Preventing Deaths, Injuries, and

Illnesses of Young Workers
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DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 2003–128 

July 2003

This document is in the public domain and may be freely 

copied or reprinted. 

Safer · Healthier · PeopleTM
1

The National Institute for Occupational 

Safety and Health (NIOSH) requests assistance in preventing deaths, injuries, and 

illnesses among young workers. An average of 67 workers under age 18 died from 

work-related injuries each year during 

1992–2000. In 1998, an estimated 77,000 

required treatment in hospital emergency 

rooms. 

This Alert summarizes available information about work-related injuries among 

young workers, identifies work that is 

especially hazardous, and offers recommendations for prevention. 

NIOSH requests that the information in this 

Alert be brought to the attention of young 

workers as well as their employers, educators, and parents. Others are requested to 

help distribute this information: safety and 

health officials and professionals, departments and boards of education, parentteacher associations, those involved in 

implementing school-to-work or Workforce 

Investment Act partnerships, unions, advocacy groups, youth organizations, health 

care providers, insurance companies, and 

Preventing Deaths, Injuries, and

Illnesses of Young Workers

WARNING!

Many young workers die or are hospitalized each year from injuries at work. 

Many also suffer adverse health effects from hazardous exposures in the 

workplace.

editors of trade journals or publications 

written for parents and young workers. 

BACKGROUND

Research surveys of students and parents 

suggest that 70% to 80% of teens have 

worked for pay at some time during their high 

school years [Light 1995; Steinberg and 

Cauffman 1995]. Between 1996 and 1998, a 

monthly average of 2.9 million workers aged 

15 to 17 worked during school months, and 

4.0 million worked during summer months 

[BLS 2000]. Workers aged 15 to 17 spend 

the most work hours in food preparation and 

service jobs, stock handler or laborer jobs, 

administrative support jobs, and farming, forestry, or fishing jobs [NIOSH 2002a]. 

Developmental factors in young workers and 

the nature of their employment may increase 

their risk of injury or illness on the job: 

n Young workers commonly perform tasks 

outside their usual work assignments for 

which they may not have received training 
2 Young Workers 

[Bowling et al. 1998; Massachusetts Department of Public Health 1998]. 

n Young workers may lack the experience 

and physical and emotional maturity 

needed for certain tasks.

n Young workers may be unfamiliar with 

work requirements and safe operating 

procedures for certain tasks.

n Young workers may not know their legal 

rights and may not know which work tasks 

are prohibited by child labor laws [Castillo 

et al. 1999; NRC/IOM 1998].

n Young workers are experiencing rapid 

growth of organ and musculoskeletal systems, which may make them more likely 

to be harmed by exposure to hazardous 

substances or to develop cumulative trauma disorders [Bruckner and Weil 1999; 

NIOSH 1997a; NRC/IOM 1998].

n Young workers may be exposed to 

suspected asthma-causing agents and 

substances that disrupt the function or 

maturation of the endocrine and central 

nervous systems [Golub 2000; Banks and 

Wang 2000]. 

Fatalities 

According to data from the U.S. Bureau of 

Labor Statistics (BLS), 603 workers under 

age 18 suffered fatal occupational injuries between 1992 and 2000, an average of 67 per 

year. Of these, 362 were aged 16 or 17, 119 

were aged 14 or 15, and 122 were under age 

14 [NIOSH 2003]. More than 30% of all fatal 

injuries to young workers occurred in family 

businesses. Figure 1 shows the percentage 

of work-related deaths among young workers by industry. The events in which young 

workers were killed were similar to those for 

workers of all ages (Figure 2).

Nonfatal Injuries 

The two primary sources of information about 

nonfatal injuries to young workers are the 

National Electronic Injury Surveillance System (NEISS), based on hospital emergency 

department data, and the Survey of Occupational Injuries and Illnesses (SOII), an annual 

survey of employers conducted by the BLS. 

Using NEISS, NIOSH estimated that 77,000 

young workers under age 18 required treatment in hospital emergency departments for 

work-related injuries during 1998 [Jackson 

2001]. However, information from national 

surveys indicates that only one-third of workrelated injuries are seen in emergency departments [CDC 1983]; therefore it is likely 

that nearly 230,000 teens suffered workrelated injuries that year. 

According to emergency department data, 

workers aged 15 to 17 had a substantially 

higher rate of work-related injuries or illnesses in 1998 than did all workers aged 15 or 

older: 4.9 per 100 versus 2.9 per 100 full-time 

equivalent (FTE) workers [CDC 2001]. 

SOII data show that compared with adult 

workers, injuries to young workers result in 

slightly fewer days away from work. However, injury severity for young workers may 

be underestimated because days away from 

work are counted only if the injured worker 

was scheduled to work on those days. Since 

young workers tend to work part-time or for 

shorter durations, injuries among young 

workers may on average be more severe 

than the days-away-from-work data suggest [BLS 2000]. Furthermore, the impact 

of work-related injuries for young workers 

extends beyond their work lives. A study of 

young workers treated in emergency departments for work-related injuries found that 

52% missed scheduled work, 45% needed a 

prescription medication, 38% felt they were 

permanently injured in some way, and 33% 

were restricted in their normal home activities 

[Mardis 2001].
Young Workers 3

Figure 1. Percentage of work-related deaths by industry: workers under age 18 compared with all workers, United States, 

1992–2000. Source: Census of Fatal Occupational Injuries Special Research Files, BLS, analysis by NIOSH [2003]. Data in this 

figure do not include work-related deaths in New York City.

Figure 2. Percentage of work-related deaths by event: workers under age 18 compared with all workers, United States, 1992–

2000. Source: Census of Fatal Occupational Injuries Special Research Files, BLS, analysis by NIOSH [2003]. Data in this figure 

do not include work-related deaths in New York City.
4 Young Workers 

WORK THAT POSES SPECIAL 

RISKS FOR YOUNG WORKERS

Agricultural Work 

Agriculture is the most dangerous industry 

for young workers, accounting for 42% of 

all work-related fatalities of young workers 

between 1992 and 2000. Unlike other industries, half the young victims in agriculture 

were under age 15 [NIOSH 2003]. For young 

agricultural workers aged 15–17, the risk of 

fatal injury is four times the risk for young 

workers in other workplaces [BLS 2000]. 

Young workers employed in agriculture may 

be directly hired workers, employees of labor 

contractors, or farm residents working in the 

family business. Agricultural work exposes 

young workers to safety hazards such as 

machinery, confined spaces, work at elevations, and work around livestock. Young 

workers may also be exposed to agricultural 

chemicals (e.g., pesticides, fertilizers), noise, 

respiratory irritants, and toxic gases (see 

Appendix A) [NRC/IOM 1998; Kirkhorn and 

Garry 2000]. 

Workers may legally perform any agricultural 

task after they reach age 16, whereas they 

are prohibited from some jobs in other industries until they reach age 18. Furthermore, 

child labor laws do not cover workers under 

age 16 who work on their parents’ or guardians’ farms. Between 1992 and 2000, 76% of 

the fatal injuries to agricultural workers under 

age 16 involved work in a family business 

[NIOSH 2003]. 

Work in Retail Trades 

The second highest number of workplace fatalities among workers younger than age 18 

occurred in the retail trades (e.g., restaurants 

and retail stores). Between 1992 and 2000, 

63% of these deaths were due to assaults 

and violent acts, most of which were homicides. Homicide associated with robbery is 

the probable cause for one fourth to one half 

of all young worker fatalities in retail trades 

[Windau et al. 1999]. Handling cash, working 

alone or in small numbers, and working in the 

late evening and early morning hours may 

contribute to workplace homicides [NIOSH 

1996a].

In 1998, more than half of all work-related 

nonfatal injuries to young workers occurred 

in retail trades, more than 60% of which were 

eating and drinking establishments. Cuts in 

retail trades were the most common type 

of injury treated in emergency departments, 

followed by burns in eating and drinking 

establishments and bruises, scrapes, and 

scratches in other retail settings [Mardis and 

Pratt 2003]. Common hazards in restaurants 

include using knives to prepare food, handling hot grease from fryers, working near 

hot surfaces, and slipping on wet or greasy 

floors [NRC/IOM 1998]. 

In addition, certain types of machinery prohibited for use by young workers under current 

child labor laws are commonly found in retail 

establishments—including food slicers, paper balers, forklifts, dough and batter mixers, 

and bread cutting machines. Young workers 

may choose to operate unfamiliar machinery 

to prove responsibility, independence, or maturity [Massachusetts Department of Public 

Health 1998], or they may be instructed to do 

so by an employer who is unaware of child 

labor laws or chooses to disregard them.

Exposure to harmful chemicals may also 

occur in restaurants. Chemicals commonly 

used for cleaning may cause chlorine or ammonia gas release when mixed improperly. 

Depending on the amount of gas inhaled, 

irritation of the eyes and respiratory tract, dizziness, cough, and chest pain may occur. Severe exposure may lead to pulmonary edema 

(the accumulation of fluid in lung tissues), serious lung injury, or pneumonia [CDC 1991]. 

Chlorine gas inhalation has also been shown 

to cause longer-term, asthma-like symptoms 

(see Appendix A) [Leroyer et al. 1998].
Young Workers 5

Transportation: Motor Vehicles and 

Mobile Machinery

Persons aged 16 to 20 in the general population have higher fatality and injury rates due 

to motor vehicle crashes than any other age 

group [NHTSA 2001]. In the workplace, 45% 

of all fatal injuries to workers under age 18 

between 1992 and 2000 resulted from transportation incidents [NIOSH 2003]. Transportation incidents, as defined by the BLS, include 

incidents occurring on or off the highway 

involving motor vehicles as well as industrial vehicles (such as tractors and forklifts) 

in which at least one vehicle was in operation [Windau et al. 1999]. Child labor laws 

prohibit workers under age 18 from operating 

many types of motor vehicles or mobile machinery. Operating a motor vehicle at work is 

prohibited for workers aged 16 and allowed 

only under limited circumstances for those 

aged 17 (see Appendix B). Despite current 

restrictions, transportation-related fatalities 

and injuries among young workers continue 

to occur. Ensuring safe operation of vehicles 

on the job by young workers poses special 

challenges for employers. In addition to being 

new to the workplace, young employees are 

new to driving, which compounds the risk of 

injury. 

Construction

The complex and ever-changing construction 

work environment presents multiple safety 

hazards. Overall, more U.S. workers are killed 

working in construction than in any other industry. Construction workers risk injury from 

a wide range of events, including falls, electrocution, collapsing structures, machineryrelated incidents, falling objects, and motor 

vehicle crashes. Child labor laws prohibit 

workers aged 14 and 15 from working in construction, except when performing office work 

away from the construction site. Other laws 

that apply to all workers under age 18 prohibit several tasks associated with construction [DOL 2001], yet they do not address all 

hazards on the job site. 

In addition to the risk of injury, construction 

work may expose workers to many substances with adverse health effects. The effects may not appear until years after the first 

exposure. Among the substances that have 

been linked to occupational illnesses among 

construction workers are asbestos, cement, 

synthetic vitreous fibers, silica, and wood 

dust; dusts and fumes from sources such 

as cadmium, lead, copper, zinc, and asphalt; 

and solvents and other chemicals such as 

toluene, polyurethanes, epoxy resins, and 

methylene chloride. Illnesses from such exposures include lead poisoning, asbestosis 

and other lung disorders related to inhalation 

of fibers, cancers, asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, bronchitis, skin rash 

or inflammation, silicosis, adverse effects 

on fetuses, and other chronic toxic effects 

(see Appendix A) [Osorio and Melius 1995; 

NIOSH 1991; NIOSH 1992; NIOSH 2001d; 

Ringen et al.1995; Rühl and Kluger 1995; 

Sullivan et al. 1995].

SAFETY REGULATIONS THAT 

PROTECT YOUNG WORKERS 

OSHA 

The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) within the U.S. Department of Labor (DOL) is the Federal agency 

with primary responsibility for setting and 

enforcing standards to promote safe and 

healthful working conditions for all workers. 

Employers are responsible for becoming 

familiar with standards applicable to their establishments and for ensuring a safe working 

environment. The OSHA Web site provides 

information about regulations and standards and provides tools specific to many 

work settings for complying with these 

standards: www.osha.gov/fso/ca.html and 

www.osha.gov/SLTC/index.html. OSHA also offers assistance directly to employers through 

consultation programs available in every 
6 Young Workers 

State. Consultation programs help employers 

identify hazards and improve their safety and 

health management programs. For more information, visit www.osha.gov/oshprogs/

consult.html. 

Federal Child Labor Laws

A workplace may be fully compliant with 

OSHA regulations and yet may place young 

workers at risk of injury or illness if applicable 

Federal and State child labor laws are not followed. One study estimated that more than 

three-fourths of employers of young workers 

were unfamiliar with child labor laws. Lack of 

awareness of occupational safety and health 

laws by young workers, adults, and employers has been identified as a major obstacle to 

preventing injury and illness in young workers [NRC/IOM 1998]. 

The primary Federal law governing the employment of workers under age 18 is the Fair 

Labor Standards Act (FLSA) of 1938, which 

is enforced by the Wage and Hour Division 

of the Employment Standards Administration within DOL. Child labor provisions of the 

FLSA are designed to protect the educational 

opportunities of minors and prohibit their employment in jobs that pose safety or health 

risks. 

The FLSA does not cover all young workers. 

The FLSA applies to an entire business enterprise if the enterprise has annual gross 

revenues of $500,000 or more. Some States 

extend coverage of child labor laws to all 

businesses, regardless of revenues. Even 

if an entire enterprise is not covered, the 

FLSA applies to individual workers engaged 

in producing, transporting, loading, or receiving goods for interstate commerce. Interstate 

commerce also includes workers who handle 

documents related to interstate commerce, 

such as credit card transactions. For more information, visit www.dol.gov/esa/regs/compliance/whd/whdfs27.htm.

Child Labor Regulation No. 3 restricts hours 

and specifies allowable employment activities 

for workers aged 14 and 15 (see Appendix B). 

Two other groups of regulations define work 

prohibited for young workers in terms of Hazardous Orders—occupations declared hazardous for young workers by the Secretary 

of Labor. The first of these defines hazardous 

farm work prohibited for workers under age 

16 (see Appendix C) [DOL 1990]. However, 

no Federal child labor laws cover children 

working on their parents’ or guardians’ farms. 

Another group of regulations applicable to 

nonagricultural businesses, including family 

businesses (see Appendix B), defines jobs 

prohibited for adolescents under age 18 

[DOL 2001]. DOL reviews Federal child labor 

laws on an ongoing basis to ensure that they 

provide adequate protection to young workers. For more information, visit www.dol.gov/

dol/topic/youthlabor/hazardousjobs.htm or call 

1–866–4–USADOL.

State Child Labor Laws 

States may also have their own child labor 

laws that are stricter than Federal laws. For 

example, Maine and Massachusetts prohibit 

all workplace driving by workers under age 

18 [Maine DOL 2003; Massachusetts Department of Public Health 2002], whereas Federal 

law allows “occasional and incidental driving” 

by workers aged 17, although in limited circumstances [DOL 2001]. If a State child labor law is less protective than Federal law, 

or if no applicable State law exists, Federal 

child labor laws apply (if the business meets 

the requirements for coverage under Federal 

laws) [NRC/IOM 1998]. For more information, visit www.youthrules.dol.gov/states.htm 

or www.ilsa.net or call 1–866–4–USWAGE. 

CASE REPORTS

The following case reports give examples of 

the risks young workers may face while at 

work:
Young Workers 7

Case 1—Amputation in meat

 grinder 

In 2000, a 17-year-old bagger employed 

at his family’s retail grocery store suffered 

amputation of his right arm when it became 

caught in an operating meat grinder. A 

customer had asked him for ground beef. 

Because none was available at the meat 

counter, he decided to operate the grinder 

himself. Some of the meat became stuck in 

the grinder bowl. He removed the feed pan 

and reached into the bowl with his right hand, 

pushing the meat down into the “worm,” a rotating machine part shaped like a corkscrew. 

When meat fed from the bowl, the worm 

caught his hand and fed it into the grinder’s 

barrel, amputating his hand and part of his 

lower right arm [NIOSH 2001a].

Case 2—Suffocation in corn bin 

In 1999, a 15-year-old worker suffocated in 

a corn bin while working on his family’s farm. 

He entered a 20,000-bushel corn bin through 

a door at the top to scoop corn away from 

a lower door of the bin. The corn in the bin 

sloped from the sides to the center. The center portion of the bin was empty, and the corn 

at the sides was about 7 feet high. A coworker opened the bin door, didn’t see the young 

worker, and assumed he had exited from the 

bin. About 30 minutes after the young worker 

entered the bin, two coworkers entered to 

check on him. They found him suffocated 

under approximately 4 feet of corn [Nebraska 

DOL 2000]. 

Case 3—Shooting during robbery

 attempt

In 2000, a 16-year-old restaurant cashier 

died when she was shot in the head during 

an armed robbery attempt. At 1:15 p.m., a 

man approached the cashier and her mother, 

a co-owner of the restaurant, at the cash 

register. He pointed a gun at the cashier, demanded money from the register, and fired 

the gun, striking her in the face. She was 

transported to the hospital and pronounced 

dead [Wisconsin Division of Health 2000].

Case 4—Burns at a fast food

 restaurant 

In 1997, a 17-year-old worker in a fast-food 

restaurant suffered second- and third-degree 

burns on her shoulder, back, chest, and arm 

when hot grease splattered from an uncovered, portable grease-filtering machine. A coworker was using the machine 10 feet away 

to filter hot grease from a fryer used to cook 

French fries. As a result of the burns, the victim has undergone skin grafts and suffered 

permanent nerve damage [National Consumers League 2001]. 

Case 5—Fatal crushing incident in

 cardboard baler 

In 2000, a 16-year-old produce-market worker 

died from crushing injuries after being caught 

in the vertical-downstroke baling machine 

he was operating. He was working alone in 

the basement when he was caught by the 

hydraulic ram of the baling machine. Another 

worker discovered him slumped over at the 

waist and leaning into the loading chamber of 

the machine. He may have leaned over into 

the compression chamber to adjust a tie wire 

or a box when he was caught by the ram as it 

moved downward [NIOSH 2000a].

Case 6—Chlorine gas inhalation 

A 16-year-old male restaurant worker was 

preparing to clean the floor by mixing cleaning solutions. During the mixing, noxious 

fumes were emitted and he began to feel ill 

and light-headed. He developed chest pains 

and was taken to an emergency department, 

where he was treated for chlorine gas inhalation [NIOSH 2002b]. (Year of injury withheld.)
8 Young Workers 

Case 7—Crushing death by forklift 

In 2000, a 17-year-old laborer working at a 

salvage lumber business was fatally injured 

when the forklift he was operating overturned. A coworker was riding on the right 

side of the forklift, holding on to the overhead 

guard. As the young worker turned the forklift 

sharply to the left, it tipped and overturned to 

the right. His coworker jumped out, landing 

with her ankle pinned to the ground by the 

machine. She sustained minor injuries. The 

operator, who was thrown or jumped from the 

operator’s seat, landed with his head caught 

between the overhead guard and the ground. 

He was pronounced dead at the scene 

[NIOSH 2001b].

Case 8—Fatal collision while

 responding to fire call 

In 2000, a 17-year-old volunteer junior fire 

fighter died after his privately owned vehicle 

collided with a farm tractor. He drove into the 

opposite lane of a two-lane road as he negotiated a curve. He was not wearing a seat belt. 

His vehicle struck the tractor, which was traveling in the oncoming lane. The tractor was 

fitted with a front-end loader that impacted 

the cab area of his vehicle. He was airlifted to 

the hospital, where he was pronounced dead 

2 hours later [NIOSH 2001c].

Case 9—Fatal injury from trench

 collapse

In 1999, a 17-year-old laborer died and a 

coworker was injured when an unprotected 

wall of the trench they were working in collapsed. The day before the incident, the 

trench shield used to shore up the trench 

had been removed to ease removal of broken sewer pipes. Although the shield had not 

been replaced, the young worker and a coworker were sent into the trench the next day 

to check the grade of the sewer line. As the 

two workers were placing a pole to check the 

grade, a section of the trench wall caved in, 

burying the 17-year-old worker to mid-chest 

level and his coworker to his knees. The two 

workers could not be removed until protective 

systems were installed to ensure the rescuers’ safety. The coworker was later admitted to the hospital and recovered from his 

injuries. The 17-year-old laborer underwent 

emergency surgery but died about 5 hours 

after the incident [NIOSH 2000b].

Case 10—Crushing death beneath

 street sweeper 

In 1996, a 13-year-old construction laborer 

was crushed beneath an unattended rolling 

street sweeper while working at an asphalt 

plant owned by his father. The unattended 

vehicle had rolled approximately 140 feet, 

striking the young victim. No one else on the 

site saw the incident occur. [Massachusetts 

Department of Public Health 1996].

Case 11—Inhalation of insecticide-

 containing fertilizer 

A 16-year-old male stock handler was restocking garden shop shelves with bags 

of insecticide-containing fertilizer when he 

inhaled dust from a leaking bag. He began 

to choke, cough, and feel light-headed. The 

following morning when his symptoms had 

not resolved he was taken to an emergency 

department where he was treated for insecticide and fertilizer inhalation [NIOSH 2002b]. 

(Year of injury withheld.)

CONCLUSIONS 

Employment of young workers can have 

many benefits for businesses and for young 

workers. However, the potential for serious 

injury and death must be recognized and addressed by everyone involved. Employers, 

educators, parents, and young workers may 

not be aware of safety and health laws designed to protect young workers on the job.
Young Workers 9

Safety and health regulations alone cannot 

control or eliminate all the factors that may 

contribute to risk of injury for young workers. 

On the basis of case reports presented in this 

Alert and other incidents, NIOSH concludes 

that one or more of the following circumstances are commonly present when young 

workers are injured or killed at work: 

n Young workers may not be trained to perform assigned tasks safely.

n Young workers may be assigned to perform incidental tasks for which they have 

no training or experience, or they may 

take it upon themselves to perform these 

tasks.

n Young workers may not be adequately 

supervised.

n Young workers lack the experience and 

maturity needed to recognize and deal 

with injury hazards. More specifically, they 

may not yet have a sufficient understanding of work processes to recognize hazardous situations.

n Young workers may not have the training 

or experience to handle emergencies or 

injuries.

n Young workers, their employers, and parents may disregard or be unaware of child 

labor laws that specify the jobs and the 

hours that young workers may not work. 

RECOMMENDATIONS 

Young Workers

Young workers should take the following 

steps to protect themselves: 

n Know about and follow safe work practices:

— Recognize the potential for injury at 

work.

— Follow safe work practices.

— Seek information about safe work practices from employers, school counselors, parents, State labor departments, 

and DOL. Visit www.youthrules.dol.gov, 

or call 1–866–4–USWAGE.

n Ask about training: Participate in training programs offered by your employer, or 

request training if none is offered. 

n Ask about hazards: Don’t be afraid to 

ask questions if you are not sure about 

the task you are asked to do. Discuss 

your concerns with your supervisor or employer first. 

n Know your rights: Be aware that you 

have the right to work in a safe and 

healthful work environment free of recognized hazards. Visit www.osha.gov/sltc/

teenworkers/index.html.

— You have the right to refuse unsafe 

work tasks and conditions. 

— You have the right to file complaints 

with DOL when you feel your rights 

have been violated or your safety has 

been jeopardized. 

— You are entitled to workers’ compensation for a work-related injury or illness.

n Know the laws: Before you start work, 

learn what jobs young workers are prohibited from doing. State child labor laws 

may be more restrictive than Federal laws, 

and they vary considerably from State to 

State. Visit www.youthrules.dol.gov or call 

1–866–4–USWAGE.

Employers 

Employers should take the following steps to 

protect young workers: 

n Recognize the hazards: 

— Reduce the potential for injury or illness in young workers by assessing 
10 Young Workers 

and eliminating hazards in the workplace. 

— Make sure equipment used by young 

workers is safe and legal. Visit 

www.dol.gov/dol/topic/youthlabor/

hazardousjobs.htm or call 1–866–4–

USADOL. 

n Supervise young workers:

— Make sure that young workers are appropriately supervised.

— Make sure that supervisors and adult 

coworkers are aware of tasks young 

workers may or may not perform. 

— Label equipment that young workers 

cannot use, or color-code uniforms of 

young workers so that others will know 

they cannot perform certain jobs. 

n Provide training:

— Provide training in hazard recognition 

and safe work practices. 

— Have young workers demonstrate 

that they can perform assigned tasks 

safely and correctly. 

— Ask young workers for feedback about 

the training.

n Know and comply with the laws: Know 

and comply with child labor laws and occupational safety and health regulations 

that apply to your business. State laws 

may be more restrictive than Federal laws, 

and they vary considerably from State to 

State. Post these regulations for workers to read. For information about Federal child labor laws, visit www.dol.gov/

dol/topic/youthlabor/index.htm or call 

1–866–4–USADOL. Links to State labor 

offices are available at www.ilsa.net or 

www.youthrules.dol.gov/states.htm (1–866–

4–USWAGE). Information about OSHA regulations that apply to workers of all ages is 

available at www.osha.gov. 

n Develop an injury and illness prevention program: Involve supervisors and 

experienced workers in developing a comprehensive safety program that includes 

an injury and illness prevention program 

and a process for identifying and solving 

safety and health problems. OSHA consultation programs are available in every 

State to help employers identify hazards 

and improve their safety and health management programs. Visit www.osha.gov/

oshprogs/consult.html. 

Educators 

Educators should take the following steps to 

protect young workers: 

n Talk to students about work: Talk to 

students about safety and health hazards 

in the workplace and students’ rights and 

responsibilities as workers. 

n Ensure the safety of school-based work 

experience programs: Ensure that vocational education programs, school-to-work, 

or Workforce Investment Act partnerships 

offer students work that is allowed by law 

and is in safe and healthful environments 

free of recognized hazards. All such programs should include safety and health 

training.

n Include worker safety and health in 

the school curriculum: Incorporate occupational safety and health topics into 

high school and junior high curricula (e.g., 

safety and health regulations, how to 

recognize hazards, how to communicate 

safety concerns, where to go for help). 

Information is available from NIOSH at 

www.cdc.gov/niosh/pdfs/99-141.pdf 

[NIOSH 1999] or 1–800–35–NIOSH. 

n Know the laws: If you are responsible 

for signing work permits or certificates, 

know the child labor laws. State laws may 

be more restrictive than Federal laws, and 

they vary considerably from State to State. 
Young Workers 11

Visit www.dol.gov/dol/topic/youthlabor/

Resourcesfor Educators.htm (or call 1–866–

4–USADOL), www.youthrules.dol.gov (or call 

1–866–4–USWAGE), or visit www.osha.gov/

SLTC/teenworkers/index.html. 

Parents 

Parents should take the following steps to 

protect young workers: 

n Take an active role in your child’s employment:

— Know the name of your child’s employer and your child’s work address 

and phone number.

— Ask your child about the types of work 

involved, work tasks, and equipment 

he or she uses at work.

— Ask your child about training and supervision provided by the employer.

— Be alert for signs of fatigue or stress 

as your child tries to balance demands 

of work, school, home, and extracurricular activities.

n Know the laws: Be familiar with child 

labor laws. State laws may be more restrictive than Federal laws, and they vary 

considerably from State to State. Don’t 

assume that your child’s employer knows 

about these laws. Visit www.dol.gov/dol/

topic/youthlabor/ParentsofYoung.htm (or 

call 1–866–4–USADOL), www.youthrules. 

dol.gov (or call 1–866–4–USWAGE), 

or www.osha.gov/SLTC/teenworkers/

index.html.

n Be aware of young workers’ rights:

Report unsafe working conditions or employment in violation of child labor laws to 

DOL. Young workers are eligible for workers’ compensation benefits if injured on 

the job.

n Share information with other parents: 

Studies have shown that most young 

workers and parents are not aware of the 

laws and rights of young workers.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

The principal contributors to this Alert were 

Anne L. Mardis and Stephanie G. Pratt. The 

contributors thank the following persons 

for their reviews of draft versions: Darlene 

Adkins, Child Labor Coalition; Colleen A. 

Baker, State of Missouri Division of Labor 

Standards; Diane Bush, University of California, Berkeley; Letitia Davis, Massachusetts 

Department of Public Health; Art Kerschner, 

Jr., U.S. Department of Labor, Employment 

Standards Administration, Wage and Hour 

Division; Barbara Lee, National Children’s 

Center for Rural and Agricultural Health and 

Safety; Katherine Loh, U.S. Department of 

Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics; and David W. 

Parham, Jack in the Box Inc. Please direct 

any comments, questions, or requests for additional information to the following: 

Director

Division of Safety Research

National Institute for Occupational Safety 

and Health

1095 Willowdale Road

Morgantown, WV 26505–2888

Telephone (304) 285–5894; or call 

1–800–35–NIOSH (1–800–356–4674). 

We greatly appreciate your assistance in protecting the lives of young workers. 

John Howard, M.D.

Director, National Institute for

Occupational Safety and Health

Centers for Disease Control 

 and Prevention
12 Young Workers 

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Young Workers 17

Appendix A

Occupational exposures and adverse health effects in work settings where 

young workers are commonly employed

Work setting Occupational exposures Adverse health effects

Farm, lawn care services, nurseriesAgricultural chemicals (pesticides, 

fertilizers, and others) [NCCAIP 

1996; NRC/IOM 1998]*

Diseases of the nervous system, 

hormone disruption, fertility problems, 

cancer

Retail trades, building maintenance, health careCleaning solutions and disinfectants 

[Massachusetts Department of Public Health 1998]

Eye or skin irritation, skin rash or 

inflammation, respiratory problems, 

asthma-like symptoms

Health care Bloodborne pathogens (HIV,

hepatitis viruses) [Lipscomb and 

Borwegen 2000]

Acquired immune-deficiency syndrome 

(AIDS), infectious liver diseases

Gas stations Benzene (from fuels) [Maranelli et 

al. 2000; Hartle 1993]

Leukemia

Auto repair, painting, constructionLead [EPA 2001; IARC 1987; NRC/ 

IOM 1998; Levin and Goldberg 

2000; Lewis 1990]

Developmental and neurological impairment, mental retardation, anemia, 

sterility, possibly cancer, others

Construction and maintenance Asbestos [IARC 1987; Oliver 1994; 

Wagner 1997]

Lung cancer, lung disease (asbestosis)

Construction, maintenance, 

agriculture

Silica [Wagner 1997; NIOSH 2002c; 

IARC 1997]

Lung disease (silicosis), cancer

Manufacturing, construction, 

agriculture

Noise [NRC/IOM 1998] Hearing impairment

Services, manufacturing, agricultureSensitizers and irritants (such as 

animal proteins, cleaning agents, 

enzymes, flour, natural rubber latex, 

and certain reactive chemicals) 

[NRC/IOM 1998; Massachusetts 

Department of Public Health 1998] 

Asthma, allergies, skin rash, or inflammation

Agriculture (planting, cultivating, 

harvesting), stock or inventory 

handling, typing or keyboarding 

Repetitive trauma [NIOSH 1997b] Cumulative trauma disorders of hands, 

elbows, or shoulders (e.g., carpal tunnel syndrome)

Construction, auto body shops Isocyanates [Banks and Wang 2000; 

NIOSH 1996b; Redlich et al. 2001]

Respiratory irritation, asthma, skin 

rash or inflammation, allergic inflammatory disease of the lung

Health care, veterinary health 

care

Radiation [Fritschi 2000; Emery and 

Cooper 1998; Samet 1997]

Cancer (skin cancer, thyroid cancer, 

leukemia, possibly others)

*See reference list on page 12.
18 Young Workers 

Appendix B 

Child Labor Provisions of the Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA) for

Nonagricultural Occupations (adapted from DOL Fact Sheet No. 043)

[DOL 2002a]

Minimum Federal age standards for 

nonagricultural employment

The FLSA and the child labor regulations issued at 29 CFR 570 establish both hours and 

occupational standards for young workers. 

Children of any age are generally permitted 

to work for businesses entirely owned by their 

parents, except that those under age 16 may 

not be employed in mining or manufacturing, 

and no one under age 18 may be employed 

in any occupation the Secretary of Labor has 

declared to be hazardous.

n Age 18: Once a young worker reaches 

age 18, he or she is no longer subject to 

the Federal child labor provisions.

n Ages 16–17: Sixteen is the basic minimum age for employment. Workers aged 

16 and 17 may be employed for unlimited 

hours in any occupation other than those 

declared hazardous by the Secretary of 

Labor.

n Ages 14–15: Young persons aged 14 and 

15 may be employed outside school hours 

in a variety of non-manufacturing and nonhazardous jobs for limited periods of time 

and under specified conditions.

n Under age 14: Children under age 14 may 

not be employed in nonagricultural occupations covered by the FLSA. Permissible 

employment for such children is limited to 

work that is exempt from the FLSA (such 

as delivering newspapers to the consumer and acting). Children may also perform 

work not covered by the FLSA—such as 

completing minor chores around private 

homes or casual babysitting.

Permitted occupations for workers 

aged 14 and 15 in nonagricultural 

employment

Child Labor Regulation No. 3 limits the industries and occupations in which workers aged 

14 and 15 may be employed.

n Fourteen- and 15-year-olds may work in 

most office jobs and retail and food service 

establishments, but they may not work in 

processing, mining, or in any workroom or 

workplace where goods are manufactured 

or processed. 

n Fourteen- and 15-year olds are also prohibited from working at tasks covered by 

Hazardous Orders or in occupations involving transportation, construction, warehousing, communications, and public utilities. 

n Fourteen- and 15-year-olds may not operate most power-driven machinery, including lawn mowers, lawn trimmers, and 

weed cutters. They may operate most 

office machines and certain equipment 

found in food service establishments such 

as dishwashers, toasters, dumbwaiters, 

popcorn poppers, milkshake blenders, 

and coffee grinders. 

n They may be employed in occupations 

such as bagging groceries, office work, 

stocking shelves, cashiering, and light 

cooking performed in the full sight of customers. Fourteen- and 15-year-olds may 

not bake as part of their employment.
Young Workers 19

Hours standards for workers aged 

14 and 15 in nonagricultural employment

Child Labor Regulation No. 3 also limits the 

hours and the times of day that 14- and 15-

year-olds may work to the following:

n Outside school hours*

n No more than 3 hours on a school day

n No more than 8 hours on a nonschool day

n No more than 18 hours during a week 

when school is in session

n No more than 40 hours during a week 

when school is not in session

n Between 7 a.m. and 7 p.m.—except between June 1 and Labor Day, when the 

evening hour is extended to 9 p.m.

Hazardous occupations orders for 

nonagricultural work (HOs)

The FLSA establishes age 18 as the minimum for those nonagricultural occupations 

that the Secretary of Labor finds and declares to be particularly hazardous for minors 

aged 16 and 17, or detrimental to their health 

or well-being. In addition, Child Labor Regulation No. 3 bans 14- and 15-year-olds from 

performing any work proscribed by the HOs.

HO 1. Manufacturing or storing explosives: 

bans minors working where explosives are 

manufactured or stored, but permits work in 

retail stores selling ammunition, gun shops, 

trap and skeet ranges, and police stations.

HO 2. Driving a motor vehicle or work as an 

outside helper on motor vehicles: bans operating motor vehicles on public roads and 

working as outside helpers on motor vehicles 

(except 17-year-olds may drive cars or small 

trucks during daylight hours for limited times 

and under strictly limited circumstances).

See footnotes at end of Appendix B (page 20).

HO 3. Coal mining: bans most jobs in coal 

mining.

HO 4. Logging and sawmilling: bans most 

jobs in logging and timbering (including cutting firewood) and in sawmills.

HO 5.†,‡ Power-driven woodworking machines: bans the operation of most powerdriven woodworking machines, including 

chain saws, nailing machines, and sanders.

HO 6. Exposure to radioactive substances 

and ionizing radiation: bans exposure to radioactive materials.

HO 7. Power-driven hoisting apparatus: bans 

the operation of most power-driven hoisting 

apparatus such as forklifts, nonautomatic elevators, skid-steer loaders, cranes, and high 

lift trucks, but does not apply to chair lifts at 

ski resorts nor to electric and pneumatic lifts 

used to raise cars in garages and gasoline 

service stations.

HO 8.†,‡ Power-driven metal-forming, punching and shearing machines: bans the operation of certain power-driven metal-working 

machines but permits the use of most machine tools.

HO 9. Mining, other than coal: bans most 

jobs in mining at metal mines, quarries, aggregate mines, and other mining sites including underground work in mines, work in or 

about open cut mines, open quarries, and 

sand and gravel operations.

HO 10.†,‡ Power-driven meat processing machines, slaughtering, and meat packing plants: 

bans the operation of power-driven meat processing machines, such as meat slicers, saws 

and meat choppers, wherever used (including restaurants and delicatessens). This ban 

includes the use of this machinery on items 

other than meat, such as cheese and vegetables. HO 10 also bans most jobs in slaughtering and meat packing establishments.
20 Young Workers 

HO 11.‡ Power-driven bakery machines: bans 

the operation of power-driven bakery machines 

such as vertical dough and batter mixers (including most countertop models), dough rollers 

and dough sheeters. This ban covers such machinery wherever used.

HO 12.†,‡ Power-driven paper products machines: bans the operation of power-driven 

paper products machines such as scrap 

paper balers, paper box compactors, and 

platen-type printing presses. Sixteen- and 

17-year-olds may load, but not operate or 

unload, certain scrap paper balers and paper 

box compactors under very specific guidelines.

HO 13. Manufacturing of brick, tile, and related products: bans most jobs in the manufacture of brick, tile, and similar products.

HO 14.†,‡ Power-driven circular saws, band 

saws, and guillotine shears: bans the operation of various types of power-driven band 

and circular saws and guillotine shears, no 

matter what kind of items are being cut by the 

saws and shears.

HO 15. Wrecking, demolition, and ship-breaking operations: bans most jobs in wrecking, 

demolition, and ship-breaking operations, but 

does not apply to remodeling or repair work 

that is not extensive.

HO 16.† Roofing operations: bans most jobs in 

roofing operations including work performed 

on the ground and removal of the old roof.

HO 17.† Trenching and excavation operations: bans most jobs in trenching and excavation work, including working in a trench 

more than four feet deep.

*School hours are determined by the local public 

school in the area where the minor is residing while 

employed (even if the minor does not attend the public 

school).

†The regulations provide a limited exemption for 

apprentices and student learners who are at least 

aged 16 and enrolled in approved programs.

‡Prohibited tasks also extend to setting up, adjusting, 

repairing, oiling, or cleaning the equipment.
Young Workers 21

Appendix C

Child Labor Provisions of the Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA)

for Agricultural Occupations [DOL 2002b, 2003].

Minimum age requirements and hours restrictions for employment in agricultural production are as follows (These restrictions apply to directly hired workers, employees of 

farm labor contractors, and migrant children. 

They do not cover young workers employed 

on their parents’ or guardians’ farms.):

Age 16: Once a young person turns 16, he or 

she can legally work on any day, for any number of hours, and in any job in agriculture.

Ages 14–15: A 14- or 15-year-old can work 

in agriculture, on any farm, but only in jobs 

other than those prohibited by Hazardous 

Orders. Some exemptions apply (see below 

under HO/A 1 and HO/A 2). 

Ages 12–13: A 12- or 13-year-old can work 

in agriculture only (1) with written parental 

permission or if the farm also employs their 

parent(s); (2) during hours when school is not 

in session; and (3) in jobs other than those 

prohibited by Hazardous Orders.

Under age 12: If a worker is younger than 12, 

he or she can work in agriculture, but only on 

small* farms where none of the employees are 

subject to the minimum wage requirements 

of the FLSA. Workers under age 12 may be 

employed on these “small” farms only (1) with 

written parental permission or if the farm also 

employs their parent(s); (2) during hours 

when school is not in session; and (3) in 

nonhazardous jobs. Local workers ages 10 

and 11 may harvest short-short season 

crops outside school hours for no more than 

8 weeks between June 1 and October 15 if 

their employers have obtained special waivers from the Secretary of Labor.

See footnotes at end of Appendix C on page 22.

Hazardous orders for agricultural 

work [HO/As]

The Secretary of Labor has found that the 

following agricultural occupations are hazardous for workers under age 16. No worker 

under age 16 may be employed at any time 

in any of these hazardous occupations in agriculture (HO/A) unless specifically exempt, 

as noted. These prohibitions do not apply to 

workers of any age working on farms owned 

or operated by their own parent(s) or legal 

guardian(s). 

HO/A 1.†,‡ Operating a tractor of over 20 

PTO (power-take-off) horsepower, or connecting or disconnecting implements or parts 

to such a tractor. 

HO/A 2.†,‡ Operating or helping to operate 

any of the following machines (operating includes starting, stopping, adjusting, or feeding the machine or any other activity involving 

physical contact with the machine): 

(a) Corn picker, cotton picker, grain combine, hay mower, forage harvester, hay 

baler, potato digger, or mobile pea viner; 

(b) Feed grinder, crop dryer, forage blower, 

auger conveyor, or the unloading mechanism of a non-gravity-type self-unloading 

wagon or trailer; or,

(c) Power post-hole digger, power post 

driver, or nonwalking-type rotary tiller. 

HO/A 3.† Operating, or assisting to operate 

any of the following machines (operating 

includes starting, stopping, adjusting, or 

feeding the machine, or any other activity involving physical contact with the machine): 

(a) Trencher or earthmoving equipment; 
22 Young Workers

(b) Fork lift; 

(c) Potato combine; or, 

(d) Power-driven circular, band, or chain 

saw. 

HO/A 4.† Working on a farm in a yard, pen, or 

stall occupied by a 

(a) Bull, boar, or stud horse maintained for 

breeding purposes; or 

(b) Sow with suckling pigs, or cow with 

newborn calf with umbilical cord present. 

HO/A 5.† Loading, unloading, felling, bucking, or skidding timber with a butt (large end) 

diameter of more than 6 inches. 

HO/A 6.† Working from a ladder or scaffold 

at a height of over 20 feet (working includes 

painting, repairing, or building structures, 

pruning trees, picking fruit, etc.). 

HO/A 7. Driving a bus, truck, or automobile 

when transporting passengers, or riding on a 

tractor as a passenger or helper. 

HO/A 8. Working inside: 

(a) A fruit, forage (feed), or grain storage 

structure designed to retain an oxygen deficient or toxic atmosphere—for example, 

a silo where fruit is left to ferment; 

(b) An upright silo within 2 weeks after silage (fodder) has been added or when a 

top unloading device is in operating position; 

(c) A manure pit; or, 

(d) A horizontal silo while operating a tractor for packing purposes. 

HO/A 9. Handling or applying agricultural 

chemicals if the chemicals are classified 

under the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide 

and Rodenticide Act as Toxicity Category 

I—identified by the word “Danger” and/or 

“Poison” with skull and crossbones; or Toxicity Category II—identified by the word “Warning” on the label. (Handling includes cleaning 

or decontaminating equipment, disposing of 

or returning empty containers, or serving as 

a flagman for aircraft applying agricultural 

chemicals.) 

HO/A 10. Handling or using a blasting agent 

including, but not limited to dynamite, black 

powder, sensitized ammonium nitrate, blasting caps and primer cord. 

HO/A 11. Transporting, transferring, moving, 

or applying anhydrous ammonia (dry fertilizer). 

*“Small” farm means any farm that did not use 

more than 500 “man-days” of agricultural labor in 

any calendar quarter (3-month period) during the 

preceding calendar year. “Man-day” means any day 

during which an employee works at least 1 hour.

†Student-learners in a bona fide vocational agriculture 

program may work in this hazardous occupation under 

a written agreement, signed by the student-learner, 

the employer, and a school authority, which provides 

that the student-learner’s work is incidental to training, 

intermittent, for short periods of time, and under 

close supervision of a qualified person; that safety 

instructions are given by the school and correlated with 

on-the-job training; and that a schedule of organized 

and progressive work processes has been prepared.

‡Exemptions for 4-H Federal Extension Service 

Training Program and the Vocational Agriculture 

Training Program: Minors aged 14 and 15 who 

hold certificates of completion of either the tractor 

operation or machine operation program may work in 

the occupations [(HO/A1 and HO/A2, respectively)] for 

which they have been trained.