# C arbon Capture and Storage: a W EC “Interim Balance” 

## Le Ca pt ag e et S to ckag e du Carb on e : un Bi la n Int ér im aire du CME

World Energy Council 2007
Pro moti ng the su sta inable su pply and u se of e nergy for t he gre atest benefit of all

Worl d E ne rg y Cou n cil (W EC ) Cle a ner Fossil Fuel s Systems Committee (C FFS) 2007 CCS booklet_covers2.qxp:Layout 1 10/28/07 9:50 PM Page 11 Preface Ch airma n , B a r b a ra N. M cKe e The W E C Cle an er Fo ssil Fu e ls S yst ems (C FFS ) Com mitt ee 4 Carbon Ca pture a nd St ora ge : a WE C “I nte rim Ba lance ” 2 00 7 E dition 4 1. N ee ds

— Wo rld en erg y d ema n d

— Re lat ed carb o n d ioxi de em issi o n s

— En ab lin g d eve l o pm en t w hi le m it ig ating cl imate cha n ge 5 2. Tec hnologie s

— Ca rb on capt ure

— Tra nsp o rt at io n

— Storag e

— RD &D 8 3. C omparative ec onomi cs

— Co st s

— Co mp et it ive n ess

— Reve nu es

— Ext er na lit ie s

— In vest me nt s 10 4. D epl oy ment

— The dr ivers

— The pot en t ia l

— Co a l-b ase d p ower g en e rati on

— Nat ural g as- b ased powe r g en erat ion

— Oil- based powe r ge n erat io n

— Ma n ag em en t i ssue s 13 5. D evel opi ng count rie s a nd t ransitional eco nomie s

— The di lem ma

— En ha nce d recovery of oi l an d g as

— Eff ici en cy fi rst

— CC S n ext st ep s 17 6
. P e rs pe cti ve s

— S ynt h e sis

— I nte rg ove rn me n ta l P an e l o n Cl im ate Change

— I nt e rn at io n a l E n e rg y Ag e n cy

— E urop e a n C o m m issio n 18 7
. P ol i c i e s

— Clim at e p ol icie s

— E ne rg y p o licie s

— CCS p ol icie s 21 8
. Laws a nd re gul at ions

— Ada pt in g n at io n al l eg a l a n d regulatory f ra mewo rks

— Reviewin g in te rn at io n a l t reaties and co n ven t io n s

— S ha ri ng o r p rot e ct in g in te ll ectual property

— S ecu ri ng a leve l
- p l ayin g f i e ld for CCS 25 Conc l usi on

— Cu rre n t S t at u s

— P ot e n t ia l

— Cave at s 28 Annexes 28 A. Pa pe rs pre s e nte d at CFFS seminars 33 B. List of i nte rnati ona l CC S projects

— Fo rmu lat io n of p o l i ci e s

— Dat a co lle ct io n a n d a na lys is

— Co lla b o rati ve d eve lo p m e n t of technologies

— I nt e rn at io n a l l e g a l a nd re g ulatory f ra mewo rks

— S el ect e d RD& D p roj e ct s 36 C. Abbrev iati ons 36 D. Conta ct edi tor 36 E
. Contact WE C 

# Contents 2007 CCS booklet_covers2.qxp:Layout 1 10/28/07 9:51 PM Page 2Carbon Capture and Storage: a WEC “Interim Balance” World Energy Council 2007



## T h e Committee In 19 99 th e Worl d En e rgy Co u ncil created the Cl ea ne r Fossi l Fuel s Syste ms (CFFS) Comm ittee to di scuss and prom ote kn owle dg e worldwi de ab out t he re search, d evelo p men t, d emonstrati on an d d ep loymen t of cle an e r fo ssil fu e ls systems to me et gl ob al en ergy n e ed s. Glo b al e nergy use i s proj ect ed to in crease by 5 3 % d u rin g 2004

– 2030. Fossi l fu el s are criti cal to m eeting g l obal economic devel opm en t and en erg y secu rity n eeds. Their sha re of g lob al ene rg y u se is even expected to in
cre ase from 8 1% i n 2 00 4 to 82 % in 20 30. Produc
ti on an d consum ptio n of eve ry form of fossi l f ue l wi l l in cre ase to m eet n ee ds (IEA 2 006). Use of fossi l fue ls co ul d h ave maj or local, regional an d g lo ba l envi ronm en tal i mpacts, and the environ me nt al cha ll enge i s g reat. C lea n er systems m iti
gate an d even neu trali ze the ad ve rse con sequ en ces of the u se of fo ssil fuels and perm it th ei r posi ti ve qua liti es to b e e nj oye d for economi c an d so cia l deve lop men t. Th e te ch n ology for these syste ms is advanci ng ra pid ly. 

## T h e m andate St akeh ol de rs need to fu lly un d ersta nd the hi gh val ue of cl ean system s to en sure that cleaner fossil en ergy syst em s w il l be use d a nd to enable fossi l fu el syste ms to b e susta ina b le. He nce, the aim of th e C om m ittee i s to e nsu re th at a broad range of sta keho ld ers ap pre ciate th e g re at p otential of these syste ms to ensu re the susta ina b le u se of fossi l fu el s. To achi eve th is missio n, the Commi ttee :  p rovid e s a fo ru m fo r en e rg y experts, decision make rs a n d co n su me rs to d i scu ss t he role of cl ea n e r fossi l fu e l t e ch n o l o g ie s ;  exch a n ge s in fo rmat io n, cre at es networks, ela b o rat es p ro p o sa l s a n d in trod u ce s recom men d at io ns fo r t h e wo rld wi d e d e pl oym ent of su ch t ech n o lo g ie s, in clu d in g to d evel oping co u n t rie s ;  ad d re sse s b a rri ers a n d crit ica l issues that may h a mp e r th e ad va n ce me n t of clea ner fos
si l fu e l syst e ms an d e n co u rag e s g overn men t s, in vesto rs a n d f in a n cia l in sti tutions to pro act ive ly d ep loy cle a n a n d in novative fossil fu e l t ech n o lo g ie s. 

## T h e a cti vit ies The Co mmi tt e e en d e avo rs to achi eve the se goals ma in ly by p re se n ti ng se min a rs a n d roundtables orga n ize d th ro u g h o u t t he wo rld in : An kara , Tur key
19 9 9 ; K ra kow, P ol an d -1 9 9 9 ; D a ka r, Senegal -2000; Rio de Ja n ei ro , Brazi l -2 0 0 1 ; Bu e n o s Aire s , Ar
ge n t in a -2 00 1 ; Washi ng to n , DC, Un it ed States20 0 2 ; Wa rsaw, Po la n d -2 00 2 ; Ca iro , Egypt -2002; Ki ev, Ukra in e -2 00 3 ; Syd n ey, A u st ra lia -2004; Erice , It a ly-2 0 0 5 ; Co lo mb o , S r i L a n ka -2 0 0 5; Neptun , Ro
ma ni a -2 0 0 6 ; Tal lin n , Esto n ia -2 00 6 ; Moscow, Rus
sia -2 00 6 ; an d A mma n , Jorda n -2 00 7

. We also re sea rch a n d p u b lish i n fo rm at io n a l documents. Focus on c a rbon c a pture and storage Fro m 20 0 4 to 20 0 7 , th e Co mmitt e e focused on carbo n ca pt u re a nd sto rage
. 

# 1 

# The WEC Cl eaner Fossil Fuels Syst ems Committee

Pre face by th e C ha irman , Ba rbara N. McKee : 2007 CCS booklet text pages:WEC booklet 10/28/07 9:56 PM Page 1Carbon Capture and Storage: a WEC “Interim Balance” World Energy Council 2007

The Discussio n S e ssio n o n “Cl ea ne r Fossil Fuels

– The Cor nersto n e fo r H uma n D eve lo pment and En
ergy S ecu rity, ” h el d in Sydney , A u stralia , on 8 Sep
tem ber 200 4 at t h e o ccasi on of th e 19th World Ene rgy Co ng re ss p laced car bon ca pture an d stor
age i n t he g e ne ra l co n text of su sta in able develop
ment and mit ig at io n of en ergy pove rty. The Worksh op he ld i n Erice , S i cil y, on 24 August 200 5 focu sed on “Ca rbo n C aptu re an d Storage

– A Way Forwa rd fo r Cle an er Fo ssil Fu els System s. ” It was a un iqu e eve nt be ca use it w as organized at the i nvit at io n of th e Wo rld Fe d erati on of Scientists (W FS) a nd was he ld in th e p rest ig i o us Internationa l Ce ntre fo r Sci en t ific Cul tu re in E ri ce. Prof. Richard Wi lson , Ch air man of WFS-En ergy P M P (Perma
nen t Monito rin g P a ne l), a n d I jo in tl y chaired the wo rkshop. On 7 Se pt emb e r 20 05 , th e C FFS Comm itt ee organ ized a di alo g ue on “Cle an er Fossi l Fuel Sys
tem s w it h Ca rb on Ca ptu re a nd Storage – W h atʼs In It for th e D eve lo pi n g Worl d? ” in C ol ombo , Sri Lan ka , at t h e o ccasi on of the Exe cutive Assembly of t he World En e rgy Co u ncil

. “C lea ner Fo ssil Fu el s fo r Susta in ab le D evelop
ment ” was t he top ic of a worksh o p organized jointly by t he CF FS Co mmi tte e a nd the Craiova Power Ene rgy Co mpl ex o n 1 3 Ju ne 20 06 , at the occasion of t he WEC R eg io na l For um FO RE N06 in Neptun , Ro mani a. “Fo cu sed le ct u re s o n g lo ba l a n d regional efforts to
wa rd car bo n ca pt u re a nd sto rage ” were given at a wo rksh o p o rg a n ize d by t he CFFS Committee in Ta ll i nn , E sto n ia , o n 4 S e pt em be r 2 006, at the oc casio n of t h e E xecu t ive Assem bl y of the WEC. “Cl e a n e r Fossi l Fue ls fo r P ower G eneration” were d iscu ssed at a wo r ksh o p o rg a n ize d jointly by the CFFS Co mmitt e e a n d t h e A l l -Ru ssian Thermal En
g in ee ri ng I n st i t u t e (VTI) i n Mos c ow , Russia , on 3 S ept e mb e r 2 0 0 6

. O n 2 5 Ap ri l 20 0 7 , t h e CFFS C om mittee and the A ra b Un io n of E l e ct ri city P ro d uce rs, Transmitters a nd Dist ri bu to rs h e l d a wo r ksh o p o n “Mitigating the G rowin g C on t rib u t io n s of We st Asia in Global Emis
sio n s” in A mman , Jo rd an
. At t h e o ccasi o n of t h e 2 0 th Wo rl d E nergy Congress in Ro me , a fo r u m o n “Fo ssil Fu e ls Leading the Cle a n E n e rg y Revol ut io n ” wil l be h eld on 12 No
ve mb er 2 0 0 7

. Fo r 20 0 8 , a wo r ksh o p i n Afri c a o n “Facilitating CCS P roje ct P re p a rat i o n a n d Ma n agement” is u nd e r co n sid e rat io n
. O utre ac h A ll t he a b ove -m e n t io n e d eve n ts cre ated a wealth of in for mati on t h at ca ll e d fo r it s b ro ad dissemination. He n ce, t h is b ro ch u re a ims at in fo rming a broader a ud ie n ce a b o u t t h e Co mmitt e eʼ s assessment of the p re sen t st at u s of ca rb o n d ioxid e capture and stor


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ag e. Th e assessm en t is ga ug e d against the dual ne ed to con trol cli mate cha n g e an d to advance on th e road of econo mi c d evelo p men t to el imi nate poverty. As ca rbon ca ptu re a n d storage develops, “i nt er im b al ances” rath er th an fina l conclusi ons are in o rd er. H ence th is 2 00 7 Ed itio n is the second in a ser ie s o n t he subj ect. The C om mi tt ee natu ra lly co nce ntrates on the pa pe rs gen erat ed und er its a usp ice s a nd listed in An nex A

. Mai n refere n ces a pp e ar at the end of each ch apter. In te reste d re ade rs may w ish to ac cess pap ers w it h the h e lp of th e Annex. Ac know ledgme nts I tha nk the m emb ers of the Co mmittee, the au th ors , Ba rry Wo rt hin gto n , USEA an d the edi tor Kl au s Bren dow for the ir va lu ab le co ntr ibutions to th is docu me nt. Ba rb ara N

. McKee Ch ai rm an , CFFS Co mmitte e, WEC 

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1. Needs The develo pm en t of carb o n ca pt u re and storage (C CS ) te ch no lo gi es is d rive n by t he nee d to m iti
gat e cli mat e ch an g e re su l t i ng from e conomic de
velop men t

. 1 World ene rgy de ma nd : Fo ssil f ue ls have supplied nea rly al l of t h e wo rld ʼs co mme rci al e n ergy supply betwe en 1 90 0 a n d 1 97 0, a nd st il l provi de abou t 85% in 200 7. They are p red icted to continue to suppl y 82% in 20 3 0 a n d 6 4 % i n 2 05 0. In absolute ter ms, t his expe ct atio n im p li es a sig nificant i n crease i n ge ne rat ion an d u se
. Fi gu re 1 demon
strate s t hat un de r p rese n t p ol icie s fossil fuel dem and w ill in cre ase by 8 0% betwe en 1990 an d 205 0 ( Fig

. 1 , f irst co lu mn 2 05 0 )

. H owever, under al
ter nat ive p o licie s, i ncre ased effi cie ncies, substitu
ti on of coa l by n at u ral g as, p ro mot io n of non -car bon em itti ng sou rce s o r n ew technologies could const ra in fo ssil fu e l d ema n d and relate d carbon di oxi de emi ssio n s. I n su ch a scenario, fo s sil fue l deman d g rowth d uri ng 19 90

– 2050 coul d be curbe d (from 8 0 % to 6 0 %) an d C O 2 e mi ssio ns re duce d ( by 1 2%) ( Fig. 1 , last colu mn 2050). The wor ldʼs e ne rg y syste m is hug e. The introduc
ti on of new te ch no lo gy a nd syste ms on an annual basi s ca n on ly in crem en tall y cha ng e the enti re sys tem

. Cha ng es in en e rgy so urces and uti lization tech nolo gy ta ke 2 5 to 50 yea rs of p enetration to change t he en t ire syste m. This is due to th e extraord in ary ca pi tal needs and t he lo n g l ifet im e of facil it ie s a n d eq uipment, i.e. a low ca pi ta l t u rn ove r. Th is is in p a rt compensated for by r isin g e ff icie n cie s in e n e rg y p ro duction, conversio n a n d t ra n sp o rt ati on / t ra n smissio n. However, tod ay, t h e re a pp e a rs to b e no fe asi ble and viable a lt er nat ive to fo ssil f u el s to me et t h e twin develop
me n ta l a n d e n viro n me n t al asp irat io ns of nations, at le ast u p to 2 0 50

. A f ast e r d e cl in e of fossil fuel use wo u ld , in f act , a b sor b re so u rce s, w hich most, if not a ll, cou n t rie s a re u n a b le to mo b ilize

. Re l ated CO 2 e mis s i ons : Over t h e past 250 years, fossi l fu e ls co n t r ib u t e d 75 %
- 8 0% to the build-up of g lo ba l CO 2 co nce n t rat io n s. Fro m a n average 23.5 G t in t h e 1 9 9 0s, a n nu a l CO 2 e miss ions from fossil f ue l u se ro se to 26

. 1 Gt d u ri n g 2 0 00

– 2005 (IPCC 2 00 7 ). G ive n t h at t h e ca rb o n in te n sity of energy u se (2

. 3 t C O 2/ to e ) i s p roje ct e d to fall only slightly, e ne rg y-rel at e d CO 2 e missio n s wo uld increase to 4 0. 4 G t by 2 03 0 u nd e r p re se n t p o licies (including imp le me n t at io n of t h e Kyoto P roto col) or to 34.1 Gt u nd e r a lt e rn at ive , mo re str in ge n t policies (IEA 2 00 6 ). Thu s t h e Kyoto P roto co l i s not likely to have a si gn if ica n t imp act o n en e rg y u se and carbon d ioxid e e missi on s. O n e re aso n is t hat in the 2020s, e missio n s from d eve lo p in g co u n tr ies (which are not su bj ect to Kyoto red u ct io n req u ire ments) will overt ake e missio n s f ro m O E CD co u n t ries and reach a sh are of 6 0 %
- 7 0 % i n 2 0 5 0. Th u s, it is important in th e p o st
- Kyoto p ro cess to f i n d ways and means to in vo lve t h e se co un t rie s in t he p ro cess of climate co nt ro l, wh ile safe g u a rd i n g t h e ir p rogress on the ro ad to d eve l o p me n t. Ca rb o n ca pt ure and storage 

# 4 

# Car bon C apture and Sto rage : A WEC Interim Bal ance – 2007 Edit ion

1 IPCC WG I, Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis, Summary for Policy Makers, February 2007, p. 2 and 5: “The global increases of carbon dioxide concentrations are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change

... The understanding of anthropogenic warming and cooling... has improved..., leading to a very high confidence [>90 %] that the globally averaged net ef
fect of human activities since 1750 has been one of warming.” 2007 CCS booklet text pages:WEC booklet 10/28/07 9:56 PM Page 4Carbon Capture and Storage: a WEC “Interim Balance” World Energy Council 2007

wi l l be an i mporta nt o pti on fo r ma n y developing cou ntr i es w it h foss il fue l sou rce s (se e Chapter 5). Ena bling deve lopme nt while mitigating cli mate cha nge: Un abat ed i ncre ases in CO 2 em issi on s wo ul d obvi ou sly severely u nd e rmin e any poli cy to mi ti gate cl im at e cha ng e
. Thi s re a lity illustrates the ne ed fo r at least preca utio n ary me asures, where fe asi bl e a nd cost -e ffective

. In pa rticular, m itigating im pacts of fossi l fue ls can be acco mplished fi rst by im provi ng com bustio n a n d e nd -u se efficiency and re pl aci ng th e d ire ct use of fue ls by potent i a l ly more eff ici en t a nd l ess po llu ting el e ctrici ty, and th en by de pl oyi ng CC S t echn o log ie s. Ca rb on capture and storag e tech n ology systems have t he pote nti al to ach ieve su b sta ntial reductions in g lo bal e nergy-rel ate d CO 2 em issio ns, if d e pl oye d at a signi fi can t scale , in a ti me l y m a nner an d at com pet it ive co sts ne ed e d to attract i nvest
me nt s. The relevance of CCS in emi ssions reduc
ti on w il l in crease ove r time , sin ce th e growth rates of gl ob al C O 2 emi ssio ns wil l l ike ly exce ed th o se of gl ob al en ergy dema nd du e to proje cted d ecli n i n g sha re s of n ucle ar an d h yd rop ower. However, the cur re nt ly hi gh cost of CCS is see n as a seri o us i m pe di me nt to it s deployme nt an d m ust be reduced.

FURTHER READING : Workshop in Erice: Hisham Al-Khatib; Workshop in Tallinn: Barbara N. McKee; other sources: IEA World Energy Outlook 2004 and 2006; IPCC Climate Change 2007, Summary report for policy makers 2. Tec hnol ogy Car bon c aptu re a n d storage te chno logy ca ptures car bon d iox ide, then com pre sse s a n d l i quef ies it , and f ina l ly tra ns po rts i t by p ipel ine or in t ankers to safe and p erm a nen t storag e in geol ogi c fo rmati ons. Some of t his tec hnol ogy is proven a nd has been uti
liz ed by th e oi l i nd ustry for enha nced oil re covery. However, it has not b een adequ atel y de monstrated on l arge -sc al e coa l
- fi re d p owe r pl a nts as com po nents of inte grated c lean energy system s. C CS tec h no l o gy for u til i zation at n ew, l arge power pl ants offers t he gre atest potenti al for C CS. CC S ca n als o be us e d to mi t i g ate C O 2 emi ssi ons fro m ot her large , stati on a ry sou rce ind ustr ial app lic ati ons
. It sh o u l d b e not e d t h at , in ad d it io n to geologic stor
ag e , re sea rch is a lso be in g co n d u ct ed on terrestrial sto rag e , m in eral ca rb o n at i o n a n d o ption s to convert CO 2 to b e ne f icia l p ro d u ct s. Ca rbon - C apt ure : Tech n o lo g y u t il i ze d with new la rg e co a l p la nt s ca n re d u ce em issions by 80 %

– 85 %. However, ca ptu re t e ch n o l o g ies require addi
ti on a l e n ergy, wh ich re d u ce s ove ra ll effici ency. Ear
lie r co nve rsi on lo ss e sti mate s of u p to 13% have be e n revise d (I E A 2 0 0 4 ) down to e ight percentage po in t s in exi sti ng co a l-f ire d p owe r p lants, and to fo u r p e rce nt ag e p o in t s in f u t u re i n t e grated coal gasif icat io n com bi ne d cycle ( I G C C ) designs.  P re - co mb u st io n t e ch n ol og ie s conve rt coal or nat u ra l gas in to h yd ro g e n a n d /o r u lt ra-clean die se l f u el s w hi le rem ovi ng t h e CO 2 . I n te


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grat ed coa l gasi f i cation com b i n ed cycle (I G CC ) te ch no lo g y is a p ro m i sin g ap proach becau se of t h e p ote n tia l co prod uct io n of elec
t rici ty, f u els a nd che mica ls (Fi g. 2 ).  P ost -co m bu stion tech no log ie s capture CO 2 f rom f lu e g ase s by ch e mi ca l p ro cesses. An
ot her o pt io n is oxyfu e lin g, wh ich m od ifies the comb ust io n p ro cess by usi ng pu re oxygen in
st ead of a ir to o bt a in h ig hly p ure CO 2 . A n at
t ract ive exa mpl e is the oxyg e n- fi re d super- crit ica l ste a m cycle (S CS C) i n pul verize d coa l com bu stion (PC C ). Transportati on: Th e tra n spo rtati on of CO 2 f ro m the sou rce po in t to th e sto rage si t e is com paratively in expens ive b ut su bsta n tia l in frast ru cture need s to be bui lt

. Th e mo de of tra n sp ortat io n (pipel ine, tan ker, t ruck, ship ) of th e CO 2 i n gase ou s, l i q ui d o r supercrit i cal st ate de p en ds o n t he pressures and volum es to b e sh ip p e d , a nd on th e distance to the storage si te

. A n etwork li n kin g var io us source poi nt s to a sto rage site wo u ld b e a n asset in re gi ons whe re sto rag e si t e s a re n ot p roxim ate to the source s. I t re ma in s to be dete rm in ed how such net
wo rks can b e sit e d, fin an ced and o p erated

. At present , 3 , 0 00 km of de d icate d , l an d- based CO 2 pi peli nes are in rou tin e o pe rat i on ( IEA 2004). Sto ra ge : Poten tial un derg rou nd de pos ito rie s for CO 2 a re plen tif ul. Glo bal ca pacitie s in sa lin e form a ti o n s are e st imated at 1 , 00 0 to 10 ,00 0 GtC O 2 and in d ep leted oil an d g as f ields at 1 , 1 00 GtCO 2 . Th i s cor res pon d s to 90

– 480 years of cur rent wor ld emi ss ions at 23

– 24 Gt CO 2/ye ar
. Moreover, C O 2 can als o be sto red in a bando ned o r unm i nable coal beds o r glac i a l c lath rate s. At p res ent, more than 33 mi lli on tons of CO 2 are bei ng c aptu red and stored in over 70 proj ects ( IE A 2 004 )

. M ost are exper im en tal , but the re a re l arge -s c al e com merci al proj ects i n operati on i n In Sal a h (A lg er ia) , Weyburn ( Canada) , the North Se a (S lei pner), a nd fo rthcoming i n the Barents Se a, G orgon (Austral ia) , Gas si T ouil (Alge
ri a) a nd ot her fiel ds. As noted ea r l i er, C O 2 i s in
jected com mercia lly in to oi l res e rvo irs for enhanced oil re covery (EO R) in m any pa rts of the wor ld

. Storage- rel ated is su es in clu de a rel i able as sess men t of sto rag e c apacity ; an i n creased understand
ing of C O 2 tra ppin g, m igratio n and im pact on gro und water ; and preve nt io n, m oni tor i ng and re med iati on of le aks

. Pu bli c conce rn about the ri sk of lea ks needs to be ad dres se d at a n earl y stage by poi ntin g to the p re s e nt s afe storage of m ill i ons of tons of CO 2 and the ela b orat ion of des ignated reg ulatory re gim es. Ad diti ona l ly, is s ue s of short and lon g-te rm lia bil ity need to b e di sc u ss ed and s ettled. M in eral i z at i on/adsor pti on of C O 2 in porous and t her
m al ly stab le str uct ure s ( s i l i cates , s ha l e , and salt) is sti l l spec ul ati ve a n d at the conce ptu al stage ; however, thi s storage m ethod m ay have great promise

. Re s ea rc h, deve l opme nt and de monstration (RD & D) : Th e mo st p re ssin g a ims for RD&D are to re d uce t h e p re se n t co st of 5 0

– 1 0 0 US$/tCO 2 

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( Fig ure 3) by at l east 50 %, e n ha n ce the integration of C CS i n p ower p la n t d e si gn s, i ncrease capture eff ici en cy, upsize i nstall atio n s to d e monstrati on and com me rci al scales , a nd ach ieve te ch nical feasi bi l
ity, op erati ona l rel iab ility, safety, le ak preventi on, com me rci al viabi li ty an d p u bli c acce ptan ce. In view of th e in cre ase in emissi on s, R D&D mu st be accel
erat ed. At th is stage , d iffe re n t a p p ro aches are be in g d eve lop ed , an d p rio ritizi ng on e approach ove r anoth er is nei the r po ssib le n o r desirable. Rath er, th e near-t erm o bje ctive i s to achieve a di
versif ie d portfol io of adva nce d te chnologi es. The lo ng -t er m visio n i s to op e rate ne a r-zero emi ssion mu lt i- prod uct power/ch emi cal p la nts. At prese nt , some 11 0 RD &D p roje ct s are underw ay wo rl dw i de. They inclu d e the U.S. Fu tureGen a nd EU -H ypo ge n p roj ects ( both a lso p ro ducing hydro ge n as a chem ical fe e d sto ck o r tra nsportati on f ue l ), th e C an ad a-C lea n Powe r Co ali ti on and programs in Aust ra li a, Ger ma ny (Co o rete c), Un i t ed Kingdom, No rw ay, Fran ce, I ta ly, Ja p an an d others (see An nex B)

. In ter nati on al coop erati on a im s at information ex cha n ge a nd coordin atio n th rou g h the Carbon Se
qu estrat io n Lead ersh ip Fo ru m, IEA Working Party on Fossi l Fue ls, E U Fra mework Pro gram mes for Re sea rch an d Techn o log ica l Develo pment, Inter
gove r nm ent al P ane l on Climate Ch ange (IPCC ), WE C Cl ea ner Foss il Fue l Systems Commi ttee and ot hers. In dust ry involve me nt in th e se efforts is es sen ti a l

. I n the Un ited State s, i nd ustry funds about on e -t h ird of t h e co st of sixty re se a rch projects, wh ich su p p le me n ts US $2 0 0 m illi on expe nditure by th e fe d e ra l g over nm e n t

. The co mp let io n of seve ra l l a rg e r- scale demonstra
ti on p la n ts (2 5 0 MW o r la rg e r) by 20 15 is critical in orde r fo r CCS to g a i n ma rket sh a re and be come wid e ly de p loye d i n t h e 2 0 2 0

– 2 0 3 0 t i mef ra m e
. FURTHER READING : Workshop in Erice: James Ekmann; Jacek Podkanski; David Sevier; Olav Kaarstad; Klaus Lackner; Suzanne Hurter; Workshop in Neptun: Ionel Illie; Henrik Noppe
nau; Robert Gentile; Gurgen Olkhovsky; Workshop in Tallinn: M. Uus; Workshop in Moscow: A. Tumanovsky, A. Silin, J. Topper, R. Gentile, P. Casero, A. Nakanishi; further sources: IEA Prospects of carbon capture and storage, Paris 2004, p. 13

– 21, 55; John Topper, Colin Henderson

– IEA Clean Coal Centre: Advanced technologies towards zero emissions from coal-fired plant and their introduction in EU member States; lecture given at the International Conference on Policy and strategy of sus tainable energy development for central and eastern European countries until 2030, Warsaw, 22/23 November 2005; for stor
age risks and remedies, see: Wolfgang Heidug, Geologische CO 2 -Speicherung als Beitrag zum Klimaschutz: Potenzial, Sicherheit, Wirtschaftlichkeit, in Erdöl Erdgas Kohle 123 Jahrgang, Heft 1 (for English: www.dgmk.de) The U. S

. D ep a rt me n t of E ne rg y (USDOE) has set a g o a l to d evel op by 20 1 2 fo ssil f u e l conversion syste ms t h at offe r 9 0 % CO 2 capt u re wit h 9 9 % stor
ag e at le ss t h an a 10 % in cre ase i n t he cost of en ergy se rvice s. 

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3. Comparati ve Economic s Costs: Ele ct ri ci ty p rod uce d by g ene rating plan ts eq uip pe d wi th carb on capt ure an d sto rage te chno l
og y is ce rtai n to be m ore expe nsi ve t han electricity pro duced from coal -f ired power pl an ts to day

. T his rea lity ap pl i es re gardle ss of w het her existing o r new bu ild p lan ts are outf itted w it h t hes e techno lo gies. At pre sen t, IEA (20 04) esti mates t he co sts of CCS to ran ge f ro m U S$5 0 to U S$1 00/t CO 2 . C CS i n c re as es cap ital cost for power p lan ts by 30 %
- 100 %, a nd ele ct ricity producti on co st by 25 %

– 1 00 %

. By 2030 , costs mi gh t fal l to US $25

–$ 50/t CO 2 (F ig

. 3 ). So me exp erts expe ct th is to repres ent an in crease to con sume rs of o ne to two cents ( U S) p e r kil owatt h our, whic h rep re sen ts a co st i ncreas e of a p proximately 10 % to 20%

. Thi s may b e m uc h l es s in an IGCC pla nt (E C) (I EA 2009)

. Co mpeti tiven ess : T h e ra ng e of uncert ainty regard
in g th e cost of d e p loy ing CCS techn olog ies ma kes co mpa ris on of competit ive nes s relat ive to other CO 2 e miss ion re d uctio n opt ion s sp ecu lative. Thi s re a lity is a facto r not o nly of t he uncert ainty of CC S co sts, b u t t he un ce rt ain ty of costs of ot her opti ons
. Figure 3, f ro m t he IEA, illu strate s th e costs of CC S dep loym ent tod ay a n d in 20 30 , w h i ch assumes dramat ic co st red u cti on s. The cur re nt range of costs as we ll as t h e ra ng e in 20 3 0 is signi fi cant. Co sts of CCS d ep loymen t are oft en compared to costs of new re newa ble or n u cle ar g eneration. Wi de rang es of t h e expe cted cost s of all these op t io ns h ave b e e n d eve lo p ed by exp e rts (see Table 1 ). Not su r p risin g ly, at t h e low e n d of the range for CCS co sts a n d t h e mid d le to h ig h end of the range for t h e a l t e rn at ive s, C CS l oo ks ve ry competitive. Howeve r, at t h e h ig h e n d of t h e CC S cost range a nd t h e low e n d of t he a lt e rn at i ve range, CCS lo o ks ve ry exp e n si ve
. E ffo rt s to d rive d own t h e cost s of all of these tech
n ol og ie s a re u n d e rway, a n d t h e success of these e ffo rt s will d et e rmin e w hi ch t e ch no logies are most q ui ckly an d wid e ly d ep loye d

. Th e reality is that the wo rld will n e e d to u t i lize al l ava il ab le technologies to t h e ir maximu m e co n o mi c p ot e ntial to reduce e missio n s an d , u lt imat e l y, co nce n t rations of CO 2 in t he at mo sp h e re to leve ls scie n t ist s predict to be su sta in a b le

. CCS co mp et it ive n e ss will b e in fl ue nced by the p roximity of so u rce s to si n ks a nd other local cir
cu mst an ce s. Ad d it io n a l l y, p o licy ch oices that favor o ne t e ch n o l o g y ove r ot h ers w ill h ave a huge bear
in g o n t h e e co no mi cs of CCS

. C ur rently CCS is n ot affo rd e d th e b en e f it s t h at re newables receive u nd e r so me in t e rn at io n al ag re e ments. P er ha p s mo st i mp o rt a n t , as n ote d earlier, the most e con o mic a n d co mp et it i ve opt io n s to improve en e rg y e ff icie n cy are to re d u ce CO 2 emissions from p ower g e n e rat i on , p et ro le u m p ro d uction, refining, a uto mo b ile s a nd in d u str ia l ap p lication. 

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Reve nues: Most pro spe ctive CC S ap plic ations, for exa mp le de ploym en t of tech no lo gi es for uti li zation wi th a l arge coal f ired powe r pl an t, represent costs to th e pl ant owner - both ca pi ta l co sts an d operat
in g and m ai nte nance co sts. Howeve r, some ci rcum sta nces re pres en t reve n u e o p portuni ti es that may red uce net expe n ditu re s o r p erhaps in select circum sta nces cove r the tota l cost of CC S deploy
me nt

. For exa mpl e, i f th e co al p la nt location is in proxi mi ty to oi l fi elds, CO 2 cou ld be sold to t h e oi l fi el d ope rator for us e in en ha n ced oil recovery. So me est im at es of the valu e of CO 2 in t h is a pp li ca ti on are US $5 5/+ CO 2 (I E A) , wh ile ot h ers ran g e hi gh er, US $4 0-20 0/+ CO 2 ( Z. K h at ib ). Oth e r i n du strial us es of CO 2 ex ist an d fu t ure ap p li
cati o ns a re likely to develo p
. F ut ure bu sin ess op po rt un i ti e s may inclu de ma n agin g CCS a pplicat io ns for ot h ers, such as h yd roge n p rod uctio n, fu el ce ll /b attery applic ation s, e miss ion tradin g a nd C O 2 sto rag e
. In de pl oyi ng t echno log ie s to re du ce sulfur and ni
trog en em issi ons, rese a rche rs a nd technology de
vel op ers fo und w ays to ma ke u sefu l p roducts by captur i ng the se p ollu tan ts at coa l pl ants rathe r than pl aci ng th ese waste s i n la nd fills. It is highl y l ikely th at th e wor ld ʼs scie n ti sts wi ll deve lop uses for carbo n n ot cur re ntl y en visio ne d , in clu di ng storage as a sol id

. Exte rnali ti es: Si mila r to mo st ad vanced technolo
gi es, C CS w ill offer so ciety b en efits not easil y qu a n t if ia bl e. P er ha p s t he mo st sig n i f i ca nt is the con t rib u t io n to t he g lo b al e co n o my by maintaining th e via b ility of co a l as a n o pt io n fo r power genera ti on a n d in d u st ria l a p p l i cat io n s. C oalʼ s vi ability rep re sen t s n ot o n ly a low- co st f u el su p ply, b ut also a cor re spo n d in g n u mb e r of g e n eral ly hi gh
- income jo bs (a lt h o u gh t h is is n ot u ni versal ). For countries wit h co a l re so u rce s a n d t h o se imp o rting from sta
bl e su p p lie rs, coa l u t ilizat io n offe rs energy security val ue as we ll. In so m e circu mst a n ces CCS will re du ce atm osp h e r ic p o llu t a n t s su ch as NOx , SO 2 an d me rcu ry. Re sul ti ng imp rove me n ts are thus ach ieve d in a ir q u a lity, re d u ce d ne g ative health ef
fe ct s, imp rove d so il fe rt i lity, a nd so on
. By preservin g t h e co a l o pti on , CC S de p loyme n t contributes di re ctl y to t he t h re e p rim ary W EC g oals of accessi
bi lity, affo rd ab il ity a n d acce pt a bi lity. Invest men ts : In vestm en t nee ds fo r the f irst gene rati on of new hi gh ly effi ci ent coal
-fi red p ower plants of abo ut 250 MW w i th C C S ( b ased on su per-crit ical steam cycl es o r IGC C ) are est im ated at betwee n US $50 0 m i l l io n an d $ 1 b i ll i on each. At l east ten demon
strati on p l ants wi l l be neede d by 2015 to develop t he techn ol ogy a nd br i ng dow n co sts to ach ieve a signif
icant m ar ket pen etrati on by 20 30 ( IEA 2004). E quip
pi ng 25 0 GW of new IG CC p la nts i n the O ECD re gi on du ri ng the next t hi rty ye ars w i th CCS would in crease i n vest m en ts by 20 %
- 25 % or US $350

- $440 bi l l i on. For 50 0 GW of com bi n ed cycle gas tu rbi ne ( C C GT) pl ants , the i n cre m enta l cost wo uld be US $200

- $ 250 bi l l i on. Thi s wo ul d i ncreas e invest
me nts i n p ower gen erati on i n the O ECD area by 20 %
- 25 % ( IEA W EI O 200 3, p. 417)

. 

# 9 TAB LE 1 : Co mpa riso n of C O 2 a bat em en t co st s for a ra n g e of re newables, fo ssil f ue l an d n u cle a r g en e rat io n te chnolog i e s in 2010
Tech nolo gy A b ate men t cost re lative to co al (US $/tC) , low to h ig h A b ate me nt co st re lative to n atu ra l g as (US $/tC), low to h ig h onshore wi nd offshore wind energy crops nuclear wave CCS ret rofit on IG CC CCS on new IGCC CCS ret rofit on coa l CCS on new coal -6 3 to 1 2 5 11 to 2 8 7 10 8 to 2 0 0

44 to 8 0 27 7 to 5 9 7

24 to 4 5 54 to 1 0 1 66 to 1 2 2 92 to 2 2 1 -6 1 to 2 9 1 2 65 to 5 9 2 2 40 to 4 4 7 8 9 to 1 6 4 5 72 to 116 8 1 01 to 1 8 8 1 51 to 2 8 2 1 95 to 3 6 2 2 43 to 5 6 6 Source: World Coal Institute, ECOAL, July 2005, p. 6, similar: Euracoal, Coal industry across Europe 2005, p. 7

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To att ract p rivat e se cto r in vestors o r gove r n m en t fi
nan cing i n t hi s d e mo n strat i on ph ase, th ere should be no pol icy di scrimin ati on ag ai nst fo ssil fu els and no pol icy un ce rt ain ty re g a rdi ng in vestment returns, pl anni ng h or izo n s an d p o st- de com missioning liabil
it ie s. Mar ket d rive rs an d in ce ntive s for CCS deploy
ment need to be in p lace. To d ay, t h ese prereq uisit e s a re large ly not pre se nt and there are a n umbe r of co mme rcia l, tech ni cal , legal and politi
cal uncert ain t ie s related to futu re d e ployment of CC S. Whil e t he re may a lre ad y be a number of dem onst rati on pla n t s by 2 0 15 or so , the real com mercial t ake -off d e p en ds o n th e co mmerci al val ue of CC S

– an d eve ntu all y o n i nce nt ives, if that market val ue is to o low.
FURTHER READING : Workshop in Erice: Jacek Podkanski; Elena Nekhaev; Michel Lokolo; Workshop in Neptun: Michael Moore; Zara Khatib; further sources: IEA, Prospects for CO 2 capture and storage, Paris 2004, p. 20; IEA, World Energy Out
look 2006, p. 75; Euracoal: Coal industry across Europe 2005, p. 6, 7; Barry Worthington: Funding for clean coal technologies (www.usea.org); for costs of storage, see also Wolfgang Heidug, op. cit.; on costs and health benefits: European Commission Staff working document on Sustainable power generation from fossil fuels: aiming for near-zero emissions from coal after 2020, SEC(2006) 1722, p. 39-42; IPCC, Special Report on Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage, 2005, p. 358; IEA World Energy Investment Outlook 2003, fig. 8.1 4
. DE P LO Y M E N T The dri ve rs : Th e d e p loyme nt of CCS depends on d em on st rat in g t h e te ch n o lo gy o n a large scale , its co mp et it ive n e ss wit h ot h e r mit ig ation options, the p ol icy an d le g al /reg u lato ry fram ewo rk (see Chap
t ers 7 a n d 8 ) , execu t ive a nd b o a rd level manage me n t su p p o rt , a n d ad e qu at e t i m e to demonstrate in t eg rat e d syst e m s. A p p l i ca b le in p rinciple to all majo r fossi l fu e l-co n su min g secto rs and emitters, CCS is mo st l ike ly to b e f irst d e p loyed in coal- and n at u ra l g as-b ase d p ower g e n e rati on with high CO 2 co nce n t rat io n in t h e wast e or f lu e gas in developed co un t rie s a n d in n ew facil it ie s
. Mo del calculations su gg e st t h at CCS syste ms wi ll b egin to be de
p loyed sig n if ica n tl y w he n t he p rice for CO 2 reaches a pp roxim at e ly US $ 2 5 to 30/ t CO 2 (IPPC), provided CCS co sts h ave b e e n b ro u g h t d own to at least this leve l. No n ma rket
- b ase d p o l icie s also could accel
e rate CCS d e p l oym e n t s as n ot e d in Chapter 2. The potent ia l : Th e pot e n ti al fo r CCS deployment co ul d b e sig n i f i can t

. For e n t ire e ne rgy systems, CCS d ep loyme n t may b e le ss sig nificant, limited by syst em rep lace me n t cycl e a n d p o ssibly competition b etwe e n mit ig at i o n o pti on s. The I EA (2004) sug g est s t h at by 2 0 5 0 , a n d assu min g a carbon penalty o r car bo n p rice of $ 5 0/ t CO 2 , C CS could reduce tot a l g lo b a l e n e rg y-re lat e d CO 2 e missions by half 

# 1 0

CCS adds 20 to 25 % Source: IEA WEIO, op. cit., p. 419 

### C C S a d d s 2 0 to 2 5 % S ourc e : IEA E W I O op ci t p 4 

### %

1 9 S ourc e : IEA E W I O , op

. ci t

. , p

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com pa re d to a scena rio with ou t su ch a pe nal ty (C ha pt er 6)

. If one lo oke d o nl y at coal-rel ated em issi on s i nst ead of tota l em issio ns, the percent
ag e red uct ion cou ld be mu ch h igh e r. Unless de
pl oym en t i s accel erate d , it wil l ta ke decades to ach ieve w i despread de p loym en t of CCS. The go od news is th at m ost en e rgy facilities operat i n g in 2 000 w il l be reti re d o r subje ct to m ajor modi fi ca ti on by 20 50. I n t he sh o rt term , th ere is t he r isk th at ou t of the 1 , 391 GW n ew coa l pl a nts forecast wo rl dw i de by 2020 , al most 8 6 % will l ikel y be bui lt wi th co nven ti onal tech n olo g y ( Haw kins)

. These un it s w il l li kel y st il l b e o pe rating in 2 050. Coa l -based p ower gene rat io n: F igu re 5 illu strates th e co mb ine d effe ct of CC S and effi ciency imp rove me nts on CO 2 em iss i ons from gl oba l coa l- based powe r p la nts. Th ese generate ab out 80% of t he 18 Gt CO 2 of a ll en erg y- related CO 2 em is si on s i n 20 5 0. In th is sce na rio , n et eff ic i ency gai ns (2 2%) a nd CC S de p loym en t (3 0%) wou ld re duce C O 2 em is s i ons from co al- based power g enerati on in 205 0 f ro m ab o ut 1 4 .4 G tCO 2 to 7. 5 G tC O 2 . However, e mi s sio ns re ma in sig nifi can tl y above p res ent l eve ls

. The re i s an ad dit io na l poten tia l fo r reducing CO 2 em issi on s f rom f urth e r ad van ce s i n combustion ef
fi cie ncy, f ast er CC S tech no lo gy d evelopm ent, earli er i nt er nati onal dep loymen t, ag gre ssive plant mo de rn izati on, i mproved CCS con version effi
cie ncy, f aste r mar ket p en etratio n , and co- com bus
ti on of b io mass and co al. By co n trast, CO 2 ab ate me nt wo uld be l ess if the rel ative cost reduc
ti on s of co a l co m b u sti on a n d CC S f all below expec tat io n s, w hi ch mi gh t re su lt f ro m d e lays in R D&D. In d e e d, mo re m ay ne e d to b e d o n e
. Depending on th e in t er nat io n a l co n se n su s of wh at is “sustain
ab le , ” th e a mo u n t of u n a b at e d C O 2 em issio n s in th is sce n a rio (7 .5 G t CO 2 ) or p a rt s t he re of could be con sid e re d un acce pt a b le f ro m a cli mate change mit ig ati on p o licy p oi nt of vi ew. Natura l ga s -ba s ed powe r gene ration: Natural gas h as a co m p eti ti ve ad va nt ag e over coal in re ga rd to C O 2 em issio n s. Howeve r, rel ia nce on im
po rt e d nat u ra l g as in cre ase s en e rg y secu r ity con ce rn s a nd o n ly p a rt i a l l y re d u ce s climate change con ce rn s, in clu di ng t h e fo llowin g :  C O 2 emi ssio ns d u rin g com bu st io n a re lower (bu t t he re a re p ot e n ti al m et h a n e e missions up st re a m).  C o m b u st io n eff icie n cie s a re h igher, even tak
ing in to acco u n t e ff ici e n cy l osse s d u ring cap tu re
.  C C S i s a lre ad y u sed fo r nat u ra l gas produc
tio n : CO 2 is se p a rat ed f ro m p ro d u ce d natural gas st re am s a n d re i nje ct e d in un d e rground fo rmat io n s fo r p e rma n e n t sto rage
. Presently a si gn if ica n t CO 2 sto rag e o p e rat i o n t a ke s place in t h e N orwe gi an n at u ra l g as fi el d S leipner. Sw itchi ng f ro m co al to n at u ra l g as f uel , reg ardless of size , wo ul d co n t in ue to co n t rib u t e to the global mit ig ati on of e n e rg y-re lat e d e missi o ns. Local ex 

# 1 1

Figure 5 assumes a doubling of global coal demand through 2050. This corresponds to an annual growth rate of 1.4%, compared with the historical rate of 2%. Coal use in power generation and related emissions between 2000 and 2050 are estimated to grow faster, by 1.8%/year. Average world combustion efficiency for coal plants is assumed to rise from 32% at present to the present state of the art in 2050: 43%. CCS conversion losses are assumed to decline to 4 percentage points, which limits efficiency growth to 39% in 2050 (IEA 2004). The market penetration of CCS by 2050 is estimated at 30% (IEA 2004). 2007 CCS booklet text pages:WEC booklet 10/28/07 9:57 PM Page 11Carbon Capture and Storage: a WEC “Interim Balance” World Energy Council 2007

per ien ces in t h e Un ite d Kin g d om , wh ere li beral iza
ti on of el ect ricity ma rkets h as re sul ted in a consid
erable ex pa nsi o n of n atural g as u se in power gen erat ion , sh ow a co rre spo ndi ng ly signi fi cant re duct io n i n CO 2 e missio ns. Howeve r, i n th e Un it e d States, cli mat e po licy mu st b e l in ked with increased access to d o mest ic re se rve s that are cur rently off li mi t to prod u cti on
. This trend , even if atten u ate d by r i sing gas pri ces and a growin g p r i ce comp eti ti ven e ss of coal, will be an im porta nt dr iver fo r a cle a ner fossil energy sys tem g loball y, e spe cia lly b efo re CC S is wi dely avail
abl e for de pl oyme n t

. IEA proje cts t hat global nat ural gas con su mptio n w ill in cre ase by 6 8% dur
in g 2 004
- 2 0 30 (coa l: 60 %) ( 200 6)

. This translates in to a proje ct ed f aste r growth of g as-based power gen erat ion (3. 2 %/ yea r) co mpa re d w ith coal- based pl ant s ( 2. 9%/ ye ar)

. However, coa l would remain fi rst i n t erms of ca p acity (3 3%) co m p a re d with gas (3 1%) and o il ( 5 % ). This sce nar io d oes not see CC S pl ayin g a n ota b le ro le be fore 2030 (IE A)

. By cont rast , a US $5 0/t CO 2 pe na lty o r ca rb o n pr ice wo uld st im ulat e CC S p en et ratio n a nd thus coal combu stio n. I n t h is case , by 205 0, 69 % of the ca paci ty of all p ower p la nts e qu ip pe d wi th CCS would be on coa l un it s, 2 3 % o n g as u n it s a nd 8% on dedi
cate d b iomass (I EA 20 04 )

. Oi l- based powe r gene rat ion: I n 2 004, oi l generate d 7 % of wo rld el ectrici ty g en e rati on and is ex pect ed to ge ne rat e 3 % in 2 03 0 ( IE A 2006). In abso lut e t e rms, th e d e clin e is less impressive

– f ro m 11 6 1 m to e in 2 00 4 to 9 4 0 m toe in 2030. There a re , h oweve r, ma n y co un t rie s wh e re oil use is still imp o rt a nt

. Fo r exa mp le in Mexico oil still accounts for 4 0 % of fo ssil f u el p owe r g e ne ration, down from 9 0% so me t ime ag o
. G e n e ra lly sp eaking, in most co un t rie s o il p owe r pl an t s a re t h e oldest and least e ff ici en t

. The ir m ai n co mp et ito r i s natural gas. S om e n at u ra l g as u ni ts h ave d u a l-fuel capability. A lso , so me sma ll g e n e rato rs u se g asoline, diesel o r kerose n e
. Th e se offe r no CCS o ptions and the o nl y cl imat e mi ti gat io n strat e g y is to not use them. Ma na geme nt i s s ue s : E xp e rie n ce from companies le adi ng in e missio n con t ro l su g g e sts that CSS must b e a n in t e g rat e d p a rt of me d iu m- a nd long-term G HG e mi ssio n co n t ro l st rat e g ie s. Some companies se e CC S as a st e p on t h e ro ad toward a hydrogen e con o my. S u ch a n a p p ro ach re q u ires strong in
vo lve me nt at t h e cen t ra l ma n age ment level and the in t eg rat io n of C CS i n to co rp o rat e b usiness plans

. Co o pe rat io n wit h ot h e r sta ke h o ld ers , through na t io na l a n d i n t e rn at io na l p a rt n ershi ps and conven t io ns , is a not h e r f acet of ma n ag e ment involvement to e d u cat e t he p u bl ic an d cla rify iss ues that are po t en t ia l b a rrie rs fo r wid e spread C CS deployment. Re lat io ns wi th a u t h o rit ie s a n d p o licy makers are imp o rt a nt to ca rry t h e me ssag e t hat CCS policies sh ou ld t a ke in to acco u n t t h e p roj e ct-specific nature of CC S in st a llat io n s, b e pred ict a b le, transparent a nd co st -e ffe ct i ve ; p ro mot e R D& D ; and reduce un ce rt ai nt ie s su ch as t h e re g u lat io n of decommission
in g of in st a l lat i o n s (p o st -cl o su re l iability). 

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Ma nagem en t shou ld a lso co n sid e r business opportu ni ti es associ ate d with its CCS acti on pl ans ( E OR, em issi on t rading , hyd ro ge n , fu e l ce lls, and storage service s). R esul ts in te rms of re d uced CO 2 em is
sio ns and rei nject ion s into de p o sito ries shoul d be re corde d i n st anda rdi zed GH G e mission account
in g system s to en han ce co mp ara b ility and credi bi l
ity. A ll st rategi es to red uce gree nh o use gas em issi on s a re li kely to even tua lly b e subj ect to th ird- pa rty au dit s
. FURTHER READING : Workshop in Erice: Elena Nekhaev; David D. Hawkins; Arthur Lee; Jacek Podkanski; Workshop in Neptun: Dumitru Manea; further sources: IEA: Prospects for CO 2 capture and storage, Paris 2004; IEA: World Energy Out
look 2006, p. 258, 492, 493); IPPC Special Report on carbon dioxide capture and storage, p. 11: K. Brendow: Sustainable World coal mining and use: perspectives to 2030, lecture given at the International Conference on Policy and strategy of sus tainable energy development for central and eastern European countries until 2030, Warsaw, 22/23 November 2005; on coal CCS, see: European Commission Staff working document on Sustainable power generation from fossil fuels: aiming for nearzero emissions from coal after 2020, SEC(2006) 1722 5. Deve lopi ng Countri e s and Tra nsit ion Ec onomi e s To day, 1 .6 b ill io n of t h e wo rld ʼs 6 .2 b ill ion po pu la
tio n h ave n o acc es s t o e lect r ic i ty

. N o av a ila bili ty o f co mme rc ia l e ne rg y re su lt s i n l owe r lif e ex p ect an cy, low e r s ch oo l en ro llme n t , red u ce d e d u cat ion op po r tu n i t ie s , po o re r h ea lt h
- p a rt ic ula rly in ch ild re n, an d dirt ie r dr ink in g w ate r
. “ L ac k o f en e rg y in d evel op ing co un t rie s an d re g ion s is a pl a n et a ry e mer ge n cy” ( Wi ls on ). The di l e mma: E n fo rcin g a st ro n g carbon di scipline an d d eve lo p in g a l t e r n at ive en e rg y syste m s presup po se s a b ro ad pu b li c awa re n e ss of th e risk of cli
mate ch a ng e a nd su p po rt fo r mit ig at i o n policies. It al so re q u ire s a ca p acity at t h e g ove rnmen t and in
du st ry leve ls to co mp re h e n d issu e s, elaborate solu
ti on s a n d sh o u ld e r a co n sid erab le cost. These are hi gh h u rd le s fo r d eve l o p in g co un t rie s (see Box) an d t ra nsi ti on e co n o m i e s. Wh il e d evel oping coun tr ie s h ave not co mm itt e d t h e mse lve s to CO 2 reduc
ti on t a rg et s, t he t ra n sit io na l e co n o m ies did, but th e ir e missi on s wil l re ma in b e low t h e agreed upper lim it fo r a n u mb e r of ye a rs, d e p e nd ing on their rate of e co no mi c g rowt h

. For t h e wo rld as a w h o le , t h e p ro b le m is com po u n d ed by th e f act t h at mo st of t h e future in
cre ase s in CO 2 em issio n s w ill co me from deve lo p in g co u n t rie s. Th e ir sh a re in global CO 2 em issio n s w ill rise f ro m 3 9% in 2 0 04 to 52% in 20 3 0

. As of 2 0 1 2 , t h e ir e missio n s will exceed those of t h e in d u st ri a l ize d wo r ld

. 

# 13 2007 CCS booklet text pages:WEC booklet 10/28/07 9:57 PM Page 13Carbon Capture and Storage: a WEC “Interim Balance” World Energy Council 2007



## Fin a n cin g the dep l oyment of CCS to developing countries
From a glo ba l p ersp e cti ve of mi ti gat ing climate change , f ina n ci n g the de pl oyme n t of CCS to de
velop ing co u n t rie s is a p rio rity, d u e to the grow in g co nt rib ut io ns of th ese cou nt r ie s to global CO 2 e mi ssion s. How ca n th e d e p l oyment of CCS in deve lop in g co un trie s be fi na nced? How muc h? D uri ng 20 15 -2 030 , fossil fuel power generat io n ca p acity in th e d evel op in g countri es may increase by 59 2 GW, acco rd in g to the IEA (W EO 200 6 ) alt e rn ative sce n ar io

. These plants woul d pro d u ce a n add itio na l 1.4 Gt of CO2, whi ch corresp o n d s to 56 % of th e in crease of wor ld ene rg y- rel ate d CO2 e mi ssio ns (2.48 Gt)! Assum in g t hat de pl oyin g C CS in fo ssil-fuel powe r gen e rat io n i n the deve lop in g cou ntries wil l, as of 2 01 5 , co st 2 0 to 30 U S$/ tCO2, the tot al ad dit io na l co st of d ep loyin g CC S to mitigate the ab ove me n ti o n ed 1.4 Gt CO 2 would be US $28 to $ 42 bil li o n d uri ng 15 ye a rs. As a result, wor ld CO 2 e missio n s wou ld r ise mu ch less: from 31. 6 G t in 2 01 5 to on ly 32

. 7 Gt in 2030, in
stead of 34

. 1 G t

. Th ere is no oth er si ngle techno
lo gical opt ion t hat wou ld cu t the g rowth of global emi ssion s by mo re th an ha lf, w hi le enabling de
velop men t a nd en e rgy se cur ity. How ? Ca n t h e wo rld com mu ni ty afford to inject o n ave rag e US $ 2 to $ 3 b il lio n p e r year into tech
n ol og y t ra n sfe r? Th e co n se nsu s of opinion is ye s - t h e m o re so , if nat io n a l an d regional carbon t radi ng sch e me s we re e n co urag e d and compati
b le , cre at in g a si g n if ica n t ca rb o n p rice signal wo rld wid e , 1 a n d i f in t h e ext e nd e d EU emission t radi ng syst e m a n d in th e p ost -Kyoto process, CCS p roje cts we re e lig ib le for C DM and JI proj
e cts, wh ich is p re se n t l y n ot t h e case. In this case, t h e a b ove- me nt io n e d p u b lic funding needs co ul d b e re d u ce d

. For the ir part , the deve l op i ng coun tr ies “m ust de
vel op l ega l po l ic ies o n copy rig ht, i ntell ectual prop erty an d d i spute settle ment and prov ide new incenti ve s for pr ivate i n vestme nt” (W EC State
men t 200 7: The Energy Industry U nveil s Its Blue
pri nt for Tackl i ng C l imate C han ge , London, 2007).

1 Stern Review, The impact of climate change, Executive summary, London 2007, estimates the cost of “no action” with regard to climate change over the next two centuries at an average reduction of global per capita consumption of at least 5 to 20%, particularly in developing countries. This com pares with a cost of emission reduction consistent with stabi
lization at 550 ppm of on average 1% of GDP (p. xiii). ( http://www.hm-treasury.gov.uk/media/8AC/F7/ Executive_Summary.pdf) 

# 1 4 2007 CCS booklet text pages:WEC booklet 10/28/07 9:57 PM Page 14Carbon Capture and Storage: a WEC “Interim Balance” World Energy Council 2007

Thi s t re nd is dr iven by hi gh eco no mic and popula
ti on growth , ri sing pe r cap ita e ne rg y consum ption an d a h ig h car bon- in t e n sity of t h e fu el m ix. Thi s em ph asi zes th e f act th at a glo b al ca rbon constrai n in g pol i cy, wi tho ut th e in vo lve m en t of devel oping cou ntr i es , wi ll mi ss th e g o al of m itigating cli mate cha nge
. However, devel op in g co un tries could uti
li ze CC S on ce t hes e tech n olo g ie s a re m ature and via bl e. There wou ld be a time lag in adopting CC S in d evel op in g co untri es, bu t by 2 05 0 almost hal f of th e ca pt ure acti vity cou ld b e i n the se coun tri e s, pa rt icu la rl y C hin a an d In dia (IEA 20 04 ). Enha nced recovery of oil and ga s: The u til izati on of C CS to m it igat e climate ch a n g e wil l be easier for oi l an d g as pro duci ng cou n tri es. Th ey can reduce pa rt of t hei r ri sing CO 2 em issio ns by ca ptu ri ng CO 2 an d i nj ect ing i t in to so me o il a n d gas fi el ds. Thi s rai ses bot h wel l pro d u ctivity a nd profitabil ity, as the va lu e of CO 2 -E O R can be as h igh as US $ 40 to 20 0 t/CO 2 . Mo reover, CO 2 inject io n s co u l d l i b e rat e g as from enh ance d g as recovery ( EGR ) opera ti on s fo r re siden ti al use , L NG (li qu efied natural gas) or g as- to- l iq uids pro du ctio n
. However, at present , EO R cont ri bu tes on ly 4% o r 16 0 mi llion tons of oil eq ui val ent to wor ld oi l pro d uctio n, of which 7% or 11 m il l io n tons of oil e q uiva le nt is via C O 2 inje cti on (b ut m ore i n t he Unite d State s) (Z. Khatib)

. The M id dl e E ast cou ld se e a favo ra ble develop
me nt as gas f la rin g can be sign ifica ntly reduced. An d w hi l e u nrel at ed to C CS, it re du ces greenhouse gas em i ssio ns of meth a ne
. Mo re over, fossil fuel
base d el ect ri city g e n e rat i o n d u rin g 2004
- 2030 is exp e ct e d to in cre ase by 15 0 %, wh ile CO 2 em is
sio ns wo u ld rise by o n ly 1 0 8 %. Th is difference re fl ect s t h e exp e ctat io n th at C O 2 inje cti on s wil l play a grow in g ro le

. S eve ra l fe asi b i lity st u d ies on CO 2 - EO R a re u nd e rway in Du b a i , A b u D habi, Qatar and Li bya , wit h f irst d e mo n strat io n p la nt s expected to
wa rd 2 0 1 5

. A re g i o n a l CO 2 gr id cove rin g Q atar, the Un it ed A ra b E mi rate s, S a u d i A ra b i a and Bahrain is on t h e d rawin g b o a rd s fo r op e rat io n around 2020. CO 2 -E OR o r E G R a re n ot pr im a r ily d riven by con cer ns a b o ut clim at e ch a n g e bu t by re source con strai nt s. Th is sho u ld n ot d e me an t h e i r role i n att e n uat in g th e g rowt h of C O 2 em issio n s. Mo re ove r, E OR/E G R ca n h e lp b ui ld a CCS capac ity in te rm s of skills a n d i nf rast ru ct u re to ultimatel y ad
dress t h e i ssue of ca pt u rin g C O 2 from fo ssil fuel pl an t s in la rg e q u a n t i t i e s a n d sto rin g it on a longte rm b asis. E vol vin g f ro m E O R/ EG R to CCS with lo ng -t e rm sto rag e re q u ire s d eve lo p i ng countries an d e con o mie s in t ra n si t i o n to d e sig n a n approach base d fi rst o n ra i sin g th e e ff ici en cy of power generat io n a nd , seco n d , p re p a r in g for C CS deployment. It is in t h e in t e re st of el ect ri c u t ili ti es and hydrocar
bo n p ro du ce rs to t a ke a le ad in d e p loying C CS. Effi ci e ncy f irst: R a i sin g t h e com bu stion and plant eff icie n cy of t h e r ma l p owe r g e n e rati on offers a sig n if ica n t p ot e nt ia l fo r savin gs of f uel, emissions an d co st. Th is is t r u e t h e wor ld ove r, b ut particularly wit h reg a rd to co a l -b ase d p owe r g eneration in de
vel op in g co un t rie s, wh e re co a l is 3 6 %, oil 15% and 

# 15 2007 CCS booklet text pages:WEC booklet 10/28/07 9:57 PM Page 15Carbon Capture and Storage: a WEC “Interim Balance” World Energy Council 2007

nat ural gas 21 % of in stall e d ge ne rat ing capacities (2 004)

. At p re se nt, ave rage co al-b as ed powe r ge neratio n eff icie n cy in d eve lop ing coun tries is per haps at best 28 % (lowe r rates a re quote d), while st ate
- of
-th e - art ge n erat ing eff icie nc ies a re 4 2% to 45 % ( F i g. 6)

. Ra isin g the effic iency in deve lopin g count rie s to pre se n t state of th e a rt durin g the next two o r t hree de cad es would imp ly a re du ct ion of s peci fi c C O 2 em issio n s f rom co al-base d powe r stati ons by perha p s 40 %

– 4 5 % (ta kin g into accou nt C CS conversi on lo sses). T his wo uld be a sig nifican t co ntri but ion to mit ig ating c limate c ha ng e a nd , in fact , t he s i ng l e most co st-effe ct ive s upp ly-s ide mit ig ati on optio n. CC S next ste ps : At t h e sa me ti m e , and w ith the strong sup p ort of d eve lo pe d n ati on s and t he inter
nat io nal C CS co mmu n ity, 2 deve lo pi ng co u n t ri e s and t ran sit io n al e co n o mie s co u ld a nd shou l d pre pare the mse lve s fo r the CCS opt i o n, by :  D eve lo pin g a knowle d ge a n d t echnology base as a fo un dat io n for te ch n o lo gy tran sfer ;  Joi nin g in t ern ati on al C CS n etworks an d part
nershi ps;  P romot ing a n ew i nte rnatio na l clean technol
ogy f u nd ;  Creat in g re gi on al a lli an ces a nd energy re search a nd in vest me nt fund s;  S e eki ng f i n a n ci a l assist a n ce for

– E n e rg y a nd CCS RD& D;

–

– S t u d yin g t h e co n ce pt of “applied” CCS fo r d eve lo pi ng co u n t r i e s;

– B r i n g i n g d own t h e cost of clean electric
ity fo r t h e p o o re st of th e poor in order to ma ke “l ess cle a n re sou rces, ” e.g. animal du n g , l ess att racti ve ;  De sig n in g p owe r syst e m s a n d new plants so as to f acilit at e t h e l at e r ret rof it with CCS (“cap
t u re -re ady” );  Ma p p in g u n d e rg ro u n d sto rag e capacities;  P a rt icip ati ng in t h e li ce n sin g and manufacture of l ow -co st co mp o n e n t s for C CS equipment;  Co n sid e rin g j oi nt ve n t u re s in CCS;  P ro mot in g CD M (cle a n d eve l opment mecha
n isms), I B RD a nd G E F ( Gl o b a l Environmental Facility) f u n di ng fo r C CS i n ve stments and e missio n t radi ng ;  P rot ect in g i n t el le ct u a l p ro p erty and trade se cret s, i n p a rt icu la r t h ro u g h no ndisclosure ag re em en t s;  U nderta ki ng st udi es of pub li c attitud es towa rd C C S an d addres s i ng co ncer ns refer r in g to dif
feren t tec hnol ogi es of s equestrat i on, alternative use of u nd ergroun d sto rage ( sto rage of natu ra l gas , etc .) , the r is k of CO 2 l eakage f ro m under
groun d sto rage, a nd t h e ava il ab il i ty of laws a nd regul at i o ns to secu re heal th a nd s afety; 

# 1 6

2 It will be recalled (see Preface) that the WEC CFFS Committee held workshops in Colombo and Jordan and is considering an event in Africa. 2007 CCS booklet text pages:WEC booklet 10/28/07 9:57 PM Page 16Carbon Capture and Storage: a WEC “Interim Balance” World Energy Council 2007

 St re ssing t he poten tia l of CCS as an i mporta nt opti on alo ng with othe rs for e con omic de
vel op men t and red uce d e n erg y poverty. The m essage : what is ne e de d is a “low carbon wor ld ” or even b etter, a “low em issio ns worl d, ” an d not a “ low fo ssil fu el wo rld

. ”

FURTHER READING : Workshop in Erice: Barbara McKee; Hisham Al-Khatib; F. Zancan; Hilal Raza; Richard Wilson; Elena Nekhaev; Workshop in Tallinn: Anita Kvesko; K. Brendow; fur
ther sources: WEC: Sustainable global energy development

– the case of coal, London 2004, p. 8; IEA, World Energy Outlook 2006, p. 81; Zara Khatib: Opportunities for CCS in the MENA re gion; role of WEC in accelerating its development and imple
mentation; lecture given at the CFFS meeting held in London on 12. 12. 2006; Georg Rosenbauer, in WEC: The World Energy Book, issue 3; IEA, World Energy Outlook 2006, p. 513 6. Pe rspe cti ves Sy nthe sis : Projecti on s of prese nt (an d al ternati ve scen ar io s) poli cies su g ge st th at CCS wil l play a sig ni fi can t g loba l, clim ate -re leva n t role after 20 20

. It s m ar ket pen etratio n d e pe nd s on adequate tech
no lo gy d em onst ratio n , on the pri ce fo r car b on (or in cen ti ves) exce edi ng th e co st of CCS systems, an d o n the co st of oth e r mitig atio n o ptions. The be nchm ar k i s p rese ntly e sti mate d at around U S$25 to 30/t CO 2 (€ /t 19

– 23 ). Th is imp lie s that p re sent CC S cost s m ust be b ro ug h t d ow n by half. The greater t he di fference betwe en CCS cost and carbo n p ri ces, t he mo re sig n ifican t th e role of CC S be
com es. I ts maxi mu m effe ct by 2 05 0 is estimated at arou nd 50 % of wor ld e ne rg y-re late d C O 2 em is
sio ns (I E A 2 0 0 4 ). Th is is t h e m in imu m goal of the EU

. Mo re co u ld b e att a in e d fo r co a l-base d CCS (9 2% in t h e E u ro p ea n Un io n ) (Fig

. 7). A 50% re du ct io n wo ul d st a b ilize g l o b a l e n e rg y-related CO 2 em issio n s a n d late r, co n ce n t rat io ns, while allowing a 2 ° C in cre ase in g lo b a l t e mp e ratu res. However imp o rt an t su ch a re d uct i o n of CO 2 em issio n s may be , climat e mit ig ati on me asu re s sh o uld al so cover th e ot h e r g re e nh o u se g ase s, p a rt i cularly methane an d sh ou ld b e p o rtfo lio s of va rio u s mitigat i o n me asu re s, of wh ich CCS wo u ld b e an i mportant

– bu t n ot a l o n e su ff icie n t

– co mp on e n t. Intergovern men tal P ane l o n C l i mate Ch ange: Mo del cal c u l ati ons e sti m ate t he economic cu m u la
ti ve redu cti on p otent ia l of C C S du ri ng 2000
- 210 0 at between 220 and 2 2 00 G tC O 2 com pare d to c u m ul ati ve e m i ssi on s of 3000 Gt. T he ran ge of reduct io n (7% to 73 % ) refl ects th e di ffer i ng str i ngency of t he assum ed m i t i g ati on p ol ic ie s, w i th 5 0% be in g the lo ng-ter m goa l for 2 05 0. T he hi gh er estimate imp lies stabi l i zat i on of C O 2 concen trat i ons at arou nd 45 0 ppm
. IP CC s uggests th at C C S systems will begin to dep l oy si gn i fi cant ly w hen t he pr i ce for CO 2 reache s app rox i m ate ly U S$25 to 3 0/ tC O 2 . In m ost of i ts sce nar i os, t h e rol e of C C S i nc reas e s over time. CCS wo ul d b e a low- cost re d u ct i o n opti on account
in g fo r 1 5 %
- 8 5 % of a l east -co st mi tigati o n strat
eg y; CCS is expe ct e d to re d uce t h e costs of sta b ili zin g CO 2 con ce n t rati on s by 30 % or m ore (se e a lso Fig

. 3 a n d Ta b le 1)

. 

# 17

Fig. 7: Explanations and sources: 2020: refers to OECD region = world, IPCC Special Report on carbon dioxide capture and stor
age, 2005, p. 358; 2030 and 2050, low: reduction of global energy-related emissions compared with a base line without CCS (IEA WEO 2006, p. 258 and IEA 2004, p. 101); 2030 and 2050, high: reduction of emissions from EU coal power plants compared with 2005 (EC Sustainable power generation from fossil fuels, SEC (2006) 1722, p. 71); 2100: average 2000-2100 reduction of global energy-related emissions compared with a baseline without CCS (IPPC 2005, op. cit., p. 350, 354) 2007 CCS booklet text pages:WEC booklet 10/28/07 9:57 PM Page 17Carbon Capture and Storage: a WEC “Interim Balance” World Energy Council 2007

Internati ona l Ene rgy Agency : I E A foresees no not abl e co nt ri bu t io n of CCS in it s reference and al
ter nat ive sce n ari os fo r 2 0 30

. H oweve r, in its more str inge nt “ Beyo nd th e Alter native P olicy Scenar io” (BAP S) , IE A expl ore s the con dit io ns for CC S to br ing gl oba l e n e rg y-re late d CO 2 e mi ssio ns in 20 3 0 (2 6.1 G t) down to th e 2 0 04 leve l. In this case, IEA att ri but es to C CS p ro pe r (exclud i n g effi ciency gai ns) a savi ng s poten tia l i n p ower g eneration of 2 Gt CO 2 or 11 % of g lob a l emi ssion s from p ower and heat pla nt s ( IE A 2 0 06 ). Howeve r, t hi s excludes gai ns of 1 G t d ue to e fficie ncy im provements in power pl ant s. For i nd u stry, BAPS p rojects a reduc
ti on of 1 G t d ue to CCS a nd effi cie ncy g ains. As CC S wo uld b e i nt ro du ce d o nly in hi ghly efficient fa
cil it ies, th e co mbi ne d e ffe ct s of e ff ici ency gains and CC S in p owe r g en eratio n a nd in du stry could be es ti mat ed at a bo ut 4 Gt in 2 0 30 , or 1 0% of gl obal en ergy-relate d e missi on s comp a re d to the alternative and refe re n ce sce n a rio s (IE A 20 06 ). The reduct io n in 2 0 3 0 co uld be 4. 6 Gt or 18% of the BAP S sce na rio in case of a CO 2 e mi ssio n pen alty or ma rket p rice of $ 50/tC O 2 . W it h t h i s latt er as sumptio n a nd i n co mp ar ison wit h a scenario wi th out su ch p en al ty, CCS co uld re duce emis sions in 20 50 by ab ou t 27 to 33 GtC O 2 o r 50 %, d ow n ro ughl y to t h e level of 20 00 , th e re by stabili zing em issio ns an d co nce n tratio ns (at 5 50 ppm). This is dee med to be th e m axim um o bta in able from CCS for g loba l e ne rg y-re late d e missi on s (IEA 2004). The percen t red uctio n wou ld b e h ig her for coalbase d C CS (E C) (Fig

. 7 ). E uropea n Commi s s i on : I f CCS -s upported poli
cie s we re i nt ro d u ce d in t h e E u ro p ean Union (EU), CCS co ul d b e u se d syst em at ica ll y in new coal p la nt s a n d ret rof it s by 2 0 2 0; by 20 3 0, 25% of coalf ue le d p owe r g e n e rati on ca p aci ty could be based o n CC S, wit h a re su lt in g re d uct io n of CO 2 emis
sio n s f ro m co a l p la n t s by 16 % in co mparison with 2 00 5

. By 2 0 5 0, 1 0 0% of coa l
- b ase d capacity would b e CC S- sup p o rt e d a n d C O 2 e miss ions 88% lower. Th e o bje ct ive of t he E U is to li mit global tempera
t ure in cre ase to a maximu m of 2 ° C, which implies a re d uct io n of g l o b a l gree n h o use g ases in 2050 by 6 0

– 8 0 % i n d eve lo p e d co u n t r ie s, compared with 1 99 0 (E C).

FURTHER READING : IPPC, Special Report, already quoted, p. 354 (www.ipcc.ch); World Coal Institute, Newsletter ECOAL, Oc
tober 2005; IEA, World Energy Outlook 2006, p. 258 and Annex, p. 493; IEA: Prospects for carbon capture and storage, Paris 2004, p. 101, 108, 120; further sources: EURACOAL: Third Coal Dialogue, Brussels, 18 October 2006, paper presented by Ioan
nis Galanis (EC DG for Energy and Transport) on: Communica
tion on sustainable coal: impact assessment and communication outline, p. 12 and 71; on EU emission trading: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/climat/emission.htm 7
. P ol i c i e s Th e d e p loyme n t of C CS ca n b e greatly supported by n o n d iscrimi nato ry a nd aff i r mat i ve policies. Cl i mate pol i c i e s : I mp le me nt at io n of CCS will ulti
mat el y d e p e n d o n t h e con se n su s regarding the urg en cy of cl imat e p rot e cti on p o licie s. While there is 

# 1 8 2007 CCS booklet text pages:WEC booklet 10/28/07 9:57 PM Page 18Carbon Capture and Storage: a WEC “Interim Balance” World Energy Council 2007

som e agree ment on th e p rin cip l es of remedial ac ti on ( enh an ced ene rgy e fficie n cy, p romoti on of non car bo n e ne rgy sou rces, fue l su bstituti o n), vi ews di ffe r on ti mef ra mes, institu tion a l processes and me an s ( in cent ives, pe na ltie s). The se u ncerta int ie s a b ou t th e sco pe, urgency, tim
in g and i nst it ut ional su pp o rt of climate control poli
cie s a re refl ect ed in the rece n t d e crease of the pr ice for a ton of CO 2 at E U em issio n t radi ng ex cha nge s ( Fig

. 8). The se u n certa in t i es need to be re du ced to enco urag e in ve stors. At th is ea rl y st age of CCS devel op ment, poli cies sho ul d focus on t echn ica l pro g re ss, rather than on in te rve nti on i n m ar kets an d cu stom e r choi ce. Prese nt cli m ate poli cies a re i n ade q uately bal anced on two accou nts. The re is fi rst th e sha r p focus on CO 2 . In real ity, du rin g 1 98 0- 19 90 , carb on dioxide con tr ib ute d onl y 55% to th e in cre ase in radiati ve fo rci ng
. Seco ndly th ere is the fo cu s on p ower gen erat io n. However, on ly 29 % of gl ob a l C O 2 em is
sio ns and 41 % of ene rg y-re lat e d g lobal CO 2 em issi on s st em from p ower g e ne rati on (20% from tran sport, 18 % f rom ind u stry, 1 3 % from the resi
de nti al se ctor a nd se rvice s, 8 % from others)

. This im ba la nce ne eds to b e rep laced by consi deri ng all gree nho use gase s a nd all se ctors of energy con sum pt io n so as to avo id i nte r-fue l a nd inter- sectoral di sto rt io ns. Mo re ove r, t he focus o n e missio n s at the electr ici ty ge nerat io n stage ta kes in to accou nt only part of tot a l e missio n s, o mi tt in g e missio n s p r ior a nd sub
seq u e n t to th at stag e
. A f ul l li fe cycl e analysis of em issio n s i s req u ire d to d et e r m in e the glob al im
pact of in d ivid u a l e n e rg y p roje ct s
. If life cycle analy
sis is use d a nd ot he r g re e n ho u se g ases (GHG) are al so t a ke n in to acco u n t , e le ct ricity g en eration from coa l, g as o r o il wo u ld sh ow si m ila r levels of GHG em issio n s. Th e proj ect e d in cre ase in annual GHG em issio n s f ro m co a l b etwe e n 2 0 0 1 and 20 25 of 1. 1 b illio n ton s of ca rb o n eq u iva le n t i s l e ss than th at p roj ect e d fo r n at ural g as (1

. 3 b i ll ion tons) and oi l (1 .5 b illi on to ns ).  Th e CCS o pt io n sh ou ld b e i nt e grated into en erg y p o licie s, em issio n t rad in g sch e mes, en erg y b a la nce s, sce n a ri o s a n d m od e ls in order to avoi d d iscri min ati on ag a i nst cle a n fossil fuel use
. CCS sho u ld b e p a rt of a po rtfo lio of tech
no lo g y an d st rat e g i e s. It is ackn ow ledged that th e qu a n t i f i cat i o n of i ts ma rket p en etration and emi ssio n re d u ct io n p ot e n t i a l is d iff icult at this st ag e – as i s t h e q ua n t if icat io n of th e contribu
tio n of ot h e r m i t i g at io n o pt io n s.  I n st it u ti on a lize d co op e rat i o n b etween all st a ke h ol de rs - g ove rn me n t , in d ust ry and the pu b lic at l arge – cre at e s mu t ua l u n d erstanding an d con f id e n ce , h e nce p ro mot es so lutions.  D eve lo p i n g an d t ra nsi ti on a l e con omi e s should exp lo it t he e n o r m o u s p ot en t ia l of i mproved co mb u st io n a n d in cre ase d p la nt e ffi ciency as a f irst o pt io n
. I n t e rn ati on a lly, t h ey sh ould be pa rt of n etwo r ks e st a b lish e d fo r d eve l oping 

# 19 Fig. 8: EU Emission trading of CO2
s ources: European Climate Exchange (Amsterdam); EC COM 2007/2 final

0 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0 6 0 7 0J O6MMJSNJ 07D08D10D12/t CO2 h istorical and forward prices

minimum CCS cost target

p rice necessary to limit global temperature increase to 2 ° C in 2020 ditto for 2030 2007 CCS booklet text pages:WEC booklet 10/28/07 9:58 PM Page 19Carbon Capture and Storage: a WEC “Interim Balance” World Energy Council 2007

CC S a n d p rom ot e th e e ligib il ity of C CS proj
ect s as cle an deve lo p me nt me cha n isms (C DMs) a nd for G EF fu n di ng
. N at io nall y, they should bu ild h u ma n a nd tech n ica l capacity to dea l wi th CCS an d co n side r in t er im measures such as pl an t d e sig n s, which a ll ow t he later retrof it w it h CCS (se e Ch a pt er 5 ). Pub lic t rust an d su pp o rt mu st be ach ieved and re tai ned. Pu bli c co n cern s over issu es such as l eak
age s f rom CO 2 sto rage must b e ad d re ssed

. Th e ben efi ts of CCS in te rms of miti gati ng clim ate change a nd a ll owi ng fo ssil fu el s to f acilitate further econom ic deve lop me nt a nd redu cti on of energy pove rty mu st b e reco gn ize d

. A E U i n quiry into the pub lic acce pt a nce of CCS showe d t hat so far less tha n 1 0% of t he Eu ro pe a n p op ul at io n had heard of CC S; of th ose , on ly 13 % felt p osi ti ve about i t r igh t aw ay – t hi s i ncre ased to 55 % fol lowing an explana
ti on of t he co nce pt (Eu racoa l, op
. ci t. ). Energy pol i ci e s: In a ba la nce d a ll -energy perspect ive, fo ssil f u els n ee d to be recognized as the maj or dri ver of e co no mic d eve lo pm ent fo r decades to com e. Th e p ot e ntia l of cle a ne r fossil fue l sys tem s m ust a lso b e re co gn ize d

. N o source of en ergy sh oul d b e id ol ized or d e mo ni zed. All wi ll be nee ded. C CS sho ul d b e tre ate d o n an equal footing wi th ot he r mit ig at io n o ptio n s ( as n ot ed earlier, in CD M, e mi ssion t rad in g, GEF fun di ng ). CC S pol ic ie s : Th e l ag ti me in h eren t in depl oy ing new t ech no lo gie s as co mp on ent s of energy sys t em s ca ll s fo r a n e a r ly d e f in it io n of the role of CCS. P la ns co n ce rn in g CC S sh o u ld cove r the entire sys t em , f ro m e missi on s to si nks a n d t rading. CCS poli
cie s sho u ld b a l an ce p ub li c a n d pr ivate interest in safety, h e a lt h , t h e co n sid e re d use of natural re so urces a n d t h e prof it a b ility of C CS operations.  CCS p o licie s sh ou ld offe r in ve stment certainty fo r CCS proj ect s. Th ey sh o u ld be predictable, t ra n spa re n t a n d low-co st , e n a bling market fo rce s to u nfo ld

. Flexib ility wit hin a given f ra mewo rk is e ssen t ia l, as C C S projects are sit e -sp e cif ic.  CCS t e chn o lo g y p o l i cy sh o u ld be opene n de d , avo i d t h e e a rly se le ct ion of “winners” a n d b e lo n g -t e rm o rie n t e d, in cluding toward t h e d eve lo p m e n t of t h e h yd ro gen economy.  P o licie s a nd re g u l at i o n s sh o uld take into ac co u nt t h e e n t ire life cycl e of CCS investments, in clu d in g :

– Asse ssm e n t an d a pp roval of CCS proj ect s

– Acce ss a n d p ro p e rty r ig hts (CO 2 ow ne rsh ip )

– O p e rat io n of CCS f aci lit ies

– Tra nsp o rt at io n issu e s, in cluding across bo rd e rs

– Mo n i to ri n g a n d ve rif icat io n of storage

– D e co m m issio n in g

– S h a ri n g of p o st -d eco mm issioning lia b ilit ie s 

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 B est practices sho uld be sh are d inte rn at io nally.  The a ppli cabili ty of m ari ti me co nventi ons to C O 2 storag e an d ot h e r le ga l asp e cts ne e d to be revi ewe d.  Exp en dit ure i n pu bl ic en ergy RD&D , w hi ch had bee n cu t by h al f in OEC D cou ntr ies over th e last few years, sh ou ld be reco n sidere d in th e li gh t of t he cha n ge s th at a re ta kin g place. Gi ven t he im po rt a nce of fossil fu el s for devel
op me nt an d t he e n viro n me n t, RD&D in cl ean er fossil f ue ls system s, a nd in particular i n C C S, sho uld b e acce lerate d a nd in terna
ti on al ly coordin at e d

.  The role s of th e Ca rb on Se q ue strati o n Lead
ershi p Foru m (C SL F), the IEA a n d WEC are recog nize d.  Pi l ot stu dies sh o uld exp lo re th e “captureread y” desi gn of co n ven tio n a l pla n ts.  If i n the ea rly d e ployme n t p hase, the car bon val ue a nd, hen ce, the com mercial va lue of C CS project s o r com p o n e n ts is in su ffici ent, in
cen ti ves should be con sid ere d ( such as early m over incen tive s, faster d ep re ciat i on al
l ow anc es, etc

. )

.  The f air com pa riso n of CCS te chnology in Gree nhou se Gas Emissio n in ve nto ries re qu ires sta ndard ize d statistics. FURTHER READING : Workshop in Erice: Steve Tantala; Arthur Lee; Jacek Podkanski; David Hawkins; Elena Nekhaev; Klaus Lackner; Workshop in Neptun: Peter Mak; further sources: IEA Legal aspects of storing CO 2 ; Paris 2005; IPPC: Climate change

– the IPCC scientific assessment, 1990, figures 7; IEA World Energy Outlook 2004, table 2.3; IEA, World Energy Out
look 2006; Euracoal, op. cit.; EC Limiting global climate change to 2°, COM (2007) 2 final; Nicholas Stern, The Stern review on the economics of climate change (www.hm-treasury.gov.uk) 8. LAWS AND R EG ULA TIO NS The t ime ly d e pl oym en t of C C S t e ch nologies world
wid e i s p re co n d it io ne d o n aff irmat ive national legal an d re g ul ato ry f ra m ewo rks, a n u p date of interna
ti on a l co n ven t io n s a n d t re at ie s, re lia ble (private) con t ract u al a rran g e me n t s a n d a n e q ual playing fi el d fo r CCS

. So lu t io n s, h oweve r p a rt i a l a n d in consistent they may b e , are e me rg in g in d eve lo p ed and hydrocar
bo n -p ro d u cin g cou n t rie s. They se e k a balanc e am on g p rivat e a n d so ci et a l o bj ect ives, market me cha n isms a n d p o licy in t e rve n t i o n s, risk avoid
an ce a nd risk ma n ag e m e n t , an d n at ional soverei gn ty a nd in t e rn at i o n a l co nve rg e n ce. Emphasis at prese n t is on e n ab l i n g t h e u pt a ke of C CS projects, pa rt icu la rl y t h o se e njoyin g a n e n ha nced hydrocar
bo n re covery b o n u s. 

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Cu rre nt discu ssio ns:  R e co gn ize th e role of CCS an d consider ada pt ing nat i o na l an d i nte rn at io na l le ga l f ramewo rks an d co nve n ti on s (re moval of tech
nol og ica l a n d co st ba rrie rs, pro- act ive ac t ions );  Add ress lo ng e r-ter m con cer ns (storage, postope rat io n a l ow ne rsh ip of s it es an d C O 2 a n d re lat ed lia b i lity fo r le akag e) ;  Add ress t he prote cti on of in te ll ectual prope rty;  C o nsid er e qu iva le nce of tre at men t between CC S p roje cts a nd oth e r m it ig at io n o ptions re gardi ng e mi ssion trad in g, cle a n deve lop ment me ch an isms, jo i n t im ple me n tati on and G EF f undin g;  E nco u rage con d ition s for t he ( later) depl oyme nt of CCS in d eve lo pi n g cou nt ri es; and  B uil d socia l acceptan ce of C CS. By 2 008, matt e rs sho ul d h ave be e n greatly clari
fi ed, si nce t h e G 8 Su mmit of G le ne agles in 2005 had m andate d t h e IEA a nd CSLF to submit recom mend ati on s to t he G8 Sum mit in Ja pan in 200 8. Broadl y, t his t imi ng an d fo cus of efforts seems to fit the l onge r t e rm ca len d ar of l au nch in g CCS power pl ant s w ith lon g -t erm sto rage
. I n a ny case, techni
cal pro gre ss i n CCS a nd reg u lato ry advancement nee d to be cor rel ate d

. Ada pti ng nat iona l l e ga l a nd re gulatory frameworks : S o me co un t rie s like ly to u se CCS in the n ea r t e rm h ave we ll -e st a b lish e d le g al and regula
tory reg im es fo r t h e h yd ro car bo n a nd mineral in
d ust ri es, a n d fo r e nvi ro nm en t a l p rotection and wast e d isp o sa l. Th e se co u n t rie s may not have to su bst a n t ia lly ch a n g e th o se re gi me s to apply to CCS p roje cts. Ot h e r co u n tr ie s t h at do not have su ch le g a l a n d re g u lato ry re g ime s could benefit f ro m exp e rie n ce acq u ire d e lsewh e re. A ny su ch re g i me s h ave two o bje ct ives: protecting t he p u b l ic wit h re g a rd to h e a lt h, safety, financial a nd e n viro n me nt a l risks asso ci at ed with CCS, wh ile e na b lin g t he d evel o p m e n t of CCS as part of a clim at e cha n g e m it ig at io n p ortfo lio

. The issues in
clu d e t h e fo l lowi ng :  Th e d e f i n i t i o n of CO 2 as a n i ndustrial com mo d ity (u sed fo r e n h a n ced recovery) or as a su b sta n ce to b e sto re d p e rm a nently. This de
t e rmin e s th e typ e a n d ju ri sdi ction of regula
t io n s g ove rn in g C O 2 inj ect io n s;  Cri te ri a fo r sit e se le ct io n a n d use, in particular asse ssin g t h e r i sk of le a kage and related risk ma n age me n t

. D at a co lle ct io n, monitoring and ve rif icat io n m ust b e su ff icie n t ly accurate to me et i nt e rn at io n a l in ve n tory standards.  L ice n sin g of act i vi t i e s a n d si te s;  Own e rsh ip of , an d access to , CCS injection sit e s an d sto rag e sp ace ; a rb itration of conflict
in g rig h ts b etwe e n t h e CC S and hydrocarbon a n d mi ne ra l in d u st r ie s; 

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 Le ga l and fi nan cial l iab ili t i es d uri ng the li fe
ti m e of t he project a nd after d e co mm issioning ; po st- closu re ow ne rsh ip of th e CO 2 an d sto rag e sit es a nd li ab ility; an d  R egu lati on of CO 2 tra n spo rt at io n a n d storag e across int er nat io n a l o r sub n atio na l b orders, or offsho re. Co nsi ste nt nat io nal fra mewo rks are em ergi ng, for exa mp le , i n A ust ralia , Can ada , th e Neth er lan ds, No rw ay, t he Un it ed Kin gd o m a n d th e United St ate s , in addre ssin g th e im med iately relevant i s sue s. The n ext pr iority, al so fro m th e point of view of pu bl ic acceptan ce , a p pe ars to b e t he m onitor ing of C O 2 stream s and th e d e f i n itio n of resp o nsi bi li
ti es aft er cl osure of a storag e site

. Model s appli ed to ot he r mat er ial s inje ct e d i nto g e ological form a ti on s m ay se rve as exam ple s. In the lo ng-ter m, gover nm ent s may ne e d to assum e liability for longte rm storage
. Revi ewi ng i nternationa l t reaties a nd conven ti ons: CC S proje cts are su bje ct to internat i ona l l aw wh en th ey cross bo rde rs o r ta ke p lace in interna
ti on al w ate rs. Int er natio n al law re q u ires CC S proj
ect s to avoid t ran sbou n da ry en viro n mental damage an d to prote ct t he ma rin e e n viro nment. These obl i
gati o ns had been sp e cified in a nu mber of l egal ly bi nd in g g lo bal a nd re g ion a l inte rn ational instr u me nt s, e stab lish ed b efo re C CS b e came an envi
ro nm en tal a nd clim ate mitig atio n o ption:  Th e UN Co n ve nt io n o n t h e L aw of the Sea, 19 8 2 , wh ich d o e s n ot sp e cif ica lly re gulate or pro h ib it CCS acti vit ie s, b u t ca ll s o n States to prot e ct t h e ma r in e e n viro n m e n t f ro m human act ivity su ch as d u m p i n g ;  Th e Lon d o n C on ve n t io n o n th e Preve ntion of Mar in e P o llu t io n by Du mp in g of Wastes and Ot h e r Matt e r, 1 9 7 2 , p ro h ib it s t he d u mping of “waste ” in to th e se a ;  Th e Lon d o n P roto co l to t h e a b ove Conven
tio n , 19 9 6 , a ll ows as of 1 0 Fe br ua ry 2007 the inj ect io n of CO 2 st re a ms f ro m CO 2 ca pture pro ce sse s an d in cid e n t a l asso ciate d sub
st a n ce s i n su b -se a b e d g eo lo g ica l fo rmations;  Th e B ase l Co n ve n ti on o n t h e Control of Tran sb o u nd a ry Move me n t s of Hazardous Wast e , 19 8 9 , w hi ch mi g h t b e a p p licable if CO 2 co n t a in ed toxi c su b st a n ces;  Th e UN Fra mewo r k C o n ve nt io n on Cl imate Cha n g e , 1 9 9 4 , u n de r wh ich CCS co uld be co n sid e re d as a n o pt io n to mit ig at e cli mate ch a n g e;  Th e Kyoto P roto co l, 2 00 5 , excl udes CCS from th e Cle a n Deve lo p me n t Me ch a n ism; and  R e g io n a l t re at ie s a n d co n ve n t i ons for the pro te ct io n of t h e ma ri n e e nvi ro nm en t of the North -E ast At la n t ic (O S PA R Co n ve nti on), 19 9 2 ; B a lt ic S e a , 1 99 2 ; Bl ack S e a , 1994; wid er C ar ib b e a n re gi on , 1 98 3 ; Me di terranean, 19 7 6 ; G u lf , 1 9 7 8 ; we st a n d ce n tral Afric an re 

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gi on, 1 98 1; S ou t h Pacific, 1 98 1, 19 86; Ba
ma ko Con ve nt io n o n th e Ban of t h e Impo rt to Afr ica an d t h e Co n tro l of Tra n sbo u ndary Move me nt an d M an ag e me nt of H azardou s Wast e wit hi n Af ri ca, 19 9 1

. At present , t h e a bove m ajo r conve n tions are being re consid ere d to d i stin gu ish C O 2 i nj ect io ns f rom dum pin g
. O n 2 Novemb e r 20 06, t h e Parties to the Lon don P roto col d e f i n e d th e co nd it io ns under wh ich CO 2 ca n b e sto re d in sub -se a be d g eo lo g ical for mat io ns (see ab ove). Parti es re cognized that oc ean acid if icati o n cau sed by r isin g CO 2 e mi ssio n s call s for a po rtfol io of m itig atio n o pt io ns, including pl aceme nt of CO 2 in sub -se ab e d for mati on s. These am en dm en ts m ay p rom pt re considerati o n of oth er treat ie s. Shari ng or prote ct ing inte lle ctua l prope rty ( I P): Som e CC S in ve sto rs (su ch as S t ato il for Sleipner and S novit ) a re wi llin g to rele ase th ei r kn owl ed ge to t he public d om a in

. Howeve r ge ne rall y, CC S i n vesto rs ca nn ot b e expe cte d to co m mi t themselves unl ess th eir I P r igh ts (pa rticu la rly patents and trade secret s) are prot ecte d

. IP protect i on aims to :  S ecure t he prop erty of, a nd access to, land, pl ant s, eq u ipm en t , sto rag e si te s an d stored CO 2 , wi th capt ure t ech n ol og y b e in g pa rti cu la rly se n sit ive, a nd  E nab le th e t ra n sfe r of kn ow le dge and technol
ogy to rece ivin g co u ntrie s, a nd re lated capac ity bui ldi ng
. Th e p re fe rre d ro u t e fo r d e a lin g w it h these issues is t hrou g h e n fo rce a bl e, p rivat e co n t racts rather than t hrou g h laws a n d re g ul at io n s, wh ic h do not fit spe cif ic circu mst a n ces. B u t I P law ne e ds to support su ch co n t ract u a l p rovisio n s. I P p rotection of CCS p la nt s a n d p ro ce sse s ca n b en e f it f rom well-estab
lish e d p roto co ls in t h e che mi cal , e ngineering and p et ro le u m in d u st r ie s. By con t rast , service p rovid ers w ill n e ed to d eve l o p sp e cific means of IP p rote ct io n , p ro b a b ly th ro u g h t rad e secrets rather t ha n p at e n t s. I n bot h case s, law must enable the p rote ct io n of I P. Th e ro le of g ove rn me n ts co n sist s primarily in se cu rin g a ro b u st n at io na l re g ime of I P protection as a p re co n d it io n fo r p rivat e in ve st ments. This is part icu la rly t ru e fo r d eve lo p in g an d t ra nsition e con o mie s, wh e re , at prese n t , t h e absence of strin
g en t re g u l ato ry f ra mewo rks in te rms of enforce
me n t a n d sa n ct io n s i nh ib it s t h e d e ployment of CCS (se e Ta b le 2 )

. Co n t in u ed e ffo rt s at international har
mo n izati on of p at e nt a n d ot h e r I P p rotection re g ime s (WTO , WI P O ) wo u l d b e b eneficial for CCS d ep loyme n t , b u t prog re ss may b e faster in terms of soft law t h a n of h a rd law, a n d at t h e regional level (Co n ve nt io n o n t h e G ra n t of E u ro p ean Patents). P ub li c i nvo lve me n t in C CS f u n d in g or projects may re d uce risks fo r in ve sto rs b u t a lso render ownersh ip a n d e n fo rce me n t mo re co mp licated. Pre
d ict ab il ity of lice n sin g co n d i t i o n s o r standards wo u ld b e a n asset

. Howeve r, on t he whole, “the issu e of I P is n ot exp e ct ed to co mpromise or inhibit t he d e p l oym e n t of t h e C CS i nd u st ry” (IEA/CSLF)

. 

# 2 4 Tab le 2: P rot ect io n of in t el le ctu a l p rope rty ri g hts (Index: 0 = weakest, 10 = strongest performance) Worl d 5 .3 North A me rica 6 .4 Lat in A mer ica 4 .0 Af ri ca 4 .2 Mid dle E ast/No rt he rn Af rica 5 .0 West e rn E u rop e 7 .4 CE E a nd Ru ssia 4 .2 Au st ra lia , New Ze al an d, Jap an 9 .7 In d ia, Ch in a, P hil ipp in e s 6 .0 Pa kist a n, Ken ya, E th io pi a 3 .7 Source: IPRI International Property Rights Index 2007 (http://internationalpropertyrightsindex.org) 2007 CCS booklet text pages:WEC booklet 10/28/07 9:58 PM Page 24Carbon Capture and Storage: a WEC “Interim Balance” World Energy Council 2007

Se curing a level play ing field for CCS: As a l ate
com er a mo ng clim ate cha ng e m itigation options, CC S do es n ot ben efit fro m in cen tives offered to ot her l ow - carbo n tech no lo gie s, such as emissi o n trad in g ( EU ), t he cl ea n d eve lo p m en t and joint im
pl em en tat io n m echa nism s ( Kyoto Proto col) or fund
in g from th e Gl oba l En viro n me n t Facil ity ( GEF). Th e re sulting competit ive bias to th e det rime nt of C CS p rojects has be en recog niz ed , a nd effo rts have be en initiated in t h e a bove conven tion s, with in G EF an d the Intergove rnme nt al P an el o n Climate C ha ng e (IPCC) , on wh et her a n d h ow to app ly th e m en t io n ed instrumen ts to CCS

. Th e d iff icu lty is t hat C CS p rojects, unlike ot h er mitig atio n opt ion s , d o n ot rem ove a ll the CO 2 . Acco un ting s ch e me s have to be deve l op ed to meas ure th e n et emission redu c t io n f ro m a CCS proje ct compa red to e mission s th at wou l d o ccu r in the a bs en ce of s u c h a p roject (the base l in e ). Emissions res ult in g fro m th e high er e n erg y us e d uring carbo n c a ptu re will have to be t ake n i n to account. I ntern at io nal gu idelin es sho uld en su re e qu ivalence of t reat men t b etween CCS a nd ot h er m i tig ation optio n s , in ord er to red uce in ve stor un ce rta i nty toward CCS p rojects

. Al te rn ati vel y, g over nme n ts co ul d level the playing fi el d CC S depl oyme nt by othe r me ans, such as tax in cen t i ves, grant s, RD&D fun d ing , sovereign guaran tee s o r by assum ing lo ng -ter m lia bil ity for l eak
ag e aft er de comm issio ni ng
. Fi na nci ng of CCS de pl oym ent is in any case a d ifficu lt and as yet un re sol ved i ssue, even an ticip atin g fu ture cost reduc
ti on s of C CS t e ch n ol og y. Fin a nci ng is particularly di ff icu lt if e missio n trad in g cre d it s a re below the hi gh e r co st of adva n ce d t e ch n o l o g ies and if longte rm m it ig at io n p ol icie s an d in ce n t ives remain un certa in

. FURTHER READING : IEA/CSLF Second Workshop on Legal Aspects of Carbon Capture and Storage, Paris, 17 October 2006; Harry Audus, An Update on CCS: Recent Developments ; Lecture Given at the IEA/CSLF Second Workshop, op. cit.; Barry Worthington, Funding for Clean Coal Technologies (www.usea.org) CO NCLU S I O N The CFFS Wo rksh op s in E ri ce , C ol om bo, Neptun, Tal lin n , Mo scow a n d Jo rd a n a ll ow a n inter im appre ciati on of t h e prosp e ct s of CCS

. Cu rre nt stat u s : At pres ent, mo re than 33 millio n tons of C O 2 are ca ptured every year wor l dw id e. They are store d i n at l east 70 p roj ects, wit h Sleipner al one acco un ti ng fo r mo re than 6 m i l lion tons

. There are 300 0 km of l and- bas ed de di cated CO 2 pi pel i n es. In co ntrast to e n h ance d oi l and gas re covery, CC S i s n ot yet a com m erci al reality in electricity gen erat io n because of i ts costs and ongoing strive for tec hnol ogi ca l matur i ty. The re w il l be a nu mbe r of dem onst rat i on proj ects by 201 5 or earlier, with as yet l i m i te d i m pact on gl obal C O 2 em i ssi on s. Potent ia l : By a b o ut 2 0 2 0 , C C S ca n develop into a sig ni fi can t a nd co mp et i t i ve o pt io n to simultaneously slow th e g rowt h of CO 2 em issio n s a n d promote 

# 25 2007 CCS booklet text pages:WEC booklet 10/28/07 9:58 PM Page 25Carbon Capture and Storage: a WEC “Interim Balance” World Energy Council 2007

econom ic deve lop me nt, en e rgy se cur ity and air qua lity in ma ny co un trie s fo r d e cade s to come. Co mme rci al d ep l oyme nt de p en ds o n t he commercia l value of ca rb on exce e d in g t he cost of CCS system s, a n d even tua lly o n in cen ti ves, if th at condi
ti on is not met i nit ia lly. On t he assum pt io n th at CCS wo ul d reach its full pot ent ia l in t he next 3 0 to 40 yea rs, C CS could re duce en erg y-re lat e d g lo ba l CO 2 emi ssio ns by u p to hal f by 205 0 co mpa re d to a b u si n e ss-as-usual case. If co al -base d p owe r p lant s a re utilized to
get her w it h im prove d co mbu stion a nd higher plant eff icie ncie s, CC S wo u ld h ave a n eve n greate r miti
gat io n e ffe ct

. D uri ng 20 0 0 -2 10 0 , CC S could eco nom ical ly re du ce e stimat e d g lo ba l CO 2 e mi ssio n s by 2 20

– 22 00 G tC O 2 , wh ich cor re spo nd s to 1 5 %
- 55 % of a wo r ldw ide le ast-co st m it ig ation effo rt. He nce, CCS , tog eth er w ith oth e r mitigation options, could serve as a b rid ge to a fu tu re sustai nable en ergy e cono my a nd to better a ir qu a lity. Caveat s : A si gn if ica nt ro le fo r CCS depends up on it s cost bei ng red u ce d by h alf to a bo ut US$25 to 30/ t CO 2 . B ut eve n i n t hi s case , CC S

– w hi le a lowcost opt ion
- is not a un ive rsa l re me dy. It is initially li mi t ed to n ew, h igh ly e fficie nt, hig h- capaci ty power and i ndust ria l pl an ts i n d eve lo pe d countr ies. C CS project s are si te -sp eci fi c, d rive n by l ocal conditions and op portu n it ies, a nd are he n ce unli kel y to be pre cise ly rep lica ble

. CCS sho ul d b e seen as an impor
tan t part of a p o rtfo lio of me asu re s, including e nh a n ce d e ff icie n cy of e ne rg y p ro duction and use, re n ew ab le s a n d n ew n ucl ea r t e ch nologies. CCS d ep loyme n t wo ul d slow t h e growth of and ulti
mat el y red u ce CO 2 e missi on s. However, the stabi
lizat io n of e missio n s a n d co nce n t rations at accept a b le l eve ls wi ll re q ui re ad va nces in combus
t io n e ff icie n cy, f ast er C CS t e ch n ol ogy development, e ar lie r in t er nat io n a l de p loyme n t , aggressive plant re n ew al , im prove d CCS co nve rsi on efficiency, f ast e r ma rket p e n et rati on a n d co -combustion of b io mass a n d co a l. Th e se m e asu res depend on p ol icie s wh ose st rin g e ncy wo u ld still need to be de
t er min e d. I n t ra n sp o rt at io n , th e ( like ly) mismatch b etwe e n t h e lo cati on of t h e e m itte r and the sink may be a limit in g f acto r fo r sma ll volumes and very lo n g d ist a n ce s. Th e p ro sp e ct s of CCS are a lso d et ermined by the n ee d to safe ly sto re b illi on s of to n s of CO 2 for cen t ur ie s. Fa ilu re to p reve n t, co n trol o r remedy leak
age (a n d re assu re t he g e ne ra l p u blic on this issue) wo u ld seve re ly re d u ce t h e p ro sp e cts of CCS. Note, t ho u g h , t h at I P CC co n sid ers t h at appropriately se le ct ed a n d ma n ag ed re se rvo irs a re “very likely” (a p ro ba b ili ty of 9 0 to 9 9 %) to ret a in 99% of the stored CO 2 for ove r o n e h u n dred ye a rs an d are “likely” (p ro b ab il ity of 6 6 to 90 %) to reta in 99% for over o ne t h o u sa n d ye a rs. Acti on: S ucce ssf u l d e p loyme n t of CCS depends o n t h e fo l lowi n g : 

# 2 6 2007 CCS booklet text pages:WEC booklet 10/28/07 9:58 PM Page 26Carbon Capture and Storage: a WEC “Interim Balance” World Energy Council 2007

 The recogn it ion of CCS as a cl imate mi ti ga ti on o pti on in n ati on a l p o licie s an d interna
ti on al co nvent io ns a nd ag re eme n ts;  The form ulat ion of affirmative, predictabl e, no nd iscr im inato ry a nd cost-e ffe ct i ve CC S and en ergy pol ici es;  The i nt egrati on of th e CC S o ption i n to these po li ci es, as pa rt of a p ortfo lio of mitigation m easu res;  T h e adoption of i nv est or -c on sciou s nat i o na l fra m ew o rks an d laws an d re g ul at io ns on CC S lic e nsi ng, de comm is si on in g, safe ty and li a bi li tie s;  In te racti on betwe e n g ove rn me nt, i ndustry and resea rch in stit u te s on the te n or a n d sequenc i ng of C CS deve lo pme n t ;  The e lig ibi lity of C CS p roje cts in clean devel
op me nt m echa n isms, joi n t imp le men tation, em i ssion t radin g syste ms, IBRD a nd Glob al En vironm ent F acil ity fu nd in g;  Fi nan cial m ech a nism s to set a value for carbo n at t he glo ba l leve l a nd in cen tives, if i ni ti al car bo n pri ces are too low ;  The adapt at ion of inte rn atio na l treaties and con ve n ti ons on t h e ma rin e e nvi ron ment and cross- border tra n spo rtatio n ;  Th e accel erat io n of n at io na l a n d i nternational co o p e rati on in CCS RD& D, in p a rt icular on co st re d uct io n , t h e p er ma ne n ce of storage an d “ca pt u re -re ad y” ca p acity exp an sion;  Th e b ui ld in g of seve ra l co st
- e ffective largesca le d e mo nst rat io n p l a n t s;  Th e in vo lve me nt of a ll st a ke h ol ders;  G i ve n t he ir g rowi ng ro le as e mi tters: the inte
grat io n of d eve l o p in g co un t rie s in CCS net
wor ks ( cap acity b ui ld in g) , e missi on trading an d proj ect f u n d in g ; a n d  A n e ar ly proact ive a nd p a rt ici p atory outreach effo rt

. Th e me ssag e : “C arbon Ca pture and Stora ge i s a n E s s e nti a l B ridge to a S us tai na bl e a nd S e c ure E ne rgy Future” 

# 27

T h e m essage: “Ca rbon C apture and Storage is an Essenti al B ri dge to a Sustaina ble and Secure Energy Future” 2007 CCS booklet text pages:WEC booklet 10/28/07 9:58 PM Page 27Carbon Capture and Storage: a WEC “Interim Balance” World Energy Council 2007



## A
. P ape rs Presente d at CFFS S e mina rs 1
. W E C CFFS Co mmitte e Discu ssio n Sessi on dur ing t he 19 t h Wo rld En e rgy C on g re ss o n : Cl eaner Foss i l Fue ls – The Corne rstone for Huma n Deve l opment a nd Energy Sec urity, Sydney (Au st ra lia), 8 Se ptemb e r 20 04 Websit e: htt p: // www. wor lde n erg y.o rg/n ews_

_events/worl d_e nergy_co ng re ss/syd n ey_20 0 4/de f au lt. asp  In tr

oduct io

n B arb ara N. McKee , D ire cto r, Off ice of C lean E nergy Co lla bo ration , U.S. De pa rt ment of E n ergy; C ha irma n , W EC C lea n er Fo ssil Fuels S yste ms (CFFS ) Co mmitt ee E mail: B ar ba ra .M cke e @ hq .d oe
. gov  E nerg y S ecuri ty and Cl e

ane r Fo ssil Fuel s System s A hmad Waq ar, S ecretary, Mi ni stry of Petro le um an d N at u ral R eso urce s, P aki sta n E mail: h dip @a p o l l o.n et.pk  I nvest ment i n Cle an e

r Fossi l Fue ls S ystems Fer nan d o Za nca n, Execu tive M an ager, S IE CE S C, B razil E mail: za nca n@ sie cesc.co m. br  En ergy Techno lo

gy Tra nsit io

n

s Ro bert G e nt ile , Presid e nt, Leo n ardo Tech
nol og ie s, I n c. , Un ite d Stat es E mail: RHG e nt il e@ ao l.com  Hu ma n D eve l op me n

t a n

d Cl e

aner Fossil Fue ls Syst e

ms Jo a nn e DiS a n o , Dire cto r, CS D Secretariat a n d Di visio n fo r S u st a in a b le Development, De p a rt me nt of E co n o mic a nd Social Affairs, Un it e d N at io n s, N ew Yo rk 

## 2. Wo rld Fed e rat io n of S cie nt ist s and WEC Cle a n er Fo ssil Fu e ls S yst em s ( CFFS) Committee Jo in t Wo rksh o p o n : Ca rbon Ca pture and Storage

– A Way Forwa rd for Cl e a ne r Fossil Fuels , Erice (S icil y) , 2 4 Au g u st 2 0 0 5 We bsi te : h tt p : / / www. u se a
. o rg /C FFS/CFFS E rice.htm ; h tt p : / /e n e rg yp mp .o rg ; h tt p : / / www. wo rld e n e rg y. o rg / fo cu s/ccs/default.asp ; a lso ava ila b le o n CD -RO M  Ope nin g Re ma rks a n

d We lcome Rich a rd Wilso n , De pa rt me n t of Physics, Har
va rd Un ive rsity, C ha ir ma n of t he World Feder
at io n of Sci e n t ist s P MP, Un it ed States E ma il: wilso n 5 @f as.h a rva rd

. edu  In t ro

d

u

cti

on a n

d O ve rvie w B a rb ara N. McKe e , D i re cto r, Office of Clean E n ergy Co ll ab o rat io n , U. S

. De partment of En
e rg y; C ha ir ma n, WE C Cle a n er Fossil Fuels S yst em s ( CFFS ) Co mmitt e e E ma il: B ar ba ra
. mcke e @h q
. d o e.gov 

# 2 8 

# Annexe s 2007 CCS booklet text pages:WEC booklet 10/28/07 9:58 PM Page 28Carbon Capture and Storage: a WEC “Interim Balance” World Energy Council 2007

 T h

e N eed H ish am A l- Kh at ib , H on orary V ice Ch airman W EC , Jorda n Em ai l : Khati b@n ets.co m.jo  T h

e Te chnolo gie s J am es Ekm ann , Associate Di recto r, N ational En ergy Tech nol og y La b o ratory (N ETL), US D epa rt men t of E ne rg y, U nite d States Em ai l : James .E kma n n@ netl.do e .g ov  The Econ omi cs Jace k P odka nski, Se n ior En erg y Te chnol o gy Sp eci ali st, En erg y Te ch no lo gy Co lla boration D ivi sio n, I nte rn ati on al En erg y Ag e n cy (IEA) , France Em ai l : jacek. po dka nski @ ie a.o rg  Envir onme nt

al Issues D avi d Haw kins, Dire ctor, Clim ate C ente r, Nat
ural R esou rces De fe n se Co un cil (N R D C), U ni ted S t ate s Em ai l : dhaw kin s@n rd c.o rg  Funding Needs a nd Oppo rtunity El en a Nekha ev, D ire cto r of Pro gram mes, Wo rl d Ene rgy Co un cil (W EC ), U nited King
do m, Em ai l : Nekhaev@wo rld e ne rg y.o rg  Ind ustry Per sp ecti ves Arth ur Lee, P rin cip al Adviso r, Gl ob a l Policy an d Strat egy, Co rp o rate He a lth Envi ronm ent Safety, C hevro n Co rp o ratio n, Un ited States Em ai l : RLA S@ch evro n .co m  De p

lo

ym ent Fer na ndo Zan can , Exe cutive Ma nag e r, SI EC ES C, Brazil Em ai l : zancan @sie cesc.co m.br  Re gulato ry and Leg al Issu es St eve Ta nta la, Man age r, R eso urces Environ
m ent a nd Carb on Ca ptu re a nd Sto rage Poli cy, D epa rt men t of I nd u stry, Tou rism a n d Re
sou rce s, A ustra lia Em ai l : St eve. Tan t al a@ ind u stry.g ov.au  N e

w a nd I nn o

vat ive A p

pr

oa che s f or C O

2 Cap t ur

e an d S to

ra

g

e Kla u s L ackn e r, P rofe sso r of G e o ph ysics and En viro n me n t al E n g in e e r in g, Co lu mbia Univer
si ty, Un it e d S t at e s Ema il : K l2 0 1 0@ col um bi a. e d u Su za n ne Hu rt e r, S h e ll I n te rn at io n al Explo
rat io n a nd P ro d u ct io n B .V

. , t h e Neth erlands Olav Kå rst ad , Ca rb o n Di oxi d e M a n agement, St atoi l, N orway Ema il : o ka a @st ato il. co m Davi d S evie r, M an ag in g D ire ctor, Aqu eous Lo g ic, Un it ed K in g d o m E-m ai l: D avi d. s@aq u e ou slo g ic. co
. u k  Di scussi on a n

d Di al

ogu e Rob e rt G en t ile , Ma n ag in g P artn e rs, Atl antic Pa rt n e rs, U ni te d S t at e s Ema il : RH Ge n t ile @ao l. co m 

## 3. WE C Cle a ne r Fo ssil Fu e ls S yste ms (C FFS) Co mmi tt e e Dia lo g ue o n : Cl ea ne r Fossil Fuels Syste ms wi th Ca rbon Ca pture a nd Storage: Whatʼ s i n I t for the D eve l opi ng World? Co lo mb o (S ri L a n ka), 6 S e pt e mb e r 2005  In tr

od uct io

n a nd S essi on O ve rvie w Ba rb a ra N. M cKe e , D ire cto r, Off ice of Clean En e rg y Co lla b orat io n , U. S

. D e p a rt ment of En
erg y; Ch a irma n , W EC C le an e r Fo ssil Fuels Syst e ms (CFFS ) Co mmi tt e e Ema il : B a rb a ra .m ckee @h q
. d o e
. g ov  Th e N ee d a n

d Te ch n

ol

ogi e

s Hish am A l- K h at ib , H on o ra ry V ice Chai rman, WEC , Jo rd a n Ema il : K h ati b@ net s. co m. jo  Th e E co n

o

mi cs Mich el Lo ko lo , D ep u ty Dire cto r of P etroleum Pro d u ct s, Mi ni stry of Min e s, Wat e r and En
erg y, Ca me ro o n Ema il : mcl oko lo @ya h o o .co m 

# 29 2007 CCS booklet text pages:WEC booklet 10/28/07 9:58 PM Page 29Carbon Capture and Storage: a WEC “Interim Balance” World Energy Council 2007

 E nergy Situ atio n and the Ro le o f Fo ssil Fuels in S outh Asia Hi la l Raza , Dire cto r Ge nera l a nd C hief Execu
t ive Hyd roca rb o n Develo pme nt In sti tute of P akist an , Isl ama b ad , Pa kist a n E mail: h ila lraza2 00 7 @g ma il. co m 

## 4
. W E C Cl ea ne r Fo ssil Fue ls S yste ms (C FFS) Co mmi tt ee a n d Cra iova Power E ne rgy Complex Joint Worksh op on : Cle ane r Fos si l Fuels for S us ta inabl e Deve l opment Ne ptu n ( Ro man ia), 13 Jun e 2 006 Websit e : h ttp : / / www.use a.o rg /C FFS/CFFSNep
tun .ht m  Opening Rema r ks, Wel come and Overview Co nst an t in B a laso iu , Ge ne ral M an ag er, Crai ova Powe r E ne rg y C om pl ex, R omani a E mail: ce n@ te rmo .ol t e n ia.ro  Se ssio n 1: C urr ent C lea n

er Fo ssil Fuel s Syste ms Po ll

ut

io

n Cont ro

ls S ystems Du mi tr u Ma ne a , Cu sto mer Ma n ag er, Alstom G lob al P ower S a le s, Ro ma ni a E -m ail : d u mit ru .m an e a @ p owe r.a lstom.com Im pr

o

ving E ff

ici

enci es I onel I lie , C rai ova P owe r En e rg y C om pl ex, Ro ma n ia E -m ail : il ie@ t erm o.o lten ia.ro Co -f

iri

ng of Co al a n

d Bio mass He nrik No pp e na u, Vi ce Pre sid en t, Pro duct S yste ms Deve lo pm en t, Energi E 2 , D e nmark E -m ail : h no @e 2 .d k RW Eʼ

s S t rat egy on C lea n C oa l Po wer in the E

urop ean Net work He nni ng Joswi g, RWE Power, G e rmany,  Sessi on 2: Fut ur

e Cle a

ne r Fossi l Fuels Sys
tem s Mo dera tor B arb ara N. McKee , D ire cto r, Off ice of C lean E nergy Co lla bo ration , U.S. De p artm ent of En
ergy; C ha irma n , W EC C FFS Co mm ittee E ma il: B ar ba ra
. mcke e @h q
. d o e.gov Ne w Mu lt

i-G e

ne ra

ti

on S yste ms (Power, Hy
dro ge n, CCS an d S yst em s I ntegration) Ro b e rt G e n t ile , M a n ag in g P a rtners, Atlantic P a rt ne rs, Un it e d S t at es E ma il: RHG e n ti le @aol .co m De pl

oym en t a nd Di ssemin at

io

n (Financing, P

ar

tn

er

shi ps, Co rp

o

ra

te S o

cia l Responsibility) Za ra Kh at ib , Te ch n o lo gy Ma nager, Shell EP I n te rn at io n a l L im i t e d , Un it e d Arab Emirates E ma il: Za ra .z. kh at ib @sh el l. co m Ma rke t Dr ive rs f or C ar

bo n Capture and Stor
age ( Co mm er

cia l a nd E n

viro nmental Aspects, Em issio n Tr ad in

g, a n

d S t a

n

dards) Mich a e l Mo o re , Di re cto r of M arketing, Eastern Re g io n Fa lco n G as S to rage Company, I n c., Un it e d S t at es E -ma il: mmo o re @f a lco n gasstorage.com R& D Pr ere quisit e

s G u rg en O lkh ovsky, G e n eral D irector, All-Russ
ia n The rm al E n g in e er in g I n st itute, Russia E ma il: vt i@cn t .r u CS D P o

licy o n G lo

b

a

l Fo ssi l Fuelʼs Future P ete r Ma k, Ch ie f , E n e rg y a n d Transport B ra n ch, De p a rt me n t of E co n omic & S o cia l Aff a irs, Un it e d Nat io n s, New Y ork E ma il: ma kk@u n .o rg 

## 5. WE C Cle a n er Fo ssil Fu e ls S yst ems (CFFS) Co mmi tt e e Fo cu se d Le ct u re s o n : Global and Regi onal Efforts Towa rd C a rbon C a pture and Stora ge Ta llin n (E sto n ia), 4 S e pt em be r 2 0 0 6 We bsi te : h tt p : / / www. u se a
. o rg /C FFS/CFFS Ta llinn.htm  O p

enin g Re ma rks B a rb ara N. McKe e , D i re cto r, Office of Clean E n ergy Co ll ab o rat io n , U. S

. De partment of En
e rg y; C ha ir ma n, WE C CFFS Committee E ma il: B ar ba ra
. mcke e @h q
. d o e.gov 

# 3 0 2007 CCS booklet text pages:WEC booklet 10/28/07 9:58 PM Page 30Carbon Capture and Storage: a WEC “Interim Balance” World Energy Council 2007

 C a

rbon Ca ptu re a nd Stora ge: a WEC In terim Ba lan ce – What Me ssag e fo r the Baltic St

ates? Kl au s B re ndow, Se n ior Advi sor, WE C, Sw i tzer land Em ai l : Kbrend ow@ com p u serve.co m  Pra cti

cal Asp ect s o f Oil Sh ale Ene rgy i n Esto
nia M ati U us, D eve lo pm en t D ire cto r, Narva Power Pl an ts Ltd.  Wha t A re t he Opt io

ns for Eur ope and the Ba lti

c S tate s t o Mitig ate C O

2 Em iss i ons? An it a Kvesko , S en io r En viro n me n tal Speci al
i st, Latven erg o 

## 6
. WE C Cl ean er Fossi l Fue ls Syste ms (C FFS) Co mm i tte e and th e All- Russi a n Th er mal Enginee rin g Inst it ut e (VTI) Wo rksho p o n : Cleaner Foss il Fuel s for P ower Ge ne ration Mo scow ( Ru ssia) 8 Septem be r 20 0 6 Web sit e: http: / /www.u sea .org/CFFS/CFFS
Mo scow.h tm  Ope ning Remarks Se rg ey Mazure nko , Fe d era l Ag e ncy for Sci
en ce and In novat io n s, Ru ssia; V. P

. Voroni n, Op en J oin t Sto ck Co mpa n y RAO “U ES of R ussi a, ” Russia E- m ai l: Ba rb ara McKee, Ch ai rma n , WEC Cl eaner Fossi l Fuel s Syst e ms (CFFS) Co mmi ttee, Em ai l : Bar bara

. mckee @h q
. d o e.g ov Gu rg en Ol khovsky, Dire ctor Ge n e ra l, All
R ussi an Ther ma l En g ine e rin g Institute, R ussi a Em ai l : vti @cnt

. ru  Fo ssil Fu els fo r Pow er Gene ra

tion El en a Nekha ev, D ire cto r of Pro gram mes, Wo rl d Ene rgy Co un cil, Un ited Ki ng dom Em ai l : Nekhaev@wo rld e ne rg y.o rg  T h

e Use o f Fo ssil Fu el

s i n th e Po wer Industry of R ussi a An atol y Tu ma n ovsky, A ll -Ru ssia n Thermal En
gin e e rin g In st it u t e , Ru ssi a Ema il : vt i@cn t

. ru  Nat ura l Ga s C ombi ne d C ycle P l a

n

t s Alexa n d er S il in , G E , U n i t e d S tat e s  E n

viro nme nt

al P ro

t ect io

n S yst em s f or Fossil Pow er P la

nt

s Jo h n Top p e r, I n t e rn at io n a l E ne rg y Agency Cle an Co a l Ce n tre (I E A C CC) Ema il : Jo h n .To p p e r@ie a -co a l. o rg
. u k  Re sult s o f Im pl

em en t at

io

n of I G

CC Demon
st

ra

t io

n Pl an t s i n th e U S

A a n

d Fu rt

h

er Devel
op me nt o f Th is Tech no lo

g

y Rob e rt G en t ile , Le o n a rd o Te ch n o lo gi es Inc, Uni te d S tat e s Ema il : RHG e n t ile @ao l. com  Ap pl

ica ti

on E xp er

ie

n

ce wi t h t h

e O p

eration of the I G

CC Pl an t s i n P o

rt

a

la

mo an d t h

e Pro sp ect s o f t

hi

s Te ch n

o

lo

g

y Pe d ro Casero, E L C O G A S , Sp a in  A pp li

cat io

n Exp e

r i e

n

ce w it

h t he O p

e

r a

tion of P

re

ssur ized Flui di

zed -b

e

d Co mb in

ed Cycle Pla n

ts an d t he P ro

spe ct

s o f t

h

e U se of this Te chn o

lo

gy fo r P o

we r G e

n

e

ra

t io

n Akio Na ka n ish i, Ja p a n  Po we r Un it G e

ne ra

t e

d C O

2 Ca pt

ure a nd Se
que str at

io

n – I d

e

as a n

d A ch ie

ve me nt

s Jo h n Top p e r, I n t e rn at io n a l E ne rg y Agency, Cle an Co a l Ce n te r (I E A C CC) Ema il : Jo h n .To p p e r@ie a -co a l. o rg
. u k 

# 31 2007 CCS booklet text pages:WEC booklet 10/28/07 9:58 PM Page 31Carbon Capture and Storage: a WEC “Interim Balance” World Energy Council 2007



## 7
. W E C Cl ea ne r Fo ssil Fue ls S yste ms (C FFS) Co mmi tt ee D ial og u e on : Mitigati ng t he growing cont ributi ons of We st Asia in gl obal emissions D e ad Sea (Jo rd an ) , 25 Ap ril 2 00 7 Websit e: h ttp : / /www.use a.o rg /C FFS/CFFSA m man. ht m  Opening Remarks , Wel co me and O vervi ew Hi sha m Al -K hat ib, Ho n o ra ry Vi ce Ch airman , W EC , Jo rd an E mail: K hat ib @n ets.com .j o  Ca r bo n Cap ture and Stor ag e (CCS)

– Global Ove r view B arb ara McKee , Cha irm an , WE C Cl eaner Fossil Fu el s S yst e ms (CFFS ) Co mm ittee, E mail: B ar ba ra .m cke e @ hq .d oe
. gov  En ergy Situ at

ion in Jor dan G hal eb Ma- a b ra h, Co mmissi on er, El ectricity Re gul ato ry C o m missio n, Jo rd an E -m ail : g ma ab re h@ erc.g ov.j o  The Cle an Deve l opm ent Me ch anism Mu st afa Att ili, Q ua lity Envi ro nm en t & Safety De partm en t M a n ag e r, Deve lo pm en t & Plan
ni ng Di visio n , C e ntra l Elect ri city G en erat ing Co ., Jord a n E mail: matti li@ce g co .co m.j o  Po w

er Se ctor P er

spective Rash ee d S u la ima n, Sale s Ap pl icati on Engi
nee ri ng , G E E ne rg y, Mi d dle East & Africa E -m ail : rash ee d

. su la ima n@ ge .co m  Oil a nd Gas S ecto r Pe rspect ive Zara Kh ati b, Te ch n o lo gy Ma nag er, S he l l EP I nte rn ati on al L i mi te d , Un ite d Arab Emi rates E mail: Za ra. z. kh atib @sh ell. co m  Gas Flar ing R edu ctio n Fra nçoi s M ou ton , Advi sor, Gl ob al G as Flaring Re duct io n , The Wor ld Ba nk E mail: f mo uto n@ wor ldb a nk. org  E ff

ect of Fi ri

ng H ea vy Fu el O il for Electricity Ge ne ra

t io

n o n th e E nviro nme nt Fo u ad M. A lsa ee d i, G en e rat io n Engineer, G e ne ra l Te ch n ica l De pa rt me n t, Saudi Arabia E ma il: f al sae e d i@se

. co m. sa  Tech no lo

g

y f o

r S u

st

ai

na b

le Development Mil to n Cat el in , Ch ie f E xe cu t i ve, World Coal In
st it u te , U n it e d K in g d om E -ma il: mcat e lin @wci- coa l. co m  Re gula to

ry P er

sp e

ct

i ve o n Mi tigating Global Emissi on s S e rg io G a rri bb a , Fo r m e r D irector General, Min ist ry of Prod u ct ive Act ivi ti es, Italy E -ma il: s. g ar rib b a@ hot ma il. it  Ca rb

o

n Ca pt

ure a n

d S to

ra

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e: Opportunities an d Ch a

lle

ng e

s K la u s B re n d ow, S e n io r Ad vi so r, World Energy Co u n cil, Sw itzer la nd E -ma il: K B re nd ow@co mp u se rve.com 

## 8. WE C Cle a n er Fo ssil Fu e ls S yst ems (CFFS) Co mmi tt e e S e ssio n d u ri ng t h e 2 0 t h World Energy Co n gress o n : Fos s i l Fue l s Lea di ng the Clean En e rgy Revol uti on? Ro me (I ta ly) 1 2

. Nove m b e r 2 0 0 7  Ope nin g S t a

t em en t & W hy Fo ssil Fuels Must Le ad t h

e C le

a

n En e

rg

y Re vo lution B a rb ara McKe e , C h a ir m a n , WEC Cleaner Fo ssil Fu e ls Syst e ms (CFFS ) Committee, E ma il: B ar ba ra
. mcke e @h q
. d o e.gov  Op p

o

rt

uni t i e

s a n

d C ha ll

en g

e

s for New Tech
n

ol

ogie s a n

d De p

lo

yme n

t I

n

cluding CCS V icto r De r, De p u ty Assist a n t S ecretary for Cle a n Co al , US De p a rt me n t of Energy E -ma il: V icto r.D er @h q. d o e
. g ov  Fo ssil E n

e

rg

y a n

d En vir onm e

nt in an Interde
pe n

d

e

nt Wo r ld P ete r G a r ru ch o , M a n ag in g Di rector, First P h ilip p in e s H ol di ng Co rp o rat ion; Chairman, WE C P h ilip p in e s M em be r Co mmittee E -ma il: p d ga rr uch o @f p h c. co m 

# 3 2 2007 CCS booklet text pages:WEC booklet 10/28/07 9:58 PM Page 32Carbon Capture and Storage: a WEC “Interim Balance” World Energy Council 2007

 M a

rket Drivers fo r Cle an Fossi l Fu e

l s Sys
te

ms M ich ael M oore, Dire ctor of Ma r ketin g, Eastern R egi on Fa lcon S to rag e C omp a ny, In c., United St at es E- m ai l: m moore @fa lco ng assto rage .com  Th e Global Sta ke in Te chno log y T ransfer Preston Chi aro, Ch ief Execu tive En ergy, Rio Ti nto PLC ; Ch air man , Wo rl d Co al Institute (WC I) , Uni te d Ki ng do m Em ai l : presto n. chia ro @ri otin to.co m  Op en D iscu ssion M ode rator : H ish am A l- Kh at ib , C ha irma n , Ele ctrici ty Regu
l ato ry Com mi ssio n , Jo rd an Em ai l : Khati b@n ets.co m.jo 

## B

. L ist of Internation al C CS I ni tiat ive s a) Formul ati on of polic ies  The G 8 ( Group of 8), at Gle ne agles (Scot
l and ) in 2 005 (www.g 8.g ov.u k), ag reed in i ts Pl an of Acti on in ter al ia to acce le rat e t he de
vel op men t and co mme rcia lizatio n of CC S. It m and at ed the I E A an d C SL F to h old a work
sho p on short- te rm o p p o rtun itie s. It will con si der a report o n C limate Ch an g e, Cl e an En ergy and S ust a in ab le D eve lo pme n t at its sessi on in Japa n in 20 0 8.  The I nte rnat ion al En ergy Ag e ncy (IEA) (www.i ea. org) exp an d ed its l on g- standing in
vol vem ent in cle an fo ssil fu el te ch n ologies into C CS

.  The C arb on Se qu estratio n Le adership Forum ( CS LF) (www. cslforu m.o rg ) e n de avo rs to m ake CC S tech no lo gi es b road ly avail able. It fo ste rs col laborat ive R D&D an d, in re sponse to t he above-me ntio n ed G8 re qu est , exam i nes n e ar- ter m CCS op p ortu ni ti es, together w it h I EA , at wo rksh op s (San Fra nci sco 2006, Osl o 2007 , Ca nada 20 0 7).  Th e UN Fra mewo r k C o n ve nt io n on Cl imate Cha n g e ( UNFCC C ) (h tt p : / /u n fccc. org ) and the Kyoto P roto co l ( h tt p : u nfccc. in t/kyoto ) aim at th e mit ig ati on of cl i mat e ch a n ge Th ey con si de r p re se n t e lig ib il ity of CCS p roje ct s for c l ea n d eve lo p me n t m e ch a n ism a n d joint im
ple me n t ati on
.  Th e E urop e a n U ni on e m issio n trad i n g sch e me (h ttp : / /e c. e u ro p a. e u /en vironment/cli
mat/e missio n
. h tm ) do e s n ot , at p re sent , sup po rt CCS ; howeve r, t h e 6 th ( h tt p : / /e c. eu ro p a
. eu /re se a rch / f p 6/in dex.html ) an d 7 th Fra mewo rk P ro g ra mme s fo r Re search an d Tech n o lo g ica l Devel op me n t ( h tt p : / /e c. eu ro p a
. eu /re se a r ch / f p 7/i ndex.html ) cal l fo r CC S- re late d p roje cts. b) Data c ol l e ct ion a nd a nal ys i s  I E A p u b licat io n s (www. ie a. o rg ):

– P ro sp e cts fo r CO 2 ca pt u re a n d storage, 2 0 0 4 ;

– Le g al asp e ct s of sto r in g C O 2 , 2 0 05;

– Le g al asp e ct s of ca rb o n ca ptu re and sto rag e , 2 0 06 ;  I E A b o d ie s:

– G re e n ho u se Gas R& D P ro g ra mme (www.i eag re e n
. o rg );

– I E A Cl ea n Co a l Ce nt re (www.i eaco a l. o rg );

– I E A Wo rkin g P arty o n Fossi l Fuels (zero e missi on s, le g al asp e ct s);

– I E A Co a l I n du st ry Ad viso ry Bo ard (www.i ea
. o rg /cia b );  E u ro p e an Co mmi ssio n: E u ro pean Climate Cha n g e P ro g ra m Wo rkin g G ro u p o n Carbon Capt u re an d G e o lo g i ca l S torag e ( h ttp://eu
rop a
. e u. in t/co m m. /e n viro n me n t/clim at/stake_ wg. h t m );  W MO/ U N E P I n t ergove rn me n t al Panel on Cli
mat e Ch a ng e Wo r kin g G ro u p I o n The physi
ca l scie n ce basis, Wo rkin g G ro u p I I on Cli mat e ch a n g e im pact s, ad a pt at io n and vul
ne ra b ili ty, a nd Wo rkin g G ro u p I II o n M itigation 

# 33 2007 CCS booklet text pages:WEC booklet 10/28/07 9:58 PM Page 33Carbon Capture and Storage: a WEC “Interim Balance” World Energy Council 2007

of cl imat e ch an ge (www.ip cc.ch ); S pe cial re port o n ca rb on d i oxid e ca ptu re an d sto rage (2 005 )  World E ne rg y C ou nci l (www. worldenergy.org ):

– Co m mi tt e e o n Cl ea ne r Fo ssil Fuel s Sys
t e ms (CFFS ): pa mp hl et o n C ar bo n C ap t u re a nd S to rage – a W E C in te r i m B a lan ce , Lon d o n 20 06 an d 2 00 7 ;

– Co m mi tt e e o n th e Perfor m a nce of Gen
e rati ng Pl an t s: S t ud y on e n ergy a nd cli
mat e ch an g e ;

– P ilot pro g ram me o n gre e nh ou se gas (G HG ) e missio n s re du cti o n ( con cluded);

– CC S p ilot p roje cts in Brazi l, C hina, South Af rica (in it iat e d)

. c) C oll aborati ve deve lopment of technol og ies  The I E A I mp le men tin g Ag re em ents also ad
dress CCS ; t h e I EA Co al R ese a rch
- C lean Co al Ce nt re (www.ie a- coal

. o rg ) un de rt a ke s a n ext en sive pro g ram me o n cl ea n co al tech nolo
gi es, su rveys pro g ress in C C S ;  The C S L F sup p orts 1 7 CCS collaborat i ve proje cts (www. cslforu m.o rg/p roje cts.htm);  The E U 6 t h ( http :/ /e c.e u rop a .e u /rese arch/ f p6/i nd ex.html ) and 7 t h Framewo rk P rog ra m m es fo r Re s e a rch and Tech no lo gi cal Deve lopm en t ( htt p ://ec.eu
ro pa. e u/re se ar ch /f p 7/i nd ex. h tm l ) cal l fo r CC S -re lat e d p rojects. d) In ter nati on al lega l an d regul ato ry f ram ewo rks  Th e UN Conven tio n o n th e Law of t he Se a (UNCLOS ) (www.un clo s. com), 1 98 2, do e s not sp e cif ica lly re g ulate or p roh ib it CCS activ i tie s, b u t c alls on St ates to p rotect the mari ne env i
ro n me nt fro m hu man activ ity su ch as du mping

.  The Lo nd on Co nve ntio n o n t he Preven tion of Ma ri ne Po llu t io n by D umpi ng of Wastes and Other Matt er, 19 7 2 (www. lo nd o nco nve n ti on .org ) proh ib it s t he dum pi ng of “wast e” in to th e sea ;  Th e Lo n d on P rotoco l to t h e a bove Conven
t io n , 1 9 9 6 , a llows as of 1 0 February 2007 the d u mp in g of C O 2 st re a ms from CO 2 capture p ro ce sses a n d i n ci d e n t a l asso ciated sub
st a nce s in su b
- se a b e d g e o lo gical formations;  Th e B ase l C o n ve n t io n on t h e Control of Tra n sb ou n d a ry Move m e n t s of Hazardous Wast e , 1 9 8 9 (www. base l. in t ), does not con sid e r CO 2 as a h aza rd o u s waste, but may do so if co n t a in in g toxic su bst a n ces.  Re g io n al t re at ie s a n d co nve ntions for the pro t e cti on of t h e ma rin e e n viro n ment may have imp li cat io n s for C CS : in t h e North-East At
la n t ic (O SP A R), 1 9 92 ; B al ti c S ea, 1992; Black S e a, 1 9 9 4 ; wid e r Ca rib b e an region, 1983; Me d it e rra n ea n , 1 9 7 6 ; G u lf , 1 978; west and ce n tral Af rica n re g io n, 1 9 81 ; South Pacific, 1 9 81 , 1 9 8 6 ; as we ll as t h e B amako Conven
t io n o n t h e B a n of t h e I mp ort to Africa and the Co n t ro l of Tra n sb o u n d a ry Movement and Ma n age me n t of Haza rd o us Waste within Af rica , 1 9 9 1

.
e) Se l e cte d R D&D proj e ct s S om e 1 1 0 R D& D p roj e ct s o n C CS have been un d erta ke n wo rld wid e an d d escr ib e d in the database of t h e I E A G re e n h ou se G as R& D P rogramme ( h tt p: / / www. co 2 capt u re a n d sto rag e. info/search.php 4 ). Majo r CC S p roje cts ad d re ssin g new combustion a nd sto rag e t e chn o lo g ie s (exclu di ng EOR) include: i. Sto rag e  Sl ei pn e r ( N orwegi an N orth Se a) (www.statoi l. com/)

– fi rst i nd ustr i a l- scal e sto rage of C O 2 from g as p rocessi ng si nce 1 9 96, ong oi ng  CO 2 S tore (www. co2 sto re
. o rg )

– a follow-up to t h e Sl ei p n e r p roje ct o n sto ring and monitor
in g CO 2 in aq u ifers  I n S a la h (A lg er ia) (www. b p
. com)

– an indus
t ria l sca le de mo n st rat i o n of CO 2 g eological sto rage co mme n ce d in 2 0 04  G assi Tou il (Al ge ri a)

– a n i nt e grated gas proj
e ct b etwe e n R e p so l (S p ai n) a nd Sonatrach 

# 3 4 2007 CCS booklet text pages:WEC booklet 10/28/07 9:58 PM Page 34Carbon Capture and Storage: a WEC “Interim Balance” World Energy Council 2007

(Al ger ia), i nclu din g C CS, co n tracted 2004, op erat io nal i n 2 010  Weybur n II ( Ca nada) (www.ptrc.ca/)

– C O 2 sto rage in conjun ctio n with comm ercial scal e en ha nced oil recove ry since 20 0 1  Go rg on (A ustra lia) (www.co 2 crc.co m
. au )

– in
j ecti ng C O 2 f ro m n at u ral g as p ro cessi ng in a n offsho re sal ine fo rmatio n as of 2 0 11, with an i nte nd ed capacity of 1 20 milli on to n s  C O 2 S ink (www. co sin k2.o rg)

– te stin g ca pture an d storage of 60 kt in a sa lin e aqu ifer, in Ket
zi n n ea r Ber li n  C ASTOR (www.co 2castor.co m)

– pil ot plant captu rin g a nd sto rin g CO 2 fro m t he El sam coa l power st at io n i n De nm ark  H al ten ( mi d-No rway)

– ca ptu ring 2.5 mi ll ion to ns CO 2 f rom n at u ral g as exp loratio n a nd powe r gene rat io n for EOR a n d pe rmanent sto rage in t he Drau g e n a n d He id run depo si t s  St an wel l (A ustral ia)

– a 1 80 0 t/day coal -based IG CC demo nst rat io n p la nt (2 00 7 -20 1 0 ) w ith car bo n seque stratio n (4 1 00 t/d ay) and storage ( net e ff ici ency wit h ou t/w ith ca rbo n ca pture: 40 %, 34. 3 %)  Ge oN et (www.co 2 ge on et.co m)

– a Europe an proj ect o n g eol og ica l sto rage of CO 2 ii

. Powe r gen erat ion with CC S  Fut ureG en (www.fu ture g en a lliance.org )
- a U.S.
- led i nte rnati on al fu ll-sca le CCS demon
strat io n coal- f ire d p lan t based on IGC C and pre- com bust ion ca ptu re  The Ze ro Em issio n Fo ssil Fu el Powe r Plant Tech no logy Platform – a Eu rop e an Union ini
ti at ive b uil d o n th e EC Hyp o g e n- Dynamis and ot he r proj ect s; t he Pl atfor ms emp h asizes the ne ed fo r abou t 1 0 CC S p rojects cover ing the en ti re ch ain (htt p: //ec.e urop a.e u/re search/en
ergy/pdf/ze ro_emi ssion

_ffpp

_en .pd f)  V att enf al l Oxyfue l p ilot p la nt Schwarze Pumpe (www.vatt enf al l. de ) ( Ge rma n y)  G R E E NG E N

– a Ch in e se G overnment project fo r a 40 0 MW ze ro -e missio n p owe r plant by 20 2 0  TO TA L Oxyf u e l b o i le r pi lot sca le at Lacq (Fra nce )  C O O R E TE C

– CO OR IV A (www.cooret ec.de)
- inn ovat ive I G CC co mb u st io n t e ch no logies wit h CO 2 red u ct io n a n d sto rag e (G er ma ny)  C A N M E T (www. n rca n
. g c. ca)
- a Technology Cen t re p ilot p roje ct o n CC S (C a n ad a)  E NC A P (www.e n ca p co 2

. o rg )
- an integrated proje ct o n n ew p re co m b u st i o n te ch nologies sp o n so re d by 3 3 le g a l e nt it ie s, in clu ding the EU  C O M TE S 7 0 0 (www. com te s7 0 0. org)

– testing co mp o n e nt s to e n a b le C O 2 red u ct io n for a new 4 0 0 MW 7 0 0 ° C p owe r p la n t (Germany)  C O 2 Capt u re Proj ect (www. co2 ca pt u repro ject

. o rg )
- a n in it iat ive of majo r e n e rg y compa nie s to red u ce e m i ssio n s vi a p o st -combustion scr ub b in g , p re -co mb u st io n d e ca rb o ni zation, Oxy-co mb u st io n a n d g e o l o g ica l se questration  Ze ro G e n (www. ze ro g e n
. com .a u )

– a n I GCC powe r p la n t wi th CCS in sa lin e aq u i fer (Aus
tra li a)  P ro g re ssive E ne rg y (www. d ti .g ov. u k/f il es/ f ile 3 0 8 6 5 p d f)

– an IGCC powe r p la n t wi th CO 2 ca pt u re fo r e n h a n ced oil recove ry (Un i t e d Ki ng d o m)  S ask P ower (www. saskpowe r. com)

– low sul
ph u r lig n it e p owe r p la n t wi t h Oxyf ue l technol
og y for e n h a n ce d o il re covery ( Ca nada)  P owe rf u e l

– a I G C C coa l- base d power plant wit h CC S (U ni te d K in gd o m)  E

. O N (www. eo n -u k. co m/8 8 3

. aspx)

– a n IGCC proje ct wit h a g as-f ire d p owe r p l a n t , wi th CCS at a l at e r st ag e (U n it e d Ki ng d o m)  RW E (www. rwe
. co m /g e n e rato r.aspx)

– IGCC te ch n ol og y to se p a rat e h yd ro g en fo r synthetic fu e l p ro du ct io n ( G e r m a n y) ( se e E NCAP ab ove ) 

# 35 2007 CCS booklet text pages:WEC booklet 10/28/07 9:58 PM Page 35Carbon Capture and Storage: a WEC “Interim Balance” World Energy Council 2007

 RW E n P owe r (www.n powe r.co
. u k)

– supe rcri ti cal t e chn o l o g y with p ost- com bu stion CCS (U ni te d K in g do m) ii i. E nha nced coa l b ed meth an e recovery  R E C O P O L (http//re co po l.ni tg

. tn o.nl)

– a EU co- fin an ce d R& D p roj ect on sto ri ng CO 2 in a n u nd erg ro u n d co al b ed (adso rpt io n) , whereby sim ul ta n eo u sl y m eth an e is re le ased for s ale (S il esi a, P ola n d)  C OAL S EQ I I C ON SORTIUM (www.co al
seq.co m )
- a US -l ed coll ab o rat i ve re sea rch proje ct in to t h e storag e of C O 2 in u nm in a bl e coal sea ms, an d re lated meth an e d isplace
me nt a n d ca pt u re  The A lb ert a Rese a rch Co u nci l (Canada) (A R C) E nh an ce d Co a l be d Met ha ne Recovery P roje ct vi a t he injectio n of C O 2 (www. arc.a b .ca), with a colla b orat ive out reach to t he C hin a C oa l b ed Meth an e Te chn ology / CO 2 Se q ue st rat io n P roje ct, S h an xi (C hi na) (www. arc.a b .ca/ I nd ex.aspx/ A RC/4 517)  a re sea rch p roje ct o n u nde rg ro und coal gasifi
cat io n wit h loca l CCS storag e (w it h o r wit hout enh ance d co a lbe d m eth ane recovery) presen t ly pro mot ed (www. u cg p .co m ). C. Abbrev iati ons C ca rb on CCS ca rb on ca ptu re a n d sto rage C CG T co mb in ed cycle g as t u r b ine CDM cle a n d eve lo pm en t m e chanism (Kyoto Proto co l) CFFS WE C Cle a n er Fo ssil Fu e ls Systems Co mmi tt e e C O 2 c a rb on d ioxid e CS L F Ca rb o n S e q ue st rat i o n Le adership Forum E OR e nh a n ce d o il re cove ry E GR e nh a n ce d g as re cove ry G EF G lo ba l E n viro n me n ta l Facility G HG g re en h o u se g as G t g ig ato n (1 to n x 1 0 9 ) G W g ig aw att (1 Watt x 1 0 9 ) I EA I nt e rn at io na l E n e rg y Ag ency I GC C in t eg rat e d g asif icat i o n combined cycle I PC C I nt e rg ove rn me nt a l P a ne l on Climate Ch an g e JI jo in t i mp le me nt at io n ( Kyoto Protocol) L NG liq u e fi ed n atu ra l g as MW me g aw att (1 Watt x 1 0 6 ) P CC p ul ver ize d co a l co mb ust ion p pm p arts p e r mill io n (rat io of the number of CO 2 mo le cu le s in th e tot al number of mo le cul es of dry a ir) RD& D re se arch, d evel op me n t and demonstra
ti on S CS C su pe r- crit ica l st ea m cycle WE C Wo rld En e rg y Co u nci l WI P O Wo rld In t e lle ct u al P ro p e rty Organization WTO Wo rld Trade O rg a ni zat io n ZE T ze ro e mi ssio n t e ch no lo gy D. Conta ct edi tor Dr. Kl au s B re n d ow S en io r Ad vise r, Wo rl d E n e rg y C o u n cil E -ma il: K bren d ow@co mp u se rve
. co m E
. Contact WE C E le na Ne kh a ev Dire cto r of P ro g ra mme s E -ma il: Ne kh aev@wor ld en e rg y. o rg 

# 3 6 2007 CCS booklet text pages:WEC booklet 10/28/07 9:58 PM Page 362007 CCS booklet_covers2.qxp:Layout 1 10/28/07 9:53 PM Page 3World Energy Council Regency House 1-4 Warwick Street London W1B 5LT United Kingdom T (+44) 20 7734 5996 F (+44) 20 7734 5926 E info@worldenergy.org www.worldenergy.org

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