National Park Service

U.S. Department of the Interior

Wrangell-St. Elias National Park and Preserve

Copper Center, Alaska

Yakutat Tlingit and Wrangell-St. Elias

National Park and Preserve:

An Ethnographic Overview and 

Assessment

Appendix A:

Annotated Bibliography

Compiled by 

Rachel Lahoff, Thomas Thornton, and Douglas Deur

Portland State University Department of Anthropology

And incorporating excerpts from 

D. Theodoratus, Hoonah Tlingit Use of Glacier Bay: Annotated Bibliography. 

August 2015
Wrangell-St. Elias National Park and Preserve

PO Box 439/Mile 106.8 Richardson Highway

Copper Center AK 99573

www.nps.gov/wrst

Completed under Cooperative Agreement H8W0711000, Task Agreement 

J8W07100006, between Portland State University and the National Park Service, 

Wrangell-St. Elias National Park and Preserve.
1

Introduction

The following annotated bibliography was compiled as part of a project to develop an 

ethnographic overview and assessment for Yakutat Tlingit and Wrangell-St. Elias National Park 

and Preserve, which is available as a separate document. While this annotated bibliography is 

meant to serve as a guide for the research for the aforementioned ethnographic overview and 

assessment, it also serves as a standalone product that can be used as a resource for both agency 

and tribal representatives, as well as other individuals interested in researching the Wrangell-St. 

Elias lands, Yakutat Tlingit, historical narratives related to the region and a variety of other 

related topics. While the sources listed and annotated in this bibliography were reviewed 

specifically for references to Wrangell-St. Elias and Yakutat Tlingit, they were also reviewed for 

the purpose of developing a more general understanding of the cultural and historical context in 

which Yakutat Tlingit existed and evolved from the pre-contact era into the contemporary 

period. As such, some of the materials in this document relate to non-place specific topics, as 

well as locations and landmarks outside of the general study area of Wrangell-St. Elias.

The following document consists of existing published and unpublished sources that relate to 

Yakutat Tlingit and Eyak areas of interest, ethnographic writings concerning these communities 

and historical literature of these communities and the surrounding regions. This document is 

divided into two sections, the first focusing on circulating published and unpublished sources and 

the second section focusing on archival collections and materials. In the first section, when 

separate listings appear for the same document with different dates of publishing, the later 

document is typically a revised version of the first document or a published version of an

unpublished document or thesis/dissertation of the same name. Certain materials listed are 

recordings that focus on or reference the study area. Some of these recordings have been 

digitalized, and where available, the URL for the digital version is provided.

The research conducted to yield this document was primarily conducted using the library 

collections of the University of Washington, Portland State University, as well as the University 

of Alaska’s remotely accessible collections. Existing literature review documents within NPS 

files, as well as a variety of online research collections regarding the study area were also used in 

the development of this annotated bibliography.
2

Abraham, Elaine

1984. Elaine Abraham Recordings Collection, circa 1951-1979. Juneau: Special 

Collections Research Center, Sealaska Heritage Institute.

Yakutat native Elaine Abraham compiled this collection representing original research 

conducted between 1951 and 1979. It consists of twenty-one audio recordings focusing 

on the Tlingit Indians of the Yakutat area. The recordings are mainly Abraham’s family 

members speaking about the history and heritage of the Yakutat Tlingit, particularly

surrounding Dry Bay. Abraham’s father was a traditional Tlingit chief. These recordings 

are for “in library use only” at the Sealaska Heritage Institute Library. The call number is 

MC 15.

1995. Interview by William Schneider. H95-71-28. Project Jukebox. University of Alaska 

Fairbanks Oral History Program. http://jukebox.uaf.edu/site7/interviews/662.

Abraham and Mary Ann Paquette are recorded commenting on a photo album made by a 

Japanese photographer, Seiki Kayamori, who resided in Yakutat until World War II. Both 

women provide a detailed account of their childhoods in Yakutat.

Abraham, Olaf

1973. Haa k̲̲usteeyée ayá: Yakutat History. Elaine Abraham, trans. Sitka: Sheldon 

Jackson College.

Abraham, a Yakutat Tlingit, describes his memories of traditional life in Yakutat in the 

late 1800s. He begins with a description of the structure of community or clan houses and 

the ways in which they were built. He also provides an explanation of ownership and use 

of resources, such as trees used for canoes, firewood and houses. Abraham also speaks of 

the spirit of good luck believed to reside within the trees. Abraham then goes on to 

describe the variety of wildlife used for food purposes and the significance of treating 

these animals with respect. He discusses the importance of fish for dietary purposes, the 

roles undertaken by members of the community and rules associated with the harvesting 

of the fish. Seal and sea otter hunting are also discussed. The author also describes 

interactions with Russians and the battle between the Russians and the native Yakutat 

community. Tlingit place names and words are included in Olaf’s descriptions, as well. 

Ackerman, Maria

1975. Tlingit Stories. Anchorage: AMU Press.

“This children's book of Northern Tlingit stories includes a glossary for each story and a 

map of the Chilkat area. The author's background is Northern Tlingit with origins in 

Klukwan and Yakutat” (Theodoratus 2000). The stories in this book come from Tlingit 

natives including Austin Hammond Sr., Laura Hotch, Charles Jimmie, and Horace 

Marks. The stories are in English only, with interpolated Tlingit words.
3

Ackerman, Robert E. 

1968. The Archaeology of the Glacier Bay Region, Southeastern Alaska. Report of 

Investigations No. 44. Pullman: Washington State University Laboratory of 

Anthropology.

“Ackerman's final report on the archaeological survey of the Glacier Bay National 

Monument covers the 1965 field season and concludes with a brief archaeological 

overview of the Monument (Epilogue). This archaeological survey covers Taylor Bay 

and the coastal area from Cape Spencer in the south, north to the Justice Creek area a few 

miles south of Cape Fairweather. Artifacts from these excavations are discussed by type. 

In an epilogue the author notes the difficulty of locating sites in the area because of 

fluctuations in coastal elevations; thus, a coastal site of 5000 years ago could now be a 

mile inland at several hundred feet elevation. Although the terrain was difficult to survey, 

the archaeological team found many sites – historic Tlingit fishing camps or sites related 

to non-Indian activity in, and exploration, of the area. Appendix one provides a list of 59 

sites with a map” (Theodoratus 2000).

1974. Post Pleistocene Cultural Adaptations on the Northern Northwest Coast. In 

International Conference on the Prehistory and Paleoecology of Western North 

American Arctic and Subarctic. S. Raymond and P. Schlederman, eds. Archaeological 

Association, University of Calgary. 

“This reference includes material on the cultural ecology of past inhabitants of Icy Bay” 

(Theodoratus 2000).

Adams, Walter H., Sr. 

2006. The Way It Was! New York: Vantage Press, Inc.

Adams, a Yakutat native, uses a storytelling framework to recall his upbringing in his 

small home village in Yakutat, Alaska in the 1940s and 1950s. Interspersed throughout 

the stories, Adams relates traditional Tlingit spiritual and subsistence practices, and 

describes the natural and cultural landscape of the area.

Alaska Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G)

1984. Yakutat Comprehensive Salmon Plan. Division of Commercial Fisheries. Special 

Publication No. 24. Division of Commercial Fisheries, Alaska Department of Fish and 

Game.

This plan was created in response to the passage of the Alaska National Interest Lands 

Conservation Act of 1980. It includes information on the history of Native settlements in 

the Yakutat area from Dry Bay to Yakutat Bay. It also provides information regarding 

historic and contemporary subsistence patterns of Native residents of the Yakutat area 

regarding salmon, specifically. The information contained in this plan is the result of a 

review of historical accounts and records as well as contemporary data sets compiled in 

1983, regarding the salmon fishery of the Yakutat area. The plan is also a result of public 

participation in the form of meetings in the Yakutat area with local residents.
4

Alaska Geographic Society

1979. Alaska's Native People: Their Villages and Languages. Anchorage: Alaska 

Geographic Society.

This book attempts to describe, through personal accounts, stories, maps, illustrations and 

photographs, the different cultures that are identified as Native peoples of Alaska. Of 

particular interest are the chapters on “People of the Gulf Coast,” including the Eyak and 

“Indians of Southeastern,” including the Tlingit. Photographs and illustrations and their 

corresponding captions depict traditional subsistence resources of the peoples, including 

salmon, seal, shellfish and seaweed. Ceremonial dances and ritual art objects are also 

photographed and described regarding Tlingit peoples. Also of interest is an essay by 

Tlingit native, William Paul Sr., which describes his life growing up in a traditional 

Tlingit family.

1981. Wrangell-Saint Elias: International Mountain Wilderness. Anchorage: Alaska 

Geographic Society.

This book provides a general overview of the Wrangell-Saint Elias region. Text and 

accompanying photographs describe the physical terrain of the area, including the 

Wrangell, Saint Elias and Chugach ranges. There are also sections that focus on the 

climate, flora and wildlife of the region. The book is then broken down into regions, 

including the coastal area encompassing Icy Bay and Yakutat Bay. The environment and 

inhabitants of the region are briefly described. The archaeological record within the Saint 

Elias region is examined. Mineral resources in the region are also discussed, including 

those available and mined at the Kennecott complex. A brief section of the book is 

dedicated to the people residing in the Wrangells and their economic conditions. Yakutat 

is mentioned as one of the largest commercial centers in the Saint Elias area, and both 

Native and non-Native communities are discussed.

1988. Glacier Bay: Icy Wilderness. Anchorage: Alaska Geographic Society.

This summary of Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve includes a description of the 

physical environment of the area, including: the climate, park boundaries, land types and 

uses, ongoing geological process (including earthquakes and seismic waves), history of 

glacial activity and the status of the glaciers today (including the Malaspina Glacier 

northwest of Yakutat and within Wrangell-St. Elias National Park and Preserve), and the 

availability of natural resources in the area (including willow, berries, Sitka spruce). The 

book also includes a number of pictures depicting the natural resources in the area. The 

chapter entitled “Earliest Inhabitants, First Explorers,” includes information on 

prehistoric habitation of the area beginning ten thousand years ago, as well historic 

habitation by the Tlingit. Archaeological evidence and Tlingit legends are discussed in 

relation to occupation of the area. Village locations, seasonal land uses and subsistence 

resources of the Tlingit pre-contact are discussed, as well as arrival of European explorers 

and traders and the impacts on Native communities.
5

1993. Prince William Sound. Anchorage: Alaska Geographic Society.

This book provides a historical and contemporary overview of Prince William Sound. 

The natural resources of the area are described in detail, including but not limited to: 

salmon, halibut, killer whales, rainbow trout, black bear, mountain goat and deer. The 

physical terrain and climate of the area are also described. A chapter entitled “Other 

Communities” describes four contemporary communities in the sound, including: 

Whittier, Chenega Bay, Tatitlek and Cordova. Chenega Bay and Tatitlek are both Native 

villages with traditional ties to the area. This book also contains a number of photographs 

displaying the land and natural resources of Prince William Sound. Of particular interest 

is a chapter entitled “The Hidden History of Chugach Bay,” listed separately (Wooley 

and Haggarty 1993).

1994. Prehistoric Alaska. Anchorage: Alaska Geographic Society.

This book provides a general overview of Alaska’s prehistory, beginning with the 

formation of Alaska between two billion and 500 million or 1billion years ago, according 

to geologists. The prehistory of the physical environment is described, as are the past 

twenty million years of vegetation via the fossil record, the colonization by dinosaurs and 

later humans. The prehistoric peoples of Alaska are described by region, including a 

chapter on the peoples of Alaska’s interior, citied separately (Olson 1994).

Alaska Magazine

1927. How the White Men Came to Lituya and What Happened to Yeahlth-kan Who 

Visited Them: The Tlingit Tradition of La Perouse' Visit. Alaska Magazine 1(3):151-153.

“The legend describes the actions within a Lituya village as the de la Perouse ship neared. 

One Tlingit wise man volunteered to investigate the ship which was believed to be 

Yeahlth (creator). On board, the wise man realized, at the sign for trade, that he was in 

the presence of human strangers, after which trade commenced with this Tlingit 

individual. The sailors did not come to shore and the ship sailed away at sunrise. In 1927 

descendants still possessed a ship's bell that was traded from the ship” (Theodoratus

2000).

Allen, Henry T., Lieut.

1887. Report of an Expedition to the Copper, Tananá, and Kóyukuk Rivers in the 

Territory of Alaska, in the Year 1885. 49th Congress, 2nd Session. Ex Doc, No. 125. 

Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.

Part one includes historical information about both the Copper and Tananá Rivers. Part 

two consists of narratives of travel in the region. Part three includes maps and tables of 

distances, and part 4 consists of ethnographic information about the “natives.”

Andrews, Clarence L.

1916. Alaska Under the Russians – Baranof the Builder. The Washington Historical 

Quarterly 7(3):202-216.
6

This article is the result of a review of historical sources, primarily of Russian origin. 

This article primarily focuses on the history of the Russian explorers’ experience in 

Alaska in the 19th century, particularly in and around Sitka; however, there is mention of 

Russian interactions with Native peoples. Of particular relevance is the mention of 

“settled tribes,” such as inhabitants of the Chugach region or “wild tribes” such as the 

Kolosh (Tlingit) and their participation in trade with the Russians.

Arnold, David F. 

2008. The Fishermen’s Frontier: People and Salmon in Southeast Alaska. Seattle: 

University of Washington Press.

This book examines the salmon fishery of Southeast Alaska from pre-contact to 

contemporary times. It is the result of historical and archival research. Of particular 

interest is the first chapter, which focuses on Native use and management of the salmon 

fishery prior to the arrival of European explorers and traders. Chapter two deals with the 

transformation of the salmon fishery with the introduction of fur trade and Russian 

colonization from the 1780s to the 1910s.

Averkieva, Julia

1971. The Tlingit Indians. In North American Indians in Historical Perspective. Eleanor 

Burke Leacock and Nancy Oestreich Lurie, eds. Pp. 317-342. New York: Random 

House.

“This cultural summary focuses on the ‘development and change of institutional forms’

in Tlingit society (p. v). In keeping with the objectives of the larger edited work, 

Averkieva, a Russian scholar, is concerned with sequential changes in Indian-white 

relations. After discussing Tlingit language and territory, the author summarizes early 

exploration and contact history, followed by technology and economy, trade, clan 

organization, the thirteen territorial groups or quans, the household, property, slavery, 

and social stratification. She then discusses the potlatch and the impact on it by the 

intrusion of outsiders and their activities. She concludes with a discussion of changes 

(from the Alaska purchase to the 1960s) in Tlingit economic and social life” 

(Theodoratus 2000). 

Bancroft, Hubert H.

1884. History of the Northwest Coast: 1543-1800, vol. 1. The Works of Hubert Howe 

Bancroft. San Francisco: A.L. Bancroft and Company. 

https://archive.org/details/cihm_14178, accessed March 13, 2015.

In this volume, Bancroft provides a description of the northwest coast and its history. In 

compiling this book, he used information gained from having access to Hudson’s Bay 

Company accounts, as well as government records and the private papers of James 

Douglas, Simon Fraser, John Stuart and other fur traders and explorers. He covers a 

multitude of topics, including previous explorations of the northwest coast, the natural 

geography of the region, maritime fur-trade and specific voyages to the area. He also 
7

discusses the availability of various wildlife species, particularly in relation to fur 

hunting. There are mentions of “Indians” throughout the volume, specifically chapter 

seventeen, entitled “Relative Attitudes of Fur-Traders and Natives.”

1886. History of Alaska: 1730-1885, vol. 33. The Works of Hubert Howe Bancroft. San 

Francisco: A.L. Bancroft and Company.

In this volume, Bancroft describes Alaska as a resource-rich region that had not yet 

supported a significant white population. He covers the history of Alaska, including the 

period of Russian contact and subsequent influence. He also describes specific voyages to 

the region, such as those of the promyshleniki [sic] and Chirikof among others. He also 

has several chapters that discuss trade in the region and rivalries between companies. 

Native populations are discussed in reference to contact with explorers, such as the attack 

at Sitka. Of particular interest is chapter thirty, which describes Alaskan fisheries and the 

various species in the region, including salmon, candlefish and cod.

Beck, Mary L. Giraudo

1989. Heroes and Heroines of Tlingit-Haida Legend and their Counterparts in Classical 

Mythology. Anchorage: Alaska Northwest Books.

Beck retells legends of both Tlingit and Haida origin, and compares the heroes and 

heroines to characters from Greek and Roman mythology, as well as some references to 

historic literature. She includes nine legends that describe origins of various resources 

and/or serve as cautionary tales. Interspersed throughout the stories are references to 

natural resources in the traditional territories of the Tlingit and Haida people.

1991. Shamans and Kushtakas: North Coast Tales of the Supernatural. Anchorage: 

Alaska Northwest Books.

The preface of Beck’s book covers information regarding relations between Haida and 

Tlingit societies through time and provides background information on social structure 

and age and gender-related rituals. The introduction gives an overview of the importance 

that the animal kingdom plays in both Haida and Tlingit spiritual beliefs and practices. 

Beck also defines and describes the various roles of shamans and kushtakas. The 

remainder of the book is divided into nine stories that deal with either shamans or 

kushtakas or both and showcase their power and function in Haida and Tlingit societies. 

Interspersed throughout the stories are references to subsistence foods and harvesting 

practices, such as salmon fishing, as well social organization and human relationships 

with nature.

Bennett, Marsha Erwin, Susan D. Heasley, and Susan Huey

1979. Northern Gulf of Alaska Petroleum Development Scenarios: Sociocultural Impacts. 

Technical Report 36. Anchorage: Alaska OCS Socioeconomic Studies Program. 

This report seeks to address the ways in which the Alaska Outer Continental Shelf 

Petroleum Development project will impact physical, social and economic aspects on a 
8

state level. The report covers both Eyak and Yakutat Tlingit history, including traditional 

subsistence practices and the Eyak’s reliance on waterfowl, mountain goat, bear, and 

salmon. The report includes original research in the form of fieldwork conducted in 

Cordova-Eyak and Seward largely in the summer and fall of 1978. The Cordova-Eyak 

fieldwork took place in two phases, the first in Cordova, the second in Eyak.

Betts, Martha F. 

1994. The Subsistence Hooligan Fishery of the Chilkat and Chilkoot Rivers. Technical 

Paper 213. Juneau: Division of Subsistence, Alaska Department of Fish and Game.

While this report focuses specifically on the Chilkat and Chilkoot Tlingit hooligan 

fishery, it discusses the importance of hooligan (eulachon) in subsistence practices and 

aboriginal trade throughout Southeast Alaska, including for other Tlingit groups. It notes 

the importance of edible oils, from hooligan as well as a variety of other sources, for 

Northwest Coast Indians, in general. Betts conducted fieldwork, primarily on the Chilkat 

River, in 1990 and 1991. Field data collection included observations and interviews 

conducted over the course of several days during harvest and processing seasons.

Bielawski, Ellen

2007. In Search of Ancient Alaska: Solving the Mysteries of the Past. Anchorage: Alaska 

Northwest Books. 

Bielawski uses archaeological evidence to discuss the history of pre-contact Alaskan 

peoples. Chapter five focuses specifically on southeast Alaska and the Copper River 

Delta, including an examination of Eyak, Tlingit, Haida, and Tsimshian peoples. 

Bielawski considers archaeological evidence dating back to 9,500 years ago that shows 

use of land for making tools, as well as the dietary patterns of pre-contact peoples of the 

region including the importance of shellfish and the availability of various fish, birds and 

marine mammals. Bielawski also traces connections between Tlingit and Eyak peoples, 

and discusses Tlingit contact with Russian traders in the 18th century.

Billman, Esther Lisle

1970. A Study of the Elements of the Supernatural among the Tlingit of Sitka and 

Yakutat. M.A. thesis, University of Alaska, Fairbanks.

Billman examines the supernatural beliefs of the Tlingit Indians of Alaska in the past and 

into today. Her original research findings are the result of interviews with a Yakutat 

native, and she includes a brief background on history of Yakutat as a result. Billman 

addresses highlights several different Yakutat clans and their settlement history. The 

study does not specifically address subsistence practices, however, through its 

examination of spirituality, Billman draws connections between the peoples and their 

natural environment. 

1975. Tlingit Fishing. Tlingit Bulletin 1. Sitka, AK: Sheldon Jackson Museum. 
9

This short article describes Tlingit fishing practices and beliefs regarding fish resources. 

Salmon, halibut, eulachon and oil, herring and eggs are identified as the primary fish 

resources for the Tlingits. Cod, trout and flounder are also mentioned as secondary 

resources.

Birket-Smith, Kaj and Frederica De Laguna

1938. The Eyak Indians of the Copper River Delta, Alaska. København: Levin & 

Munksgaard, E. Munksgaard.

This monograph of the Eyak peoples is the product of an expedition to Prince William 

Sound during the summer of 1933. Of particular interest is part one, which consists of a 

description of Eyak ethnology, including a section on the material culture of the peoples. 

The authors cover land, sea and birding hunting, as well as fishing and other subsistence 

and traditional practices. 

Bleakley, Geoffrey T.

2002. Contested Ground: An Administrative History of Wrangell-St. Elias National Park 

and Preserve, Alaska, 1978-2001. Anchorage: National Park Service, Alaska System 

Support Office. 

This administrative history discusses the major issues and debates that occurred around 

the formation of Wrangell-St. Elias National Park and Preserve. Chapter two, section 

seven focuses on subsistence within the park, both of natives and non-natives. There is 

mention of traditional subsistence techniques and practices of native inhabitants of the 

region. Chapter three, section 18 deals with cultural resources within the park. The author 

discusses archaeological sites, both historic and prehistoric, including the important 

prehistoric site of Dry Bay. This work is the result of historical research and a review of 

previous studies and their findings.

Bohn, Dave

1967. Glacier Bay: The Land and the Silence. Gustavus, AK: Alaska National Parks and 

Monuments Association.

“Glacier Bay National Park history is carefully and sensitively provided from the Native 

Tlingit perspective through the age of discovery and exploration by non-Indians and into 

modern history as a National Park. The survey of exploration is tied to specific locations 

and Native knowledge or presence when possible” (Theodoratus 2000).

Bosworth, Robert G. 

1987. Tlingit Subsistence in Glacier Bay, Alaska: Responding to Change in Landscape 

and Bureaucracy. Paper presented before the Alaska Anthropological Association, 

Anchorage, March 1987, and The Society for Applied Anthropology, Oaxaca, April 

1987. Typescript. Douglas, AK: Division of Subsistence, Alaska Department of Fish and 

Game.
10

“The history of settlement and use of the Glacier Bay area by Native peoples for about 

two thousand years is discussed. Specific attention is given to Tlingit occupancy and use 

since the beginning of the contact period. Since 1867, when the United States purchased 

Alaska from Russia, there has been an accelerating conflict over land, resource use, and 

property ownership between the Native people and the newcomers. The establishment of 

the Tongass National Forest in 1907 and the creation of Glacier Bay National Monument 

in 1925 (enlarged in 1939) are seen to have seriously disrupted future use by Tlingit 

people because of government policy and regulations” (Theodoratus 2000).

1988. Consistency and Change in Subsistence Use of Glacier Bay, Alaska. In 

Proceedings, Second Glacier Bay Science Symposium, September 19-22, 1988. A.M. 

Milner and J. D. Woods, Jr., eds. Pp. 101-107. Anchorage: US National Park Service, 

Alaska Regional Office.

“Glacier Bay has been inhabited and has had subsistence use by Tlingit people for the 

past 2,000 years as glacial advances and retreats have permitted. The establishment of 

Glacier Bay National Monument in 1925, its expansion in 1939, and its park designation 

in 1980 have resulted in government management of various subsistence activities 

practiced Tlingit people. Bosworth discusses the Park's management program and 

contemporary subsistence issues and concerns. Covered is occupancy and use, conflicting 

concepts of land and property ownership, federal land policy and the creation of the 

national monument, changing regulations and changing use, and subsistence regulatory 

regimes. He concludes that creative management strategies are needed to resolve Glacier 

Bay subsistence issues” (Theodoratus 2000).

Brock, Mathew and Pippa Coiley-Kenner in collaboration with the Sitka Tribe of Alaska

2009. A Compilation of Traditional Knowledge about the Fisheries of Southeast Alaska, 

Division of Subsistence. Technical Paper 332. Juneau: Alaska Department of Fish and 

Game. 

This study represents a compilation and analysis of previously collected and documented 

traditional ecological knowledge regarding five species of salmon included in subsistence 

fisheries in Southeast Alaska including: sockeye salmon, coho salmon, Chinook salmon, 

pink salmon and chum salmon. A smaller amount of information was collected and 

analyzed regarding Pacific herring, eulachon, steelhead trout and Dolly Varden about 

subsistence fisheries in Southeast Alaska. STA archives, reports, field notes, interview 

transcripts, audio recordings, and videotapes were all included in the analyses. 

Caldwell, Francis E.

1986. Land of the Ocean Mists: The Wild Ocean Coast West of Glacier Bay. Robert N. 

DeArmond, ed. Edmonds, WA: Alaska Northwest Publishing Company.

This book documents the natural and cultural history of Glacier Bay’s west coast, from 

Cape Spencer to Dry Bay. A section entitled “The Natives” contains historical 

information on the peoples of the area, including those residing in Lituya Bay.
11

Case, David S.

1984. Alaska Natives and American Laws (with Chapter 8, Traditional Alaska Native 

Societies by Anne D. Shinkwin). Fairbanks, AK: University of Alaska Press. 

“Case provides a history and description of the interaction of Alaska Natives and 

American laws to be used as a beginning from which to criticize, analyze or develop 

independent thinking on the subject. The chapters are meant to be independent of each 

other with each focusing on a different aspect of the federal-Native relationship. Case 

intends the book to be a collection of references to, and discussion of the American 

impact on legal and political Alaska Native history and the effect on Native cultural 

persistence. Shinkwin’s chapter examines each Native culture area. Southeast Alaskan 

Indians (pp. 334-338) looks at subsistence, social and political organization, and early 

contact government” (Theodoratus 2000). A second edition of this work was published in 

2002, without the inclusion of chapter 8, authored by Shinkwin.

Catton, Theodore 

1993. Glacier Bay National Monument, the Tlingit, and the Artifice of Wilderness. The 

Northern Review 11:56-82.

“Catton examines the ‘creation of wilderness’ in the Monument by the Park Service, 

concentrating from ‘discovery’ by John Muir in 1879 to the termination of Hoonah seal 

hunting privileges in the Park in 1974. The Tlingit legal challenge to Park creation was 

complicated by the fact that Indian title to the land was not extinguished until 1971, much 

later than the establishment of the Park in 1925. Efforts to present a pristine untouched 

park to tourists have been in direct conflict with Tlingit customary use and the Native 

people have not always been privy to the decision-making process. Although it was made 

illegal for Native people to hunt in Glacier Bay, commercial fishing was permitted until 

1991, from which point it began to be phased out by 1997. Thus the effort has been to 

create a Park without human disturbances, which could be known for its wilderness 

character and opportunity for scientific investigations” (Theodoratus 2000).

1995. Land Reborn: A History of Administration and Visitor Use in Glacier Bay National 

Park and Preserve. Seattle: Cooperative Park Studies Unit, College of Forest Resources, 

University of Washington for the National Park Service, Anchorage, Alaska.

“Catton, with a historic view of Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve as a cultural 

creation, shows how the area became a national monument. He then chronicles the area 

history in three periods. ‘Science and Monumentalism, 1879-1938’ includes discussion of 

the indigenous people, scientific exploration, and the area as laboratory and landscape. 

‘Habitat Protection 1939-1965,’ examines topics such as the Alaska brown bear, World 

War II involvement, dispossession of natives, and boundary adjustments. Under 

‘Wilderness Preservation, 1966-1992’ he discusses the modern park and its status, 

mining, wilderness, Native seal hunting, ecosystem management, whale protection, the 

creation of a wilderness park, and commercial and subsistence fishing. In his conclusion, 

‘Converging Issues, Diverging Solutions,’ Catton discusses major management issues 

and their solutions” (Theodoratus 2000).
12

1997. Inhabited Wilderness: Indians, Eskimos, and National Parks in Alaska. New 

American West Series. Elliot West, ed. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. 

In his book, Catton reexamines the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act in 

respect to the ways in which Alaskan parks attempt to take into account cultural 

preservation in conjunction with ecological preservation of the areas within the parks. He 

begins his discussion with a historic examination of the Huna Tlingit people’s first 

encounter with John Muir, then goes on to discuss the ways in which Alaska’s 

development affected the Native populations. Of particular interest is Catton’s discussion 

of the availability of coastal resources, particularly the abundance of salmon for Native 

peoples. He also covers subsistence practices, such as otter, seal and deer hunting, berry 

picking and the gathering of plants and bird eggs. Catton discusses different gender-based 

subsistence roles and the seasonal nature of subsistence activities, including summer food 

storage, early fall for following the second salmon run and late fall for hunting and 

trapping season. De Laguna’s work on the Yakutat is quoted regarding people’s 

relationships with animals.

Central Council Tlingit and Haida Indian Tribes of Alaska (CCTHITA)

1975. Report of Manpower Survey Concerning the Impact of the 1975 Salmon Fishery 

Failure on the Residents of the Communities of Yakutat, Klukwan, Haines, Hoonah, 

Angoon, and Kake, Craig, Klawock and Hydaburg. Juneau: Manpower Division of the 

Central Council of the Tlingit and Haida Indians of Alaska.

This book primarily focuses on the inhabitants of the Chugach region, specifically around 

Prince William Sound, however Tlingit, and explicitly Yakutat Tlingit, are mentioned 

throughout regarding trade, war and other relations between the two groups. The Yakutat 

region and its inhabitants are also discussed in relation to the Eyak peoples and the 

possible link between Eyak, Tlingit and Chugach peoples. The book also covers flora and 

fauna in the Chugach region and archaeological evidence regarding prehistoric Chugach 

daily life and subsistence activities.

Central Council of Tlingit and Haida Indian Tribes of Alaska [and] Johns & Associates 

(CCTHITAJA)

1983a. Traditional and Customary Natural Resources Used by the Southeast Alaska 

Natives. Juneau: Johns & Associates.

This report provides an overview of the historic traditional and customary use of natural 

resources in Southeast Alaska by both Tlingit and Haida peoples. The report uses a 

production cycle that begins in March and ends in February. Traditional territories and 

their uses are identified, as well as subsistence methods and the results of a survey on 

subsistence. The significance of salmon, seaweed, berries, shellfish, fish oil and eggs to 

the traditional subsistence of the people is highlighted.
13

1983b. Curry-Weissbrodt Papers of the Tlingit and Haida Indian Tribes of Alaska; An 

Inventory. Originals at Sealaska Heritage Foundation, Juneau. Microfilm at Alaska 

Historical Library, Pouch S, Juneau, Alaska.

“This is a useful index for examining the Native contents of the Curry Weissbrodt 

Papers” (Theodoratus 2000).

City and Borough of Yakutat (CBY)

2006. Yakutat Coastal Management Program. Juneau: Sheinberg Associates.

This plan is meant to provide background information on the Yakutat coastal region in 

order to promote development that allows for simultaneous preservation of coastal 

resources. Section 3.9 provides to cultural, historic, prehistoric and archaeological 

evidence regarding Yakutat Native culture. Section 3.10 focuses on subsistence of Native

Yakutat peoples, including the link between subsistence and Tlingit culture. This plan 

was created by the City and Borough of Yakutat Planning Commission in collaboration 

with a variety of groups including: Yakutat Borough residents, staff from the Yakutat 

Tlingit Tribe, Yak-Tat Kwaan Inc., Yakutat Salmon Board, Chugach Alaska Corporation, 

Sealaska Corporation, the University of Alaska Land Management Office, many 

divisions within the Alaska Department of Natural Resources, Alaska Mental Health 

Trust Land Office, the Alaska Department of Fish and Game, the Alaska Department of 

Commerce, Community and Economic Development, the Bureau of Land Management, 

the Wrangell-St. Elias National Park and Preserve, the Glacier Bay National Park and 

Preserve and the Yakutat Ranger District of the Forest Service.

2010. City and Borough of Yakutat Comprehensive Plan. Juneau: Sheinberg Associates.

This document is meant to act as a reference guide for state and local governments to 

work with Yakutat Borough residents in matters relating to community growth and 

development. It provides information on a number of topics relating to the community. 

Chapter three explores historical and cultural resources of the area, with specific attention 

to Yakutat Native culture and resource use.

Cole, Douglas, and Ira Chaikin 

1990. An Iron Hand Upon the People: The Law Against the Potlatch on the Northwest 

Coast. Seattle: University of Washington Press.

“This work centers primarily on the Canadian government's "potlatch law" (1885-1951), 

and Canadian Northwest Indian response to the law and its provisions. Some data are 

included on adjacent Alaska and Washington Indian people involved in this activity. The 

1904 Sitka potlatch --the last of its kind-- held at the territorial capital” (Theodoratus

2000).

Cooper, H. Kory

2011. The Life (Lives) and Times of Native Copper In Northwest North America. World 

Archaeology 43(2):252-270.
14

This article highlights the cultural and economic importance of native copper to 

indigenous people of Alaska and Yukon, beginning in the Late Prehistoric period into the 

20th century. Cooper examines the significance of copper for both northern Athabascan 

and northern Tlingit societies. Cooper identifies the Yakutat Tlingit, specifically, as a 

group that utilizes copper for economic and spiritual purposes. Also included is a Yakutat 

narrative that describes the origin of copper and its use as a component of an arrowhead 

used to kill a moose during hunting. Copper is also described as a currency used by 

Yakutat Bay residents in trade for a salmon stream. In his research, Cooper uses a 

relational biography approach to analyze the possible functions of copper in northern 

Athabascan and northern Tlingit societies.

Coppock, Henry Aaron

1969. Interactions Between Russians and Native Americans in Alaska, 1741-1840. Ph.D. 

dissertation, Michigan State University, East Lansing.

“Coppock compares Russian interactions with Tlingit and Aleut peoples, 1741-1840. He 

proposes and defends the thesis that Aleut enslavement and successful Tlingit resistance 

are explained in part by demographic, economic and geographic differences. He claims 

that clan unity among Tlingit villages enabled effective resistance, which the disunified 

Aleut villages could not muster. He theorizes also that the clan system is a product of 

food gathering practices and demographics” (Theodoratus 2000).

Corral, Roy with Will Mayo and Natives of Alaska

2002. Alaska Native Ways: What the Elders Have Taught Us. Portland, OR: Graphic Arts 

Books.

This book contains a collection of essays written by Native peoples of Alaska. Nora 

Marks Dauenhauer, of Tlingit descent, describes her childhood and some traditional 

lifeways that characterized her upbringing in her essay entitled “Have Patience: Some 

Things Cannot Be Rushed.” Dune Lankard’s essay, “Know Who You Are: You Are A 

Reflection On Your Family,” depicts the historical struggles of his Eyak peoples and 

contemporary issues surrounding land claims and natural resource degradation.

Cruikshank, Julie

1990. Life Lived Like a Story: Life Stories of Three Yukon Native Elders. Lincoln: 

University of Nebraska Press.

This book is divided into three sections, each of which contains the life stories of three 

women of Athapaskan and Tlingit ancestry: Angela Sidney, Kitty Smith, and Annie Ned. 

The women use a narrative style to depict historical events, as well as traditional beliefs 

and practices both on an individual and community level. Yakutat (or Yaakwdáat) and 

Yakutat peoples are mentioned in several times within the stories.

2005. Do Glaciers Listen? Local Knowledge, Colonial Encounters, and Social 

Imagination. Vancouver: UBC Press.
15

Cruikshank’s book focuses on the historical role of glaciers in the lives of Native peoples 

and explorers within the Mount Saint Elias ranges. Of particular interest are the chapters 

relating to Lituya Bay (part 2, chapter 4) and specific mention of the Yakutat region in 

reference to the Little Ice Age (part 1, chapter 1). This book provides historical 

information about worldviews and cultural practices of the Tlingit in this area.

Dauenhauer, Nora Marks 

1988. The Droning Shaman. Haines, AK: The Black Current Press.

“This collection of poems written by a Tlingit author celebrates ‘the spirit of her land and 

people, traditional and contemporary, living and departed’ (p. 93). The poem ‘Flying 

Home’ expresses Native sentiment about Cape Fairweather, Glacier Bay and Icy Strait (p. 

69)” (Theodoratus 2000).

Dauenhauer, Nora Marks, and Richard Dauenhauer, Editors 

1987. Haa Shuka, Our Ancestors, Tlingit Oral Narratives, vol. 1: Classics of Tlingit Oral 

Literature. Seattle: University of Washington Press and Juneau: Sealaska Heritage 

Foundation.

“Because Tlingit narratives are an integral part of the natural and social context, cultural 

background is presented to enhance this presentation. Understandable context is further 

clarified with a discussion of oral style, themes and concepts, and linguistic 

considerations for translation, such as native concepts, alphabet, and grammar. After this 

carefully delineated, lengthy and useful introduction the authors focus on stories and the 

storytellers. The narratives are given in Tlingit with facing English translations. Seven of 

the narratives give mention of places now located within Glacier Bay National Park 

(Basket Bay History [p. 69]; Kaakex'wti' [p. 153]; Glacier Bay History [p. 245]; Glacier 

Bay History [p. 261]; First Russians [p. 293]; Raven Boat [p. 299]; and The Coming of 

the First White Man [p. 303]. The explanatory notes which follow the narratives are 

especially important for understanding story variations and alternative meanings as well 

as historical and cultural meaning. The concluding biographies add a compelling personal 

dimension” (Theodoratus 2000). 

1990. Haa Tuwunaagu Yis, For Healing Our Spirit: Tlingit Oratory, vol. 2: Classics of 

Tlingit Oral Literature. Seattle: University of Washington Press.

“Three sets of speeches make up the eloquent oratory set forth in this volume, the second 

in a series on Tlingit oratory. The first set, ‘Speeches from Various Occasions’ are 

unrelated speeches delivered by well-known orators at various localities from 1971 to 

1988, with the exception of two from unidentified speakers in 1899. The second set of 

speeches, selected from oratory delivered at a memorial in 1968 at Hoonah, represent a 

coherent traditional Tlingit action ‘for the Removal of Grief.’ The third set, taken from a 

traditional series of speeches delivered by elders in 1980 at the ‘First Sealaska Elders 

Conference’ at Sitka, was selected to represent a contemporary event. A total of thirtytwo speeches by twenty Tlingit elders are provided in Tlingit with facing translations in 
16

English. The authors greatly expand the introductory material presented in Haa Shuka, 

Our Ancestors (1987) to include: social structure, at.óow (‘an owned or purchased 

thing’), social/cultural settings, structure of Tlingit memorial, simile and metaphor in 

Tlingit and English literature, general structure of Tlingit oratory, at.óow in action, 

treatment of spirits, spirit world vocabulary, and the past, present and future of Tlingit 

oratory. Explanatory notes follow the speeches. A glossary is provided for assistance in 

linguistic endeavors. Biographies and photographs of the participants conclude the book” 

(Theodoratus 2000).

1994. Haa Kusteeyi Our Culture: Tlingit Life Stories, vol. 3: Classics of Tlingit Oral 

Literature. Seattle: University of Washington Press and Juneau: Sealaska Heritage 

Foundation.

This book contains biographies of selected Tlingit elders born between 1863 and 1915, as 

well as founders of the Alaska Native Brotherhood. Individuals included in the 

biographies span the Tlingit territory in Southeast Alaska from Yakutat to Dixon 

Entrance. The biographies contain genealogical information, statistics, Tlingit and 

English names and a variety of historical and anecdotal information. The introduction 

section of the book covers general Tlingit themes including traditional land use and 

subsistence practices.

Dauenhauer, Richard

1980. Glacier Bay Concerto: Poem in Three Movements. Anchorage: Alaska Pacific 

University. 

“Dauenhauer's second movement focuses on Glacier Bay: memories, history, the 

Kasteen story, and the injustices of the federal government” (Theodoratus 2000).

Dauenhauer, Nora, Richard Dauenhauer, and Lydia Black

2008. Anóoshi lingít aaní ká: Russians in Tlingit America: The Battles of Sitka, 1802 and 

1804. Seattle: University of Washington Press.

This book examines the history of contact between Tlingit peoples and Russian explorers 

in southeast Alaska. Topics specifically related to native Yakutat Tlingits are discussed, 

including the first Russian settlement in the area and a Russian expedition to Yakutat and 

Lituya Bay in 1788.

Davis, Stanley Drew

1997. The Archaeology of the Yakutat Foreland: A Socioecological View: Volume 1. 

Ph.D. dissertation, Texas A&M University, College Station.

This document uses archaeological evidence to examine human occupation of the 

Yakutat Foreland for roughly the last one thousand, one hundred years from the 

prehistoric into the historic period. The study documents material culture, intra-site 

settlement and house types in two village sites: Shallow Water Town and Diyaguna ́Et. 
17

Chapters eight and nine focus specifically on subsistence practices of inhabitants of the 

Yakutat area.

De Armond, Robert N., ed.

1978. Early Visitors to Southeastern Alaska: Nine Accounts. Anchorage: Alaska 

Northwest Publishing Company.

“DeArmond provides excerpts from explorers' journals from nine expeditions as they 

passed through Southeast Alaska from 1778-1850” (Theodoratus 2000).

De Laguna, Frederica

1934. Ceremonial Paddles from the Eyak Indians, Alaska. Pennsylvania. University.

University Museum Bulletin 5:55.

1937. A Preliminary Sketch of the Eyak Indians, Copper River Delta, Alaska. In Twentyfifth Anniversary Studies, Philadelphia Anthropological Society Publications 1. D. S. 

Davidson, ed. Pp. 63-75. Philadelphia: Philadelphia Anthropological Society.

De Laguna’s chapter describes general cultural attributes of the Eyak peoples. Her 

descriptions are a result of her original ethnographic research, consisting of field visits to 

the Eyak territory beginning in 1930. She provides descriptions of Eyak material culture 

and similarities to other Alaskan groups, including Tlingit, Athabaskan and southwestern 

Alaskan Eskimo.

1947. The Prehistory of Northern North America as Seen from the Yukon. Memoirs of 

the Society for American Archaeology 3, The Prehistory of Northern North America as 

Seen from the Yukon, Society for American Archaeology.

De Laguna discusses archaeological findings from northern North America, including 

areas now incorporated into Wrangell-Saint Elias National Park and Preserve. Yakutat 

natives are not specifically mentioned; however, Tlingit and Eyak archaeology are 

discussed.

1949. An Archaeological Survey of the Northern Tlingit, 1949. Mimeographed report for 

Arctic Institute of North America. Bryn Mawr: Bryn Mawr College.

De Laguna discusses the archaeology of three tribal groups in the northern Tlingit 

territory: Yakutat, Chilkat-Chilkoot and Angoon or Xutsnuweydi. She conducted original 

research in the form of archaeological investigations in the aforementioned territories. 

The locations of her investigations were suggested to her by Natives or non-Natives 

familiar with the area, as well as chosen due to their mention as former settlements in 

earlier reports. The Yakutat region is explicitly defined as the area along the Gulf of 

Alaska between Icy Bay and Dry Bay. The glacial, earthquake and land uplift history of 

the region are described. One of the archaeological sites discussed is on Knight Island, 

located near the eastern shore of Yakutat Bay. De Laguna provides an overview of the 

site’s history and a description of the site, including the physical environment and 
18

number and types of structures and mounds. De Laguna also describes a second site, 

located on the southern side of a stream known locally as Lost River. The Lost River 

village known by its Eyak name, Diyaguna-et, is described as are artifacts found at the 

site. Reported sites in the Yakutat area are also briefly described.

1952a. Recording 19, Recordings at Yakutat, Alaska, 1952. American Philosophical 

Society. http://www.amphilsoc.org/mole/view?docId=ead/Mss.Rec.19-ead.xml

This collection is a result of original research conducted by de Laguna, and it consists of 

seven sound tape reels she recorded during her fieldwork in Yakutat in 1952. A variety of 

Tlingit and Athabaskan songs are included, as well as several stories, some with 

translations. 

1952b. Some Dynamic Forces in Tlingit Society. Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 

8(1):1-12.

De Laguna examines aspects of Tlingit social organization in order to shed light on 

underlying features of Tlingit culture. She focuses on territorial, kinship and class 

divisions. Kinship, she states, creates the most important divisions, and she provides a 

description of moiety, sib and house membership divisions. De Laguna also examines 

joking relationships and how they function in Tlingit society to reinforce social relations. 

This article is useful in that it provides background information on certain features of 

Tlingit social structures. This article is the result of original research conducted among 

the northern Tlingit of Alaska in the summer of 1950. De Laguna worked in collaboration 

with Dr. Catherine McClellan on an expedition that was ethnological and archaeological 

in nature.

1953. Some Problems in the Relationship between Tlingit Archaeology and Ethnology. 

Memoirs of the Society for American Archaeology 9, Asia and North America: 

Transpacific Contacts, Society for American Archaeology, pp. 53-57.

This article provides a brief overview of several Tlingit territories and corresponding 

archaeological sites in the areas of Angoon and Yakutat. The findings are based on 

original research done by the author in 1949 and 1950 in the form of an archaeological 

and ethnographic survey of northern Tlingit territory. De Laguna contrasts the 

archaeological remains in the areas with ethnographic evidence provided by 

contemporary informants. A number of petroglyphs, pictographs and other artifacts are 

described. De Laguna also gives an historical account of Eyak presence in Yakutat and 

the arrival of the Tlingit language into the area. The archaeological site at Knight Island 

is described regarding its mounds and the artifacts found within the mounds, including 

animal bones, shells, and other artifacts. Items relating to subsistence, such as sea otter 

harpoon arrows and copper arrowheads, were found near Yakutat and were attributed to 

Eyak culture. De Laguna also provides information regarding Tlingit social structure in 

Yakutat, including specific sibs that were present in the area.
19

1954a. Recording 30, Tlingit and Yakutat songs, 1954. American Philosophical Society. 

http://www.amphilsoc.org/mole/view?docId=ead/Mss.Rec.30-ead.xml

These recordings are on a series of ten sound tape reels and were collected in Yakutat in 

1954 during de Laguna’s fieldwork in the area. They contain a variety of songs including 

personal, mourning, drinking, shaman and love songs among others. 

1954b. Tlingit Ideas about the Individual. Southwest Journal of Anthropology 10(2):172-

191. 

“In this article, which is important for understanding Tlingit worldview, De Laguna 

focuses on the many aspects of the conceptualization of self among the Northern Tlingit.

The individual is born into a ‘social aspect’ of serial hierarchies (lineage, clan, moiety) 

determined by birth and associated with ancestry, actions of relatives, and the person's 

character and accomplishments. Important to this is the ‘body’ (corporal aspect), ‘soul’

(spiritual aspect), names (reflecting social position), and the supernatural (manipulation/

effect of outside forces). The parts of an individual are separate, yet integrated, and are 

discussed in reference to one another in this article under sections such as, social self, 

‘body’ ‘soul,’ name, magical transformation, and death and the after-life. De Laguna 

concludes that the Tlingit individual is ‘compounded of and linked to other selves,’ which 

include ancestors, descendants and contemporaries and which participate with animal 

spirits, supernatural beings and portions of the inanimate world’ (Theodoratus 2000). 

This article is the result of original research in the form of field visits in 1950 and 1952 to 

two separate, but unidentified, villages in the northern coastal Tlingit territory. Data 

gathered in 1950 and 1952 were supplemented by data gathered from the northern 

interior Tlingit territory in 1948 and 1951.

1956. Chugach Prehistory: The Archaeology of Prince William Sound, Alaska. Seattle: 

University of Washington Press.

De Laguna provides an ethnographic overview and description of the physical 

environment of the region traditionally inhabited by the Chugach. She then goes on to 

provide accounts of sixty-seven archaeological sites in the region. She includes 

descriptions of rock paintings, housing structures, burials and a variety of artifacts. 

1958. Geological Confirmation of Native Traditions, Yakutat, Alaska. American 

Antiquity 23(4):434.

In this article, de Laguna reviews the U.S. Geological Survey report, "Glacial Features 

and Surficial Deposits of the Malaspina District, Alaska," by George Plafker and Don J. 

Miller, 1957. She argues that this article corroborates native legends and statements 

regarding the glacial retreat and habitation in and around Yakutat Bay and Icy Bay. 

Plafker and Miller’s study used radiocarbon dating to show unglaciated coastal plain 

areas east and west of Yakutat Bay and Icy Bay during antiquity, which demonstrates that 

the area was habitable. The series of glacial recessions evidenced by Plafker and Miller’s 
20

study, validates Native oral history collected by de Laguna in ethnographic field visits in 

1952 and 1954 regarding the Eyak origins and meaning of the name Yakutat.

1960b. The Story of a Tlingit Community: A Problem in the Relationship Between 

Archeological, Ethnological and Historical Methods. Bureau of American Ethnology 

Bulletin 172, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, Government Printing Office 

(republished, Brighton, Michigan: Native American Book Publishers, 1990).

“The data presented are a result of a 1949 summer survey of the Northern Tlingit area 

and ethnological and archaeological research in Angoon during the summer of 1950. 

While data are primarily on Angoon, some data are provided on the Glacier Bay area, 

including for example, explanation of population shifts in relation to post contact 

phenomena, and ‘Wuckitan’ clan history” (Theodoratus 2000). 

http://hdl.handle.net/10088/15466

1964. Archeology of the Yakutat Bay Area, Alaska. Washington: US Government Printing 

Office.

De Laguna provides a detailed review of archaeological and ethnographic records 

regarding the history and culture of the Native peoples of the Yakutat Bay area. She uses 

information gained from original research done in the form of interview with informants 

from Yakutat, describing the migrations and history of occupation of Eyak and Tlingit 

people along the Gulf of Alaska. De Laguna also references natural resource use and 

important subsistence resources, such as salmon, sea otter, seal, sea lion, porpoise, etc. 

She examines a number of sites including settlements on Yakutat Bay, Lost River and the 

Dry Bay area among others. She reviews archaeological evidence from the various sites 

including weapons, tools, and structures. Tools for fishing and trapping, specifically, are 

discussed.

1965. Childhood among the Yakutat Tlingit. In Context and Meaning in Cultural 

Anthropology. Melford E. Spiro and A. Irving Hallowell, eds. New York: Free Press.

This article examines Yakutat Tlingit traditional beliefs and customs regarding child 

rearing. Resource use is discussed in regards to using wildlife products, such as wolf 

bones or bear saliva, for spiritual and practical purposes when raising Tlingit youth.

1972. Under Mount Saint Elias: The History and Culture of the Yakutat Tlingit.

Smithsonian Contributions to Anthropology 7 [In Three Parts]. Washington, DC: 

Smithsonian Institution Press.

“Based on field investigations in 1949, 1952, 1953, and 1954 and on historical sources, 

de Laguna presents combined archaeological and ethnographic data on the Yakutat area, 

especially from the latter part of the 18th century onward, in this important three volume 

classic work. De Laguna considers Eyak peoples and the people of Dry Bay and Lituya 

Bay from the point of view of the Yakutat people. The main thrust of these volumes is on 

the Yakutat Tlingit, whose culture is presented through the recollections of ‘informants’
21

and their memories of the teachings of their parents and grandparents. De Laguna allows 

the ethnographic data to guide her in the data presentation which includes, in Part 1, the 

area's ecology, territorial description, Indian and non-Indian perspectives on history, and 

cultural description (e.g., houses, travel, trade, strategies for making a living, social 

world, life cycle). Part two includes recreation and art, war and peace, the potlatch, cures, 

medicines and amulets, shamanism, witches and land otter men, the Tlingit Individual, 

man and the forces of nature, and myths and tales. Part three contains plates, an appendix 

listing recordings of Yakutat songs with music transcriptions, and an index of Yakutat 

tape recordings. A detailed index (also Part 3) makes the volumes very easy to use, not 

only for Yakutat and Eyak people and areas, but also for references to adjacent groups 

(e.g., Hoonah)” (Theodoratus 2000). Of particular interest to Yakutat investigations are 

the data that encompass the Yakutat territory, specifically the region extending from 

Lituya Bay to Dry Bay. The three parts of this work are accessible online through the 

following three permalinks: http://hdl.handle.net/10088/1354, 

http://hdl.handle.net/10088/1355, http://hdl.handle.net/10088/1356.

1983. Aboriginal Tlingit Sociopolitical Organization. In The Development of Political 

Organization in Native North America. Elizabeth Tooker, ed. Pp. 71-85. Washington 

DC: The 1979 Proceedings of the American Ethnological Society.

In this article, de Laguna uses the historic present of the late twentieth century in order to 

describe social life and political organization of Tlingit society both pre contact in the late 

eighteenth century and post European contact in the early nineteenth century. Of 

particular value is the section in which territorial rights regarding subsistence resources, 

such as fishing streams, berry and hunting grounds and beaches are discussed. De Laguna 

also discusses topics such as social organization, political structures, women, war and 

houses.

1987. Atna and Tlingit Shamanism: Witchcraft on the Northwest Coast. Arctic 

Anthropology 24(1):84-100.

De Laguna’s article examines witchcraft beliefs and Shamanistic practices of Tlingit and 

Atna peoples of southeast Alaska. Though this article focuses primarily on spiritual 

aspects of Tlingit culture, it highlights the importance of natural resources in Tlingit 

beliefs, ceremonies and prayers. Salmon and tobacco are mentioned as significant, and de 

Laguna also relates a belief about the power of the Land Otter Men and Land Otter spirit 

helpers. This article is based on original research conducted by de Laguna with Catherine 

McClellan in field visits among the Tlingit in 1950 and 1952 and among the Atna in 

1954, 1958 and 1960, and with assistance from Mary Jane Lenz among the Tlingit in 

1954 and Marie-Françoise Guédon among the Atna in 1968. 

1988. Tlingit: Peoples of the Wolf and Raven. In Crossroads of Continents: Cultures of 

Siberia and Alaska. William W. Fitzhugh and Aron Crowell, eds. Pp. 58-63. Washington, 

D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press.
22

This article provides an overview of Tlingit culture, both historically and in the 

contemporary. Spiritual beliefs and subsistence practices are discussed, including 

peoples’ relationship to the land and its resources and hunting and fishing practices.

1990a. Eyak. In Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 7, Northwest Coast. Wayne 

Suttles, ed. Pp. 189-196. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press.

De Laguna examines the history and culture of the Eyak peoples of Alaska. She describes 

their traditional and contemporary territory, the natural environment of their land and a 

variety of cultural aspects. De Laguna provides information regarding the use of natural 

resources for houses, clothing, tools and other items. She also describes subsistence 

patterns that followed annual cycles relating to fish migrations (eulachon, seal, herring, 

salmon, etc.) and the availability of summer berries. The hunting of species such as sea 

otter, bears, geese and mountain goats are is discussed.

1990b. Tlingit. In Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 7, Northwest Coast. Wayne 

Suttles, ed. Pp. 203-228. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press.

“This article summarizes Coastal Tlingit territory, environment, origins, culture (annual 

cycle, settlement pattern, structures, transport, trade, subsistence, social organization, law 

and warfare, kinship, life cycle, shamanism and witchcraft, religion) and history. This 

discussion is a useful guide to general Tlingit culture with bibliographic references to the 

many aspects of Tlingit life, both past and through time. A table relating Tlingit tribes to 

corporations is helpful to the understanding of the contemporary culture. Also very useful 

is a synonymy, which includes a list of Tlingit clan names (38 raven and 36 wolf [eagle]) 

and a tribal list (18 tribes) showing the clans represented in each tribe” (Theodoratus

2000).

1996. Cook Inlet Adventures and Afterthoughts: Alaska 1930. In Adventures through 

Time: Readings in the Anthropology of Cook Inlet, Alaska. Nancy Yaw Davis and 

William E. Davis, eds. Pp. 65-88. Anchorage: Cook Inlet Historical Society.

 2000. Field Work with My Tlingit Friends. In Celebration 2000: Restoring Balance 

through Culture. Susan W. Fair and Rosita Worl, eds. Pp. 21-40. Juneau: Sealaska 

Heritage Foundation.

In this essay, de Laguna provides an overview of her experiences during her fieldwork in 

Tlingit territory from the 1950s on. She discusses her initial interest in the region and her 

start in the field. She also discusses her archaeological work in the Yakutat area, 

including excavations at Old Town, Knight Island. There are several references to natural 

resource use throughout, including copper artifacts and mountain goat wool blankets.

De Laguna, Frederica and Catharine McClellan

1981. Ahtna. In Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 6, Subarctic. June Helm, ed. 

Pp. 641-663. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press.
23

In this piece, the authors provide an overview of Ahtna history and culture. They examine 

the language, territory and natural environment of the Ahtna peoples, as well as their 

relations to other Native groups in the region, including the Eyak and Tlingit. The authors 

give a summary of contact between the Ahtna peoples and white populations. The authors 

also discuss settlement patterns and subsistence activities that characterized the 

nineteenth century. Traditional fishing techniques regarding salmon are discussed, as well 

as the hunting of a variety of mammal species.

Dombrowski, Kirk

2001. Against Culture: Development, Politics, and Religion in Indian Alaska. Lincoln: 

University of Nebraska Press.

This book is an ethnographic account of Southeast Alaskan Natives and their relationship 

with fundamentalist Christian churches in contemporary times. Dombrowski approaches 

the topic by examining the historical relationships between Natives and their colonizers. 

Part one, “Landscapes,” discusses Native interactions with the land and current problems 

associated with land use and management. Chapter four focuses specifically on 

subsistence of Native peoples and the link between subsistence and culture.

2002. The Praxis of Indigenism and Alaska Native Timber Politics. American 

Anthropologist 104(4):1062-1073.

Dombrowski examines the ways in which the Native Claims Settlement Act of 1971 and 

its revisions has impacted the Native communities of Southeast Alaska in their access to 

and ownership of natural resources, particularly forests targeted by timber companies. He 

centers the topic around a discussion of “the praxis of indigenism,” and examines 

individuals’ attitudes towards traditional Native practices and the role of Pentecostal and 

Evangelical churches in the movement of articulating indigeneity in Alaska. 

Dombrowski’s article is the result of 16 months of ethnographic and archival research in

Juneau, Kake, Hoonah, Hydaburg, Klawock and Ketchikan. 

2007. Subsistence Livelihood, Native Identity and Internal Differentiation in Southeast 

Alaska. Anthropologica 49(2):211-229.

Dombrowski provides an overview of general subsistence practices that characterize 

Native communities in southeast Alaska, primarily from the 1960s through the 1980s. He 

discusses the role of subsistence patterns in shaping community relations and the value 

placed on “Indian foods.” He also discusses the link between subsistence practices, 

stratification and identity. Dombrowski’s article is the result of both original research and 

reviews of published reports by Alaska Fish and Game Subsistence Division. 

Dombrowski’s carried out fieldwork between 1993 and 1996, spending 13 months in 

Southeast Alaska, primarily in Hydaburg, Kake and Hoonah. Dombrowski also spent 

limited time in Craig, Klawock, Wrangell and Ketchikan.
24

Dowie, Mark

2011. Conservation Refugees: The Hundred-Year Conflict between Global Conservation 

and Native Peoples. Cambridge: MIT Press.

Dowie examines the relationship between transnational conservationists and indigenous 

communities throughout the world. He reviews a variety of case studies from across the 

world, including one from within the U.S. dealing with the Miwok, Paiute and 

Ahwahneechee of Yosemite Valley. Dowie argues that environmental conservation has 

become a priority over cultural preservation of indigenous communities, and the efforts 

to conserve natural resources, themselves, are threatening these communities. Dowie 

examines different approaches to environmental and cultural conservation, as well as 

Western-science based ecological practices and traditional ecological knowledge.

Drucker, Philip

1958. The Native Brotherhood: Modern Intertribal Organization on the Northwest Coast. 

Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 168. Washington, DC: Government Printing 

Office.

This bulletin includes a history of the development of the civil rights and Native 

advocacy organization, as well as histories and notes concerning each of the major ANB 

village “camps” in Southeast Alaska.

1983. Ecology and Political Organization on the Northwest Coast of America. In The 

Development of Political Organization in Native North America, 1979 Proceedings of the 

American Ethnological Society. Elisabeth Tooker, ed. Washington, DC: American 

Ethnological Society.

Drury, Helen M.

1985. Nutrients in Native Foods of Southeastern Alaska. Journal of Ethnobiology 

5(2):87-100.

“Drury looked at the nutrient content of some traditional foods of southeastern Alaska 

coastal Native Americans, analyzing twenty foods for composition, minerals, and 

vitamins. Does not consider or include bird eggs” (Theodoratus 2000).

Dumond, Don E.

1980. A Chronology of Native Alaskan Subsistence Systems in Alaska Native Culture 

and History. Senri Ethnological Studies Osaka 4: 23-47.

Dumond presents a chronologically categorized, archaeological overview of Alaska 

Native subsistence practices. Among the groups discussed, Dumond includes Tlingit and 

Eyak peoples and their relation to coastal subsistence and balanced economy subsistence.

Emmons, George Thornton

1911. Native Account of the Meeting between La Perouse and the Tlingit. American 

Anthropologist 13:294-298.
25

“Emmons describes Lituya Bay noting that in the Tlingit language, Lituya means ‘the 

lake within the point.’ He recounts the legend of Lituya which tells of the ‘Man of 

Lituya’ who resides in the ocean caverns near the entrance of the Bay. The legend is 

illustrated on a carved wooden pipe (figure 50) obtained in 1888 from a Takdeintaan clan 

leader from Hoonah who claimed the Bay's sea otter hunting grounds. The pipe, said to 

be used only on special occasions, has, at one end, a frog like figure representing the 

‘Spirit of Lituya.’ A ‘bear slave’ sits at the opposite end. The entrance to the bay is 

shown by brass covered ridges representing tidal waves shown above a brass canoe with 

two occupants who have been ‘engulfed’ in the Bay. This is held between the two 

figures. (Note: the pipe is referenced as in the George G. Heye Collection, Heye 

Foundation, Museum of the American Indian, New York.) Emmons provides an 1886 

Auke (Juneau area) Tlingit account of the La Perouse and Tlingit contact, and the 

destruction of the two La Perouse expedition's boats at Lituya. He also tells of Tlingit 

boat destruction immediately prior to La Perouse's arrival [La Perouse describes a 

memorial grave which coincides with this account – see La Perouse 1799.]. This 

reference is important in showing that Tlingit oral history is parallel in content to 

European written history” (Theodoratus 2000).

Emmons, George Thornton and Frederica De Laguna

1991. The Tlingit Indians. Seattle: University of Washington Press.

“De Laguna has assembled Emmons' Tlingit data housed at The American Museum of 

Natural History in New York and the British Columbia Provincial Archives in Victoria. 

Her task was to prepare an Emmons draft manuscript on the Tlingit, which had been over 

thirty years in the making of several drafts by Emmons, and to integrate the wealth of 

ethnographic information Emmons left in the form of notes, drawings, sketches and 

monographs located in the two archives into a final draft. De Laguna has amplified and 

supported Emmons's observations with work from other visitors, explorers, and 

anthropologists/ scholars to illuminate the text; these are clearly distinguished in the text 

from the original work of Emmons. Low's biography tells how Emmons became a naval 

officer in Alaska and a collector of artifacts for museums. De Laguna discusses his 

contributions to ethnography and his knowledge of the Tlingit. The volume covers the 

full range of ethnographic topics with the exception of myths and folktales. Included are, 

such as: ‘The Land and People,’ ‘Social Organization,’ travel, subsistence, arts, dress, 

‘Ceremonies,’ ‘War and Peace,’ ‘Illness and Medicine,’ ‘Shamanism,’ ‘Games and 

Gambling,’ and ‘Time, Tides, and Winds.’ The volume is illustrated with photographs 

and drawings by Emmons and others” (Theodoratus 2000).

Fall, James A., David B. Andersen, David Caylor, Michael Coffing, Susan Georgette and 

Michael Turek

2002. Alaska Subsistence Fisheries 2000 Annual Report. Technical Paper 306. Juneau: 

Division of Subsistence, Alaska Department of Fish and Game. 

This report, documenting the subsistence harvests of salmon in the Southeast/Yakutat 

Region in 2000, is used to demonstrate the continued significance of salmon in the 
26

subsistence practices of Tlingit people of the area. The report includes tables containing 

statistics on the subsistence and personal use of five types of salmon delineated by the 

community. The Subsistence Fisheries Harvest Assessment Working Group, consisting 

of federal, tribal and state representatives, contributed to the report in the form of 

commentary on existing harvest assessment programs.

Fall, James A., Michael Turek and Liliana Naves

2009. Overview of Amounts Reasonably Necessary for Subsistence Uses of Salmon in 

Southeast Alaska. Special Publication No. BOF 2009-03. Juneau: Division of 

Subsistence, Alaska Department of Fish and Game.

This document was created to address a proposal seeking the modification of findings 

relating to the amount of Pacific salmon reasonably necessary to for subsistence use in 

the Southeastern Management Area. It includes a brief description of traditional Tlingit 

subsistence salmon fisheries as related to the social organization of kwáans and seasonal 

habitations. This report is the result of data obtained through household surveys 

conducted by the Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Division of Subsistence 

regarding salmon harvests in Southeast Alaska from 1996 to 2006.

Farkas, Lena

1995. Interview by William Schneider. H95-71-32. Project Jukebox. The University of 

Alaska Fairbanks Oral History Program. http://jukebox.uaf.edu/site7/interviews/666

Farkas is joined by Nellie Lord, both of whom are Yakutat Native women, and Farkas 

tells the story of the migration of people from Copper Center. Both Farkas and Lord 

describe how this migration story is depicted on traditional blankets and jackets.

Frank, Oscar

1995. Interview by William Schneider. H95-71-30. Project Jukebox. The University of 

Alaska Fairbanks Oral History Program. http://jukebox.uaf.edu/site7/interviews/696.

A senior Yakutat Native, Frank provides a description of Tlingit history and includes his 

clan membership and origin. He also discusses his past experiences, earning cash wages 

fishing in Yakutat.

Garfield, Viola E.

1953. Possibilities of Genetic Relationship in Northern Pacific Moiety Structures. 

Memoirs of the Society for American Archaeology 9:58-61. Asia and North America: 

Transpacific Contacts.

Garfield discusses the various social structures that characterize societies of the northern 

Pacific region. She examines both sib and moiety divisions. Eyak are discussed in 

relation to their social structure, and Garfield notes that the Eyak have moieties but no 

sibs.
27

Garibaldi, Ann

1999. Medicinal Flora of the Alaska Natives: A Compilation of Knowledge from Literary 

Sources of Aleut, Alutiiq, Athabascan, Eyak, Haida, Inupiat, Tlingit, Tsimshian, and 

Yupik Traditional Healing Methods Using Plants. Alaska Natural Heritage Program, 

Environment and Natural Resources Institute, University of Alaska Anchorage.

This book is a collection of traditional medicinal plant knowledge of Alaska Natives. The 

information contained in the book is a result of a literary review, and is not the result of 

interviews or recordings with Native peoples. Physical plant descriptions, names, 

associated uses and applications are included. Tlingit, Eyak and Yakutat Tlingit 

traditional plants are all discussed. The book is organized according to plant growth 

forms.

George, Gabe, Matt Kookesh, Dave Mills, and James Fall

1985. The Non-Commercial Harvest of Crab in Southeast Alaska: A Summary of 

Available Information. Technical Paper 103. Juneau: Alaska Department of Fish and 

Game, Division of Subsistence.

“This report provides background information about non-commercial harvest of 

dungeness and king crab useful to the Board of Fisheries in considering area closures to 

commercial crabbing. The report presents data on crab harvests, resource use and other 

socioeconomic data for twelve communities. Field visits were made to Port Protection, 

Point Baker and Hoonah. The report gives a regional overview and several case studies. 

The authors conclude that non-commercial crab harvest and use play an important role of 

resource use in many of the southeast Alaskan communities as evidenced by high levels 

of participation and sharing as well as by the concern communities have expressed about 

future crab resources” (Theodoratus 2000). 

Gillette, Gary H.

1998. The Yakutat Fish Train: A Historic Overview of the Yakutat and Southern 

Railroad, Located In Yakutat, Alaska. Alaska Department of Transportation and Public 

Facilities.

This work, prepared for the Alaska Department of Transportation and Public Facilities, 

Southeast Region, provides a brief history of the Yakutat and Southern Railroad. The 

primary focus of the report is on the railroad itself, however, it contains short sections on 

the natural environment and prehistory of the Yakutat area. The richness of the flora and 

fauna in the region is discussed, as well as the significance of the area for a variety of 

Native groups, including Eyak and Tlingit peoples. The introduction of Russians into the 

area is also discussed in relation to the Native populations of Yakutat.

Gillette, Gary H. and D. Scott Williams

1995. “Walking In Two Worlds, Living In Balance”: A Historic and Cultural 

Preservation Plan for the Tlingit People of Yakutat, Alaska. Yakutat Tlingit Tribe, 

Alaska.
28

This plan provides cultural information on Yakutat Tlingit peoples in order to promote 

culturally sensitive development in the area.

Gmelch, George

1982. Resource Use in Glacier Bay National Preserve. US National Park Service, 

Division of Cultural Resources, September 1982. (Copy on file, Glacier Bay National 

Park Library, Gustavus AK.)

“The focus of this study is resource use in the Dry Bay area of northwest Glacier Bay 

National Preserve provided as data for the Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve 

general management plan. Of particular concern are resource harvesting, areas of harvest, 

populations using the resources, land-based activities associated with resource use, and 

changes in resource use and users through time. Commercial fishing is the major harvest 

activity in the Preserve. Primary field research, including interviews, observation, 

questionnaires, mapping, and an inventory of fish camps, was conducted in Yakutat and 

the Dry Bay area over a ten week period during summer 1982 and was combined with a 

literature review to learn of past use and settlements. Permanent native settlement 

terminated around 1910 with Dry Bay people moving to Yakutat, Hoonah, and other 

locations, and subsequently, with some Yakutat people returning during summer to fish. 

Gmelch covers early settlement, population, settlement patterns, commercial fishery, 

hunting, trapping, gathering, recreational uses and local residences as human resources” 

(Theodoratus 2000).

1988. Two Rivers, Two Cultures. Natural History 97(5):52-63.

“The Alsek River and East Alsek River located in the northwest area of Glacier Bay 

National Park and Preserve are compared in terms of their drainage, water clarity, 

temperature, flow, vegetation, and salmon runs. Regulated by Alaska Fish and Game, 

both Indians and non-Indians obtain salmon with gill nets on these rivers. The author 

compares fishing methods and living patterns between the two groups, and discusses the 

competition and conflicts that ensue over fishing” (Theodoratus 2000).

1990. Caught in the Middle. Natural History 99(9):32-37.

“George Gmelch describes his anthropological fieldwork experience among Native and 

non-Indian fisherman in the Dry Bay area of Glacier Bay National Preserve. Gmelch 

describes his introduction to and interaction with the Yakutat community and then again 

with the Dry Bay community where he was to document hunting and fishing activities as 

required by the Park and Congress. He later testified in court on behalf of twelve 

fishermen who were contesting the Alaska Department of Fish and Game ban on surf 

fishing. Because of his education by the fishermen in his earlier fieldwork he was able to 

explain traditional fishing as an expert witness for them. Gmelch reveals the 

anthropologist's efforts and difficulties working in the small Dry Bay community where 

the Native and non-Indian people were factionalized” (Theodoratus 2000). 
29

Goldschmidt, Walter and Theodore H. Haas

1946. Possessory Rights of the Natives of Southeast Alaska: A Report to the 

Commissioner of Indian Affairs, October 3, 1946. Copy on File, Sealaska Heritage 

Foundation, Juneau. 

“This report is ‘a detailed analysis of the early and present territory used and occupied by 

the Natives of southeastern Alaska, except the Natives of the Village of Kake (partially 

treated), Hydaburg, and Klawock.’ The purpose of this 1946 field study by a three 

member team was to determine which lands were in present native use and occupancy 

similar to their use in 1884. The report includes a general description citing historic 

sources, followed by an analysis of the tribal territory which is subdivided into areas 

including Glacier Bay and Graves Harbor to Cape Fairweather. If known, information is 

provided on, for example, village/camp location; clan associations and sentiment, 

resource activity, cemetery. ‘Charts’ (maps) at the end of the text show aboriginal use and 

ownership as well as present-day use. The report is concluded with Hearings, Brief, 

Findings, Conclusions, and Recommendations on Hydaburg, Klawock and Kake” 

(Theodoratus 2000). 

Goldschmidt, Walter, Theodore H. Haas, edited with an Introduction by Thomas F. Thornton

1998. Haa Aaní, Our Land: Tlingit and Haida Land Rights and Use. Seattle: University 

of Washington Press.

This book represents the work of anthropologist Walter Goldschmidt, lawyer Theodore 

Haas, Tlingit schoolteacher and interpreter Joseph Kahklen assigned by the 

Commissioner of Indian Affairs in 1946 to interview Tlingit and Haida peoples regarding 

land and water ownership and use. Chapter VI relates to the Yakutat Territory.

Grinev, A.V.

1989. The Eyak Indians and the Fate of a Russian Settlement in Yakutat. European 

Review of Native American Studies 28:1-6.

2013. The First Russian Settlers in Alaska. The Historian 75(3):443-474.

Gsovsky, Vladimir

1940. Survey of Russian Material on the Tlingit and Haida Indians of Alaska, Available 

in the Library of Congress. Unpublished microfilmed typescript. On File, Special 

Collections, University of Washington Library, Seattle.

“This report lists, and in some cases indexes, the materials held by the Library of 

Congress concerning Tlingit and Haida living in Russian Alaska. Some brief summaries 

and limited translations are provided. A majority of the material presented consists of 

Russian laws and Russian American Company reports of Tlingit conditions and 

resistance” (Theodoratus 2000).
30

Gunther, Erna

1972. Indian Life on the Northwest Coast of North America, as Seen by the Early 

Explorers and Fur Traders during the Last Decades of the Eighteenth Century. Chicago: 

University of Chicago Press.

“Gunther has assembled data available on Native life in the Northwest Coast during the 

last decades of the eighteenth century as gleaned from the early non-Indian sources. She 

concentrates on ‘the point of view of native life’ (p. xiv) and thus does not consider all 

aspects of the expeditions into the area. The material is assembled according to place, 

rather than by expedition with the intent of establishing ‘continuity and depth’ of Native 

life as well as the ‘areal extent’ of cultural similarities. Chapter 6 considers the 

‘Aggressive Tlingit, Who discouraged Vancouver’s Surveying and Stood off the 

Russians for Half a Decade.’ Tlingit movement/migration on the outer coast is discussed, 

as are data surrounding the La Pérouse/Tlingit encounters, Tlingit culture, the Tlingit 

meeting of Dixon, Marchand, Malaspina, and Vancouver among others” (Theodoratus

2000).

Hallamaa, Panu. 

2000. A Dwindling Nation, A Vanishing Tongue: Tracing the History of the Eyak Indians 

of Alaska. n.p.: n.p.

This article focuses on prehistoric and historic Eyak society. Hallamaa includes 

descriptions of how the Eyak peoples interacted with neighboring societies, including the 

Ahtna, Tlingit and Pacific Eskimos. The author outlines the traditional territory of the 

Eyak, from Yakutat to the mouth of the Copper River, as well as traditional social 

structure and linguistic characteristics of Eyak peoples. Subsistence items, including 

salmon, strawberries, and copper are also discussed. This article is the result of a review 

of previous literature as well as original research in the form of an interview with Native 

speaker, Marie Smith, in Anchorage in August of 1994 and a recording made by 

Hallamaa of a presentation by de Laguna at the Eyak potlatch in Cordova in June of 

1994.

Hallock, Charles

1886. Our New Alaska, or, The Seward Purchase Vindicated. New York: Forest and 

Stream Publishing Company.

Hallock provides a first-hand account of his experiences as part of an expedition to 

Alaska in the late nineteenth century. The route begins in Portland, Oregon and travels up 

through Alaska. Hallock describes his natural surroundings and makes observations about 

his experiences interacting with various Native communities of Alaska. A section entitled 

‘Good Indians,’ describes the pleasant nature of the Natives he interacts with, as well as 

provides descriptions about settlements and populations of these communities (pp. 91-

107). Throughout the book, Hallock touches upon a variety of themes relating to the 

Native people, including mythology, spiritual practices and subsistence activities. 
31

Hancock, David

2003. Tlingit: Their Art & Culture. Surrey, B.C.; Blaine, WA: Hancock House 

Publishers.

This book provides an overview of the Tlingit peoples’ history and culture. It contains 

illustrations and photographs of various artifacts and Tlingit people and their daily lives. 

Chapter four focuses on traditional Tlingit subsistence. The chapter contains information 

on harvesting methods, including gaffing and gill net fishing. Primary food items, such as 

salmon, herring, sea lions and various berries are discussed in addition to secondary 

resources such as mountain goats, deer and bears. Illustrations and photographs portray 

tools, such as salmon traps, smoke houses, herring rakes, fishing floats, etc. The book 

also covers topics such as dances, village and ceremonial life, burials, marriage, fabric 

making and carving.

Harriman Alaska Expedition 

1901. Harriman Alaska Expedition [1899], Vol. 1, Narrative, Glaciers, Natives; Vol. II, 

History, Geography, Resources. New York: Doubleday, Page & Co.

“The Edward H. Harriman expedition in 1899 included three artists and twenty-five 

scientists representing a range of research interests, and, as a result, provided a very 

stimulating trip. One research party worked with John Muir at Glacier Bay collecting 

natural history specimens, but native settlements were visited briefly as well, including 

camps in Glacier Bay. This two volume work includes sections by various participants. 

Of particular interest are John Burroughs' ‘Narrative of the Expedition,’ John Muir's ‘The 

Pacific Coast Glaciers,’ and George Bird Grinnell's ‘Natives of the Alaska Coast 

Region.’ Other sections, by various expedition members, cover glaciers, exploration, 

birds, forests, geography, atmosphere, a volcano, the salmon industry, and fox farming” 

(Theodoratus 2000).

Harris, Christie

1973. Once More upon a Totem. New York: Atheneum.

Harris retells three traditional legends whose origins lie in Tlingit, Haida, Tsimshian and 

Kwakiutl heritage: The Prince Who Was Taken Away by the Salmon, Raven Travelling, 

and Ghost Story. Interspersed between these stories are Harris’s interpretations of totem 

pole symbols and descriptions of the peoples of the northwest coast. The stories include 

various references to land and resource use in the traditional territories of the Native 

groups.

Harris, Lorle K., ed.

1985. Tlingit Tales: Potlatch and Totem Pole. Happy Camp, CA: Naturegraph. 

This book is a collection of traditional Tlingit tales as told by Robert Zuboff, an eightyyear-old chief of the Beaver Clan at Angoon, Admiralty Island.
32

Hausman, Gerald. 

1986. Meditations With Animals: A Native American Bestiary from the Voices of Creek, 

Natchez, Chickasaw, Winnebago, Haida, Tlingit, Kwakiutl, Zuni, Navajo, Apache, Santo 

Domingo, Sioux, Osage, Anasazi. Santa Fe, N.M.: Bear.

This bestiary includes poems, legends and stories that demonstrate the various roles of 

animals in Native American culture and tradition.

Haynes, Terry L. and Stan Walker

1995. Pilot Project: Documenting Traditional and Subsistence Access in Wrangell - St. 

Elias National Park and Preserve. Anchorage, AK: Alaska Department of Fish and Game, 

ANILCA Program. 

This document discusses the variety of animals, including bears, waterfowl, caribou, fish, 

and mountain sheep, available within the Copper River Valley. The authors note the 

importance of rivers as sources for salmon and transportation routes in pre-contact times. 

Haynes and Walker discuss the indigenous use of natural resources for clothing, tools and 

trade goods. The Russian influence during the contact period from 1732-1898 and the 

wildlife resource competition that characterized European settlement from 1898-1940 are 

also discussed.

Haynes, Terry L. and William E. Simeone

2007. Upper Tanana Ethnographic Overview and Assessment, Wrangell St. Elias 

National Park and Preserve. Technical Paper No. 325. Juneau, Alaska: Alaska 

Department of Fish and Game, Division of Subsistence.

This document focuses specifically on the upper Tanana Athabascan peoples and their 

culture prior to sustained western contact and the subsequent socioeconomic and cultural 

changes due to contact. Though it does not directly address Tlingit land use, it provides 

information on resource use within Wrangell St. Elias by Native peoples. It also 

examines historical relationships between the Upper Tanana peoples and neighboring 

Ahtna Athabascans. This article is the result of a synthesis of 20th century Upper Tanana 

culture, as well as experience of both authors having lived and conducted research in the 

Upper Tanana region.

Hinckley, Ted C. 

1970. “The Canoe Rocks—We Do Not Know What Will Become of Us:” The complete 

transcript of a meeting between Governor John Green Brady of Alaska and a group of 

Tlingit Chiefs, Juneau, December 14, 1898. Western Historical Quarterly July: 265-290.

“This study is based on the English translation of speeches at this important meeting in 

1898 between Governor Brady and a group of Tlingit leaders. The eight Tlingit speakers 

discuss the loss of land and its affect on hunting. The Governor did not understand the 

speeches and offered the speakers a choice of being isolated on an island or becoming 

part of the United States under US law and protection” (Theodoratus 2000).
33

1996. The Canoe Rocks: Alaska’s Tlingit and the Euroamerican Frontier, 1800-1912.

Lanham, MD: University Press of America.

This work provides a sympathetic social history of inter-relations between Tlingits and 

their Russian and American colonizers during the critical and decisive early contact 

period. 

Holder, Glenn

1973. Talking Totem Poles. New York: Dodd, Mead.

Holder defines totem poles and describes the process by which to create them, the various 

kinds and the meanings behind them. He also gives information regarding the potlatch 

ceremony. Holder defines the totem nations of Alaska, including the Tlingit people. He 

also describes the Tlingit custom for creating the totem pole and provides several 

photographs of Tlingit totem poles.

Holmberg, Heinrich Johan 

1985. Holmberg's Ethnographic Sketches. Marvin W. Falk, ed. Fritz Jaensch, trans. The 

Rasmuson Library Historical Translation Series 1. Fairbanks: University of Alaska 

Press.

“Holmberg, a Finnish mining specialist, traveled in Alaska during 1850-1851 and 

subsequently presented these sketches to the Finnish Academy of Sciences. His work 

generalizes Tlingit culture from the Nass to the Copper rivers and includes Eyak peoples 

as Tlingit. He briefly covers Tlingit ethnography with attention to slavery. Holmberg 

relates a story (page 18) about the origin of Tlingit "smelt" fishing baskets in which the 

principal character lived in the Icy Strait or the sound between the mainland and 

Chichagof Island” (Theodoratus 2000).

Hoonah Elementary, 1992-1993

1993. You Can Hear Our Voices Forever. Hoonah, AK: Hoonah Elementary School.

“This book, in both Tlingit and English, is organized in different sections, by each grade, 

K through 6. Included is, a story, Tlingit words for numbers, a lesson on weather, Tlingit 

words for animals, fourth grader's recipes, Tlingit names for a variety of fish, and a map 

providing place names for ‘Northern Southeast Alaska.’ The book is illustrated with the 

children's drawings” (Theodoratus 2000).

Hoonah Indian Association

2006. Tlingit Place Names of the Huna Káawu [map]. Hoonah Indian Association, 

Hoonah, Alaska.

This map presents over 250 Tlingit toponyms within the Huna Tlingit traditional 

territory.
34

Hope, Andrew

n.d. Sacred Forms. Draft Manuscript, typescript. Copy on file, Alaska Department of 

Fish and Game, Douglas, AK. 

“This manuscript, written over a seven year period dating from 1971, began with 

extensive documentary research on Tlingit clans. Additional data were gained through 

long discussions with William Paul, Tlingit attorney and knowledgeable leader. Although 

much of the manuscript covers the development and history of the totem park at Sitka, 

there is coverage of the entire Tlingit area. Of interest for comparative purposes, are the 

data Hope accumulated on traditional Tlingit communities; on the crests for each clan by 

moiety; and the communities, clans, clan houses and crests at the turn of the century. 

Hope includes a story about how the Wolf house posts were obtained by the 

Kaagwaantaan when they lived at Grouse Fort in Cross Sound and declared war on the 

Lukaax.adi who were living near Dry Bay” (Theodoratus 2000). 

1982. Raven's Bones. Sitka, AK: Sitka Community Association. 

“This eclectic anthology of original and reprinted writings about Tlingit people includes 

legends, Russian ethnography, interviews, legal documents, and poetry. Of particular 

note is an original interview with Judson Brown concerning the formation of the Tlingit 

and Haida Central Council (David Morgan from Hoonah was the first presiding chairman 

[p. 37]), and an original article on Native foods of southeastern Alaska by Mark Jacobs, 

Jr. and Mark Jacobs, Sr. Jacobs mention the abundance of wild strawberries from Icy 

Straits [p. 129]” (Theodoratus 2000). 

Horton, Tonia Woods 

2003. Indian Lands, American Landscapes: Toward a Genealogy of Place in National 

Parks. Ph.D. dissertation, Arizona State University, Tempe. 

Horton examines the historical and contemporary place of Native peoples within three 

U.S. national Parks: Mesa Verde, Little Bighorn, and Glacier Bay. Chapter five focuses 

on Glacier Bay and the Tlingit peoples that traditionally inhabited it. She reviews the 

interactions between Tlingit peoples and earlier explorers and Russian fur traders. 

Seasonal camps and subsistence foods and practices, such as seal-hunting, are mentioned. 

Horton’s findings regarding Glacier Bay Native peoples are the result of a literature 

review.

Howe, Doris L.

1992. Bibliography of Research and Exploration in the Glacier Bay Region, Southeastern 

Alaska, 1798-1992. US Department of the Interior, Geological Survey.

This bibliography contains entries relating to the history of the Glacier Bay region. The 

entries span roughly two hundred years worth of research and personal accounts of 

human history, physical environmental characteristics and resource management relating 

to the region. Geology, glaciology, climatology, terrestrial ecosystems, and varied 

ecosystems are also topics covered by these entries.
35

Hund, Andrew, ed.

2014. Eyak. In Antarctica and the Arctic Circle: A Geographic Encyclopedia of the 

Earth's Polar Regions. Volume I. Andrew Hund, ed. Pp. 272-275. ABC-CLIO: Santa 

Barbara, California. 

This book has a short section on the Eyak peoples. It offers a general overview of their 

prehistory into the contemporary period, including their territory, language, migration, 

conflict with Russian explorers, the early 1900s introduction of industry (mines, etc.) in 

the area, federal recognition, the formation of the corporation, recent legal battles with 

the U.S. government, and recent efforts towards cultural and environmental preservation. 

There is no information on subsistence patterns.

Hunn, Eugene S., Darryll R. Johnson, Priscilla N. Russell and Thomas F. Thornton

2002. A Study of Traditional Use of Birds’ Eggs by the Huna Tlingit. Seattle, WA: 

National Park Service, Pacific Northwest Cooperative Ecosystem Studies Unit; Denver, 

CO: Available From Technical Information Center, Denver Service Center, National Park 

Service.

This report examines the use of bird eggs in traditional Huna Tlingit culture. Though 

Huna peoples are the focus of this report, Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve is 

identified as home to both the Huna and the Dry Bay Tlingit (centered at Yakutat), and 

similarities in their subsistence practices are mentioned. This report is the result of a 

literature review as well as original research in the form of semi-structured qualitative 

interviewing and the use of primary informants from the Hoonah community.

Hunn, Eugene S., Darryll R. Johnson, Priscilla N. Russell, and Thomas F. Thornton.

2003. Huna Tlingit Environmental Knowledge, Conservation, and the Management of a 

‘Wilderness’ Park. Current Anthropology 44(December):S79-S103.

After critiquing the indigenous conservationist debate, this article argues that Tlingit bird 

egg harvest regime (for glaucous-winged gulls) constitutes conservation “by design” and 

is sustainable, and thus could be permitted by Glacier Bay National Park management, 

which currently prohibits this traditional subsistence practice by Huna and other Tlingit 

groups. This work is the result of original research in the form of informal interviews 

with Huna peoples knowledgeable about traditional gull-egg harvests. These interviews 

were conducted in Hoonah in 1998.

Hunn, Eugene S. and Thomas F. Thornton

2010. Tlingit Birds: An Annotated List with Statistical Comparative Analysis. In Ethnoornithology: Birds, Indigenous Peoples, Culture and Society. Sonia Tidemann and 

Andrew Gosler, eds. Pp. 181-209. Washington D.C.: Earthscan.

In this chapter, the authors provide a list of Tlingit bird names and analyze them in 

relation to their descriptive characteristics and insight into Tlingit perspective of the nonhuman world. The chapter begins with an introduction that describes ethno-ornithology, 
36

and the following section provides an overview of the history and culture of the Tlingit 

people. The findings presented in this work are the result of original research in the form 

of interviews. The majority of the interviews conducted for this study were from Hoonah 

Tlingit territory. The importance of subsistence activities is discussed, including the 

significance of salmon, halibut, deer, seal, certain marine invertebrates, berries and birds 

and bird eggs to the Tlingit diet.

Ingersoll, William T. 

1968. Lands of Change; Four Parks in Alaska. Journal of the West 7:173-193.

This book provides historical overviews of several national parks, including Glacier Bay

National Monument, Katmai National Monument, Mount McKinley National Park and 

Sitka National Monument. Of particular interest are the descriptions of the relations 

between the Tlingit Indians and white persons.

Inglis Gordon B.

1970. Northwest American Matriliny: The Problem of Origins. Ethnology 9(2):149-159.

This article discusses possible reasons for the emergence of matriliny among the peoples 

of the northern northwest coast of North America. Coastal migrations of Eyak, Tlingit 

and Haida peoples are discussed in regards to theories about matriliny. Theories 

incorporate information regarding natural resources, including sea-mammals, fisheries 

and coastal flora.

Irimoto, Takashi and Takako Yamada, eds.

1994. Circumpolar Religion and Ecology: An Anthropology of the North. Tokyo: 

University of Tokyo Press.

This collection of essays examines the relationship between religion and ecology in a 

variety of indigenous groups throughout the circumpolar region. Tlingit cultures are 

mentioned, specifically, in the essay by de Laguna in relation to the spiritual aspects of 

hunting and fishing (pp. 39) and the essay by Watanabe regarding ritual subsistence 

practices and lack of fish ceremonies (pp. 49, 52).

Isto, Sarah A.

1975. Cultures in the North: Aleut, Athabascan Indian, Eskimo, Haida Indian, Tlingit 

Indian, Tsimpshian Indian: Media Resource List. Fairbanks: University of Alaska Center 

for Northern Educational Research.

This publication contains a collection of bibliographic resources relating to the Native 

groups of Alaska. Pages 25-31 focus on Haida, Tlingit and Tsimpshian resources. The 

main topics featured in these sources are art and literature, and the compilers note a 

failure within the sources to specify which group is being discussed.
37

James, Susie

1973. Sit' Kaa kax kana.aa Kaasge'iy X'eidax Sh Kalneck [Glacier Bay History]. Nora 

Florendo, ed. and trans. Sitka: Tlingit Readers in Association with the Alaska Native 

Language Center.

“This Glacier Bay history as told by Susie James in the Tlingit language was recorded by 

Nora Dauenhauer, June 1972 at Sitka. The text has also been published by Nora Marks 

Dauenhauer and Richard Dauenhauer in Haa Shuka, Our Ancestors; Tlingit Oral 

Narratives, Sealaska Heritage Foundation, Juneau, 1987, pp. 244-259” (Theodoratus

2000).

Johnson, Darryll R.

1990. Glacier Bay National Park Tour Boat Passenger Visitor Survey, 1989. The 

National Park Service Cooperative Park Studies Unit, College of Forest Resources, 

University of Washington, Seattle.

“This research was not intended to cover Native peoples, however, in the visitor 

comments section, several visitors stated they felt the need for more information on 

native history and use of Glacier Bay” (Theodoratus 2000).

Johnson, Darryll R., Patricia Garcia Gonzalez, and Gary Vequist

1990. Social Science Perspectives on Visitor Use and Management of Glacier Bay 

National Park. Cooperative Park Studies Unit, College of Forest Resources, University 

of Washington, Seattle.

“Selected resource and visitor management issues regarding Glacier Bay National Park 

are presented and summarized. Comment from Native groups on the Management Plan 

presented in this work appears to have been from Yak-Tat Kwaan. Under ‘Resource 

Management Conflicts’ the authors quote from the General Management Plan that the 

‘legendary landscape of the native peoples represents an intangible cultural resource’

(Johnson et al. 1990:V.20)” (Theodoratus 2000).

Johnson, John F.C.

1984. Chugach Legends: Stories and Photographs of the Chugach Region. Anchorage: 

Chugach Alaska Corp. 

This work represents a selection of tales taken from throughout the Chugach region. Both 

Eskimo (Aluutiq) and Indian (Athabascan, Eyak and Tlingit) legends are represented in 

this collection. This work also includes photographs depicting the Chugach region.

1988. Eyak Legends: Stories and Photographs. Anchorage: Chugach Heritage 

Foundation.

This collection of Eyak legends is the result of the expedition of de Laguna and her team 

of anthropologists to Cordova in the 1930s. This collection captures both linguistic and 

cultural values of the Eyak peoples.
38

Johnson, Lora L., Chugach Alaska Corporation, Eyak Corporation, Tatitlek Native Corporation, 

Alaska, Department of Transportation and Public Facilities

1992. Land Use Impact Study for Chugach Alaska Corporation, the Eyak Corporation, 

the Tatitlek Corporation: Final Draft. The Corporations.

This study was conducted in order to inform a Draft Environmental Impact Statement for 

the proposed Copper River Highway. The report includes information regarding 

corporation lands in the area of the proposed highway. The majority of corporations are 

Native owned, and the status of the lands, current land management and use and potential 

impacts on the lands are discussed. Land resources are briefly described in the report.

Jonaitis, Aldona 

1977. The Relationship between the Social and Shamanic Art of the Tlingit Indians of 

Alaska. Ph.D. dissertation, Columbia University, New York.

In her thesis, Jonaitis compares social and shamanic Tlingit art. She discusses the 

relationship that social art has to social organization, economics and marriage. Shamanic 

art is discussed in relation to various ceremonial objects and clothing, as well shamanic 

animals. Of particular interest is the section on economics, which discusses resource use 

and ownership, as well as subsistence activities, including shell fishing and berry picking.

1981. Tlingit Halibut Hooks; An Analysis of the Visual Symbols of a Rite of Passage. 

American Museum of Natural History Anthropological Papers 57(1):1-48. 

“This paper discusses the significance of Tlingit halibut fishing beyond that of food 

acquisition. Jonaitis suggests halibut fishing relates to two complementary worldviews: 

‘the secure . . . village and its environs’ and ‘the far less secure and potentially hazardous 

external realm beyond human settlement’ (p. 3). The paper discusses halibut hooks and 

their concomitant supernatural assistance to fishermen, which helps minimize the danger 

of the external world. Jonaitis studied 108 halibut hooks” (Theodoratus 2000).

1982a. The Devilfish in Tlingit Sacred Art. In Native North American Art History, 

Selected Readings. Zena Pearlstone Mathews and Aldona Jonaitis, eds., Pp. 109-118. 

Palo Alto, CA: Peek Publications.

“Jonaitis focuses on the Tlingit conception of the devilfish as a spiritually powerful 

creature which might serve as a protector of shamans and fishermen, or which might act 

in a violent and destructive manner. This malevolent/benevolent dichotomy, explored 

through myth, portrayal on objects, and devilfish natural behavior, brings Jonaitis to 

conclude that the devilfish's transformational ability contributes to its ‘profound spiritual 

power’ among Tlingit people” (Theodoratus 2000). 

1982b. Sacred Art and Spiritual Power: An Analysis of Tlingit Shamans' Masks. In 

Native North American Art History, Selected Readings. Zena Pearlstone Mathews and 

Aldona Jonaitis, eds., Pp. 119-136. Palo Alto, CA: Peek Publications.
39

“The author is concerned with shamans' face mask sets which are worn at both private 

healings and public power displays, and which assist the shaman in transformation to the 

spirit helper (yek) each mask represents. Set content and sequential wearing of masks in a 

set with concomitant transformation of masks' spirits raises questions such as set quality, 

recurrent pattern, relationships among set masks as a principal organizational factor, and 

the dimension of power provided the shaman through the wearing of more than one 

powerful mask. Jonaitis focuses on a set of eight masks collected by Lt. George T. 

Emmons near Dry Bay (northwest boundary area of Glacier Bay NP) in Yakutat Tlingit 

territory and demonstrates a complicated and complementary multidimensional 

sacred/profane shamanistic transformation through a series of masks. The efficacy of the 

principals demonstrated is found in other mask kits. Of the 20 kits mentioned, five are 

from Dry Bay (37 masks) and three are from the Alsek River (21 masks)” (Theodoratus

2000).

1986. Art of the Northern Tlingit. Seattle: University of Washington Press.

“Jonaitis examines late nineteenth century Northern Tlingit art through comparison of 

sacred art and secular crest art with the intent of providing a theoretical perspective on 

the art. She makes the premise that style and symbolism reflect a people’s ‘social 

organizations and religious ideologies’ and thereby ‘enhances the positions of their 

secular and sacred leaders’ (p. xi). The background of collection and ethnographic 

description with discussion on social structure, shamanism, the potlatch and the séance is 

provided. She proposes that four ‘interrelated elements pervade northern Tlingit culture: 

hierarchy, complementarity, rite of passage rituals, and exchanges’ and that their 

artworks ‘can be understood as visual embodiments and expressions of these four themes 

in both the profane and sacred contexts’ (p. xii). From Dry Bay collected by Emmons and 

in the American Museum of Natural History collection is: shaman’s grave guardian (fig. 

38), several masks (figs. 41-48), shaman’s globular rattle (fig. 58), shaman’s comb (fig 

66), shaman’s amulet (fig. 67), and shaman’s bracelets (fig. 68)” (Theodoratus 2000).

Jones, Livingston French

1914. A Study of the Thlingets of Alaska. New York: H. Revell.

This study records the personal observations of Jones, a missionary that lived with the 

Tlingit peoples for over twenty years. The book contains information on a variety of 

topics, including the natural environment, kinship system, settlements patterns and dress. 

Of particular interest are topics such as diet and economic activities.

Jopling, Carol F.

1989. The Coppers of the Northwest Coast Indians: Their Origin, Development, and 

Possible Antecedents. American Philosophical Society 79(1):1-164.

In this book, Jopling examines the characteristics and uses of 328 coppers by Native 

peoples of the northwest coast. Jopling divides the coppers into four categories, which 

reflect Yakutat Tlingit taxonomies. She describes Tlingit culture in terms of location, 
40

kinship relations, customs and daily life. Jopling discusses the significance of copper to

Yakutat peoples, specifically, and reviews de Laguna’s work with Yakutat informants 

regarding copper usage. Joplin’s work is the result of studying copper collections at 

various museums as well as informal interviews with residents at various sites visited in 

1975, including Ketchikan, Wrangell, Haines, Sitka and a variety of Gitskan villages near 

Hazelton on the Skeena River.

Joseph, Robert, ed.

2005. Listening to Our Ancestors: The Art of Native Life along the North Pacific Coast. 

Washington, DC: National Museum of the American Indian, Smithsonian Institution in 

association with National Geographic.

This book, published in conjunction with the exhibition on display at the National 

Museum of the American Indian from November 2005 to January 2007, examines the 

cultures of the North West Coast, both historically and today. Descriptions of daily life 

and traditional stories are including along with photographs of material culture from the 

region, as well as a series of self-portraits of community members. Of particular interest 

is the section on the Tlingit peoples.

Kaiper, Dan, and Nan Kaiper

1978. Tlingits: Their Art, Culture, and Legends. Saanichton, BC: Hancock House 

Publishers, Ltd.

“Kaipier briefly outlines Tlingit culture including subsistence, ceremonial activities, art 

and mythology” (Theodoratus 2000). 

Kamenskii, Anatolii

1985. Tlingit Indians of Alaska. The Rasmuson Library Historical Translation Series, 

Vol. 2. Sergei Kan, trans. Fairbanks: University of Alaska Press.

“This work primarily covers religion and social organization. Appendix 12 contains a 

letter of 1897 from Khantych, et al. to the U.S. government mentioning Native land and 

subsistence rights and their protection by Section 8 of the Organic Act and encroachment 

on these rights by whites. One of the issues mentioned is the detrimental fishing methods 

used by a packing company which has rendered areas virtually empty of fish, including 

Cross Sound” (Theodoratus 2000).

Kan, Sergei

1986. The 19th Century Tlingit Potlatch: A New Perspective. American Ethnologist

13(2):191-212.

This article presents a symbolic analysis of Tlingit potlatch ceremonies and their 

importance to traditional culture. Associated ceremonial objects and food and tobacco 

items are discussed, as well. Kan’s article results from reviewing previous accounts of the 

potlatch ceremony in addition to original research conducted in the form of field visits in 

1979-1980 and 1984 to several Tlingit communities.
41

1989a. Symbolic Immortality: The Tlingit Potlatch of the Nineteenth Century. 

Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press.

“This study of 19th century Tlingit mortuary rites has been expanded from Kan's doctoral 

dissertation. The book is based on work among the Tlingit in 1979, 1980, 1984, and 

1987, regular correspondence with key Tlingit friends/consultants, and research at 

libraries and archives between 1982 and 1987. Kan's focus has been on the Northern 

Tlingit with research time spent at Juneau, Kake, Angoon, and especially at Sitka where 

many Tlingit residents from various Tlingit communities reside. The mortuary rite, from 

death to the memorial potlatch is discussed and analyzed, with attention to aspects of 

Tlingit culture which pertain to what Kan calls the mortuary/ancestral complex. The 

Tlingit view of a person in the social order is examined, as is the ritual drama of funerals 

(deceased, mourners and opposites; grief, mourning and funeral). The potlatch as a 

mortuary ritual is analyzed and the data achieved are compared cross-culturally” 

(Theodoratus 2000).

1991. Shamanism and Christianity: Modern-Day Tlingit Elders Look at the Past. 

Ethnohistory 38(4):363-387.

“Kan interviewed elders from Tlingit communities about shamanism. He places their 

diverse narratives in the historical context of conversion and the present-day context of 

religious affiliation, age, community location and other factors. Kan cites the narratives 

as part of a contestation of meaning between missionary and native versions of Tlingit 

history” (Theodoratus 2000).

1996. Clan Mothers to Godmothers: Tlingit Women and Russian Orthodox Christianity, 

1840-1940. Ethnohistory 43(4):613-641.

Kan combines archival and original research in order to provide a historic overview of 

Tlingit women’s conversion to Russian Orthodox Christianity. Kan’s fieldwork included 

communications with several elder Orthodox Tlingit women, primarily in the Sitka area.

1999. Memory Eternal: Tlingit Culture and Russian Orthodox Christianity through Two 

Centuries. Seattle: University of Washington Press.

Argues that Russian Orthodox Church was tolerant of Tlingit culture and that, dialectally, 

Tlingit culture influenced the development of the Church, and the Church the 

development of Tlingit culture, including early and influential leaders. 

Kaplan, Susan A. and Kristin J. Barsness

1986. Raven’s Journey: The World of Alaska's Native People. Exhibition Catalogue, 

University Museum, University of Pennsylvania. Philadelphia: University of 

Pennsylvania Press.
42

This is an exhibit guide for an exhibition at the Penn Museum focusing on Tlingit, 

Athapaskan and Eskimo cultures. Objects in the exhibit include items such as ceremonial 

masks, clothing, tools and art.

Kari, James M. and Siri Tuttle

2005. Copper River Native Places: A Report on Culturally Important Places to Alaska 

Native Tribes in Southcentral Alaska. Anchorage, AK: US Department of the Interior, 

Bureau of Land Management, Alaska State Office. 

This report is a compilation of data regarding areas of importance to village and tribal 

members living in areas impacted by the East Alaska Resource Management Plan. Of 

particular interest are chapters three and four, which deal with Eyak and Yakutat Tlingit 

territorial knowledge and culturally significant areas, respectively.

Kayamori, Fhoki. 

n.d. Fhoki Kayamori Photograph Collection, ca. 1912-1941 [graphic]. Alaska State 

Library, Historical Collections. Juneau, AK. 

http://vilda.alaska.edu/cdm/search/searchterm/Fhoki%20Kayamori.%20Photographs,%20

ca.%201912-1941.%20ASL-PCA55/field/all/mode/exact/conn/and/page/1/order/nosort/ad/asc.

This photography collection showcases daily life in Yakutat during the peak period of the 

salmon canning industry in southeast Alaska. Kayamori photographed Tlingit peoples, 

funerals proceedings, and Alaska Native Brotherhood and Alaska Native Sisterhood 

activities, among other topics. 

Keller, Robert H. and Michael F. Turek

1998. American Indians and National Parks. Tucson: The University of Arizona Press.

This book reviews the history and contemporary situation of relations between national 

parks and Native peoples, from the creation of Yosemite and Yellowstone into today. 

While the Tlingit peoples and the parks they inhabit are not mentioned specifically, a 

variety of peoples and parks throughout the country are discussed.

Kitka, Herman Sr.

2000. A Tlingit Elder’s Training. In Celebration 2000: Restoring Balance through 

Culture. Susan W. Fair and Rosita Worl, eds. Pp. 77-78. Juneau: Sealaska Heritage 

Foundation.

In this brief essay, a Tlingit elder recounts his experiences being trained by his uncle in 

traditional subsistence practices. He discusses use of fish and marine life, including 

halibut, octopus and salmon.

Knapp, Frances and Rheta Louise Childe

1896. The Thlinkets of Southeastern Alaska. Chicago: Stone and Kimball.
43

“Based on a three-year residence in Sitka, this book, covering the entire Tlingit area, is 

written for steamship tourists to Southeast Alaska. Although the authors claim to base 

their work primarily on observation and interview of old men and women, the book must 

be used with care because of biased and unwarranted theoretical propositions. This work 

includes a version of the Glacier Bay Chookenaidi clan story and a story about how the 

Muir Glacier was made. The authors' biased view of Natives as savages gives their work 

limited value as a research tool” (Theodoratus 2000). 

Krause, Aurel 

1956. The Tlingit Indians: Results of a Trip to the Northwest Coast of America and the 

Bering Straits. Erna Gunther, trans. Seattle: University of Washington Press.

“Aurel Krause's important work, Die Tlinkit-Indianer, was written from data gathered 

during his stay in the Tlingit region during 1881-1882. A geographer by training, Krause 

provides an early comprehensive ethnographic report on the Tlingit area. Much of the 

data presented on the Glacier Bay area (on the Bay and outer coast) is extracted from 

earlier exploration reports” (Theodoratus 2000).

1993. To the Chukchi Peninsula and to the Tlingit Indians 1881/1882: Journals and 

Letters by Aurel and Arthur Krause. Margo Krause McCaffrey, trans. The Rasmuson 

Library Historical Translation Series. Fairbanks: University of Alaska Press.

This book is a collection of letters and journals from Aurel and Arthur Krauses’ 

expedition to southern Alaska in 1881-1882. It contains ethnographic information on the 

Tlingits, as well as observations regarding the region’s natural history. Part two, 

specifically, focuses on the Tlingits.

Krauss, Michael E. 

1970. Eyak Texts. College, AK: University of Alaska and Massachusetts Institute of 

Technology.

This collection of Eyak texts represents numerous texts previously obtained by other field 

workers in addition to Krauss. Krauss’s texts were collected from Anna Nelson Harry of 

Yakutat and Lena Nacktan and Marie Smith in Cordova during the summers of 1963, 

1964 and 1965. The book is divided into sections based on various themes, including: 

raven cycle, animals, people and animals, land otters, mythical beings, cautionary tales, 

legends of people, wars, witches and shamans, and miscellaneous ethnographical themes. 

The texts contain a wealth of information on subsistence practices by the Eyak peoples, 

including stories such as “Hunting Sea-Otter,” “Dry-Salmon Types,” and “Man Kills 

Grizzly, Bear-Hunting, Food-Gathering.”

Krauss, Michael E., ed.

1982. In Honor of Eyak: The Art of Anna Nelson Harry. Fairbanks: Alaska Native 

Language Center, University of Alaska.
44

This book is a collection of traditional Eyak tales as told by Anna Nelson Harry, who at 

the time of publishing was thought to be the last speaker of the Eyak language. Krauss 

includes historical, cultural and biographical contexts for the stories.

Krupnik, Igor, Rachel Mason, and Tonia W. Horton, eds.

2004. Northern Ethnographic Landscapes: Perspectives from Circumpolar Nations.

Washington, DC: Arctic Studies Center, National Museum of Natural History, 

Smithsonian Institution.

This book contains a collection of articles that reveal the importance of heritage 

preservation in conjunction with environmental conservation in landscapes of the 

circumpolar region. Both ethnographic and cultural landscapes are examined as aspects 

of national heritage conservation and traditional Native cultures are incorporated as 

contributing to the understanding of the cultural heritage of this area. Subsistence 

management is mentioned throughout the volume, regarding governmental and Native 

understandings of the management of natural resources.

Kurtz, Rick S.

1995. Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve Historic Resource Study. Anchorage, AK: 

National Park Service, Alaska System Support Office.

“Kurtz uses primary documents as well as published sources to develop the history of 

Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve from the precontact period through World War 

II. The Tlingit peoples are mentioned as the precontact inhabitants of the area, and are 

mentioned, when relevant to historic resources, in the text. The main thrust of the work is 

on post contact uses, e.g., exploration, tourism, research, entrepreneurs, exploitation, 

navigation, homesteads, recreation, and World War II use. The study provides a guide for 

park managers and assists them in interpreting and managing Glacier Bay historic 

properties” (Theodoratus 2000).

1997. Commercial Salmon Operations in the Glacier Bay Region: An Industry in 

Microcosm. Journal of the West 26(2):52-58.

This article documents the ways in which commercial salmon fishing and processing in 

Glacier Bay impacted the Tlingits residing in the area. The article discusses the 

importance of salmon to the peoples’ lifestyle and economy. Topics such as Native 

property rights, harvesting methods and fish processing are covered.

2008. Cross-Culture Relationships on the Southeast Alaska Frontier: The Glacier Bay 

Case. Journal of the West 47(2):44-53.

This article examines the arrival of European and Russian explorers and traders into 

Southeast Alaska and their effects on Tlingit peoples and their resources. 

Overexploitation of fur-bearing animals, such as the sea otter, and salmon fisheries are 

discussed. 
45

Langdon, Steven J.

1980. A Brief History of Salmon Fishing in Cross Sound and Icy Strait. Manuscript 

prepared for Icy Strait Fishery Federation.

“Key documents and interviews are used for this ‘synoptic historical overview’ of salmon 

fishing. The strategic importance of the purse seine fishery and its importance to 

fishermen are discussed. Catch statistics are presented for 1951-1956” (Theodoratus

2000).

1989. From Communal Property to Common Property to Limited Entry: Historical 

Ironies in the Management of Southeast Alaska Salmon. In A Sea of Small Boats. John 

Cordell, ed. Cultural Survival Report No. 26, Cambridge, MA: Cultural Survival, Inc.

“Langdon analyses different systems of property rights, which have been used in salmon 

management. These are examined in cultural context, including technological 

capabilities, organization of production and distribution, and exchange opportunities. 

Langdon looks at salmon in the context of Native culture history, cultural organization, 

and salmon management; Russian influences; US common property; common property 

controversies; and limited entry. Access to fisheries is now integrated with financial 

institutions and the state bureaucracy. It is difficult for rural populations to gain access to 

these institutions and agencies, which puts these populations at a disadvantage. The 

Tlingit and Haida are not likely to become beneficiaries of limited entry” (Theodoratus

2000).

2000. Subsistence and Contemporary Tlingit Culture. In Will the Time Ever Come? A 

Tlingit Source Book. Andrew Hope III and Thomas F. Thornton, eds. Pp. 117-124. 

Fairbanks: Alaska Native Knowledge Network, Center for Cross-Cultural Studies, 

University of Alaska.

This paper examines traditional Tlingit subsistence practices and the ways in which they 

were impacted by European contact. Langdon discusses Tlingit subsistence in the 

contemporary and its connection to traditional life and culture.

2006. Traditional Knowledge and Harvesting of Salmon by Huna and Hinyaa Tlingit. 

Study Number: FIS 02-104 Research conducted under contract number 43-0109-2-342 

between US Fish and Wildlife Service, Office of Subsistence Management and Central 

Council of Tlingit and Haida Indian Tribes of Alaska, Juneau. Accessed 20 April 2011, 

http://alaska.fws.gov/asm/pdf/fisheries/reports/02-104final.pdf.

This report consists of an overview of Tlingit traditional knowledge of and practices with 

salmon. Included is information that compares Huna and Hinyaa Tlingit knowledge 

regarding salmon biology, distribution, timing, habitat, behavior, sustainability issues and 

mythology surrounding salmon. The findings are the result of original research in which 

interviews were conducted, taped and transcribed. Interviewees included Tlingit elders 

and scholars, and some of the interviews were conducted in Tlingit. Supplemental 

information resulted from guided site visits with Tlingit salmon experts.
46

2007. Sustaining a Relationship: Inquiry into the Emergence of a Logic of Engagement 

with Salmon among the Southern Tlingits. In Native Americans and the Environment: 

Perspectives on the Ecological Indian. M.E. Harkin and D.R. Lewis, eds. Pp. 233-273. 

Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press.

Langdon, Steven, and Rosita Worl

1981. Distribution and Exchange of Subsistence Resources in Alaska. Technical Paper 

55. Anchorage: University of Alaska, Arctic Environmental Information and Data Center.

“This literature survey of subsistence exchange systems is arranged in two parts. In Part I, 

Langdon discusses anthropological economic theory and relevant subsistence studies to 

provide background for discussion of distribution and exchange within the economic 

context. To this end, Worl (Part II) reviews ethnographic literature on Alaskan resource 

distribution and exchange. It is concluded that each Native culture had its own exchange 

system and that ceremonial feasting and resource goods distribution were present for all 

Alaskan groups” (Theodoratus 2000). 

1983. From Communal Property to Common Property to Limited Entry: Historical 

Ironies in the Management of Southeast Alaskan Salmon. Unpublished paper.

“This paper analyzes three different systems of property rights that have been used to 

manage salmon in Southeast Alaska, including the communal-property system 

traditionally used by the Tlingit and Haida peoples. Langdon traces the transition from 

one regime to another. Includes a very brief mention of the Tlingit' s use of birds’ eggs” 

(Theodoratus 2000).

La Perouse, Jean Francois Galaup Compte de

1799. A Voyage Round [sic] the World, Performed in the Years 1785, 1786, 1787, and 

1788, by the Boussole and Astrolabe under the Command of J. F. G. de la Perouse. 

Published by Order of the National Assembly. 2 volumes. Translated from the French. 

London: Printed by A. Hamilton, for G. G. and J. Robinson, J. Edwards, and T. Payne.

“Chapters VII, VIII, and IX of this translation relate the experiences of la Perouse and 

company on the northern outer coast of what is now Glacier Bay National Park and 

Preserve, commencing with the sighting of Mt. Saint Elias to the north on the 23rd of 

June 1786. La Perouse provides description of Lituya Bay and the encounters with native 

people both prior to entry of the bay and through the duration of the expedition's stay 

within the bay. Among the subjects discussed pertinent to the native population are, 

trade/barter items and procedures; native interest in metallurgy, especially iron and 

copper; arts, including wood sculpture, spinning, weaving, ‘tapestry,’ music, dance 

clothing, and adornment; land, river and sea food availability, including chosen diet, 

especially fisheries; villages and village movement, including population; canoe 

construction and travel; houses and burial monuments; dogs; greeting mannerisms and 

propensity toward ‘thievery’; weapons; games; language; and native phenotype. In 
47

addition, both the sea and land flora and fauna, geology, glaciers, and general 

descriptions of the area are provided” (Theodoratus 2000).

1927. The Alaska Adventures of Jean Francois Galoup [sic.] Perouse. From Le Voyage 

de la Perouse autor du Monde. Alaska Magazine 6(3):109-144.

“This translation begins with La Perouse sailing toward Mt. St. Elias (1786) and includes 

his encounters for ten days with Native people in Lituya Bay (Port des Francais), south to 

the Cape Spencer area and beyond. Reproductions of original etchings of Natives and 

topography are presented. Included are descriptions of Native people, their material 

culture (e.g., dress, ornamentation, boats, houses, salmon trap), some social culture (e.g., 

trade, dance), and description of the Native manner of meeting strangers from the French 

point of view” (Theodoratus 2000).

1969. Voyages and Adventures of La Perouse. Julius S. Gassner, ed. Honolulu: 

University of Hawaii Press. 

“La Perouse sighted Mt. Fairweather July 2, 1786. He noted a small calm bay, which he 

named Frenchmen's Harbor (Lituya Bay) and sent a crew into the bay to conduct a 

reconnaissance of the area. This account provides data on meetings with, and trading 

patterns of the Natives encountered during the 26 day stay at Lituya. After a treacherous 

sea accident in which 21 expedition members drowned, and before departure, La Perouse 

named the small island in the Bay, Cenotaph Island. During the time at Lituya, La 

Perouse collected data on mineral and plant products, fish and animals, and on the 

Natives he met there. The community is briefly described, including housing, cooking, 

fishing, hunting, dogs, body beautification, clothing, arts, and gambling” (Theodoratus

2000). 

Larsen, Christopher F., Roman J. Motyka, Jeffrey T. Freymuller, Keith A. Echelmeyer and Erik 

R. Ivins

2004. Rapid Uplift of Southern Alaska Caused by Recent Ice Loss. Geophysical Journal 

International 158:1118–1133.

This study uses uplift rates from Global Positioning System measurements, sea level rates 

resulting from temporary tide gauge observations, and total sea level change from raised 

shoreline studies in order to indicate solid earth uplift in southern Alaska. The three data 

sets show triangulation, however the measurements vary and are thus discussed 

separately in the article. The collapse of the Glacier Bay Icefield in 1750 AD is identified 

as the beginning of the current uplift episode.

2005. Rapid Viscoelastic Uplift in Southeast Alaska Caused by Post-Little Ice Age 

Glacial Retreat. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 237:548–560.

This study documents the rapid uplift in southeast Alaska along with raised shorelines 

and attributes them to the post-Little Ice Age glacial retreat. The authors argue that 

glacier rebound is relevant as it aids in interpreting crustal and mantel properties of the
48

earth, can cause increased erosion rates and subsequently additional isostatic effects, 

affect sea level measurements and fault stability, thereby increasing rates of seismicity in 

the region. The region focused on in this study includes the ancestral and contemporary 

homeland of the Yakutat peoples.

Lawson, Daniel, Greg Wiles, and Nicholas Wiesenberg

2010. Paleoclimate of the Last 10,000 Years, Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve: 

Progress Understanding Climate Change in Southeast Alaska. Annual Report 2010. 

Prepared for the National Park Service, Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve.

This study uses tree-ring dating with interstadial wood from Glacier Bay from the 

Holocene period in order to provide information about the paleoclimate during the glacial 

cycles characterizing at the least the last 10,000 years. Climate changes, alterations in ice 

volume and forest responses are all discussed. The authors note the constraints of their 

study in Glacier Bay and their methodology. Of particular interest is the section that 

compares the data collected by tree-ring data with the oral history of the Huna Tlingit, 

and finds concordance between the two.

Lee, Molly

2006. “If It's Not a Tlingit Basket, Then What Is It?:” Toward the Definition of an Alutiiq 

Twined Spruce Root Basket Type. Arctic Anthropology 43(2):164-171.

In this article, Lee compares and contrasts basketry of the Tlingit and the Alutiiq peoples. 

She argues that baskets once attributed to the Tlingit are actually of Alutiiq origin. She 

discusses the use of natural resources, primarily spruce roots, in basket making.

Leer, Jeff, compiler

n.d. Tlingit Tribe, Clan, and House Group Names (DRAFT). On File, Alaska Native 

Language Center, University of Alaska, Fairbanks.

“This draft on tribe, clan and house groups provides locations and, in some cases, 

historical movements of tribes. Clans are grouped under either Raven or Wolf (moieties) 

and the Tlingit names and variations of names are provided. These moieties are then 

subdivided by clan or house group. Leer provides a translation(s) of the name for each 

grouping (e.g., T'akdeintaan means ‘House toward the side’) and information on location 

and history of each group with references. This working document is indexed” 

(Theodoratus 2000).

Litwin, Thomas S.

2005. The Harriman Alaska Expedition Retraced: A Century of Change, 1899-2001. New 

Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.

This book represents the interdisciplinary journey of a group of researchers retracing the 

1899 Harriman Expedition to the coast of Alaska. It is divided into five sections that 

cover distinct segments of the expedition. Part three, “Gulf of Alaska and Alaska 

Peninsula,” covers the group’s journey into Yakutat Bay and meetings with Yakutat 
49

Tlingit Tribal leaders. Traditional and contemporary subsistence customs and concerns 

are discussed, including the decline of the harbor seal.

Lord, Nellie

1995. Interview by William Schneider. H95-71-29. Project Jukebox. The University of 

Alaska Fairbanks Oral History Program. http://jukebox.uaf.edu/site7/interviews/667

Lord, a Yakutat Native woman, provides a personal account of her childhood and 

subsistence practices with her father. She discusses fur trade and seal hunting in the 

Yakutat area, as well as hooligan fishing and smokehouses. She also describes practices 

associated with potlatches.

Low, Jean

1977. George Thornton Emmons. The Alaska Journal 7(1):2-11.

This article provides a brief biography of Emmons, a retired naval officer that serviced at 

the end of the nineteenth century. While in the service, Emmons became interested in the 

Native communities of Alaska, particularly the Tlingit peoples and was later considered 

an authority on the subject.

Mallott, Byron I. 

1975. Report on the Probable Impacts on Native People Both Beneficial and Adverse 

Resulting from Off-Shore (OCS) Federal Oil and Gas Leases, Using Yakutat as a Case 

Study. Juneau: US Bureau of Indian Affairs. 

This report focuses on the impacts of Gulf of Alaska oil development on the Yakutat 

Tlingit people. After an extensive study on the topic, the report concludes that 

information provided by the Federal Government largely minimized the impacts of oil 

development. Perspectives of various interest groups regarding oil development are 

examined, including kwáan concerns regarding effects on subsistence food resources. 

The report also includes a proposal entitled “Land Use and Cultural Change: The Yakutat 

Case Study,” which is composed of eight chapters: Background, Purpose and Objectives, 

Program Narrative, State Theme, Long Range Impact, Sponsoring Organization, 

Evaluation, and Budget.

Marvin, Amy

1999. Glacier Bay History. In The Book of the Tongass. Carolyn Servid and Donald 

Snow, eds. Minneapolis, MN: Milkweed Editions.

Marvin, a Tlingit women raised in the traditional manner, tells the story of Glacier Bay 

History, which is a story passed down from generation to generation. It describes the 

release of the glacier from a basin, causing flooding in the ancestral village.

Maschner, Herbert D. G. and Katherine L. Reedy-Maschner

1998. Raid, Retreat, Defend (Repeat): The Archaeology and Ethnohistory of Warfare on 

the North Pacific Rim. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 17(1):19-51.54
50

This article examines the prevalence and significance of violent conflict in North Pacific 

Rim societies through history. Aleut and Alutiiq societies are the primary focus of this 

study, though Tlingits are mentioned once in reference to warring over goods linked to 

status. The authors argue that warfare, particularly during the latter prehistoric period, is 

fundamental to the structure and functioning of North Pacific Rim societies. 

Mason, Ronald J.

2000. Archaeology and Native North American Oral Traditions. American Antiquity 

65(2):239-266.

Mason examines the trend of archaeologists being pressured to incorporate Native oral 

tradition into their studies. He argues that this process can be very difficult and not 

always beneficial to the research. Of particular interest is the section in which the author 

questions de Laguna’s claim that Yakutat Tlingit oral history is concordant with 

radiocarbon dated glaciological events dating to around 1400 A.D. He argues that her 

theory is not sufficiently supported by evidence dating the Tlingit legends, and that de 

Laguna was influenced by the dates presented in geological reports.

Matson, Richard G. and Gary Coupland

1995. Prehistory of the Northwest Coast. San Diego: Academic Press.

“This 1995 synthesis focuses on British Columbia and Southeast Alaska prehistory” 

(Theodoratus 2000).

McBeth, C. Perry

1949. Gold at Lituya Bay (As told to Oscar L. Brauer). The Alaska Sportsman, February: 

6-14. 

“McBeth left California for Lituya Bay in March 1896 on a placer gold mining venture. 

He recalls the icebergs in the Icy Strait and wild berries (including Indian gathering and 

preserving) near Strawberry Point” (Theodoratus 2000).

McClellan, Catharine

1953. The Inland Tlingit. Asia and North America: Transpacific Contacts. Memoirs of the 

Society for American Archaeology 9:47-52. 

McClellan discusses three neighboring groups of Tlingit-speakers of the interior of 

northern British Columbia and of the southern Yukon territory: the Tagish band of 

Carcross; the Atlin band; and the Teslin band with headquarters on Teslin Lake. The 

Eyak are discussed, specifically, in relation to the Tlingit culture’s imposition on their 

culture in Yakutat Bay.

1954. The Interrelations of Social Structure with Northern Tlingit Ceremonialism. 

Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 10(1):75-96.
51

In this article, McClellan examines the ways in which Tlingit ceremonial beliefs and 

practices manifest social structure from a qwan to individual level. She uses the Yakutat 

qwan as a case study that demonstrates this trend. McClellan reviews different types of 

Tlingit ceremonialism, including potlatches, feasts and peacemaking. The spiritual 

relevance of certain natural resources, such as copper and fur, are discussed. McClellan 

conducted original research in the field in 1948 and 1949 in collaboration with Dorothy 

Libby and in 1950 and 1950 with Frederica de Laguna. The data collected came from 

Angoon and Yakutat on the coast, as well as Teslin and Carcross from the interior 

country of Yukon Territory.

1964. Culture Contacts in the Early Historic Period in Northwestern North America. 

Arctic Anthropology 2(2):3-15.

McClellan examines culture contact between Native groups of northwest America during 

the early historic period. She discusses both the Tlingit and Eyak peoples of the Pacific 

coast in regards to interactions during this period.

McKinley, Jim, Frank Stickwan, Jake Tansy, Katie John and Adam Sanford 

2010. Ahtna Travel Narratives: A Demonstration of Shared Geographic Knowledge 

among Alaska Athabascans. James Kari, ed. Fairbanks: Alaska Native Language Center.

This book features Ahtna landscape taxonomies, such as native place names and river 

indicators. The book also contains native Ahtna travel narratives that focus on over one 

thousand miles of traditional walking trails and routes in the region. Subsistence activities 

are discussed throughout, including discussions regarding salmon fishing and hunting 

sheep, moose and caribou. The book also includes a current bibliography on the Ahtna.

McNeary, Stephen A. 

1978. Local Exploitation of D-2 Lands in the Gulf of Alaska Region. Anthropology and 

Historic Preservation, Cooperative Park Studies Unit, University of Alaska, Fairbanks.

This book examines subsistence activities such as hunting, fishing, gathering and 

trapping, in southwest Alaska. Both Yakutat and Cordova are discussed.

Menzies, Archibald 

1993. The Alaska Travel Journal of Archibald Menzies, 1793-1794. Introduction and 

Annotations by Wallace M. Olson; Botanical Collections by John F. Thilenius. 

Fairbanks: University of Alaska Press.

“As part of the Vancouver expedition (1791-1795) this work includes Menzies account of 

a survey in Cross Sound and the Icy Strait where he explored, along with Whidbey and 

LeMesurier in July 1794. Of interest here is the survey from Cape Spencer in the west, 

through Cross Sound to the entrance of Glacier Bay and east through the Icy Passage to 

Chatham Strait. The expeditioners encountered Natives with whom they traded trinkets 

and cloth for fish and furs. Menzies describes visits with Natives from their canoes, 

villages and village ruins, Native camps, and his view of Native behavior toward 
52

strangers. The descriptions of much treacherous ice show the area to have been vastly 

different from today's notable lack of ice” (Theodoratus 2000).

Mertie, J. B., Jr.

1931. Notes on the Geography and Geology of Lituya Bay. US Geological Survey 

Bulletin 836-B:117-135.

“Mertie provides an abbreviated history of Lituya Bay, including a summary of the 

discovery by La Perouse and his geographic work and the work of those who followed 

Perouse. He briefly presents La Perouse's observations of natives at Lituya, mentioning 

beach villages, fishing, hunting, travel, use of metals, canoes, cremation, and trade. This 

work covers vegetation, animal life, geographic features, geology, and placer mining” 

(Theodoratus 2000).

Metcalfe, Vern

1976. The Southeast Alaska Cultural Experience. A Bicentennial Publication of the 

Juneau Indian Studies Program of the City and Borough of Juneau School District. 

Douglas, Alaska: The District. On file, Special Collections, Pacific Northwest, 

University of Washington, Seattle, WA. 

“This work was designed as a textbook for use as a guide to Southeast Alaska history 

with a bibliography for continued study. The purpose is to acquaint students with culture, 

economic base, and community history from Yakutat to Ketchikan. The text covers, for 

example, the first residents, historical exploration, political history (territory/statehood), 

land claims, ANB, cities and villages. Glacier Bay, Excursion Inlet, Icy Strait, and Cross 

Sound are also itemized in this reference work” (Theodoratus 2000).

Miller, Polly, and Leon Gordon Miller

1967. Lost Heritage of Alaska; The Adventure and Art of the Alaskan Coastal Indians. 

Cleveland: World Publishing Company.

“Native arts are presented in historical context and perspective through the records of 

early explorers and navigators in Southeastern Alaska. Noting that Native art is a 

component of culture, the Millers explain the cultural order, the symbolism, and the 

community involvement in its production. The legend of Lituya (Native encounter with 

Perouse) is taken from George Emmons' account. The establishment of the Alaska Native 

Brotherhood, and the collection and movement of Native objects into the museum and art 

worlds by collectors such as Emmons, Newcombe, Shotridge, and Rasmussen are 

covered. The authors use primary sources to provide a summary on Northwest Coast 

Native culture, but references are not included in the text, making documentation difficult 

to verify. A bibliography and index is included” (Theodoratus 2000).

Mills, David D. and Anne S. Firman

1986. Fish and Wildlife Use in Yakutat Alaska: Contemporary Patterns and Changes. 

Technical Report 131. Douglas: Division of Subsistence, Alaska Department of Fish and 

Game.
53

This report primarily focuses on contemporary subsistence practices of Native Yakutat 

community members, though it does contain a section that provides a brief overview of 

historical resource use by Alaska Natives. Information gathered in this report resulted 

from original research in the form of 25 key informant interviews with long-term Native 

residents with extensive knowledge of fishing and hunting practices, followed by a 

random survey of 30 percent of the community that gathered quantitative data on 

contemporary subsistence patterns.

Mitchell, Donald

1984. Predatory Warfare, Social Status, and the North Pacific Slave Trade. Ethnology

23(1):39-48.

Mitchell discusses the slave trade practices of Native communities of southeast Alaska. 

Tlingit, and Yakutat specifically, are mentioned as engaging in the slave trade. Table one 

reports that one slave in Yakutat was considered equal to two sea otter skins.

Miyaoka, Osahito

1974. An Eskimo Tribe near “Mount Saint Elias (Alaska).” Arctic Anthropology

11(1):73-80. 

Monteith, Daniel

2007. Ethics, Management, and Research in Glacier Bay, Alaska. Teaching Ethics: The 

Journal of the Society for Ethics across the Curriculum. Pp. 67-80. Society for Ethics 

across the Curriculum, University of Alaska Southeast.

This paper addresses the contentious nature of federal-tribal cooperation regarding 

resource management of the Glacier Bay region. Monteith discusses the traditional ties of 

the Tlingit to the land making up Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve, as 

demonstrated in traditional songs and stories. Traditional subsistence activities and clan 

organization are discussed. Monteith combined previous studies (including Hunn 

2003:85) and original research to produce the findings presented in this article. During 

the summers of 2003, 2004 and 2005, an interdisciplinary team conducted geological and 

archaeological research in various locations in the Glacier Bay area.

Monteith, Daniel, Cathy Connor, Gregory P. Streveler, and Wayne Howell

2007. Geology and Oral History – Complementary Views of a Former Glacier Bay 

Landscape. In Proceedings of the Fourth Glacier Bay Science Symposium, October 26-

28, 2004, Juneau, Alaska. John F. Piatt and Scott M. Gende, eds. Pp. 50-53. Scientific 

Investigations Report 2007- 5047. US Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia.

This report is the result of an interdisciplinary study that demonstrates concordance 

between evidence from the geological record and ethno-historical accounts of the Huna 

people in Glacier Bay. Both sets of data aid in reconstructing the pre-Little Ice Age 

landscape of the Glacier Bay region and provide a context for pre-Neoglacial human 

occupation in Glacier Bay.
54

Moser, Jefferson F.

1902. The Salmon and Salmon Fisheries of Alaska. Report of the Alaska Salmon 

Investigations of the United States Fish Commission Steamer Albatross in 1900 and 

1901. US Fish Commission Bulletin for 1901. Pp. 173-398, 399-401. Washington, DC: 

Government Printing Office.

“In a section on Southeastern Alaska Moser discusses the various fish canneries, 

including the ethnic composition of the fishermen and cannery workers, the numbers of 

fish taken and the localities where fish are found. Among facilities discussed are the 

Western Fisheries Company in Dundas Bay and Bartlett Bay Saltery and Cannery owned 

by the Icy Strait Packing Company. The topography, water sources, and fish for these 

areas is also described. Salmon streams on the outer coast from Cape Spencer to the 

Alsek River as reported by Indian people are listed” (Theodoratus 2000). 

Moss, Madonna L.

1993. Shellfish, Gender, and Status on the Northwest Coast: Reconciling Archeological, 

Ethnographic, and Ethnohistorical Records of the Tlingit. American Anthropologist

95(3):631-652.

“Moss examines the use of shellfish within the cultural context of the Tlingit through a 

review of ethnohistorical and oral historical data for evidence on the economic 

importance of shellfish. The variety and abundance of shellfish found in archeological 

sites near Angoon indicated these were important food resources. She then considers 

shellfish in terms of social and symbolic meaning as seen through dietary rules and oral 

traditions. Moss demonstrates that social categories such as gender and social status are 

important in dietary prescriptions and subsistence pursuits and thus may result in 

differential resource use. Archeological and ethnographic documentation will require 

attention to sampling and quantification as well as greater integration in the future” 

(Theodoratus 2000).

1998. Northern Northwest Coast Regional Overview. Arctic Anthropology 35(1):88-111.

Moss examines the Northwest Coast culture area, from Yakutat Bay to the Dixon 

Entrance. She describes the different Native communities within the area and details the 

modern environmental setting before describing the sequence of changes it underwent 

through prehistory into today. She also uses the archaeological record to examine 

maritime activities, proposing that these activities began over nine thousand years ago, 

and contact between the people of different regions. Moss argues that subsistence 

activities throughout time centered on Nearshore and littoral resources. 

2004. The Status of Archaeology and Archaeological Practice in Southeast Alaska in 

Relation to the Larger Northwest Coast. Arctic Anthropology 41(2):177-196.

This review examines southeast Alaska’s archaeological record as it is understood today. 

The boundaries and flora and fauna that characterize the region are explained. Moss also 
55

discusses the various groups that prehistorically, historically or contemporarily inhabit 

the region, including Eyak and Tlingit peoples. She reviews previous archaeological 

studies of southeast Alaska, such as those by de Laguna. Moss also gives an overview of 

the region’s prehistory and tackles questions relating to original occupation and 

migrations of peoples.

Moss, Madonna L. and Aubrey Cannon

2011. The Archaeology of North Pacific Fisheries. Fairbanks: University of Alaska Press. 

Moss and Cannon’s book focuses on Alaska, British Columbia and the Puget Sound as 

three regions of the Pacific Coast where fisheries played a key role in the subsistence of 

native peoples. Archaeological sites are examined in terms of salmon, cod, herring, 

rockfish, eulachon and hake fish species.

Moss, Madonna L., and Jon M. Erlandson

1992. Forts, Refuge Rocks, and Defensive Sites: The Antiquity of Warfare along the 

North Pacific Coast of North America. Arctic Anthropology 29(2):73-90.

Moss examines the archaeological record for warfare on North America’s North Pacific 

coast in order to shed light on the history and evolution of warfare in the region, 

specifically among the Aleut, Alutiiq and Northwest Coast Indians. This study uses 

discrete fort sites as a means to understanding warfare. She describes the various types of 

fort sites, how they are identified archaeologically, and their geographic distribution. 

Moss includes a section specifically related to Tlingit forts and discusses historical 

records regarding warfare between Tlingit and other groups, including Eyak and Chugach 

peoples.

Motyka, Roman J., Christopher F. Larsen, Jeffrey T. Freymueller and Keith A. Echelmeyer

2007. Post Little Ice Age Rebound in the Glacier Bay Region. In Proceedings of the 

Fourth Glacier Bay Science Symposium, October 26-28, 2004, Juneau, Alaska. John F. 

Piatt and Scott M. Gende, eds. Pp. 57-59. Scientific Investigations Report 2007-5047. US 

Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia.

In this study, the authors’s findings are the result of data collected from the Glacier Bay 

region to compare changes in sea level resulting from tide gage observations and raised 

shoreline studies, and uplift rates from Global Positioning System (GPS) measurements 

to uplift predictions from viscoelastic rebound models.

Muir, John

1895. The Discovery of Glacier Bay. The Century Magazine, n.s., 28:234-247. (see also 

below, Muir, 1978 for republication.) 

http://digital.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/pagevieweridx?c=cent;cc=cent;rgn=full%20text;idno=cent0050-2;didno=cent0050-

2;view=image;seq=0244;node=cent0050-2%3A7
56

“Muir tells of his first visit to Glacier Bay, October 1879, with a Wrangell missionary 

(Mr. Young) and a crew of four Tlingits (two Stickeen, one Chilkat, one Sitka). Led by 

the youngest crewmember, Muir's party headed to an icy bay where the young man had 

hunted seal as a child with his father. Muir gives detail description of the scenery and 

experiences as he and his crew adventure toward what will henceforth be known as Muir 

Glacier. A description of Muir's September 1880 trip to Muir Glacier is also given. In this 

account it is clear that native familiarity with the topography and glacial activity in this 

area has led the author to develop respect for and caution in the Glacier Bay area” 

(Theodoratus 2000).

1915. Travels in Alaska. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co. (1979 edition; introduction by 

Edwin Way Teale, Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co.)

“John Muir first went to Alaska at the age of 41 in 1879, returning in 1880, 1881, 1890 

and 1899. In 1914, Muir began to write about his trips, especially recalling his first 

impressions and reminiscing on his ‘discovery’ of Glacier Bay. Muir's journal records 

formed the basis for this book, which was completed by a friend after his death in 1914 

(Introduction, 1979:v-x). Muir describes his travels at Taylor Bay and Dundas Bay on an 

1880 trip to the Icy Strait (pp. 245-270). Muir also met local Natives on his 1890 trip, but 

these are only briefly mentioned in this reference. The 1899 trip mentioned in the 

introduction is not covered” (Theodoratus 2000).

1978. The Discovery of Glacier Bay (1879) by John Muir, Its Discoverer. Olympic 

Valley, California: Outbooks. 

“This reprint of Muir's 1895 Century Magazine account of Glacier Bay exploration 

includes additional illustrations from an 1897 Century Magazine account (August, pp. 

523-526) (See Muir, 1895 above)” (Theodoratus 2000)

Native Village of Eyak Traditional Council (NVETC)

2001. Native Village of Eyak youth/elders conference on subsistence, Exxon Valdez Oil 

Spill Restoration Project Final Report (Restoration Project 98286). Anchorage: US 

Department of Interior, Bureau of Indian Affairs.

This report gives a day-to-day summary of the Native Village of Eyak Youth/Elders

Subsistence Conference held in 1998. The primary topic of the conference was traditional 

subsistence resources used by Eyak peoples. Elders and youth from twenty communities 

affected by the Exxon Valdez oil spill were brought together along with EVOS 

researchers. Subsistence resources such as resources such as harbor seals, harlequin 

ducks, herring, salmon, and clams were discussed.

Naves, Liliana C., Michael F. Turek and William E. Simeone

2010. Subsistence-Personal Use Salmon Harvest, Southeast-Yakutat Management 

Region, 1996-2006. Technical Paper 350. Anchorage: Alaska Department of Fish and 

Game, Division of Subsistence.
57

This report, which uses data from a permit program administered by the Alaska 

Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G), Division of Commercial Fisheries and from 

household surveys administered by the ADF&G Division of Subsistence, summarizes 

household subsistence-personal use salmon harvests in Southeast Alaska between 1996 

and 2006. Of particular interest are the sections on customary and traditional harvest 

methods and use of salmon and its significance to the peoples of the Northwest Coast.

Newcombe Family Papers

1870-1955. Newcombe Family Papers, Emmons Collection. Finding Aid. Add.MSS. 

1077, Province of British Columbia, Archives and Records Service, Victoria, BC.

“This finding aid includes the George Thornton Emmons collection, which consists of 

"correspondence, notes and manuscripts, mainly on the Tlingit Indians" (see Emmons). 

The Emmons collection, volumes 60-63, includes information on Collections, Notebooks, 

Miscellaneous Ethnological, and Miscellaneous and primarily covers Tlingit but also 

includes other Northwest Coast tribes. Volume and file are given for easy access to the 

material, which is on microfilm. The Newcombe Family photo collection includes Alaska 

photos from 1888 to 1905, including Emmons photos. The Newcombe collection also 

includes the collections of C. F. Newcombe and W. A. Newcombe on the ethnology, 

natural history and history of British Columbia, and the papers of the well-known 

Victorian photographers, Richard, Hannah, and Albert Maynard” (Theodoratus 2000). 

Newton, Richard, and Madonna Moss 

1984. The Subsistence Lifeway of the Tlingit People. Excerpts of Oral Interviews. US 

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Alaska Region, Juneau, AK. Republished as 

Newton and Moss 2005.

2005. Haa Atxaayí Haa Kusteeyíx Sitee, Our Food Is Our Tlingit Way of Life. Juneau, 

AK: US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service.

“This collaboration is a result of numerous interviews in both Tlingit and in English with 

twenty-three Tlingit people from various Southeastern Alaskan communities. Subjects 

covered are, subsistence lifeway; native foods, gifts of season and place; fish, game, 

beach food, wild and cultivated plants; responsibilities of the subsistence lifeway; and 

perspectives on the Tlingit homeland. Appendices list consultants and provide nutritional 

information on the foods discussed” (Theodoratus 2000).

Niblack, Albert P., Ensign, US Navy

1890. The Coast Indians of Southern Alaska and Northern British Columbia; Based on 

the Collections in the U. S. National Museum, and on the Personal Observation of the 

Writer in Connection with the Survey of Alaska in the Seasons' of 1885, 1886 and 1887. 

US National Museum Annual Report for 1887-1888, pp. 225-386. Washington, DC 

(Johnson Reprint 1970).

“Niblack gathered data during the summer seasons (May to October) of 1885, 1886 and 

1887 while on duty in Alaska for the US Coast and Geodetic Survey. This work, 
58

primarily on Haida, Tsimshian, and Tlingit cultures, covers the coastal area from Dixon 

Entrance in Northern British Columbia to the Mount St. Elias area of Southeastern 

Alaska, but occasional comparisons are also made with tribes from coastal British 

Columbia and Washington territory as well as a few comparisons with interior tribes. 

Extensive use is made of the various ethnographic sources of the time (including such as, 

Emmons, Swan, Vancouver, Lisiansky, Mackenzie, Krause, Dixon) and of museum 

collections (especially those of the Smithsonian Institution). Contents include aspects of 

native culture such as, environment, cultural organization, subsistence, productions, war 

and peace, vices, shamanism, mortuary, ceremonies. Niblack sometimes discusses the 

current status of a custom, for example, contemporary clothing as compared to the earlier 

pre- and early contact type clothing. Each section concludes with a summary. The data 

are discussed as Tlingit, Haida or Tsimshian rather than by tribal groupings. The Chart 

(map) at the volume end, however, does include Cape Fairweather, Icy Cape, Cape 

Spencer, Cross Sound, Icy Strait, Glacier Bay although reference is rarely made to such 

places in the text” (Theodoratus 2000). 

Oberg, K.

1937. The Social Economy of the Tlingit Indians. Seattle: University of Washington 

Press.

“Based on 1931 fieldwork in Klukwan, Sitka, and Wrangell, Oberg's thesis discusses 

Tlingit social organization, property systems, cycle of production, organization of labor, 

trade and distribution, and consumption of wealth. Oberg makes several mentions of 

seabird eggs: ‘Seabirds' eggs were also used whenever they could be obtained.’ He states 

that clan units would go to the rocks far out to sea and live on seabird eggs (and other 

things) starting in March, but later writes that June is the month when ‘the people spend 

days on the islets off the coast eating the eggs of seabirds.’ In the section on the 

consumption of wealth, he states, ‘trips lasting over several days are made, especially by 

the young people, to islands where the seagulls nest. Eggs are boiled and eaten on the 

spot and are also brought home in great quantities.’ The appendix contains a list of 

Tlingit-language bird names” (Theodoratus 2000).

Olson, Ronald Leroy 

1927. Adze, Canoe, and House Types of the Northwest Coast. University of Washington 

Publications in Anthropology 2(1). Seattle, WA.

“This general work is useful in distinguishing broad typologies of material culture 

features on the Northwest Coast. Olson's interest is in variations of the adze, canoes and 

houses. He shows the distribution of types using form and use for his classification” 

(Theodoratus 2000). 

1956. Channeling of Character in Tlingit Society. In Personal Character and Cultural 

Milieu: A Collection of Readings. Douglas G. Haring, ed. Pp. 675-687. Syracuse, NY: 

Syracuse University Press.
59

This brief article provides an overview of Tlingit peoples. It includes a description of the 

physical environment of the Tlingit territory, from the Canadian boundary of southeast 

Alaska to Yakutat Bay. Olson also discusses the availability of natural resources and the

use of these resources by the Native communities. Subsistence items such as shellfish, 

seals, sea lions, codfish, herring halibut and salmon are identified as staples in Tlingit 

diet. Village organization, ceremonial customs and clanship are also discussed. Also 

included are two illustrations of Tlingit Indians from Yakutat Bay, sketched by the 

Malaspina Expedition in 1792.

1967. Social Structure and Social Life of the Tlingits in Alaska. Berkeley: University of 

California Press.

This book contains information regarding Tlingit social life, gained from Olson’s 

research in the area in the summers of 1933, 1934, 1949 and 1954. Yakutat Bay peoples 

are discussed briefly regarding their location in Yakutat and possibly Knight Island. The 

author discusses their seasonal housing settlements at Chilkat, the mouth of Copper 

River, Yakataga and Lituya Bay. He states that the peoples are named after their canoes 

and are known as the “skin canoe people.” Various other Tlingit tribes are briefly 

introduced and described regarding their locations and settlement patterns. Of particular 

interest is the section on the ownership of territory, which relates to subsistence activities 

and natural resource use. The author also describes customs surrounding marriage and 

divorce, as well as clan origins and legends, wars, religion and class structure. 

1996. Tlingit Field Notes, 1933-1934, circa 1956. Reel #130, Ethnological Documents of 

the Department and Museum of Anthropology, Berkeley: University Archives, Bancroft 

Library, University of California.

Olson’s field notes are contained in twelve notebooks with one set of genealogical tables. 

Books 1 through 6 are a result of his fieldwork with the Tlingit in 1933; books 7 through 

10 are from his 1934 fieldwork; and books 11 through 12 are from his 1956 fieldwork.

Olson, Wallace M.

1993. With Vancouver in Alaska, 1793-1794. Auke Bay, AK: Heritage Research.

“Olson uses Vancouver's and Menzies' journals of the historic voyage to create this brief 

summary of daily locations, activities and place namings.”

1994. A Prehistory of Southeast Alaska. In Prehistoric Alaska, Vol. 21, No. 4. 

Anchorage: Alaska Geographic Society.

Olson begins with an overview of the history of archaeological research within southeast 

Alaska, starting with de Laguna’s work in 1949. He then examines possible relations 

between peoples, looking at linguistic patterns and similarities. Both Tlingit and Eyak 

peoples are discussed. Olson also discusses origins of peoples in the region and various 

archaeological sites. The material culture of various groups, including Tlingit, is 

examined.
60

2004. The Tlingits: An Introduction to Their Culture and History. 5th edition. Auke Bay, 

Alaska: Heritage Research. 

Olson provides a succinct overview of Tlingit history and culture. Topics explored by 

Olson include the geography of Tlingit territory, origins of the peoples and their history 

in the area, language, material and living culture, worldview and art. The book also 

contains a variety of charts, maps and illustrations that feature aspects of Tlingit culture 

and history.

Orth, Donald J.

1967. Dictionary of Alaska Place Names. Geographical Survey. Professional Paper 567. 

US Government Printing Office. 

“This dictionary is invaluable for identification of Alaska place names. Origins of names, 

variations of names including historical changes, and location in longitude and latitude is 

provided” (Theodoratus 2000).

Paquette, Mary Anne

1995. Interview by William Schneider. H95-71-28. Project Jukebox. The University of 

Alaska Fairbanks Oral History Program. http://jukebox.uaf.edu/site7/interviews/662

Paquette, a Native Yakutat woman, joins fellow Yakutat Native, Elaine Abraham, in an 

interview where both women discuss the old village at Yakutat, as well as trapping and 

fish camps around the Yakutat territory.

Paul, Frances

1944. Spruce Root Basketry of the Alaska Tlingit. Indian Handcrafts 8, Education 

Division, US Indian Service, Lawrence, Kansas: Haskell Institute. [Reprinted 1982, 

Sheldon Jackson Museum, Sitka, AK.]

Paul provides an overview of basketry among the Tlingit people, including a legend 

regarding the origin of basketry, use and process of making baskets, various forms 

represented and material needed for the baskets. The book also includes an illustrated 

map depicting the distribution of basket culture among the Tlingit when it was at its peak, 

as well as a number of photographs and illustrations demonstrating the basket-making 

process and numerous designs.

Paul, William

n.d. The Alaska Tlingit: Where Did They Come From? National Anthropological 

Archives, MS 7077. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press.

Paul’s document focuses on the migrations of Tlingit peoples in prehistory. Integrated 

throughout the text are Tlingit stories that describe how the different tribes and clans 

formed and received their names.
61

Pelton, Mary Helen White, and Jacqueline DiGennaro

1992. Images of a People: Tlingit Myths and Legends. Englewood, Colorado: Libraries 

Unlimited. 

This book is divided into two parts; the first provides an overview of Tlingit history and 

culture, while the second is composed of myths and legends from the Tlingit people. The 

first part covers topics such as Tlingit history with the land, kinship relations, religion and 

spiritual practices. Subsistence practices are discussed throughout, including discussions 

regarding diet, resource use and harvesting techniques and availability of food and other 

subsistence items. The stories also cover themes relating to natural resource availability 

and use. 

Perry, Anjanette

1987. Commercial Fishing in Glacier Bay National Park, US National Park Service, 

Resource Management Division, Glacier Bay National Park, Alaska. On file at Glacier 

Bay National Park Library, Gustavus. 45 pp. 

“This overview of commercial fishing activities within the Park is intended to familiarize 

Park managers with the fisheries so they can identify potential problem areas and prevent 

impacts to marine resources. The report describes major finfish and shellfish biology and 

commercial fishing activities in the Park and evaluates the values and impacts of 

commercial fisheries there. Management actions are proposed” (Theodoratus 2000).

Perry, Richard J.

1983. Proto-Athapaskan Culture: The Use of Ethnographic Reconstruction. American 

Ethnologist 10(4):715-733.

Perry uses Athapaskan linguistic studies to attempt to place the Athapaskan peoples in a 

historical and linguistic manner. He compares Athapaskans to other Native groups of the 

northwest Pacific region. The Eyak are discussed in relation to Athapaskans, and Perry 

notes that Eyaks and Athapaskans are grouped together due to linguistic similarities.

Petrof, Ivan 

1900. Population, Resources, Etc. of Alaska [from US Census Report of 1880]. In 

Compilation of Narratives of Explorations in Alaska. Pp. 55-284. Senate Report No. 

1023, 56th Congress, 1st Session, April 18, 1900. US Congress. Senate. Committee on 

Military Affairs. Washington, Government Printing Office.

“Petrof's southeast Alaska division (one of six divisions) covers the area from Mt. St. 

Elias in the north to the Portland Canal in the south. Petrof reviews various historical 

population data dating from Tikhmenief's figures on the Thlinkit (est. 5,000) in 1819 to 

the 1880 census. Several such reviewed enumerations specify localities such as Cross 

Sound or Icy Strait villages, coast of mainland between Cape Spencer and Bering Bay, 

and list the number of adults, children, and slaves by sex. He notes that by 1880 the 

Presbyterians had school operations in the area. For 1880 populations, he notes 908 of the 
62

Hoonyah tribe on Chichagof Island and 500 of the Yakutat tribe on the coast from Cape 

Yaktag to Cape Spencer” (Theodoratus 2000). 

Pinnow, Heinz-Jürgen

1964. On the Historical Position of Tlingit. International Journal of American Linguistics

30(2):155-164.

Pinnow discusses the Tlingit in terms of their language, genetics and relation to other 

Native groups in the area. Tlingit language is discussed in relation to Eyak language 

morphology.

Pratt, Kenneth L., ed.

1998. Copper, Trade, and Tradition among the Lower Ahtna of the Chitina River Basin: 

The Nicolai Era, 1884-1900. Boundaries: Papers in Honor of James W. Vanstone Arctic 

Anthropology 35(2):77-98.

Pratt uses his original research findings achieved ethnographic, archaeological, and 

historical data collection to document the trading of copper and the establishment of 

copper mining in Lower Ahtna history. The Eyak are discussed, specifically, in regards to 

their trading patterns with the Ahtna. Yakutat Tlingit are also mentioned in this capacity.

2009. Chasing the Dark: Perspectives on Place, History and Alaska Native Land Claims. 

Anchorage, Alaska: US Department of the Interior, Bureau of Indian Affairs, Alaska 

Region, Division of Environmental and Cultural Resources Management, ANCSA 

Office. http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015075667801;view=1up;seq=1

This book represents a sample of data collected by various Native regional corporations 

attempting to gain land titles to places previously not included in land received by their 

corporations. In order to gain titles to these “special places,” the corporations needed to 

demonstrate cultural and historical significance of the place via an application process. 

Applications were then reviewed and areas extensively investigated by government 

employees. All materials related to this process were kept, and a selection is presented in 

this book. The articles included in this book cover all regions of the state.

Price, Robert E.

1990a. Bibliography of Literature on Tlingit and Alaska; Haida History from 1741 to 

1867. Personal Printing by Robert E. Price. [Copy on File, Alaska Department of Fish 

and Game, Douglas, AK.]

“This bibliography covers Spanish, French, English and miscellaneous primary sources 

and Russian secondary sources on subjects as stated” (Theodoratus 2000). 

1990b. The Great Father in Alaska: The Case of the Tlingit and Haida Salmon Fishery. 

Douglas, Alaska: First Street Press. 
63

“This descriptive economic history explains the politics of the salmon fishery in 

Southeastern Alaska under American rule. After consideration of Tlingit and Haida

traditional cultures, Price chronologically examines the impact of the American free 

market economy on the lives and economy of these native peoples. Instrumental in the 

change has been the domination of the government, which, rather than protecting Indian 

resources, expropriated them and attempted to integrate the Indian people into the US 

economy. This resulted in an acceleration of change for the Tlingit and Haida. Along 

with the decline of previous traditional culture came a reduction of population as a result 

of introduced diseases. The author concludes with a short review of the historic period, 

and brief discussion of more recent state and federal interventions to the free market 

economy through the Alaska National Interest Lands Act (ANILCA, 1979), which 

protects social interests on federal properties. It is believed that Alaska Natives will have 

to work within the political system for a salmon fisheries policy that will consider their 

social and cultural values” (Theodoratus 2000). 

Raibmon, Paige Sylvia

2005. Authentic Indians: Episodes of Encounter from the Late-Nineteenth-Century 

Northwest Coast. Durham: Duke University Press. 

This book examines political and social ramifications associated with communities and 

individuals identifying as Native in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. 

Chapter seven focuses on Rudolf Walton, a Tlingit artist, and the expulsion of his 

children from a White school in 1906. Subjects such as social organization and traditional 

subsistence are discussed, including sealing, fishing, hunting and berry picking.

Ramos, George

2002. Interview by William Schneider. H2002-07. Project Jukebox. The University of 

Alaska Fairbanks Oral History Program. http://jukebox.uaf.edu/WRST/0207.html

Ramos discusses his memories of his life in Yakutat, including clan names in the area and 

some details about the history of Yakutat. Of particular interest is his discussion 

surrounding switching from traditional fishing methods to gill net fishing and the 

cannery. He also provides information regarding deer and hunting in the Tlingit culture.

Ramos, Judith

2003. TEK, Mapping the Traditional Subsistence Territories of Yakutat Foreland. n.p.: 

Yakutat Tlingit Tribe.

In this report, Ramos presents the results of a survey of the Yakutat territory for clan and 

house ownership and natural resource and land use. She provides a summary of Tlingit 

cultural values and social structure. The report contains a section on the subterritories of 

the Yaakutat Kwáan, from Icy Bay to Yakutat Bay and Italio River. Ramos uses 

published, unpublished, locally archived sources, including some tapes and records. 
64

Ramos, Judith and Rachel Mason

2004. Traditional Ecological Knowledge of Tlingit People Concerning the Sockeye 

Salmon Fishery of the Dry Bay Area: A Cooperative Agreement between Department of 

the Interior National Park Service and the Yakutat Tlingit Tribe. National Park Service. 

This study, a product of original research resulting from a collaboration between the 

Yakutat Tlingit Tribe and the National Park Service, documents traditional ecological 

knowledge of the Tlingits regarding sockeye salmon habitats in the Dry Bay/Alsek area. 

The document contains information regarding traditional salmon use, harvesting 

practices, stream ownership, fishing terms and resource management related to salmon 

populations.

Rathburn, Robert Richard

1976. Processes of Russian-Tlingit Acculturation in Southeastern Alaska. Ph.D. 

dissertation, Anthropology, University of Wisconsin, Madison. 

“Rathburn focuses on the Russian Orthodox Church as a persistent acculturative force. 

He notes that Russian Orthodox churches were not built in Hoonah, Angoon, Petersburg 

and Wrangell until the 1940s (p. 6), and suggests that the church has become a Native 

institution in Southeastern Alaska” (Theodoratus 2000). Rathburn’s findings resulted 

from a comparative analysis of archival material, including reports by explorers, church 

representatives and traders, as well as more recent government documents and reports by 

church leaders and members of the Tlingit community at Sitka. Rathburn also conducted 

original research in the form of interviews with Tlingit, Russian and American 

informants not residing at Sitka, regarding Tlingit-Russian issues.

Ratner, Nancy C. and Michael F. Turek

2009. Customary and Traditional Use Worksheet: King and Tanner Crabs in Districts 13 

and 14, Southeast Alaska. Special Publication No. BOF 2009-02. Juneau: Alaska 

Department of Fish and Game, Division of Subsistence.

This report focuses on the subsistence uses of king and Tanner crabs in districts 13 and 

14 in Southeast Alaska, which include coastal waters of Glacier Bay. Existing customary 

and traditional (C&T) findings in the area do not currently include king and Tanner crabs. 

Archaeological and ethnographic evidence shows that Tlingit peoples have had a marinebased diet for thousands of years, and crabs were documented to have been served in the 

late 1800s. Cultural significance of the crabs is also documented as a clan house in Cape 

Fox is named after the king crab.

Reckord, Holly

1977. That's the Way We Live: A Preliminary Report on Subsistence in the Proposed 

Wrangell National Park. Fairbanks, Alaska: Cooperative Park Studies Unit, University of 

Alaska, Fairbanks. 

This document examines the contemporary and historic subsistence practices of people 

who live around Wrangell National Park. Both Natives and non-Natives are discussed. 
65

Chapter three documents subsistence practices of Native peoples pre and post contact 

with Europeans, and chapter four focuses on contemporary Native subsistence. 

1983. That's the Way We Live: Subsistence in the Wrangell-St. Elias National Park and 

Preserve. Fairbanks, Alaska: Anthropology and Historic Preservation, Cooperative Park 

Studies Unit, University of Alaska, Fairbanks.

This study outlines the history of subsistence from the aboriginal past to the present day 

of the people who live in the proposed Wrangell National Park in Alaska and who use the 

resources of that area.

Reedy-Maschner, Katherine L. and Herbert D. G. Maschner

1999. Marauding Middlemen: Western Expansion and Violent Conflict in the Subarctic. 

Ethnohistory. Warfare and Violence in Ethnohistorical Perspective 46(4):703-743.

The authors examine the ways in which Western expansion into the subarctic territory 

changed warfare among young Native males in the region. This article is relevant, as it 

includes both Eyak of the Gulf of Alaska and the coastal Tlingit in the survey.

Richardson, Allan

1982. The Control of Productive Resources on the Northwest Coast of North America. In 

Resource Managers: North American and Australian Hunter-Gatherers. Nancy M. 

Williams and Eugene S. Hunn, eds. Pp. 93-112. American Association for the 

Advancement of Science, Selected Symposium 67. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 

Inc.

“The author considers variation in resource allocation patterns for the Northwest Coast 

cultures. ‘Productive resources’ are discussed for five subareas (from Northwest 

California to Southeastern Alaska). The Northern Matrilineal group includes the Tlingit, 

Haida, Tsimshian, Eyak, and Haisla. These groups consisted of matrilineal corporate 

groups, which owned extensive areas and multiple resources. The Tlingit matrilineal 

groups owned all land and water areas within their territories” (Theodoratus 2000).

Riddell, Francis A. and Frederica De Laguna

1952. Excavations at “Old Town,” Knight Island, Yakutat Bay, Alaska. San Francisco.

Rogers, George W.

1960. Alaska in Transition: The Southeast Region. Study sponsored by the Arctic 

Institute of North America and Resources for the Future, Inc. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins 

Press.

“The author, previously head of the Department of Interior Field Committee in Alaska, 

and later an economic advisor to two Alaska governors, was trained in economics and 

public administration. This regional case study is concerned with resources and economic 

development as well as the relationship of regional forces to economic growth and 

resource development. After introducing the region and the setting, Rogers examines 
66

both its natural and human resources. He covers the Native culture, its transition, and the 

federal bureaucracy and Natives. Considering the management of resources, he covers 

Natives and the natural resource base, federal bureaucracy and resource management, and 

forest and fisheries management. Native communities are discussed in relation to their 

respective developments. Appendix B contains published and unpublished population 

statistics. Although the determination of Alaska's natural resource use was unresolved in 

1960, this work offers an important historic and economic perspective. The author's effort 

to understand the Native resource-use predicament provides an interesting viewpoint for 

considering federal and state actions during the years subsequent to publication” 

(Theodoratus 2000).

Rogers, Randall R.

1991. An Analysis of Eligibility for Subsistence Hunting in the Wrangell-St. Elias 

National Park, Alaska. M.S. thesis, University of Alaska Fairbanks. 

This study examines eligibility for subsistence hunting in the Wrangell-St. Elias National 

Park. It notes native occupation in the region dating to the glacial retreat at the end of the 

Pleistocene and inhabitants use of natural resources for food, fiber and fuel. Rogers 

highlights the ways in which subsistence practices and natural resource management 

were affected when placing the land under the management of the National Park Service. 

The document focuses on subsistence hunting in the park, specifically the inland portion 

and adjacent communities accessible by road. The author describes wildlife resources 

available in the park and native social and cultural implications of subsistence activities 

in the park.

Rubel, Paula G. and Abraham Rosman

1983. The Evolution of Exchange Structures and Ranking: Some Northwest Coast and 

Athapaskan Examples. Journal of Anthropological Research 39(1):1-25.

The authors use a structuralist approach to examine the development of matrilineal 

societies of the northern Northwest Coast region. The Eyak are discussed, specifically, as 

they are included in the “inner ring” of societies evaluated for their social structure.

Rural Alaska Community Action Program, Inc.

1981. Chugach Region Community Subsistence Profiles: A Resource Book for the North 

Pacific Rim and the Native Communities of the Region. n.p.: n.p.

This document examines subsistence profiles of Native peoples in the Chugach region, 

including residents of English Bay, Eyak, Port Graham, Seward, Tatitlek and Valdez. The 

subsistence profile on the Eyak reflects data gathered in 1980 regarding use of fish, game, 

marine mammals, vegetation and intertidal resources. Local economy and harvesting 

techniques are also discussed. The report declares a link between the lifestyle and diet of 

the contemporary Eyak-Cordova peoples with traditional human-land relationships in the 

region. 
67

Russell, Israel C.

1891. An Expedition to Mount St. Elias, Alaska. Washington: The National Geographic 

Society.

This book captures Russell’s personal experiences in his expedition to Mount St. Elias in 

the later nineteenth century. He also includes information on previous explorations of the 

region and detailed descriptions of the physical characteristics of the land, including a 

section on the height and position of Mount St. Elias and the glaciers in the area. Also 

included are reports by other authors regarding the natural environment, including a 

report on auriferous sands from Yakutat Bay, by J. Stanley-Brown.

Salisbury, Oliver Mayson

1962. The Customs and Legends of the Thlinget Indians of Alaska. New York: Bonanza 

Books. 

Salisbury provides a personal account of his impressions of Tlingit peoples and their 

culture. He covers a wide variety of topics, including tribal relationships, holidays, 

religion, women, occupations, death and traditional legends. Of particular interest are 

chapters nineteen (Food) and thirty two (Fishing). These chapters discuss the importance 

of certain subsistence food items, such as salmon, seaweed and shellfish. 

Schroeder, Robert F.

1993. Historic and Contemporary Use of Glacier Bay. In Proceedings of the Second 

Glacier Bay Science Symposium, 1993. Anchorage: National Park Service.

Schroeder’s article overviews ethnographic and historical accounts of Tlingit use of 

Glacier Bay through time into the present (at time of publishing). The author also 

discusses how federal regulations of the land in and around the bay affect Tlingit use of 

Glacier Bay, including subsistence practices. The document uses the results of field 

interviews from 1985 to 1993.

Scidmore, Eliza Ruhamah

1896. The Discovery of Glacier Bay, Alaska. National Geographic Magazine 7(3):140-

146. (Copy on file, Glacier Bay National Park Library.)

“This brief article presents sketches of early Native knowledge and the later non-Native 

discovery of Glacier Bay beginning with Vancouver's references to the entrance in 1794. 

Early non-Native knowledge of the Bay is discussed, especially the explorations of C. E. 

S. Wood (1877) and John Muir (1879). John Muir is given the honors of being the 

discoverer of Glacier Bay” (Theodoratus 2000). 

Sealaska Corporation

1975. Native Cemetery and Historic Sites of Southeast Alaska (Preliminary Report). 

Wilsey and Ham, Inc., Consultants. Seattle, Washington.
68

Results of a post Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (1971) land survey of cemetery 

and historic sites eligible for selection and conveyance to Sealaska Corporation for 

management under the 14h(1) provision of the ANCSA. Includes information about 

physical conditions, oral history, place names, material, social, and spiritual ties to 

specific historic sites.

1982. Sealaska Corporation Resource Atlas. Sealaska Natural Resources Department. 

Juneau: Sealaska Corporation. 2 vols.

“Volume one provides background information on Southeast Alaska and Sealaska's right 

to select approximately 569 acres for both regional village corporations under ANCSA. 

This volume covers lands, allotments, fish and wildlife and marine resources, 

ecosystems, and special management features. It also covers land withdrawals for 

Craig/Klawock, Kasaan, Hydaburg, and Klukwan. Volume 2, Natural Resources, 

Physical Geography, includes data on land withdrawals for Yakutat, Angoon, Kake, and 

Hoonah. This volume notes three historic sites on Forest Service land near (but not in) 

Glacier Bay National Park. Allotment numbers, applicants, acreage, land status and 

application status are provided” (Theodoratus 2000).

Servid, Carolyn and Donald Snow, eds.

1999. The Book of the Tongass. Minneapolis, MN: Milkweed Editions; [Berkeley, CA]: 

Distributed by Publishers Group West.

This book, narrated by 13 residents of Alaska, depicts the Tongass region, including its 

vegetation and wildlife, as well as socioeconomic aspects of the area. Of particular 

interest are two works by traditional Tlingit storytellers that convey the oral history of the 

Tongass region.

Shiels, Archie W.

1945. Tell Me A “Stowry.” Unpublished Mimeographed Typescript on File, Special 

Collections, University of Washington Library. Seattle 

“Shiels, who appears to have lived in Tlingit territory while involved in mining 

operations (time frame unclear) typed out fifteen stories of his Alaska days to pass on to 

his grandchildren. Most of the stories are about Tlingit Indians who are stereotyped by 

their dialogue (e.g., "heap big medicine man"). Some stories appear to be based on 

Tlingit myths or legends. Story number eight describes in detail how the residents of 

Lituya Bay mistook La Perouse's ship for the white winged Yeahlth (raven) returning by 

canoe to reward his followers and punish the disobedient. Subsequent trading is 

described. Where Shiels learned the story is not revealed” (Theodoratus 2000).

Shotridge, Louis

1920. Ghost of Courageous Adventurer. Museum of the University of Pennsylvania. The 

Museum Journal 11(1):11–26. http://hdl.handle.net/2027/uc1.32106019600789
69

Tells the pioneering history of travel and relations between coastal Tlingits and Interior 

groups, including trade and intermarriage.

1928. The Emblems of the Tlingit Culture. Museum of the University of Pennsylvania. 

The Museum Journal 19(4):350-377. 

“Shotridge discusses the collection of Tlingit objects on display at the University 

Museum, aptly pointing out that this sophisticated art is far from rudimentary. Lamenting 

that the Tlingit are poorly and, at best, inadequately known, Shotridge attempts to rectify 

this situation. To assist the reader in understanding the role this symbolic art plays in the 

social life of the Tlingit, he sketches moiety, clan, and household and the association of 

these systems to creatures of the land and sea as they are represented in the plastic and 

graphic arts. Shotridge explains the exhibit presentation as a reflection of Tlingit order 

and rank, and illustrates these concepts in an account of ‘The Purchase of Absolute Right 

to the Eagle Emblem’ about Shungoo-kaedi Tlingit who resided at Clay-point Fort, a 

settlement on the shore of Icy Strait (pp. 357, 361)” (Theodoratus 2000). 

Simeone, William E. 

2006. Some Ethnographic and Historical Information on the Use of Large Land 

Mammals in the Copper River Basin. Copper Center, Alaska: Wrangell-St. Elias National 

Park and Preserve. 

This study was conducted in order to document Ahtna traditional knowledge of large land 

mammals for the Wrangell-St. Elias National Park and Preserve. The northern portions of 

the Park are the primary geographical focus of the study and caribou, Dall sheep and 

moose are the mammals covered in the study. The report documents the distribution and 

alterations in the mammals’ populations. The data presented results from numerous 

interviews with Ahtna peoples and observations made by non-Native inhabitants and 

visitors to the region between 1885 and 1947. The study also reports on the relationship 

that the Ahtna have to the three mammal species regarding food, tools and clothing 

resources.

Simeone, William E. and James A. Fall

2003. Patterns and Trends in the Subsistence Salmon Fishery of the Upper Copper River, 

Alaska. Anchorage, Alaska: Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Division of

Subsistence. 

This report examines subsistence and personal use salmon fisheries of the Upper Copper 

River District. Both quantitative and qualitative methods are used to study the 

characteristics of the subsistence fish wheel fishery. Traditional knowledge possessed by 

Ahtna and non-Native elders regarding salmon ecology is also discussed. Ahtna 

taxonomy of salmon, knowledge of salmon life cycles, migration factors, social and 

cultural significance of salmon and traditional fishing sites are topics covered. 

Additionally, the reclassification of personal use dip fishery to a subsistence fishery is 

examined in terms of its possible effects.
70

Simpson, Maude, and Esther Billman

1960. Story of Glacier Bay in Tlingit with English Introduction. s.n. Susie James. 

“It is not clear if this particular tape has been transcribed; however another recording, 

‘Glacier Bay History as Told by Susie James’ was recorded by Nora Dauenhauer in 1972 

and appears in Nora Marks and Richard Dauenhauer's Haa Shuka, Our Ancestors: Tlingit 

Oral Narratives (Sealaska Heritage Foundation 1987:245-259) in both Tlingit and 

English translation. See also (this bibliography), Susie James, Sit' Kaa kax kana.aa 

Kaasge'iy X'eidax Sh Kalneck (1973) for a transcription of the Dauenhauer tape” 

(Theodoratus 2000).

1976. Tlingit Ways of Long Ago: Ch'aagu.adi. Sitka: Sheldon Jackson Museum.

“Drawings and short narratives are used to describe the basics of Tlingit life before 

European contact” (Theodoratus 2000).

Sitka National Historic Park

1962. Letter to Dr. Ian Stevenson, Department of Neurology and Psychiatry, School of 

Medicine, University of Virginia, December 22, 1962. On file, Sitka National Historical 

Park, Archives File 14615, Folder 1, Sitka, Alaska.

“This letter concerns Dr. Stevenson's interest in the study of reincarnation if a child is a 

dead relative reborn. It is a Tlingit belief that an animal's soul will be reborn and return to 

the hunter who treats dead animals with respect. Tlingits believe that all babies born are 

reincarnations and that people can also come back through a dream or birthmark (See 

Stevenson 1963, 1966)” (Theodoratus 2000).

Smelcer, John E.

1992. Alaska Native Oral Narrative Literature: A Guidebook and Bibliographic Index.

Anchorage: Salmon Run Publishing Co.

Smelcer presents an introduction to oral narratives of Alaskan native origin, describing 

what they are, how they function and their purpose in Native communities. He also 

describes oral narrative and its relationship to literature, as well as an historical overview 

of ethnographic research in Alaska as related to oral narratives. Native groups 

represented include Aleut, Athabaskan, Eskimo, Eyak, Haida, Tlingit and Tsimshian. 

This document also includes an extensive bibliographic index of Alaska Native oral 

narrative literature for each of the included Native peoples.

1993. A Cycle of Myths: Native Legends from Southeast Alaska. Anchorage: Salmon 

Run Publishers.

“Smelcer, in an effort to preserve Alaska Native oral traditions, provides Tlingit, Haida, 

Eyak and Tsmishian myths. He sometimes credits specific storytellers for versions of a 

myth” (Theodoratus 2000).
71

Smith, Harlan I.

1899. Stone Hammers or Pestles of the North-West Coast of America. American 

Anthropologist New Series 1(2):363-368.

This brief article provides a description of northwest coast stone hammers or pestles. The 

author discusses the different types of hammers and some features they share in common. 

Hammers examined come from a variety of locations, including the Thompson River and 

the upper Columbia, Fraser River, and western and northern Vancouver Island. A number 

of basic illustrations of the tools are also included in the article.

Sneed, Paul Gerrald

1997. National Parklands in Northern Homelands: Toward Co-Management of National 

Parks in Alaska and the Yukon. In Conservation through Cultural Survival: Indigenous 

Peoples and Protected Areas. Stan Stevens, ed., Pp. 135-154. Washington DC: Island 

Press. 

In this chapter, Sneed uses Wrangell-St. Elias National Park and Preserve and Kluane 

National Park and Reserve as examples of two parks where comanagement between 

government organizations and Native peoples may benefit both the cultural and natural 

landscape. Sneed provides a description of the natural environment, including the flora 

and fauna that inhabit these parks. He also highlights the fact that these parks are places 

of rich cultural heritage for the Tlingit and Eyak among other Native groups. Sneed also 

provides an overview of the history of the region, including early contact periods and 

park establishment. Also covered are explanations of comanagement objectives and 

benefits of comanagement of parkland and resources, including the incorporation of 

traditional ecological knowledge for resource management and providing Native peoples 

with access to traditional subsistence.

1998. National Parklands in Northern Homelands: A Comparison of Co-Management of 

National Parks with Native People in Alaska (USA) and the Yukon (Canada). Ph.D. 

dissertation, University of Hawaii. 

In his dissertation, Sneed uses four national parks in Alaska and the Yukon to examine 

the relevance of co-management between Native peoples and government managers of 

the lands within the park. Sneed covers the history of occupation of the lands within 

parks by Native peoples through time and subsistence use of the natural resources both 

traditionally and in the contemporary. Chapter four focuses specifically on Wrangell-St. 

Elias.

Sobolef, Walter

n.d. The Eight Steps in the Transition of the Tlingit Culture. Portion of a taped lecture at 

Sheldon Jackson College (no date). Typescript on file, US National Park Service, Glacier 

Bay National Park and Preserve, 7 pp. 

Spaan, Laura Bliss

1995. More Than Words. [Videorecording]. New York, NY: Cinema Guild.
72

Spaan’s film documents the Eyak tribe as it attempts to preserve its rich traditional 

culture. The documentary centers around Chief Marie Smith. Smith is 77 at the time of 

the filming and known as the last speaker of the Eyak language.

1997. Reunion under Mount Saint Elias [Videorecording]: The Return of Frederica De 

Laguna to Yakutat, Alaska. Alaska Moving Images Preservation Association. Anchorage, 

AK: Alaska Moving Images Preservation. 

In this film, Spaan examines the relationship between the Yakutat people and de Laguna, 

as a researcher of the people for a little under fifty years.

Spicer, Richard C.

1990. ANILCA Research Report: Glacier Bay National Park & Preserve. Washington, 

DC, The Wilderness Society, July 25, 1990. 

“Spicer describes the Glacier Bay area in summary form: its size, glacial history, 

present-day glacial action, topography, ecosystem, Native residency, historic exploration, 

and present-day Park facilities. Legislative History, ANILCA provisions, summary and 

analysis of issues are covered, including commercial fishing, subsistence use, mining 

proposals, wilderness waters, vessel management, subsistence management, aircraft 

landings and overflights. Native groups have been seeking traditional subsistence rights 

there, although, the author asserts, ANILCA does not provide for subsistence use of the 

park. Residents continue to desire harbor seals, bird eggs, and fish from within Glacier 

Bay National Park where they claim a cultural tie. Finally, Spicer recommends that NPS 

prohibit subsistence use of the Park ‘because it is neither appropriate or legal’ and outside 

of Alaska State jurisdiction” (Theodoratus 2000).

Stanton, Norman

1999. A National Treasure or a Stolen Heritage: The Administrative History of Glacier 

Bay National Park and Preserve with a Focus on Subsistence. Juneau: Sealaska 

Corporation.

Part one of this document focuses on “science and monumentalism” from 1879 to 1938 

and includes information on indigenous people, their occupancy of the region, conflicts 

related to land rights and the creation of the park. The second section contains 

information related to dispossession of lands, and the third section discusses the forced 

end of some native subsistence practices, including seal hunting and fishing. 

Stevenson, J. J.

1893. Some Notes on Southeastern Alaska and Its People. Scottish Geographic Magazine

9:66-83. 

Stevenson explains the newly accessible nature of Alaska and attributes it to growing 

commercial interests, such as canneries for salmon, cod and halibut, as well as gold and 

silver mining. He provides brief descriptions of some cities in the in the northwest, 
73

including Seattle, Vancouver and British Columbia’s Victoria, as well as descriptions of 

the physical characteristics of Southeastern Alaska, including Glacier Bay. Stevenson 

also discusses the history of the area, including the introduction of Russian into the 

region and the Presbyterian Mission that acted as a school for Native children. Native 

groups are discussed regarding their physical locations and trade practices. Tlingits and 

Yakutat Tlingits are discussed specifically regarding their location, physical 

characteristics, “warlike” dispositions and relations with Russians.

Stewart, Hilary 

1975. Artifacts of Northwest Coast Indians. Seattle: University of Washington Press. 

This book includes illustrations and photographs with some text depicting and describing 

a variety of artifacts from Native peoples of the northwest coast, including Tlingit 

societies. Chapters featuring artifacts made from different materials, including stone, 

shell and bone and antler, primarily divide the book. Chapter two provides an overview 

of the coast and the availability of natural resources in the area. The illustrations of 

artifacts are labeled by abbreviations, with TL being the abbreviation for Tlingit artifacts. 

1977. Indian Fishing: Early Methods on the Northwest Coast. Seattle: University of 

Washington Press. 

In this book, Stewart provides an overview of fishing practices by Native peoples of the 

Pacific Northwest coast, including fishing gear and techniques and the processing, 

preserving and cooking of the fish. Stewart’s data was collected through research 

methods including interviewing elderly Native peoples, participant observation, archival 

research of published and unpublished material relating to northwest fishing practices. 

The book includes a Tlingit legend of the arrival of fish into the ocean, as well as a 

number of prayers, ceremonies and customs surrounding fishing. A section on cooking 

and preserving fish gives detailed information about several subsistence fish species.

1984. Cedar: Tree of Life to the Northwest Coast. Seattle: University of Washington 

Press.

Stewart focuses on the significance and use of the cedar tree by the peoples of the 

northwest coast, including Tlingit groups. He discusses the various parts of the tree, 

including the wood, bark, withes and roots, and their harvesting and use by the various 

societies. Ropes, basketry, canoes, houses, clothing and tools are discussed. Stewart also 

examines rituals and traditional beliefs about the cedar tree. Regarding Tlingit use of the 

tree, Stewart examines the use of cedar in making fishing gear, masks, poles, utensils and 

other items. He also discusses the ceremonial significance of cedar.

Stickwan, Gloria, Matthew Nemeth and Michael Link

2003. A Workshop Series to Build Capacity for Collaborative Fisheries Co-Management 

among Copper River Native Groups. Unpublished report for the U. S. Fish and Wildlife 

Service, Office of Subsistence Management. Copper Center, AK: LGL Alaska Research 

Associates, Inc. and Copper River Native Association.
74

This report is the result of a series of two multi-day workshops meant to aid in capacity 

building for the Copper River Native Association (CRNA) to participate in assessment 

and management of the Copper River fishery. The Copper River Natives rely on the 

fishery for subsistence purposes both in contemporary times and historically. The report 

provides a breakdown of the different workshops, as well as a discussion and comments 

section.

Stirling, Dale A.

1985. Historic uses of the White River, Wrangell-St. Elias National Park. Juneau: Alaska 

Department of Natural Resources, Division of Land and Water Management, State 

Interest Determinations.

This document was created for the purpose of determining ownership of submerged land 

within the region surrounding the White River of Wrangell-St. Elias Park. The report 

examines the uses of the White River, both historic and contemporary. Stirling reviewed 

both published and unpublished reports, as well as original research in the form of oral 

interviews in creating this document.

Stratton, Lee and Susan Georgette

1984. Use of Fish and Game by Communities in the Copper River Basin, Alaska: A 

Report on a 1983 Survey. Technical Paper 107. Anchorage: Division of Subsistence, 

Alaska Department of Fish and Game.

This document examines the traditional and customary use of all wild resources by local 

communities of the Copper River basin. The study depicts socioeconomic and historical 

characteristics of the basin and the Wrangell Mountains area, as well as resource use 

patterns in and around the immediate area. The peoples primarily described are Ahtna 

and Upper Tanana Indians. This study is a result of a literature review and original 

research in the form of household surveys and in-depth interviews with households and 

business owners in the Copper River Basin. Both Native and non-Native interviewees 

were selected.

Streveler, G. P.

1980a. History of Human Use. In Lituya Bay Environmental Survey, Vol. 1. G. P. 

Streveler, I. A. Worley and B. F. Molnia, eds. Pp. 336-340. Juneau: United State 

Department of Interior, National Park Service.

Streveler provides an overview of human occupation and use of the Lituya Bay area. He 

offers a description of known Tlingit habitation of the Lituya Bay area and presents 

archaeological evidence that supports the potential for earlier human habitation. Streveler 

begins with an excerpt from La Perouse’s report on his visit to the area in late eighteenth 

century, and describes Russian-Tlingit interactions regarding trade for various Native 

skins. Streveler also documents subsequent overharvesting of sea otter and measles and 

smallpox epidemics that hit Native communities in the area. Tlingit use of the salmon 
75

fishery is also mentioned. Streveler ends the chapter with a discussion on current and 

possible future uses of the area by humans, including fishing, hiking, and mining.

1980b. Relationship of People to the Lituya Biota. In Lituya Bay Environmental Survey, 

Vol. 1. G. P. Streveler, I. A. Worley and B. F. Molnia, eds. Pp. 341-345. Juneau: United 

State Department of Interior, National Park Service.

Streveler provides an overview of coastal Tlingit subsistence items in the Lituya Bay area 

including: salmon, seal, bear, goat, wolf, wolverine, fox, mink, weasel, muskrat, marten, 

lynx, beaver, marmot, sea otter and porpoise. He then organizes his chapter into sections 

including: mammals, birds, fishes, invertebrates and plants. Each section contains 

detailed information of traditional Tlingit and later non-Tlingit use of resources in each 

category and the impacts that the use had on the ecosystem. Hunting and fishing practices 

are depicted.

Streveler, Gregory P. and Ian A. Worley 

1975. Influence of Man Past and Present. In Dixon Harbor Biological Survey. Gregory. 

P. Streveler and Ian A. Worley, eds. Pp. 172-178. Juneau: USDI, National Park Service.

This chapter focuses on human use of the land and its resources in Dixon Harbor, located 

on the outer coast of Glacier Bay National Monument. Table one provides a 

chronological overview of human use in the study area, beginning with indigenous use 

prior to the late eighteenth century and ending with use in 1966. Identified human 

influence is present mainly along the shorelines of Thistle Cove and is indirectly related 

to marine activities. Sea otter hunting, a fish camp at Palma Bay and striped cedar bark in 

Thistle cove are all mentioned in relation to Native use.

Sumner, Lowell

1947. Special Report on the Hunting Rights of the Hoonah Natives in Glacier Bay 

National Monument. USDI, National Park Service, Region Four, August 1947. On file, 

National Park Service, Alaska Regional Office, Cultural Resources, Anchorage, and 

Glacier Bay National Park Library, Gustavus, AK. 

“This report, from a biologist's view, is a result of pressure from the Office of Indian 

Affairs to allow seal hunting in Glacier Bay National Monument waters. This appeared to 

be accomplished, with some restrictions, until 1950 at which time further review would 

be undertaken. In a discussion of ‘aboriginal hunting territory and customs of the 

natives,’ the author asserts that such privileges must be based on the continuation of 

‘aboriginal customs,’ but since Glacier Bay has changed as a result of glacier retreat, he 

declares that certain areas once covered with ice were not part of Native territory and 

therefore these lands/waters should be excluded from any hunting/fishing agreement. He 

emphasizes that present day native hunting methods are vastly different from previous 

aboriginal methods and that contemporary Native use of modern equipment and 

commercial effort is the same as use by whites. Further the use of these modern 

techniques by Native hunters/fishermen results in serious depletion of wildlife. Sumner 
76

makes the point that other Alaskan (non-Native) residents ‘object to Native ancestral 

rights to hunt wildlife’ to the exclusion of other Alaskans” (Theodoratus 2000).

Swanton, John Reed

1908. Social Condition, Beliefs, and Linguistic Relationship of the Tlingit Indians. In

Twenty-sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology to the Secretary of the 

Smithsonian Institution: 1904-1905. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.

This paper represents a section of data collected by Swanton over a two-month research

phase in Sitka, Alaska and a one-month phase at Wrangell, Alaska in 1904. Swanton 

attempts to provide an overview of general Tlingit ethnology. He covers a variety of 

topics, including social structure, clan emblems, names, traditional customs, medicines,

cosmology and war, among others. Significant wildlife species are mentioned throughout 

in relation to clan emblems and names, subsistence activities, potlatches and medicines.

1909. Tlingit Myths and Texts. Smithsonian Institution. Bureau of American Ethnology, 

Bulletin 39. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.

This book contains a collection of thirty myths recorded in English at Sitka and over fifty 

myths recorded in English at Wrangell. Also included are over twenty texts that tell 

origin and other stories. Story 105 was told by a Yakutat man. References to natural 

resources, wildlife and subsistence practices are found throughout the stories.

Taylor, Michael S., and Anjanette Perry

1988. Commercial Fishing Patterns in Glacier Bay National Park. Proceedings of the 

Second Glacier Bay Science Symposium, September 19-22, 1988, Glacier Bay National 

Park and Preserve, Gustavus, Alaska. US Department of the Interior, National Park 

Service, Alaska Regional Office, Anchorage, AK. 

“Commercial fishing in Glacier Bay has been an industry since the 1880s and remains 

strong in 1988. The authors review species and fishing methods, legal and management 

aspects, catch statistics, and the commercial fish harvest. The impact of commercial 

fishing on other water populations (e.g., cetaceans, pinnipeds) and nesting birds has not 

been studied and is of concern, and there are conflicts between commercial fishing and 

park visitor concepts of aesthetics. The authors see the commercial fisheries as vital to 

the local Icy Strait economy, and as a result, the National Park Service will have to deal 

with the conflicts and pressures on the Park's resources” (Theodoratus 2000).

Theodoratus, D.

2000. Hoonah Tlingit Use of Glacier Bay: Annotated Bibliography. University of 

Washington Cooperative Agreement. No. CA-9000-8-007, Modifications 7, 8.

Thornton, Thomas F.

1992. Subsistence Use of Brown Bear in Southeast Alaska. Technical Paper 214. 

Douglas: Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Division of Subsistence. 
77

“The author assembles information on the biology, management and harvest patterns of 

brown bear in Southeast Alaska. He notes that the highest concentration of brown bears 

in Southeast Alaska is in the Admiralty, Baranof, and Chichagof island areas; the number 

of bears harvested in these areas exceeds that of all other Southeastern areas. Historic and 

ethnological data along with interview data provide the basis for Thornton’s analysis of 

cultural significance (including beliefs, customs, narratives and stories, ceremonialism 

and symbolism) among the Tlingit. Historic use of meat, hides, fat and tallow, mandible, 

teeth and claws, bones and sinews, ears, and tongue and intestines is discussed. Under 

contemporary use patterns the author states that many Natives continue to use brown bear 

for subsistence. Methods of harvest, and means of handling, preparing, preserving and 

storing are discussed. Data indicate that brown bear harvest for subsistence purposes by 

Native people has been on the decline and presently (1992) is at a ‘low level’” 

(Theodoratus 2000).

1995a. Tlingit and Euro-American Toponymies in Glacier Bay. Proceedings of the 

Second Glacier Bay Science Symposium, 1993. Anchorage: National Park Service.

“Thornton uses categories of linguistic structure, geographic referents, and semantic 

content as a basis for comparison between Tlingit and Euro-American toponymies. He 

finds that differences in interpretation and interactions with the landscape are related to 

the different approaches to naming, and that place naming is influenced by language 

structure, physical environment, and cultural interests. Knowledge of Tlingit names is on 

the decline because of language loss and cultural change. He concludes that conservation 

of this knowledge is particularly important” (Theodoratus 2000). 

1995b. Place and Being among the Tlingit. Ph.D, dissertation, University of Washington, 

Seattle.

“Thornton's study within Tlingit cultural context defines the elements of place as 

consisting of space, time and experience. Human symbolic and material interactions with 

landscape are considered, using Southeast Alaska Tlingit aspects of social organization, 

language and economic production for analysis. It is found that Tlingit expression of 

power/place is embedded in the socio-geographic concept of matrilineal clan. This work 

is important for an understanding of the Tlingit perspective toward place” (Theodoratus

2000).

1995c. Tlingit Place Names for the Glacier Bay Area (Production Review Draft). Juneau, 

AK: Hoonah Indian Association and Alaska Department of Fish and Game.

“Tlingit places are located on a map of the Glacier Bay area by number and Tlingit name. 

A corresponding table (5 pages) lists number, transcription, translation, and location” 

(Theodoratus 2000).

1997a. Know Your Place: The Organization of Tlingit Geographic Knowledge. 

Ethnology 36(4):295-307.
78

Thornton uses the inventory of an 83 year old elder in order to argue that geographic 

names are a crucial aspect of Tlingit social being and connect physical and sociological 

landscapes. Thornton bases his argument on the fact that Tlingit geographic knowledge is 

organized on the two axes of social structure and subsistence production. He provides a 

description of Tlingit social structure and gives accounts of stories regarding place.

1997b. Anthropological Studies of Native American Place Naming. American Indian 

Quarterly 21(2):209-228. 

Thornton provides a historical look at the evolution of anthropological studies of North 

American Indian place-naming. He begins with a review of the works of Boas and 

continues through to Basso’s work from the late nineties. He highlights the significance 

of place names as a topic where language, thought and the environment of a culture 

intersect. Thornton also includes a discussion on Tlingit place names, including those in 

Yakutat territory.

1998. Crisis in the Last Frontier: The Alaskan Subsistence Debate. Cultural Survival 

Quarterly 22(3). https://www.culturalsurvival.org/ourpublications/csq/article/alaskanative-subsistence-a-matter-cultural-survival

Issue includes contributions by Tlingit, Athabaskan, and other Alaska Native and NonNative scholars, including one from the Copper River-Wrangell St. Elias area (Ken 

Johns).

2002. From Clan to Ḵwáan to Corporation: The Continuing Complex Evolution of 

Tlingit Political Organization. Sovereignty and Governance, II. Wicazo Sa Review

17(2):167-194.

In this article, Thornton looks at the development of Tlingit political structure through 

time. He describes the original clan structure that was altered in the early 1900s due to 

Western contact. Nations, kwáans, moieties, clans, houses, personhood, federations and 

the Alaska Native Brotherhood, among other later organizations and federal acts, are all 

covered in the article. Of particular interest is the section that demonstrates a link 

between Tlingit political organization and the physical environment and availability of 

nature resources. The value of salmon to the societies is discussed. 

2004. Klondike Gold Rush National Historical Park Ethnographic Overview and 

Assessment. Skagway, AK: US Department of the Interior, National Park Service.

This study provides a summary of the ethnography of the Klondike Gold Rush National 

Historical Park, encompassing the coastal and inland Tlingit, as well as the Tagish. The 

study also acts as an assessment of the area in hopes to inform future collaborative efforts 

with Native peoples regarding Native peoples, their history and connection to the land. 

The second section of the report focuses on the origins, prehistory and geography of the 

Native communities, and there is a section specifically dealing with Native relations to 

the land and its resources. Subsistence patterns in the contemporary period are also 
79

discussed in the fifth section. The report also has additional sources on interior trade and 

travel, including to Yakutat and Copper River.

2007. Alaska Native Corporations and Subsistence: Paradoxical Forces in the Making of 

Sustainable Communities. In Sustainability and Communities of Place. Carl Maida, ed. 

Pp. 41–62. Oxford and New York: Berghahn Books.

Discusses the relationship between post-ANCSA Native corporations and the continuing 

importance of indigenous subsistence economies in Alaska Native communities. Project 

has expanded into an NSF grant, which includes interviews with Alaska Native 

Corporation leaders from Yakutat and Hoonah. 

2008. Being and Place among the Tlingit. Seattle: University of Washington Press.

This work examines Tlingit place making as a cultural system, including social 

organization, language and cognition, material production, and ritual emplacement.

2009. Anatomy of a Traditional Cultural Property: The Saga of Auke Cape. George 

Wright Forum 26:1.

Thornton reviews the Auke Cape traditional cultural property (TCP) case, as an example 

of a Tlingit TCP case that is struggling for approval of inclusion in the Register. He uses 

a political ecology of cultural models approach in assessing the efficiency of the TCP 

process. Thornton discusses the significance of some sites for traditional subsistence 

purposes.

2010a. The Tlingit Way of Conservation: a Matter of Respect. In Indigenous Peoples 

and Biodiversity Conservation: Towards a Common Agenda. Washington, DC: 

Conservation International.

Discusses Tlingit concept of conservation as care and respect for salmon and other 

resources and ecosystems in Southeast Alaska, drawing especially on cases from northern 

Tlingit territory. 

2010b. A Tale of Three Parks: Tlingit Conservation, Representation and Livelihood in 

Southeast Alaska’s National Parks. Human Organization 69(1).

Thornton argues that Native communities are not being afforded the proper degree of comanagement opportunities over natural resources in national parks in Southeast Alaska. 

He provides an argument for approaching co-management discussions in a manner that 

emphasizes the “inalienable” nature of natural resources as possessions, and suggests 

applying the concept of “repatriation” to natural resources not just cultural resources. 

Thornton discusses the cultural significance of fish and wildlife to the Tlingit peoples, 

and highlights the importance of access to natural resources for traditional subsistence 

purposes.
80

2012. Haa Léelk'w Has Aaní Saax'ú: Our Grandparents' Names on the Land. Seattle: 

University of Washington Press, in association with the Sealaska Heritage Institute.

This book was the result of Thornton’s collaboration with Tribal members and Elders 

attempting to capture a collection of Native place names in Southeast Alaska. While the 

majority of the names are of Tlingit origin, Haida, Tsimshian, Eyak, Chugach and 

Athabaskan names are included, as well. In total, the book contains over three thousand 

Native place names and their locations. The book is divided into chapters based on 

kwáans, and each chapter consists of narratives, a map that shows the location and a 

corresponding table that lists the Native name along with translations and locations. 

Native names are shown to depict environmental change in the region.

Thornton, Thomas F., Virginia Butler, Fritz Funk, Madonna Moss, Jamie Hebert, and Tait Elder

2010. Herring Synthesis: Documenting and Modeling Herring Spawning Areas within 

Socio-Ecological Systems over Time in the Southeastern Gulf of Alaska. North Pacific 

Research Board Project #728.

This report uses archaeological, ethnological, historical and biological evidence with data 

from interviews in order to create a repository of historical and spatial information 

regarding herring populations. The study finds that herring stocks are significantly down 

from historical levels throughout southeastern Alaska. Local and traditional knowledge 

about herring are examined, as is the cultural significance of herring to the Native 

communities.

Tollefson, Kenneth D.

1976. The Cultural Foundation of Political Revitalization among the Tlingit. Ph.D. 

dissertation, Anthropology, University of Washington, Seattle. 

“Tollefson ‘reconstructs’ Tlingit culture of the 1880s as a basis for examining change. He 

contends that Tlingit society was composed of classes in addition to rank and that the 

upper classes used potlatches to diplomatically settle public concerns. More recent 

institutions such as the Alaska Native Brotherhood and Sealaska are analyzed as well, 

using the same conflict-management model used to explain the potlatch. Finally, 

Tollefson compares Tlingit cultural and political revitalization in Angoon and Seattle, 

testing the hypothesis that economic pressure, external constraints and urban living, lead 

to increased political participation and use of identity symbols. His findings failed to 

substantiate the hypothesis. [See also, Dissertation Abstracts International 37(5)Nov. 

76:3002A.]” (Theodoratus 2000).

1977. A Structural Change in Tlingit Potlatching. The Western Canadian Journal of 

Anthropology 7(3):29-40.

This article discusses the impacts that European contact had on the economic and 

subsistence patterns of the Tlingit people. Specifically, Tollefson highlights the shift from 

hunting and fishing subsistence practices to trapping, due to its higher economic return. 

The author then discusses the impact this shift had on social structure.
81

1978. From Localized Clans to Regional Corporation: The Acculturation of the Tlingit. 

The Western Canadian Journal of Anthropology 8(1): 1-20.

Tollefson highlights the Russian discovery of rich Alaska fur-bearing mammals in 1741; 

the sale of Alaska to the United States in 1867; and the formation of the Alaska Native 

Brotherhood (ANB) in 1912 as three major events in Tlingit history. Tollefson focuses on 

Russian-Tlingit relations and their impacts on Tlingit society and traditional subsistence 

practices. He specifically identifies Yakutat as an area rich in sea otters and consequently 

a site of interest for Russian traders. He discusses the impact that Russian contact had on 

the Yakutat people’s access to traditional fishing sites. 

1982. Northwest Coast Village Adaptations: A Case Study. Canadian Journal of 

Anthropology 3(1):19-30.

Tollefson provides an overview of Tlingit settlement patterns and social structure. The 

article is not specific to the Yakutat Tlingit, however, he does include them in his 

examination of the ways in which subsistence patterns potentially impact the moiety 

formations and settlement patterns of the Tlingit along the Alaskan coast.

1984. Tlingit Acculturation: An Institutional Perspective. Ethnology 23(3): 229-247.

Tollefson uses a conflict-management model in attempts to understand and explain 

changes to the political system of Tlingit peoples from 1880 to 1980 due to prolonged 

contact with Western societies. The significance of European discovery of the abundance 

of fur-bearing mammals in Alaska is discussed in relation to Tlingit acculturation, and 

traditional subsistence is discussed in relation to the political system of the people.

1985. Potlatch and Stratification among the Tlingit. Völkerkundliche Arbeitsgemeinschaft

42. Nortorf, West Germany: Völkerkundliche Arbeitsgemeinschaft. 

Tollefson explores the potlatch ceremony among the Tlingit people located along the 

coast of Alaska between Ketchikan and Yakutat. He describes the political elements of 

potlatches and their overall importance to the communities. He examines the ways in 

which potlatch rituals demonstrated social stratification and acted as a major political 

activity in various Tlingit societies. He discusses social structure as it is related to class 

distinctions and provides a general overview of Tlingit social organization, political 

structure and subsistence items. He also reviews the various impacts of white contact, 

particularly trade with Russians, and includes a discussion regarding the ways that 

ownership over natural resources affected social order and wealth.

1997. Culture Summary: Tlingit. New Haven, CT: HRAF, 1997. Computer file. 

http://hraf.yale.edu/, accessed July 15, 2015.

This manuscript covers the history of the Tlingit Indians of southeastern Alaska during a 

period from the 1700s to the 1800s. The document contains sections on Tlingit settlement 
82

patterns and their economy, including subsistence practices, industrial arts and 

commercial activities.

Townsend, Joan B.

1979. Indian or Eskimo? Interaction and Identity in Southern Alaska. Indian-Eskimo 

Relations: Studies in the Inter-Ethnic Relations of Small Societies. Arctic Anthropology

16(2):160-182.

Townsend argues that the Indian-Eskimo distinction is an irrelevant distinction that 

appears only within Western literature. She examines the relationships and interactions 

between local groups of the Pacific Rim during the late pre-contact period and changes 

subsequent to Russian contact. Trade, intermarriage, chattelism and military allegiances 

among these groups are discussed. Natural resources, such as fur and shell, are discussed 

regarding their cultural significance within these societies.

1980. Ranked Societies of the North Pacific Rim. In Alaska Native Cultures and History. 

Y. Kotani and William B. Workman, eds. Pp. 123-156. Senri Ethnological Series 4. 

National Museum of Ethnology, Osaka.

Townsend argues that the distinction between Eskimos and Indians is an artificial 

distinction of European origin, and that the term “tribe” is not necessarily an accurate 

description of the various groups in the region. She also argues that “ranked societies” are 

the fundamental unit of Native communities along Alaska’s Pacific Rim, from the Aleuts 

to the Tlingits. 

Trager, Earl A.

1939. Glacier Bay Expedition, 1939. File Report NAPSR RG79, Western Region, Central 

Classified Files, box 293.

Trefzger, Hardy

1957. The Lost Art of the Tlingit of Alaska [Video recording]. 53 min. Oshin Agathon 

for the American Museum of Natural History of New York. New York: American 

Museum of Natural History.

In this film, Trefzger, a former resident of Yakutat and a trapper in the Dry Bay area, 

features the Tlingit craftsmen of Yakutat as they demonstrate their traditional art. 

1963. My Fifty Years of Hunting, Fishing, Prospecting, Guiding, Trading and Trapping 

in Alaska. New York: Exposition Press.

In this book, the author recounts his personal experiences living in southeast Alaska, 

including trapping, prospecting and fox farming. Of particular interest are his 

descriptions of experiences with Yakutat Tlingits and his description of a Yakutat 

uprisings against Russian fur traders in the region.
83

Tripp, Angela, ed.

1993. Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve. Santa Barbara, CA: Albion Publishing 

Group.

“This booklet provides Park visitors with a brief historical sketch and photographic 

overview of the Park. In addition to information on the Tlingit role in historical 

discovery, a page is devoted to Tlingit oral tradition on Glacier Bay” (Theodoratus 2000). 

Turek, Michael F. (compiler)

1993. Glacier Bay Archival Material 1908-1949. Prepared for the Huna Traditional 

Tribal Council and Division of Subsistence, Alaska Department of Fish and Game, with 

the Assistance of the Native American Fish and Wildlife Society. Alaska Department of 

Fish and Game, Douglas, AK. 

“Turek supplies copies of Glacier Bay related material obtained from the National 

Archives in Washington, DC. Included are excerpts from documents; complete 

documents; and Turek's notes from the records of the Bureau of Indian Affairs, the 

National Park Service, and the US Fish and Wildlife Service. The materials are arranged 

chronologically from 1908 to 1949” (Theodoratus 2000).

Turek, Michael F., Amy W. Paige, Elizabeth Cheney, Jesse A. Dizard, and Nathan Soboleff

2006. Kake Subsistence Salmon Harvest Use Pattern. Technical Report 309, Final Report 

No. FIS01-104. Juneau: Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Division of Subsistence.

This report documents the traditional, historic and contemporary use of sockeye or red 

salmon by the people of Kake, Alaska at Kutlaku Creek and Gut Bay and Falls Creek. 

Traditional and contemporary harvesting methods, management, fishery locations, 

competition, distribution and exchange are discussed. Gender roles regarding harvesting 

are also touched upon in this report. The authors combined archival research with original 

research in the form of key respondent interviews and participant observation.

Turek, Michael F., Nancy C. Ratner, William E. Simeon

2008. Customary and Traditional Use Worksheet, Wolves, Game Management Units 1, 3, 

4, and 5, Southeast Alaska. Special Publication No. BOG 2008-09. Division of 

Subsistence, Alaska Department of Fish and Game.

The authors demonstrate the cultural and subsistence value of wolves to Native groups in 

Southeast Alaska. Wolf fur was used traditionally in ceremonial masks, blankets, robes 

and outerwear. Wolf fur and hides were also important trade items in the region in precontact times. Additionally, wolves were culturally significant as they were clan emblems 

of in certain Tlingit moieties.

US Congress

1980. Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act [ANILCA]. Public Law 96-487, 

96th Congress, Dec. 2, 1980. 16 USC 3101. Washington, DC.
84

“Title II, Sections 201-206 deals with the National Park System in Alaska; Title VII with 

the National Wilderness Preservation System (Sect. 701, Designations within National 

Park System, 3} establishes Glacier Bay Wilderness); Title VIII deals with Subsistence 

Management and Use (addresses subsistence management and use by rural residents, 

including Natives and non-Natives, especially customary and traditional uses; includes 

federal monitoring, judicial enforcement, park and park monument subsistence resource 

commissions, cooperative agreements, closure to subsistence uses); Title IX deals with 

the Implementation of Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act and Alaska Statehood Act 

(Sect. 905, Alaska Native Allotments, 4) covers allotments within the park system); and 

Title XIII deals with Administrative Provisions. Of particular interest is the expansion of 

Glacier Bay National Monument (Sect. 202) to include an area in the northwest as 

National Preserve and to redesignate the Monument as a National Park; Sect. 203 

addresses hunting provision within the Park; Sect. 205 is concerned with commercial 

fishing in the Dry Bay area of the Preserve” (Theodoratus 2000). Within Title II, National 

Park System, Section 201, Establishment of New Areas, 9} established Wrangell-St. 

Elias National Park, containing approximately eight million one hundred and forty seven 

thousand acres of public lands, and the Wrangell-St. Elias National Preserve, containing 

approximately four million one hundred and seventeen thousand acres of public lands. 

This section explicitly states that traditional subsistence by local residents is permitted in 

the park, under the provisions of Title VIII.

US Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service (USDOIFWS)

1998. Subsistence Management and Use: Implementation of Title VIII of ANILCA (Final 

version). Anchorage, Alaska.

“The second report to Congress on the implementation of Title VIII of ANILCA provides 

information on definitions of subsistence, the role of subsistence in rural Alaska by 

region, and the uses and status of fish and wildlife populations. Includes a table of 

documented seabirds used for subsistence with gull, kittiwake, and Arctic tern listed for 

Henke/Egg Island” (Theodoratus 2000).

US Department of the Interior, National Park Service (USDOINPS)

1998. Archaeological Resources in Wrangell-St. Elias National Park and Preserve, 

Alaska: An Overview and Assessment. Anchorage, Alaska: US Department of the 

Interior, National Park Service, Alaska Region, Alaska Support Office, Cultural 

Resources Team. 

This document reports on the archaeological record within Wrangell-St. Elias National 

Park and Preserve. It contains information on the Eyak and Yakutat Tlingit peoples, 

including traditional subsistence foods and practices. It highlights traditional fishing and 

hunting methods.

Vancouver, George

1984. A Voyage of Discovery to the North Pacific Ocean and Round the World 1791-

1795. 4 Vols. W. Kaye Lamb, ed. London: The Hakluyt Society. [Digital copy of original 

1798 version]
85

“W. Kaye Lamb summarizes the Vancouver expedition and presents Vancouver's 

chronicle with helpful footnotes, which guide the reader. Of particular interest is 

Vancouver's hazardous trip in July 1794 through Cross Sound with its mountains of ice at 

the water's edge and floating ice throughout the waterway. The narrative includes brief 

encounters with Native people of the area” (Theodoratus 2000).

Vanstone, James W.

1982. Southern Tutchone Clothing and Tlingit Trade. Arctic Anthropology 19(1):51-61.

This article examines the trade network that existed between the coastal Tlingit and 

interior Native peoples during the nineteenth century. The author discusses the 

importance of a variety of natural resources for trade between various groups. Fungus for 

paint, shellfish, seaweed, and medicinal herbs are discussed among other items of trade.

Von Wrangell, Ferdinand Petrovich

1970. The Inhabitants of the Northwest Coast of America. James W. VanStone, trans.

Arctic Anthropology 6(2):5-20.

In this article, von Wrangell discusses three Native groups that occupy the northwest 

coast of America, including: the Eyak, Ahtena and Kolosh. The Eyak are described as 

“peaceful” and “submissive” and their subsistence is mentioned in relation to river 

beavers and the importance of their skin.

Waldman, Robert

1982. Archaeological Inventory; Seven Native Allotments, Glacier Bay Area, Alaska. [A 

Report to the National Park Service, Glacier Bay National Park, Gustavus, Alaska, 1982]. 

On file, Glacier Bay National Park Library, Gustavus. 

“This cultural resource survey, initiated at the request of the Tlingit-Haida Central 

Council, was conducted by Bureau of Indian Affairs archaeologists in 1982. The areas 

surveyed are defined, survey methods outlined, findings described and recommendations 

made. Historic features were found on four of the seven Native allotments examined. The 

report includes thirteen photographs and five maps” (Theodoratus 2000).

Wardwell, Allen

1964. Yakutat South Indian Art of the Northwest Coast. Chicago: The Art Institute of 

Chicago.

This book is an exhibition catalog for a show at the Art Institute of Chicago that ran 

March 13 through April 26, 1964. It contains black and white photographs of masks, 

helmets, tools, and other representations of Native art of the northwest. 

Wierenga, Marlies

2000. Grappling with Conservation Goals that Include Subsistence Practices of Local 

People. M.E.S. thesis, Evergreen State College. 
86

The author discusses Alaska Native interpretations of the term “subsistence” and the 

perceived importance of such traditions to cultural survival. Wierenga details current use 

of traditional subsistence practices within Alaska Native communities. Wrangell-St. Elias 

is used as a case study examining the ability of the park to balance resource conservation 

goals with Native access to traditional subsistence practices. The variety of plant and 

animal life found in the park is also detailed.

Wike, Joyce Annabel

1951. The Effect of the Maritime Fur Trade on Northwest Coast Indian Society. Ph.D. 

dissertation, Columbia University, New York.

“The author examines the fur trade from 1785 to 1825 through research on ships' logs and 

journals, using much previously uncited archival material. Wike argues that the trade did 

not create a new value system among native peoples, but that the native trade practices 

were based on previously valued goods such as copper, blankets and fur. Northwest 

Coast Natives, she explains, were already engaged in competitive trading along the coast 

and to the interior when the fur trade by outsiders began. She contends that the fur trade 

represented "more and better business," but left value systems and social structures intact. 

These did not undergo extensive change until the maritime based fur trade gave way to 

land-based colonization. Information about the fur trade from Prince William Sound to 

Puget Sound is cited in this dissertation” (Theodoratus 2000).

Williams, Frank and Emma Williams

1978. Tongass texts. Jeff Leer, ed. Fairbanks: Alaska Native Language Center, University 

of Alaska.

Authored by traditional Tlingit Natives of the Tongass tribe, this book covers a variety of 

themes relating to Tlingit culture. The texts appear in the Tlingit language with the 

corresponding English translation. In the first chapter, Emma describes her heritage, 

including subsistence practices relating to fishing and the use of seal and deer. She also 

includes place names in her text. The second chapter, by Frank, describes a war among 

different tribes at Goochlaakanoow. Chapter three, by Emma, describes Tlingit medicines 

and their uses. She provides detailed information regarding the use of various natural 

resources in these medicines, such as bark and roots from various trees, eulachon grease 

and various berries. Chapter four, also by Emma, deals with traditional subsistence items, 

including halibut, octopus, cockles, salmon and deer, among others. Emma also describes 

harvesting and preparation methods. The final chapter by Emma tells a legend entitled 

“The Lazy Women.” This legend is meant to warn young women against laziness.

Williams, Jay P.

1952. Alaskan Adventure. Harrisburg, Pennsylvania: The Telegraph Press. 

“The author mentions Glacier Bay and the associated Tlingit legend. Williams went to 

Lituya Bay in 1936. He notes that at one time a native village, located near the bay 

entrance, was a favored base for sea otter hunting. Mount Fairweather was said to play an 
87

important role in weather forecasting. The village is said to have been destroyed by a 

flood (p. 138)” (Theodoratus 2000). 

Wolf and Company

1970. A Development Planning Program for the Central Council of the Tlingit and Haida 

Indians of Alaska. Wolf and Company, New York under contract to Economic 

Development Administration, US Department of Commerce. December 1970. 

“This report is the result of an approved Economic Development Administration project 

to provide planning aid with professional guidance to Tlingit and Haida communities 

with a planning team of five specialists (including two native trainees) during a fourmonth effort. The report provides data on social and economic background, development 

perspectives, assumption of Bureau of Indian Affairs programs, and financial planning” 

(Theodoratus 2000).

Wolfe, Robert J. and Craig Mishler

1993. The Subsistence Harvest of Harbor Seal and Sea Lion by Alaska Natives in 1992

(Parts I and II) Southeast Alaska Communities. Technical Paper 229. Juneau: Alaska 

Department of Fish and Game, Division of Subsistence.

Details seal and sea lion harvests in Southeast Alaska, including harvest, ethnographic 

and historical and contemporary ecological information.

Wolfe, Robert J., James A. Fall and Monica Riedel

2008. Customary and Traditional Use Worksheet, King Crab and Tanner Crab, Prince 

William Sound Management Area; and Other Background Information. Special 

Publication No. Bof 2008-03. Anchorage: Alaska Department of Fish and Game, 

Division of Subsistence.

This worksheet was created in order to inform the Alaska Board of Fisheries regarding 

changes to the noncommercial harvest regulations for crabs in the Prince William Sound 

Management Area of Alaska. Criterion one, which calls for long-term and consistent use 

and reliance on specified crab populations over “a reasonable period of time of not less 

than one generation,” establishes a long-standing importance of shellfish to the 

indigenous peoples of the region.

2009. The Subsistence Harvest of Harbor Seals and Sea Lions by Alaska Natives in 2008. 

Technical Paper 347. Anchorage: Division of Subsistence, Alaska Department of Fish 

and Game and Alaska Native Harbor Seal Commission.

This report examines harbor seal subsistence trends in Yakutat and other selected 

communities from 1992 to 2008. Yakutat is noted as a major harbor seal hunting 

community. The report shows that a number of factors, including the numbers of hunters, 

hunting success and harvest rates in particular locations, contribute to an overall decline 

in the numbers of seals harvested by Yakutat and other Native communities.
88

Wolfe, Robert J. and James Magdanz

1993. The Sharing, Distribution, and Exchange of Wild Resources in Alaska: A 

Compendium of Materials Presented to the Alaska Board of Fisheries. Special 

Publication No. SP1993-002. Anchorage: Division of Subsistence, Alaska Department of 

Fish and Game.

This report details the harvesting and exchange of several wild resources among Native 

peoples in Alaska. The report is divided into case studies dependent on one of the five 

natural resource items discussed: hooligan/eulachon oil, sea oil, herring roe, wild caribou 

antlers and salmon roe. Copper is also discussed as having trade value. Native residents 

of Yakutat are discussed throughout regarding the aforementioned subsistence items. 

Reciprocity, ceremonial giving and barter are among the exchange practices discussed 

regarding Tlingit and Haida peoples.

Wolfe, Sylvia Eller 

1990. A Modern Tribal Government: A Guide to the Records of the Central Council of 

Tlingit and Haida Indian Tribes of Alaska, 1965-1990. October 1, 1990, Juneau, AK: The 

Central Council. 

“The development of the Central Council of Tlingit and Haida is explained in the 

introduction. The history begins in 1935 when Congress passed a ‘Jurisdictional Act’

authorizing the Tlingit and Haida to sue the US government for loss of lands as a result of 

the creation of the Tongass National Forest and Glacier Bay National Park. This history 

covers land claims, Act amendments, tribal government programs, decentralized program 

structures, and the self-governance demonstration five-year project implemented in 1987. 

The Collections of the Central Council guide to Record Groups includes under A, 

historical records, papers, minutes and reports, and under Record Group 1-7, tribal 

government records, business administration, housing development, employment and 

training, economic and social development planning, and fisheries development 

corporation” (Theodoratus 2000). 

Wooley, Chris and Jim Haggarty

1993. The Hidden History of Chugach Bay. In Alaska Geographic: Prince William 

Sound, Vol. 20, No. 1. Pp. 12-17. Anchorage: Alaska Geographic Society.

This chapter provides an overview of the Chugach peoples that traditionally inhabited 

Prince William Sound. The authors describe the political and social organization of the 

Native communities, as well as traditional subsistence items and harvesting practices, 

including the hunting of mountain goats and the reliance on fish, shellfish and sea 

animals. Various items of Chugach material culture are discussed, as is impacts of 

European contact in the region. This chapter also includes an illustration and several 

photographs depicting Prince William Sound and the natural resources available.

Workman, Karen Wood, William S. Hanable and Alaska Office of Statewide Cultural Programs

1974. Lower Copper and Chitina Rivers: An Historic Resource Study. Office of History 

and Archaeology, Anchorage, AK.
89

This report was created in order to inform the Alaska Department of Highways regarding 

preservation and management of culturally significant Native areas within the rights-ofway for the Copper River Highway and the Chitina-McCarthy Road. The report is a 

result of both archival and field research conducted in the summer of 1973. The report 

covers prehistoric and historic settlement patters of the Eyak and Ahtna peoples. It also 

discusses the social structure and subsistence practices of these groups, including the 

importance of salmon, clams, waterfowl, harbor seals, sea otters, goats, brown and black 

bears. The report highlights the importance of copper to the Eyak peoples, and Yakutat 

Bay is specifically mentioned regarding prehistoric contexts of copper.

Worl, Rosita

1982. A Synopsis of Alaska Native Subsistence Economies and Projection of Research 

Needs. Subsistence Data Base: Phase II. Arctic Environmental Information and Data 

Center, University of Alaska, Anchorage.

“This report gives summaries of subsistence activities in various regions of Alaska. Birdegg collecting is described along with harvesting techniques and division of labor for 

several regions, but not the southeast” (Theodoratus 2000).

Wunnicke, Esther C. and the US Federal Field Committee for Development Planning in Alaska

1968. Alaska Natives & the Land. Anchorage, Alaska: Federal Field Committee For 

Development Planning In Alaska; Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office.

This report focuses on the Native peoples of Alaska and their relationship to the land both 

in the past and the present. Resource availability and use by the Native communities are 

covered in this report, as is ownership over land and resources. Projected needs of Native 

communities in the future are also covered in relation to the state and federal government 

and Native land claims in Alaska. 

Wyatt, Victoria

1984. Shapes of Their Thoughts; Reflections of Culture Contact in Northwest Coast 

Indian Art. New Haven, Connecticut: Peabody Museum of Natural History, Yale 

University.

This book traces the impacts of contact between the Natives of the Northwest coast and 

European traders and explorers and the way these impacts manifested in Native art. 

Wyatt discusses the use of metals and wood for subsistence items as well as ceremonial 

art and adornments. She also discusses the relevance of animals in Native art.

1985. Ethnic Identity and Active Choice: Foundations of Indian Strength in Southeast 

Alaska, 1867-1912. Ph.D. dissertation, New Haven: Yale University.

Wyatt’s dissertation explores the experiences of Haida, Tlingit and Tsimshian peoples of 

southeast Alaska from the late nineteenth to early twentieth centuries. She discusses 

traditional subsistence practices and settlement patterns, and how contact with European 
90

traders and explorers altered these traditional lifeways. Early Russian presence in Yakutat 

Bay is discussed in relation to Tlingit experiences.

1987. Alaskan Indian Wage Earners in the 19th Century: Economic Choices and Ethnic 

Identity on Southeast Alaska's Frontier. The Pacific Northwest Quarterly 78(1/2):43-49.

This article discusses the transition of Tlingit and Haida peoples from subsistence 

economies to wage-earning economies in southeast Alaska during the late eighteenth 

century. Native peoples’ roles within the mining and cannery industries are discussed, as 

well as the way this shift in economic practices affected traditional life and culture. 

1989. Images from the Inside Passage: An Alaskan Portrait by Winter and Pond. Seattle: 

University of Washington Press.

This book provides a photographic account of Native life in Southeast Alaska in the late 

nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Tlingit and Haida Indians are the primary focus 

of the photographs. The photographs are divided by context into three sections: portraits, 

villages, and potlatches and ceremonial art. 

1993. Historic Resource Study of Southeast Alaskan Indians. Victoria Wyatt, Principal 

Investigator. Report prepared for Alaska Regional Office, National Park Service 

(Anchorage) by Futurepast: The History Company, Spokane Washington. (Draft on file, 

Sitka National Historic Park, "Tlingit Culture" Historic Resource Study Correspondence. 

Comments and Draft RG-56/Box1/Folder 9, [n.d.]).

Yarborough, Michael R. and Linda Finn Yarborough

1998. Prehistoric Maritime Adaptations of Prince William Sound and the Pacific Coast of 

the Kenai Peninsula. North Pacific and Bering Sea Maritime Societies: The Archaeology 

of Prehistoric and Early Historic Coastal Peoples. Arctic Anthropology 35(1):132-145.

The authors examine Prince William Sound and the Pacific coastal area of the Kenai 

Peninsula in terms of the maritime activities that took place in prehistoric era. Of 

particular interest to the Yakutat study is the mention of the Eyak peoples and their 

occupation of the area between the Chugach of Prince William Sound and the Tlingit of 

Dry Bay during the eighteenth century and their original homeland being an area east of 

Yakutat to Cape Suckling. The article also mentions the “Tlingitized Eyak” of Controller 

Bay versus the “mostly pure Eyak” of the Copper River delta and a portion of the Prince 

William Sound.

Young, S. Hall

1915. Alaska Days with John Muir. New York: Fleming H. Revell Company.

In this book, Hall, a young missionary and friend to Muir, details his experiences 

travelling in Alaska with Muir. Though there are no specific mentions of the Tlingits, 

“Indians” are mentioned throughout the book.
91

Archival Collections

Alaska State Archives

n.d. Alaska State Archives. Division of Libraries, Archives, and Museums. State of 

Alaska, Department of Education, Juneau, Alaska.

“The Alaska State Archives are organized by Record Group under State Government. 

These are broken down departmentally and by division. The Territorial government 

records are under Record Group 101 and organized by subject and correspondence. Some 

of the Territorial court records are located in the State Archives and some are in the 

National Archives Branch Archives located in Anchorage (transferred from Seattle 

Sandpoint Branch). Records of Government's Central file (R.G. 101), Early Alaska 

Education, the Department of Community and Regional Affairs (1959-1982), and 

Judicial records are among the many possibilities for research. The records were under 

the ongoing process of organization in 1995 by a very small staff, and, as a result, for 

Native materials the researcher should plan a lengthy period of time for research at this 

repository. In a perusal of records on Glacier Bay becoming a National Park 

(Government's Central File) the only data found on Tlingit within the area is related to 

the restoration of Indian lands to public entry in and near the Park. Some of the 

repositories' records (e.g., education) have been microfilmed and are available through a 

loan program” (Theodoratus 2000).

Alaska State Historical Library

Curry-Weissbrodt Papers

1983. Curry-Weissbrodt Papers of the Tlingit and Haida Indian Tribes of Alaska. 

Microfilm, 52 rolls. On file, Alaska State Library, Alaska Historical Collections, Juneau, 

Alaska.

This collection consists of legal documents and papers accumulated by two separate law 

firms, led by James E. Curry and I. S. Weissbrodt, which represented both the Tlingit and 

Haida Indians from 1945 until 1971, when the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act was 

signed. While this collection primarily relates to the land claims movement, other topics 

are also addressed, such as Tlingit and Haida civil rights, fisheries management, 

opposition to the 1950 Alaska statehood bill, and opposition to discriminatory legislation.

n.d. Ivan Petrof – The Population and Resources of Alaska, 1880, [abstracted] from 

United States Census Report of 1880 [by Petrof]. Exhibit No. 54, Curry-Weissbrodt 

Papers, Typescript, 17 pp. Manuscript Division, Alaska State Historical Library, Juneau, 

AK.
92

“These data are abstracted for Curry-Weissbrodt from Petrof's early Senate Report for the 

56th Congress in which, Petrof includes information on what he calls the ‘Southeastern 

Division.’ These data include the Kolosh or Thlinket, but Petrof also supplies various 

non-Tlingit Alaska Native population data. A very brief historical summary on the 

southeastern area is provided. A tabulated list of southeastern settlements in 1900 shows 

location and total population, itemized by sub categories of ‘White’ – ‘Creole’ –

‘Thlinket’ – ‘Hyda.’ Veniaminof's 1835 data are itemized for sixteen ‘Kolosh’ (Tlingit) 

villages, including: ‘Ltuia or Avetzk 200,’ ‘Icy Strait (Cross Sound) 250,’ ‘Henu 

(Hunyah or Hanega?) 300.’ The 1839 Hudson Bay Company data gives 782 for Cross 

Sound/Hoonyah; Russian-American Company for 1861 villages lists Hoonyah 411, Cross 

Sound 331, Ltuia 590; and, the U.S. Army for 1868 lists 1,000 Hunias (See Petrof 

1900)” (Theodoratus 2000).

Emmons, George Thornton

n.d. Emmons Collection. In Newcombe Family Papers, Coll. MSS. 1077, Vol. 60 - 63. 

Microfilm. Province of British Columbia, Archives and Records Service, Victoria, BC. 

“The George Thornton Emmons collection (volumes 60-63 of the Newcombe Collection) 

is primarily on the Tlingit and includes correspondence, notes and manuscripts. Included 

are material such as, tribes and families, village sites, myths and legends, hunting and 

fishing areas, tribal areas, places and place names” (Theodoratus 2000).

American Museum of Natural History

Emmons, George Thornton

1907-1930. The Tlingit. Handwritten notes, parts typewritten. On file, American Museum 

of Natural History, Department of Anthropology. New York. 

“Written between 1907 and 1930, this unpublished work on the Tlingit is believed to be 

based on Emmons' notes housed at the Provincial Archives in Victoria, British Columbia 

(see Newcombe Family Papers). Emmons describes Tlingit life from 1882 through 

twenty-five years of observations. He includes, tribes, phratries and clans, the people, 

domestic life, life cycle, arts and industries, fishing and hunting, war and peace, calendar, 

shamanism, and gambling” (Theodoratus 2000). 

n.d. “Yakutat Kwan.” Chapter 2, Part 2 of unpublished manuscript, “The Tlingit,” 

Microfilm document no. 26.

This document contains chapter two, part two from Emmons manuscript of “The Tlingit,” 

microfilm document number 26. This section was not microfilmed with the remainder of 

the document. This section contains information specific to the Yakutat Bay peoples, 

including discussion about earlier explorers’ accounts of the area, Native names for 

various houses, descriptions of tools, trade items, etc. This document is handwritten and 

difficult to decipher in certain parts.
93

American Philosophical Society

De Laguna, Frederica

1960. Materials Recorded at Copper Center, Alaska. American Philosophical Society, 

Philadelphia.

These recordings consist of potlatch songs, love songs, Christmas tree songs, sorry songs 

and dance songs among others. Of particular interest are Yakutat Tlingit songs.

1949-1960. Field notes, 1949-1960, on the ethnology of the Tlingit and Copper River 

Atna. American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia.

De Laguna and Catherine McClellan compiled these field notes, which include 

archaeological findings, as well as transcripts from interviews with various informants. 

The material found in these notes is primarily from Yakutat and Angoon.

Bryn Mawr College

De Laguna, Frederica 

1936-1972. Frederica de Laguna Papers. Unpublished. Bryn Mawr College, 

Pennsylvania.

These papers consist of notes and photographs kept by Frederica de Laguna, including a 

manuscript of her book “Under Mt. St. Elias.” Maps, reports, transcripts of songs and 

articles are all included in the papers. 

1936-1972. Papers on the Tlingit. Unpublished. Bryn Mawr College, Pennsylvania.

These papers include both ethnographic and archaeological surveys of the Tlingit 

peoples, including those residing in the northern Tlingit territory. One section relates 

specifically to excavations at “Old Town” Knight Island in Yakutat Bay, and the 

following section focuses on archaeological evidence in the Yakutat Bay region in 1953.

National Anthropological Archives

De Laguna, Frederica

n.d. Frederica de Laguna Papers, 1890-2004, bulk 1923-2004. National Anthropological 

Archives, Smithsonian Institution, Suitland, Maryland.

These papers represent de Laguna’s personal life and professional experiences both as a 

student and later as an anthropological researcher in the Northwest Coast region. Of 

particular interest are “Series I: Correspondence,” and “Series II: Field Research, 1947-

1968.” Within the Field Research section are subseries entitled “Informant’s Letters,” 

“1949 Northern Tlingit Territory,” “1952 Yakutat,” “1953 Yakutat Bay,” “1954 

Yakutat,” and “General Notes.”
94

Paul, William

n.d. The Alaska Tlingit: Where Did They Come From? National Anthropological 

Archives. Coll. MS 7077. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC.

National Archives and Records Administration

n.d. National Archives, Alaska Region. Seattle, WA.

“The Alaska Region of the National Archives holds material important to historical 

research on the State/Territory. Of particular importance for the study of native 

communities are records of the Bureau of the Census (RG 29), District Courts of the 

United States (RG 21), Government Land Office (RG 49) and the Bureau of Indian 

Affairs (RG 75). Information collected from this Archive is cited by Record Group in this 

bibliography. (See also Turek, Michael F., for Glacier Bay Archival Material collected on 

Glacier Bay, 1908-1949, obtained from the National Archives, Washington, DC.)” 

(Theodoratus 2000).

Sealaska Heritage Foundation

Curry-Weissbrodt Papers

n.d. Alaska Reference Materials, The Curry-Weissbrodt Collection. On file, Sealaska 

Heritage Foundation. Juneau, Alaska.

This archival collection represents documents drafted by Curry and Weissbrodt and 

collected material relevant to their position as attorneys working on behalf of the Tlingit 

and Haida peoples to resolve land claims. The Curry papers were developed by Curry and 

associates from the 1930s to 1950s, and they include materials that relate to the Alaska 

Native Brotherhood and disputes over fishing rights and timber development among 

other issues. The Weissbrodt papers were developed by Weissbrodt and associates from 

1957 to the 1970s, and they depict early Haida and Tlingit Central Council activities, land 

claim issues and documents relating directly to the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act 

of 1971.

“This collection includes resource materials used in the Alaska settlement case. Much of 

this material is on microfilm, which can be viewed at the Alaska State Library, but this 

collection also includes materials that were not filmed. An index, available at the Alaska 

State Library is useful” (Theodoratus 2000).

1899-1999. Dauenhauer Tlingit Oral Literature Collections, 1899-1999. Coll. MC 5. 

Sealaska Heritage Institute Archives, Juneau, Alaska.

This collection represents roughly 500 audio recordings (on CD) that were collected or 

created by Nora Marks Dauenhauer and Richard Dauenhauer. The recordings, which date 

from 1899 to 1999, are in both Tlingit and English, and they focus on a variety of topics, 
95

including but not limited to: Tlingit culture, history, lands and subsistence traditions, as 

well as language. 

Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve

U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service

[var.] Commercial Fishing [1989-1983]. File N1619, File N1619B, Vertical files, Glacier 

Bay National Park and Preserve, Bartlett Cove, Gustavus, AK.

“This file contains correspondence/memos on fishing issues and regulations, Native 

resolutions on fishing and subsistence, conference and meeting notes, Native American 

Relations Management Policies, and newspaper coverage of meetings and Park issues. 

Documents date from 1989 through 1993” (Theodoratus 2000).

[var.] Hair Seal Hunting by Indians of Hoonah, Alaska in Glacier Bay National 

Monument. Various dates between 1964-1966. File H14, Vertical Files, Glacier Bay 

National Park. Also a bound collection of documents on subject in Archives/Library, 

Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve, Bartlett Cove, Gustavus, AK.

“This collection consists of a summary on Hoonah hair seal hunting, with Exhibit 

attachments. The summary (no author) reviews the 1959 Court of Claims decision 

(presented as Exhibit A), which established ancestral rights of certain Natives to property 

and lands in Southeastern Alaska, including Glacier Bay National Monument. The 

summary also includes discussion of economic justifications for seal hunting, commercial 

hunting for hides, and other considerations such as hunting losses, permittee 

noncompliance with kill reporting, and hunting in closed areas. Exhibit B is a Hoonah 

petition (86 signatures) to the Secretary of Interior to continue their taking of hair seals in 

Glacier Bay. Exhibit C presents Mr. Frank See's position on the subject as mayor of 

Hoonah and member of the Alaska legislature. Exhibit D is a blank copy of a permit 

certification form with provisions of the permit. Exhibit E is a comparison of the 

petitioners (Exhibit B) to those who have applied for and received permits. Exhibit F lists 

yearly seal scalp bounties paid to residents of Hoonah. Exhibit G is a comparison of 

fisheries to bounties in 1962 and 1963. Memoranda, letters, and briefs on the subject 

dating from 1964 through 1966 are presented in Exhibit H” (Theodoratus 2000). 

[var.] Historic Harbor Seal Subsistence Records. File N16, File N1619A, Vertical Files, 

Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve, Bartlett Cove, Gustavus, AK.

“These files (1956-1987) are made up of correspondence and reports regarding seal 

hunting in Glacier Bay. These contain information on permits, annual kills, issues such as 

threats to hair seal, and regulations” (Theodoratus 2000).

[var.] Historic Sites. File H30 Historic Sites and Structures, Management and 

Preservation; File H34 Historic Sites and Buildings, Vertical Files, Glacier Bay National 

Park and Preserve, Bartlett Cove, Gustavus, AK.
96

“These files contain correspondence and reports on historic sites (e.g., architectural, 

archaeological) and resource protection throughout the Park (e.g., Drake Island, Lituya 

Bay)” (Theodoratus 2000). 

[var.] Natural and Social Sciences. Mammals (Hair Seals). File N1427, Vertical Files, 

Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve, Bartlett Cove, Gustavus, AK.

“This extensive file contains memos and correspondence regarding the issue of Native 

hunting of hair seals in Glacier Bay (including the issue of hunting permits) ranging from 

1946 to 1974. Much of the correspondence covers ‘protection’ of the seals and ‘hunting 

rights’ in Glacier Bay. The file contains reports on seal hunting, records of seal kills, 

bounties claimed, permit provisions, excerpts on seal hunting from monthly reports, 

newspaper accounts, and copies the Court of Claims court case, The Tlingit and Haida 

Indians of Alaska . . . et al. V. The United States, No. 47900 from the Federal Reporter 

(1959, 1968)” (Theodoratus 2000).

[var.] Permits, Back Country. File A9031, Vertical Files, Glacier Bay National Park and 

Preserve, Bartlett Cove, Gustavus, AK.

“This file contains individual hunting permits and summary lists by year of persons 

receiving permits from 1959-1972. The summary reports list annual kill and area of kill. 

The file also contains some correspondence regarding permits” (Theodoratus 2000).

[var.] Subsistence. Various dates between 1989 and 1990. Vertical Files [no file number], 

Management Headquarters, Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve, Bartlett Cove, 

Gustavus, AK. 

“This file contains, "Eight Criteria Worksheet, Board of Fisheries 1989" on Hoonah use 

of several species/stock of fish. Covered in this report are: Shellfish; Bottomfish 

(including halibut, cod, rockfish, flatfish, greenling, and sculpin); salmon and trout; and 

herring. Each fish category includes: length/consistency of use/seasonality; 

means/method of harvest; geographic areas; handling/preparing/preserving/storing; 

intergenerational transmission of knowledge/skills/values/lore; distribution/exchange; 

diversity of resources; and a per capita harvest graph from the Alaska Department of Fish 

and Game. The file also contains a 1990 briefing statement on subsistence activities 

related to Glacier Bay, permits issued, meeting notes, correspondence, and various notes 

on subsistence” (Theodoratus 2000).

1991. Public Hearing on Commercial and Subsistence Fishing, Glacier Bay National Park 

and Preserve, Before Administrative Judge James Byrnes, September 26, 1991, Hoonah, 

Alaska. File N1619B Commercial Fishing Issue, Vertical Files, Glacier Bay National 

Park and Preserve, Bartlett Cove, Gustavus, AK.

“This file contains stenographic notes of the Public Hearing in which several Hoonah 

Tlingit gave verbal testimony on the commercial and subsistence fishing issues. Several 
97

Hoonah people submitted statements covering their views and these are attached at the 

end of the transcript” (Theodoratus 2000).

1992. Legislation. Commercial Fishing and Subsistence. File W38, Vertical Files, Glacier 

Bay National Park and Preserve, Bartlett Cove, Gustavus, AK.

“Written statements and transcripts of oral statements on H.R. 3156 and H.R. 3418 from 

individuals representing Sealaska Corporation, The Wilderness Society, The Sierra Club, 

and the Southeast Alaska Conservation Council cover fishing issues in Glacier Bay. Also 

included are resolutions from the Central Council of Tlingit and Haida Indian Tribes of 

Alaska” (Theodoratus 2000).

University Archives, University of Washington

Garfield, Viola E.

1944. Chieftainship. Typescript, 11 pp., September 1944. University Archives, University 

of Washington Libraries, Seattle. 

“This typescript briefly covers the fact that Tlingit and Haida groups had no tribal or 

national ‘chiefs’ since they did not have a national or tribal political organization. 

Garfield also discusses salmon fishing in which she cites LaPerouse's description of 

salmon procurement at Lituya Bay. Under ‘Other Foods’ she discusses olachen 

(eulachon, candlefish) and herring and herring eggs, halibut and cod fishing, sea mammal 

hunting, bird eggs, shellfish and seaweed, berries, roots and other vegetable foods, the 

hunting and trapping of bears, deer, mountain goats, ground hogs and fur bearing 

animals” (Theodoratus 2000).

1945. The Tlingit, Haida and Tsimshian Indians of Southeastern Alaska. On file, 

University Archives. University of Washington Libraries, Seattle. 14 pp.

“Garfield's general summary of the three Southeastern Alaska Native groups was written 

at the request of the director of the Alaska Native Service for use in Native schools. She 

covers both ‘old days’ and contemporary (1945) times often contrasting the customs and 

commenting on change. The paper concludes with comments, e.g., how the Indian 

communities have changed, how different standards of etiquette have resulted in 

misunderstandings, and the need for ‘equal opportunity for all’” (Theodoratus 2000).

University of Oregon Library

Lipps, Oscar H.

n.d. The Indian Tribes of Southeast Alaska. In Oscar Hiram Lipps Papers. Douglas, AK: 

Alaska Department of Fish and Game.

This special report within Lipps’s papers examines Tlingit, Tsimpshian and Haida 

groups, specifically their locations, settlement patterns and socioeconomic conditions. 
98

University of the Pacific

Muir, John

1849-1957. The John Muir Papers, 1858-1957. Coll. MSS 048. University of the Pacific, 

University Library, Holt-Atherton Department of Special Collections, Stockton, 

California.

“The Muir collection, which includes data from Muir's Alaska trips (1879, 1880, 1890), 

is housed at the University of the Pacific (UOP) in Stockton, California. The primary 

objective of this Microfilm Project has been to assemble any materials (e.g., 

correspondence, journals, manuscripts, illustrations), published or unpublished, authored 

or collected by Muir and including those located in places other than UOP. Selected 

materials from 40 repositories and individuals make up this microfilmed collection” 

(Theodoratus 2000). The collection is organized into seven series, as follows: 1) 

correspondence and related papers (1856-1914); 2) journals and sketchbooks (1867-

1913); 3) notebooks (1856-1912); 4) sketches and photography collection; 5) Muir 

Family papers, Sierra Club Papers (1896-1913) and documents and materials collected 

and developed by Muir’s biographers (William Badè and Linnie Marsh Wolfe); 6) Muir’s 

clippings and files; 7) memorabilia including maps, brochures, pamphlets, etc., which 

were collected by Muir over the years. The Register of the John Muir Papers is available 

online at: http://www.oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/kt709nf3b8/. Certain items in the 

collection have been digitalized by the University of the Pacific, including 

correspondence, journals, photographs and drawings. These digitalized collections are 

available online at: http://www.pacific.edu/Library/Find/Holt-Atherton-SpecialCollections/Digital-Collections.html.