon an ecosystem by pollution sources 

including sediment, contaminants, and toxins. 

successional stage – A period, marked by distinctiveness of structure, in the 

development of a forest community from establishment of tree regeneration to 

advanced age. In general, successional stages used in the LMP and Environmental 

Impact Statement are defined in terms of forest age as a surrogate measure of the 

distinct structure at each stage as follows: 

 early: 0 to 10 years old 

 seedling/sapling: 11 to approximately 40 years old 

 mid: approximately 41 to 80 years old 

 late: over approximately 80 years old; includes old growth 

suitability - The appropriateness of applying certain resource management 

practices to a particular area of land, as determined by an analysis of the economic 

and environmental consequences and the alternative uses foregone. A unit of land 

may be suitable for a variety of individual or combined management practices. 

suitable forest land - National Forest System land allocated by a Forest Plan 

decision to be managed for timber production on a regulated basis. Regulated basis

means a systematic relationship between tree growth and timber harvest such that a 

specific timber volume objective level can be sustained indefinitely. 

supply - The amount of a good or service that producers are willing to provide at a 

specified price, time period, and conditions of sale. 

surficial water - Water on or at the ground surface. Does not include ditches, 

canals, spillways, or other human-created flow channels.

sustained yield of the products and services - The achievement and 

maintenance in perpetuity of a high-level annual or regular periodic output of the 

various renewable resources of the National Forest System without impairment of the 

productivity of the land. 

sympatric – Condition where two or more closely related species live together in the 

same section of stream. The species have overlapping distributions. Opposite of 

allopatric. 

T

targets - Objectives assigned to the forest by the Regional Plan. 

taxomic – Classification of organisms into categories according to their natural 

relationships. 

tentatively suitable forest land - National Forest System land that meets specific 

criteria in the implementing regulations of the National Forest Management Act (36 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 6 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 497 

CFR 219.14 for further consideration during the planning process for timber production on a regulated basis. Note that “tentatively suitable land” is not the same as 

the allocation of the existing Forest Plan, as amended since 1985, but is identified by 

a reanalysis. (Also called “Phase 1 suitability” or “Stage 1 suitability” because its 

designation as Part “A” of a three-part process described by the text of the National 

Forest Management Act.) (Timber Supply/Demand). 

term permit - A special-use authorization to occupy and use National Forest System 

land, other than rights-of-way, for a specified period. It is revocable and compensable 

according to its terms. 

theming – A land and/or management scheme created with the list of land and/or 

management. 

thermoelectric power water use – Water used in the process of the generation of 

thermoelectric power. 

thinning - A cutting made to reduce stand density of trees primarily to improve 

growth, enhance forest health, or to recover potential mortality. 

thinning interval - The period of time between successive thinning entries, usually 

used in connection with even-aged stands. 

threatened species - Any species that is likely to become an endangered species 

within the foreseeable future throughout all or a significant portion of its range. 

Designated as a threatened species in the Federal Register by the Secretary of 

Interior. 

tiering – A National Environmental Policy Act term used to reference the coverage of 

general matters in broader environmental impact statements (including national 

program or policy statements), with subsequent narrower statements or 

environmental analyses (including regional or basinwide program statements or 

ultimately site-specific statements), incorporating by reference the general 

discussions and concentrating solely on the issues specific to the statement 

subsequently prepared. 

timber - Wood retaining many of the recognizable characteristics of a tree: round, 

bark covered, and tapering, but without the limbs and leaves. In wood-industry usage, 

it may be “standing timber”- that portion of living trees with characteristics of value to 

the wood-using industry, or cut trees not yet processed beyond removing limbs and 

tops. 

timber demand - A relationship between stumpage or delivered log price and the 

quantity of timber produced. 

timber product market area - The geographic area enclosed within a polygon 

drawn by connecting those mills buying forest timber that are the farthest away from 

the forest. 

timber production - The purposeful growing, tending, harvesting, and regeneration 

of regulated crops of trees to be cut into logs, bolts, or other round sections for 
CHAPTER 6 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

498 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

industrial or consumer use. For purposes of forest planning, timber production does 

not include the production of fuelwood or harvests from unsuitable lands. 

timber removals (drain) - The merchantable volume of trees removed from the 

inventory by harvesting, cultural operations including stand improvement, land 

clearing, or changes in land use expressed as an annual average between surveys. 

Within national forests, removals are almost all timber harvest except that the 

inventory on lands withdrawn by legislative action is also normally accounted for as 

“removals.” 

timber sale program quantity - The volume of timber planned for sale during the 

first decade of the planning horizon. It includes the allowable sale quantity 

(chargeable volume), and any additional material (non-chargeable volume), planned 

for sale. The timber sale program quantity is usually expressed as an annual average 

for the first decade. 

timber stand improvement - A term comprising all intermediate cuttings made to 

improve the composition, constitution, condition, and increment of a timber stand. 

timber supply - The amount of wood raw material available to be harvested within 

specified parameters of time and geographic area. 

timberland - Forest land that is producing or capable of producing in excess of 20 

cubic feet per acre per year of industrial wood crops under natural conditions. Not 

withdrawn from timber utilization, and not associated with urban or rural 

development. Currently, inaccessible and inoperable areas are included. 

tolerance - The ability of a tree to grow satisfactorily in the shade of, and in 

competition with, other trees. 

topography - The configuration of a land surface including its relief, elevation, and 

the position of its natural and human-made features. 

toxicity index profile – Estimate of cumulative potential for toxic impacts in water. 

traditional cultural property - A historic property that is eligible for inclusion in the 

National Register because of its association with cultural practices or beliefs of a 

living community that (a) are rooted in that community's history, and (b) are 

important in maintaining the continuing cultural identity of the community. 

trailheads - The parking, signing, and other facilities available at the terminus of a 

trail. 

traffic service levels – Describe a road’s significant traffic characteristics and 

operating conditions. 

transfer age – The age a stand will transfer from one Model 2 management class to 

another. 

transfer class – A Model 2 management class that receives transferred acres. A 

regeneration transfer class has a transfer age of zero. All other transfer classes have 

an age greater than zero. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 6 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 499 

transfer columns – A column constructed the matrix generator to create special LP 

structures. They accumulate information from several decision variables into one 

column. 

two-aged silvicultural system - A planned sequence of treatments designed to 

maintain and regenerate a stand with two age classes. 

two-aged stand - A stand composed of two distinct age classes that are separated 

in age by more than 20 percent of rotation. 

type conversion - A change from tree species or species group to another. An 

example is a change from hardwoods to pine. 

U

unacceptable alteration - A scenic integrity level (never an objective) where human 

activities of vegetative and landform alterations are excessive and totally dominate 

the natural, natural-appearing or valued cultural landscape character. 

undercutting (root pruning) - The root pruning of seedlings in a nursery bed. 

understory - The trees and other vegetation growing under a more or less 

continuous cover of branches and foliage formed collectively by the upper portion 

(overstory) of adjacent trees and other woody growth. 

uneven-aged regeneration methods - Methods of regenerating a forest stand, 

and maintaining an uneven-aged structure by removing some trees in all size classes 

either singly, in small groups, or strips. The methods are single-tree or group 

selection. 

uneven-aged silvicultural system - A planned sequence of treatments designed 

to maintain and regenerate a stand with three or more age classes. 

universal soil loss equation - An equation used to estimate soil erosion rates and 

for the design of water erosion control systems. A = RKLSPC wherein A = average 

annual soil loss in tons per acre per year; R = rainfall factor; K = soil erodibility factor, 

L = length of slope; S = percent of slope; P = conservation practice factor; and C = 

cropping and management factor. 

unregulated forest - Commercial forest land that will not be organized for timber 

production under sustained-yield principles. 

unsuitable forest land (not suited) - Forest land not managed for timber 

production because: (a) Congress, the Secretary [of Agriculture], or the Chief [of the 

Forest Service] has withdrawn it; (b) it is not producing or capable of producing crops 

of industrial wood; (c) technology is not available to prevent irreversible damage to 

soils productivity, or watershed conditions; (d) there is no reasonable assurance 

based on existing technology and knowledge, that it is possible to restock lands 

within five years after final harvest, as reflected in current research and experience; 

(e) there is, at present, a lack of adequate information about responses to timber 

management activities; or (f) timber management is inconsistent with, or not cost 
CHAPTER 6 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

500 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

efficient in meeting the management requirements and multiple-use objectives 

specified in the LMP. 

Urban (ROS) - SEE Recreation Opportunity Spectrum (ROS)

utilization standards - Measurements for standing trees that describe the 

minimum size tree that will be designated for sale for various products including 

sawtimber or small roundwood. 

V

values, market - Prices of market goods and services measured in real dollars in 

terms of what people are willing to pay as evidenced by market transactions. 

values, non-market - Prices of non-market goods and services imputed from other 

economic values. 

variety class - A classification system for establishing three visual landscape 

categories according to the relative importance of the visual features. This 

classification system is based on the premise that all landscapes have some visual 

values, but those with the most variety or diversity of visual features have the 

greatest potential for high scenic value. 

vector – A matrix composed of only one row or column. 

Very Low Scenic Integrity (VL) – An existing scenic inventory classification in 

which landscapes appear heavily altered. Human created deviations may strongly 

dominate the valued landscape character. They may not borrow from valued 

attributes of size, shape, edge effect, and pattern of natural openings, vegetative 

type changes, or architectural styles within or outside the landscape being viewed. 

However, deviations must be shaped and blended with the natural terrain so that 

elements such as edges, roads, landings, and structures do not dominate the 

composition. 

viable population - Population of plants or animals that has the estimated numbers 

and distribution of reproductive individuals to ensure its continued existence is well 

distributed in the planning area. 

viewshed - The total landscape seen, or potentially seen from all or a logical part of 

a travel\ route, use area, or water body. 

visibility – As an air quality related value, this term refers to the ability of an air 

mass to cnvey the landscape image. Similar to “turbidity” except is’s a measure of air 

quality. 

visual quality objective (VQO) - A desired level of excellence based on physical 

and sociological characteristics of an area under the Visual Management System 

(VMS). Refers to the degree of acceptable alterations of the characteristic 

landscape. Objectives include Preservation, Retention, Partial Retention, 

Modification, and Maximum Modification. The Visual Management System (VMS) as 

defined in Agricultural Handbook #462 and was replaced by the SMS. 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 6 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 501 

Preservation - A visual quality objective that provides for ecological change 

only. 

Retention - A visual quality objective in which human activities are not 

evident to the casual forest visitor. 

Partial Retention - A visual quality objective in which human activities may 

be evident, but must remain subordinate to the characteristic landscape. 

Modification - A visual quality objective in which human activities may 

dominate the characteristic landscape but must, at the same time, use 

naturally established form, line, color, and texture appearing, but should 

appear as a natural occurrence when viewed as background. 

Maximum Modification - A visual quality objective in which human activities 

may dominate the characteristic landscape, but should appear as a natural 

occurrence when viewed as background. 

visual resource - The composite of basic terrain, geological features, water 

features, vegetative patterns, and land-use effects that typify a land unit and 

influence the visual appeal the unit may have for visitors. 

W

warm water fishery - Aquatic habitats that support fish species which have their 

best reproductive success and summer water temperature tolerance between 75 

and 85 degrees Fahrenheit (23-29 C), or about 80 degrees Fahrenheit. Examples 

include sunfish species, and largemouth bass. 

water supply area - Areas that serve present and future municipal water supply and 

trout hatching or rearing operations. 

water yield - The measured output of the forest’s streams expressed in acre-feet. 

The amount or volume of water that flows in a given period of time from a watershed. 

waterbars - A change in the grade of a roadbed, trail surface, or fire line used to 

divert water off the surface to prevent it from eroding ruts and possibly carrying 

sediment to a stream. 

watershed - The total area above a given point on a stream that contributes water to 

the flow at that point. 

Weeks Act – Implemented in 1911, it authorized the acquisition of lands on the 

watershed of navigable streams for the purposes of conserving their navigability, or 

for the purpose of timber. 

wetlands - (pursuant to the Federal Clean Water Act) - Areas that are inundated or 

saturated by surface or ground water at a frequency and duration sufficient to 

support, and that under normal circumstances, support a prevalence of vegetation 

typically adapted for life in saturated soil conditions. Wetlands generally include 

swamps, marshes, bogs and similar areas, and are found primarily within palustrine 

systems; but may also be within riverine, lacustrine, estruarine, and marine systems.
CHAPTER 6 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

502 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

wild and scenic river - A river selected for nomination and/or designation through 

the Wild and Scenic Rivers Act of 1968 for possessing outstandingly remarkable 

scenic, recreational, geologic, fish and wildlife, historic, cultural or other similar 

values. 

wilderness - A Congressionally-designated area that is part of the National 

Wilderness Preservation System established through Wilderness Act of 1964; Also 

defined in the Act as a wilderness, in contrast with those areas where man and his 

own works dominate the landscape, is hereby recognized as an area where the earth 

and its community of life are untrammeled by man, where man himself is a visitor 

who does not remain. An area of wilderness is further defined to mean in this chapter 

an area of underdeveloped Federal land retaining its primeval character and 

influence, without permanent improvements or human habitation, which is protected 

and managed so as to preserve its natural conditions and which (1) generally 

appears to have been affected primarily by the forces of nature, with the imprint of 

man's work substantially unnoticeable; (2) has outstanding opportunities for solitude 

or a primitive and unconfined type of recreation; (3) has at least five thousand acres 

of land or is of sufficient size as to make practicable its preservation and use in an 

unimpaired condition; and (4) may also contain ecological, geological, or other 

features of scientific, educational, scenic, or historical value. 

Wilderness Act of 1964 – Act which gave Congress authority to designate certain 

areas of public land as wilderness. It established the National Wilderness 

Preservation System to secure an enduring resource of wilderness. 

wilderness study area (WSA) - Lands possessing the basic characteristics of 

wilderness and designated by Congress for further wilderness study. 

One of the areas selected by the Chief of the Forest Service from an inventory of 

unroaded and undeveloped National Forest System lands as having apparent high 

qualities for wilderness. They will be studied to determine whether they should be 

recommended for addition to the National Wilderness Preservation System. 

wildland fire - Any non-structural fire on wildlands other than one intentionally set 

for management purposes. Confined to a predetermined area. Not to be confused 

with “fire use,” which includes prescribed fire. 

wildland urban interface – The line, area, or zone where structures and other 

human development meet or intermingle with undeveloped wildland or vegetative 

fuels. 

wildlife - All non-domesticated mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians living in a 

natural environment, including game species and non-game species. Animals, or 

their progeny (i.e., feral animals - including horses, burros, and hogs), that once were 

domesticated, but escaped captivity, are not considered wildlife.

wildlife and fish user-day – A 12-hour participation in the use of wildlife and fish 

primarily for consumptive or non-consumptive use including hunting, fishing, or 

wildlife viewing. Such use is the result of habitat management, and the populations 

supported by that habitat. A WFUD is counted as one day or any part of a day that 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST CHAPTER 6 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 503 

the user participated in these activities. Does not include sport or commercial uses of 

anadromous fish. 

wildlife habitat diversity - The distribution and abundance of different plant and 

animal communities and species within a specific area. 

wildlife habitat improvement - The manipulation or maintenance of vegetation to 

yield desired results in terms of habitat suitable for designated wildlife species or 

groups of species. 

wildlife tree - A den tree, snag, or mast or food tree. 

with-without comparison - An evaluation that compares outputs, benefits, costs, 

and other effects with a base alternative. 

withdrawl – Water removed from the ground or diverted from a surface water 

source for use. 

withdrawal of land - An order removing specific land areas from availability for 

certain uses. 

withdrawn national forest lands - National Forest System lands segregated or 

otherwise withheld from settlement, sale, location, or entry under some or all of the 

general land laws. 

woodland grazing - Grazing livestock on the grass-forbs existing under forested 

stands, mainly southern yellow pine types. 

wrenching - The disturbance of seedling roots in a nursery bed (e.g.: with a tractordrawn blade), with the objective of stimulating the development of a fibrous root 

system. 

X

xeric – Pertaining to sites or habitats characterized by decidedly dry conditions. 

Y

yarding - A term used to describe operations used to move logs from stump to point 

where logs are loaded for transport to mill. Most commonly used in cable logging 

operations. 

yield composite – Activity and output relationships which estimate yields. They 

allow the development of a yield stream from a related yield stream without entering 

each yield coefficient independently. Yield composite relationships can be time, age, 

or sequence based. 

yield stream – A subset of a yield table containing specific information for an 

activity or output. A timber output may have a yield stream for amount, diameter, 

basal area, or trees. 

yield table - A tabular statement of outputs expected to be produced under a 

specific set of conditions. 
CHAPTER 6 CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST 

504 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

Z

zone – Large, contiguous areas of land that include watersheds or management 

areas. It can be comprised of several complete analysis units. The land within a zone 

is generally a heterogenous mixture of environmental types. 

zone management actions – Management actions available to zones. They 

contain the ability to coordinate the management activities that occur within a zone. 
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 505 

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endemic. Ecol. Monogr. 39:303-333. 
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 534 

Index 

Analysis of the Management Situation, 2, 3, 

12 

ASQ, 373, 374, 375, 376 

AT, 151, 351 

ATV, 150, 311, 312, 317, 319, 331 

Bald, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 182, 216, 

217, 218 

Basal Area, 70, 119, 131, 132, 181, 193, 

223, 225, 248 

Best Management Practice, 432 

BMP, 65, 432 

Conversion, 10, 79, 159, 171, 173, 178, 191, 

211, 247, 258, 261, 316, 347 

Critical habitat, 17, 192, 230, 236, 381 

Demand, 4, 11, 20, 35, 37, 71, 81, 119, 156, 

245, 246, 249, 250, 304, 305, 306, 307, 

311, 313, 316, 326, 358, 363, 364, 365, 

383, 413 

Developed recreation, 6, 10, 17, 24, 36, 37, 

49, 59, 77, 79, 294, 306, 309, 310, 311, 

313, 314, 316, 331, 338, 339, 341, 342, 

353, 354, 355, 364, 392, 433 

Dispersed recreation, 10, 11, 20, 22, 23, 24, 

38, 49, 56, 67, 79, 220, 306, 307, 309, 

311, 312, 313, 315, 316, 318, 319, 331, 

337, 338, 339, 351, 354, 363, 367, 370, 

382, 392, 422, 423, 430, 434 

Early succession, 24, 31, 35, 158, 159, 160, 

162, 163, 167, 168, 169, 177, 178, 244, 

249, 259, 279, 295, 299, 304, 320, 333, 

356, 375, 376, 377, 381 

Early successional, 24, 31, 35, 158, 159, 160, 

162, 163, 167, 168, 169, 177, 178, 244, 

249, 259, 279, 295, 299, 304, 320, 333, 

356, 375, 376, 377 

Endangered species, 17, 133, 153, 197, 202, 

203, 204, 209, 214, 280, 333, 421, 422, 

423 

Endemic, 58, 106, 140, 197, 200, 202, 204, 

207, 213, 214, 228, 229, 230, 231, 232, 

234, 235, 238, 240, 242, 300 

Ephemeral streams, 78, 191, 196, 211, 212, 

225 

Forest health, 4, 12, 26, 39, 194, 195, 272, 

281, 300, 388, 433 

Forest type, 10, 22, 94, 97, 101, 103, 105, 

108, 109, 113, 114, 116, 120, 122, 123, 

124, 131, 142, 193, 219, 220, 226, 243, 

258, 273, 295, 298, 299, 301, 336 

Habitat, 4, 6, 11, 12, 22, 25, 26, 31, 32, 33, 

58, 91, 95, 97, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 

106, 109, 113, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 

127, 129, 130, 131, 132, 137, 139, 140, 

145, 148, 153, 155, 156, 157, 158, 160, 

161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 

169, 170, 171, 173, 174, 175, 178, 179, 

180, 182, 188, 189, 190, 191, 192, 193, 

194, 195, 198, 201, 202, 204, 205, 206, 

207, 208, 209, 210, 211, 214, 215, 216, 

217, 218, 219, 220, 221, 222, 223, 224, 

225, 226, 228, 229, 230, 231, 232, 233, 

234, 235, 236, 237, 238, 239, 240, 241, 

242, 243, 244, 245, 246, 247, 248, 249, 

254, 255, 256, 258, 259, 261, 262, 263, 

264, 267, 268, 269, 270, 271, 272, 273, 

275, 279, 280, 281, 282, 284, 288, 297, 

298, 299, 304, 320, 333, 334, 338, 344, 

354, 356, 358, 362, 363, 375, 379, 381, 

386, 430, 432, 433 

In-stream flow, 134 

Intermittent streams, 76, 78, 190, 196, 199, 

225, 254 

Land exchange, 344, 366, 371, 372, 381, 

384 

LTA, 44 

Management area, 4, 5, 6, 43, 305, 342 

Management Indicator Species, 10, 108, 113, 

160, 190 

Management Prescription, 4, 15, 19, 20, 28, 

34, 38, 39, 40, 172, 185, 188, 190, 209, 

249, 299, 337, 338, 351, 375, 432, 434, 

435 

NAAQS, 81, 87, 89 

NEPA, 1, 2, 3, 5, 12, 224, 433 

NFMA, 2, 12, 16, 196, 261, 262, 272, 280 

NFS, 107, 228, 229, 230, 231, 232, 233, 

234, 235, 236, 237, 238, 239, 240, 241, 

242, 282, 283, 284, 286, 287, 288, 350, 

380 

OHV, 24, 29, 36, 68, 173, 304, 311, 313, 

317, 319, 365, 367 
CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST INDEX

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 535 

Old growth, 10, 11, 20, 21, 23, 24, 26, 27, 

33, 34, 36, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 108, 

113, 118, 119, 127, 145, 156, 157, 160, 

161, 175, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186, 

187, 188, 259, 273, 344, 345, 379 

ORV, 41 

Perennial stream, 78, 190, 196, 224, 225 

PETS, 26, 58 

Rare communities, 12, 14, 17, 25, 40, 95, 

133, 134, 135, 137, 144, 146, 148, 153, 

202, 258, 259, 272, 273, 332, 333, 334, 

353, 354, 355, 356, 363 

Rare species, 11, 26, 31, 131, 135, 140, 270, 

272, 285, 423 

Riparian, 4, 10, 11, 14, 21, 23, 26, 27, 34, 

46, 49, 65, 66, 67, 70, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 

109, 113, 114, 135, 148, 155, 166, 185, 

188, 189, 190, 191, 192, 198, 199, 209, 

211, 212, 224, 225, 228, 229, 230, 232, 

233, 234, 235, 236, 237, 238, 239, 240, 

242, 243, 254, 256, 259, 272, 274, 283, 

287, 311, 313, 358, 360, 362, 363, 365, 

379, 421, 433 

Riparian corridor, 26, 27, 65, 66, 76, 78, 79, 

135, 189, 190, 191, 199, 225, 272, 360, 

362, 363, 365, 433 

Road density, 283, 287, 308, 333, 395, 396 

ROS, 37, 38, 308, 309, 313, 314, 317, 325 

Sawtimber, 20, 24, 25, 247, 373, 375, 377, 

378 

Scenery Management System, 341, 342, 343, 

345 

Sensitive Species, 10, 14, 24, 25, 33, 81, 

187, 196, 271, 285, 333, 388 

SIO, 36, 342, 343, 344, 345 

SMS, 339, 341 

Soil productivity, 10, 48, 49, 50, 51, 65, 66, 

78, 434 

T&E, 25, 27, 344, 362, 438 

Unsuitable, 19, 23, 34, 185, 186, 219, 220, 

314, 332, 422 

VQO, 341, 342 

Wetlands, 34, 46, 49, 76, 77, 133, 135, 188, 

217, 265, 379, 381 

Wild and Scenic River, 12, 14, 17, 19, 22, 23, 

24, 41, 319, 357, 358, 359, 435 

Wilderness, 5, 6, 10, 11, 17, 19, 21, 22, 23, 

25, 26, 67, 151, 183, 185, 306, 307, 314, 

321, 322, 323, 324, 325, 326, 327, 328, 

329, 330, 331, 333, 334, 335, 336, 337, 

338, 345, 348, 353, 354, 355, 356, 382, 

422, 423, 433, 435