U.S. Department of Education

Institute of Education Sciences

NCES 2005–169

Gender Differences 

in Participation 

and Completion 

of Undergraduate 

Education and How 

They Have Changed 

Over Time 

Postsecondary Education 

Descriptive Analysis Reports
THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK 
U.S. Department of Education 

Institute of Education Sciences 

NCES 2005–169 

Gender Differences 

in Participation 

and Completion 

of Undergraduate 

Education and How 

They Have Changed 

Over Time 

Postsecondary Education 

Descriptive Analysis Reports 

February 2005 

Katharin Peter 

Laura Horn 

MPR Associates, Inc. 

C. Dennis Carroll 

Project Officer 

National Center for 

Education Statistics 
 

U.S. Department of Education 

Margaret Spellings 

Secretary 

Institute of Education Sciences 

Grover J. Whitehurst 

Director 

National Center for Education Statistics 

C. Dennis Carroll 

Associate Commissioner 

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reporting data related to education in the United States and other nations. It fulfills a congressional mandate 

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Suggested Citation 

Peter, K., and Horn, L. (2005). Gender Differences in Participation and Completion of Undergraduate Education 

and How They Have Changed Over Time (NCES 2005–169). U.S. Department of Education, National Center for 

Education Statistics. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. 

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Content Contact: 

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Aurora.D’Amico@ed.gov 
 

 

 

 

Executive Summary

Between 1970 and 2001, women went from

being the minority to the majority of the U.S.

undergraduate population, increasing their 

representation from 42 percent to 56 percent of 

undergraduates (Freeman 2004). Projections to 

2013 indicate that women’s undergraduate 

enrollment will increase to 8.9 million or 57 

percent of the undergraduate population (Gerald 

and Hussar 2003, table 19). Consistent with these 

enrollment changes, women surpassed their male 

peers in educational expectations and degree 

attainment over the last 30 years (Freeman 2004). 

While in the aggregate, women have made great 

progress in gaining access to and completing

postsecondary education, gender differences are 

not uniform across all groups (King 2000; Horn, 

Peter, and Rooney 2002). For example, among all 

undergraduates enrolled in 1999–2000, women 

made up 63 percent of Black undergraduates, 62 

percent of students age 40 or older, and 70 percent 

of single parents (Horn, Peter, and Rooney 2002, 

table 3.1). The purpose of this study is to draw on 

several publications and postsecondary datasets to 

provide a detailed account of gender differences in 

undergraduate education. Specifically, the analysis 

examines gender differences in rates of 

participation and completion of undergraduate 

education, focusing on changes over time in 

college enrollment, associate’s and bachelor’s 

degree awards, and the demographic and 

enrollment characteristics of undergraduate men 

and women. The analysis also examines trends in 

high school academic preparation, postsecondary

persistence and degree completion, and early labor 

market outcomes among bachelor’s degree 

recipients. 

The findings are based on data from the 

following studies: 

• The Integrated Postsecondary Education 

Data System (IPEDS) and Current 

Population Survey (CPS); 

• Three administrations of the National 

Postsecondary Student Aid Study

(NPSAS:90, NPSAS:96, and 

NPSAS:2000), a cross-sectional survey of 

all postsecondary students enrolled in a 

given academic year; 

• Two high school cohorts (the High School 

and Beyond Longitudinal Study and the 

National Education Longitudinal Study of 

1988), representing high school graduates 

in 1982 (HS&B-So:80/92) and 1992 

(NELS:88/2000); 

• Two administrations of the Beginning

Postsecondary Students Longitudinal 

Study, representing students who first 

began their postsecondary education in 

1989–90 (BPS:90/94) and 1995–96 

(BPS:96/01); and 

• Two cohorts of college graduates (1992–

93 and 1999–2000) from the 

Baccalaureate and Beyond Longitudinal 

Studies (B&B:93/97 and B&B:2000/01). 

This analysis examines differences according to 

gender and changes over time using standard tiii 
 

 

 

Executive Summary 

tests to determine statistical significance. 

Statistical significance is reported at p < 0.05. 

Trends in Postsecondary Enrollment 

and Degree Awards 

Nearly 14 million undergraduates were 

enrolled in degree-granting institutions in 2001 

(U.S. Department of Education 2004, table 189). 

Between 1980 and 2001, women increasingly

represented the majority of undergraduates, from

52 percent in 1980 to 56 percent in 2001.1 Women 

also made up a majority of students awarded 

associate’s and bachelor’s degrees over the same 

period. The number of associate’s degrees 

awarded to women increased from approximately

228,000, or 55 percent of associate’s degrees 

awarded, to 357,000, or 60 percent of associate’s 

degrees awarded (table 1-A and figure 2-A). 

Likewise, the number of bachelor’s degrees 

awarded to women increased from 465,000, or 50 

percent of degrees awarded, to 742,000, or 57 

percent of bachelor’s degrees awarded (tables 1-B

and 2-B). 

The aggregate gender differences in degree 

awards largely reflect differences in the majority

or White student population. However, examining

the associate’s and bachelor’s degrees awarded by

race/ethnicity reveals similar patterns. That is, by

2001, women of all racial/ethnic groups 

(excluding nonresident aliens) earned a majority

of the degrees awarded. In particular, Black

women earned two-thirds of both associate’s 

degrees and bachelor’s degrees awarded to Black

students (figures 2-A and 2-B). Hispanic and 

American Indian women were awarded 60 percent 

or more of associate’s and bachelor’s degrees 

conferred to Hispanic and American Indian 

undergraduates, while Asian women earned 57 

percent of associate’s degrees and 55 percent of 

bachelor’s degrees conferred to Asian students. 

Enrollment projections to 2013 indicate that 

women will continue to outpace men in 

completions in the foreseeable future (Gerald and 

Hussar, tables 26 and 27). 

Changes in Undergraduate Student 

Profiles and Enrollment 

Characteristics 

Over the past decade, women have generally

been overrepresented among older students and 

adult students with families. In 1999–2000, for 

example, they accounted for roughly 60 percent of 

all students older than 29 years (table 2). 

However, between 1989–90 and 1999–2000, 

women began to increase their representation 

among students typically considered traditional 

(i.e., students who enroll in college full time 

immediately after graduating from high school). 

This growth is reflected in the increase in the 

percentage of students who were women among

students ages 18–23 (from 53 to 55 percent), 

dependent students, who are typically under age 

24 (from 52 to 53 percent), and independent 

students who had never married and had no 

children (from 48 to 50 percent). 

These changes are also reflected in patterns of 

degree attainment for the younger U.S. population 

(i.e., 25- to 29-year-olds) over the past two 

decades. While the percentage of men in this age 

group with a bachelor’s degree or higher increased 

from 24 to 26 percent, the percentage of women 

with this level of attainment increased from 21 to 

31 percent (figure A). So, while 25- to 29-year-old 

women began the 1980s with a smaller percentage 

1 Calculated from U.S. Department of Education 2004, table

189. 

iv 
 

 

 

 

 

—

Executive Summary 

Figure A. Percentage of 25- to 29-year-olds with a bachelor’s degree or higher, by gender: March 1980–2003

Percent

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03

Year

Total Male Female

NOTE: The Current Population Survey (CPS) questions used to obtain educational attainment were changed in 1992. In 1994, the survey

instrument for the CPS was changed and weights were adjusted. For more information, see http://www.bls.census.gov/cps. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2002). The Condition of Education 2002 

(NCES 2002–025), indicator 25; and U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, March Current Population Surveys,

1981–2003.

with a bachelor’s degree, by the mid-1990s, this 

trend had reversed. 

In addition, as shown in figure B, it appears 

that women closed the gender gap for another 

characteristic of traditional students: full-time 

attendance. In 1989–90, men were more likely

than women to attend full time (42 vs. 37 percent), 

but by 1999–2000, a statistical difference could 

not be detected in the gender distribution of fulltime students (53 vs. 51 percent). In other words, 

both men and women increased their likelihood of 

attending full time, but the increase for women 

was greater. 

While women have increased their 

representation among younger, full-time students, 

who tend to be more successful in completing a 

college degree, women continue to represent 60 

percent or more of students with characteristics 

that place them at a disadvantage in succeeding in 

postsecondary education (table 2). In particular, 

women make up 60 percent of students in the 

lowest 25 percent income level, 62 percent of 

students age 40 or older, 62 percent of students 

with children or dependents (among married or 

separated students), and 69 percent of single 

parents. All of these characteristics are associated 

with lower rates of persistence and completion in 

postsecondary education (e.g., Berkner, He, and 

Cataldi 2002).

v 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

—

Figure B.—

Executive Summary 

Figure B. Percentage of undergraduates attending full time, by gender and year enrolled: 1989–90, 1995–96, 

and 1999–2000

Percent

42

53 53

37

49 51

0

20

40

60

80

100

1989–90 1995–96 1999–2000

Male Female

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1989–90, 1995–96, and 1999–2000 National Postsecondary

Student Aid Studies (NPSAS:90, NPSAS:96, and NPSAS:2000).

Preparation, Persistence, and 

Progress Through Undergraduate 

Education 

High School Academic Preparation and 

Subsequent Attainment 

A comparison of 1982 and 1992 high school 

graduates who entered postsecondary education by

the end of their second year out of high school 

revealed a shift in the high school academic 

preparation of men and women.2 Between the two 

cohorts, women closed some existing gender gaps 

in academic preparation and, in some cases, even 

surpassed men. For example, the percentage of 

2 The 1982 and 1992 high school graduate cohorts from the

HS&B and NELS longitudinal studies were analyzed because 

they provide comprehensive and comparable measures of high

school academic preparation among high school graduates

who enrolled in college. More recent data from the 2000 High 

School Transcript Study reported in Freeman (2004) indicate

young women were more likely than young men to take

advanced placement (AP) courses and to take the AP exams.

The same study also reported that among 2001 high school 

seniors, young women were more likely than their male peers

to report definite plans to graduate from a 4-year college. 

men who fell in the highest 20 percent on an 

indicator measuring the academic intensity of high

school courses taken decreased from 33 percent to 

26 percent, while the percentage of women at the 

same level increased from 25 percent to 29 

percent and, effectively, closed the gender gap 

(table A).3 That is, among 1982 high school 

graduates who went on to college, men were more 

likely than women to score at the highest 

academic intensity level, but no gender difference 

was evident among their 1992 counterparts. 

Similar patterns were observed for other 

indicators of high school academic preparation. 

Among 1992 high school graduates, both young

men and women who went on to postsecondary

education were more likely to take an advanced 

mathematics course in high school (including

3 High school academic intensity is a composite measure of

students’ highest level of mathematics, total mathematics 

credits, total Advanced Placement courses, total English

credits, total foreign language credits, total science credits, 

total core laboratory science credits, total social science

credits, and total computer science credits. For more 

information, see Adelman, Daniel, and Berkovits (2003). 

vi 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

—

Table A.—

Executive Summary 

Table A. High school academic intensity of 1982 and 1992 high school graduates who entered postsecondary education

within 2 years, by gender

Gender

Bottom

20 percent

Lower middle

20 percent

Middle

20 percent

Upper middle

20 percent

Top

20 percent

Male

Female

9.6

11.4

1982 high school graduates

12.7 17.9

14.8 22.5

26.8

26.7

33.0

24.6

Male

Female

9.3

9.1

1992 high school graduates

18.4 17.3

16.4 22.3

28.9

23.2

26.1

29.0

NOTE: Includes 1982 high school graduates who entered postsecondary education by December 1984 and 1992 high school graduates who

entered postsecondary education by December 1994. High school academic intensity is a composite measure of students’ highest level of math,

total mathematics credits, total Advanced Placement (AP) courses, total English credits, total foreign language credits, total science credits, total

core laboratory science credits, total social science credits, and total computer science credits. For more information, see Adelman, C., Daniel,

B., and Berkovits, I. (2003). Postsecondary Attainment, Attendance, Curriculum, and Performance (NCES 2003–394). Detail may not sum

to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond Longitudinal Study of 1980 

Sophomores (HS&B-So:80/92) and National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88/2000). 

calculus and precalculus) and have a 3.50 or 

higher grade point average (GPA) in high school 

than their 1982 counterparts (tables 8 and 9). 

Nonetheless, women closed the existing gender 

gap in the highest mathematics course taken (14 

percent of men and 13 percent of women had 

taken calculus), and in both cohorts, women were 

more likely to have a 3.5 or higher GPA than their 

male peers (e.g., in 1992, 21 percent of women vs. 

15 percent of men had GPAs of 3.5 or higher). 

Between 41 and 50 percent of male and female 

1982 and 1992 high school graduates who went on 

to postsecondary education by the end of their 

second year out of high school had earned a 

bachelor’s degree or higher, and 33–40 percent 

had not attained more than a high school diploma 

(figure C and table 11).4 For both cohorts, 45 

percent of men had attained a bachelor’s degree or 

higher. For women, there was an increase between 

4 For the 1982 cohort, degrees were determined in 1992, or

10 years after enrollment, while for the 1992 cohort, degrees

were determined at the time of the last follow-up in 2000, or 8 

years after enrollment.

the 1982 and 1992 cohorts in the percentage 

earning a bachelor’s degree or higher (41 vs. 50 

percent). As a result, among those 1992 high

school graduates who had entered postsecondary

education by December 1994, women were more 

likely than men to have earned a bachelor’s degree 

or higher (50 vs. 45 percent), and men were more 

likely to have earned no more than a high school 

diploma (40 vs. 33 percent). 

These relationships held even among students 

who fell in the highest 20 percent on the academic 

intensity indicator (i.e., students who are expected 

to go on to college and to have been academically

prepared to succeed once there). So, in addition to 

women improving their academic preparation with 

respect to men, even among students who were 

better prepared academically in high school and 

had entered college, women were more likely than 

men to attain a bachelor’s degree.

vii 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

—

Figure C.—

Figure C.—

Executive Summary 

Figure C. Among 1982 and 1992 high school graduates who entered postsecondary education within 2 years,

percentage whose highest attainment was a high school diploma and percentage who attained a 

bachelor’s degree or higher, by high school academic intensity and gender: 1992 and 2000

Percent

100

80

60

40

20

0

Percent

100

80

60

40

20

0

37 45

36 40 41 45

33

50

High school diploma

Total

Bachelor’s degree High school diploma

or higher

Female

High school academic intensity: Top 20 percent

Bachelor’s degree

or higher

Male

22 18

73

24

72

13

82 71

High school diploma Bachelor’s degree

or higher

Male

High school diploma Bachelor’s degree

or higher

Female

1982 high school graduates 1992 high school graduates

NOTE: Includes 1982 high school graduates who entered postsecondary education by December 1984 and 1992 high school graduates who

entered postsecondary education by December 1994. High school academic intensity is a composite measure of students’ highest level of 

mathematics, total mathematics credits, total Advanced Placement courses (AP), total English credits, total foreign language credits, total

science credits, total core laboratory science credits, total social science credits, and total computer science credits. For more information, see

Adelman, C., Daniel, B., and Berkovits, I. (2003). Postsecondary Attainment, Attendance, Curriculum, and Performance (NCES 2003–394).

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond Longitudinal Study of 1980 

Sophomores (HS&B-So:80/92) and National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88/2000). 

Postsecondary Persistence and Degree years after beginning college. The overall degree 

Completion completion rate was lower for the 1995–96 cohort 

than for their 1989–90 counterparts, but there was Comparing students who first began their an increase in the percentage of students who had postsecondary education in 1989–90 with those not yet completed a degree but were still enrolled who first enrolled 6 years later in 1995–96, Horn in a 4-year institution 5 years after they had 

and Berger (2004) found that roughly two-thirds begun. Among 1989–90 beginning students, 65 of students in both cohorts had either completed a percent of women had completed a degree or postsecondary credential or were still enrolled 5 certificate or were still enrolled 5 years later, 

viii 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Executive Summary 

compared with 62 percent of men (table 12). 

Among 1995–96 beginning students, women were 

more likely than men to complete a degree or 

certificate within 5 years (49 vs. 44 percent). 

However, when students who were still enrolled 

after 5 years were included in the outcome, no 

difference could be detected between men and 

women (64 and 65 percent, respectively, had 

completed a degree or were still enrolled), 

suggesting that men in the second cohort may be 

taking longer than women in their effort to 

complete a degree. 

Early Labor Market Outcomes 

Among Bachelor’s Degree Recipients 

The majority of 1992–93 and 1999–2000 

bachelor’s degree recipients were employed 1 year 

after graduation (over 85 percent; table 15). 

However, for both cohorts of college graduates, 

men were more likely than women to be working

full time, while women were more likely than men 

to be working part time. For example, among

1999–2000 bachelor’s degree recipients, 81 

percent of men versus 74 percent of women were 

working full time, and 9 percent of men versus 13 

percent of women were working part time. Over 

the period studied, the unemployment rate for men 

did not change statistically (4.8 to 5.9 percent), 

while it increased for women (from 4.4 to 6.3 

percent).5 Still, for the most recent cohort, no 

difference could be detected between men and 

5 The unemployment rate is constructed to approximate the

definition of the unemployment rate used by the Bureau of

Labor Statistics. That is, the rate is calculated as the number 

of people who are unemployed divided by all those who are in 

the labor force (unemployed plus those who are working;

respondents who are out of the labor force are excluded from

the calculation). The rate includes unemployed (with or 

without benefits) for 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients

and includes unemployed and waiting to report to work or 

laid off for 1999–2000 bachelor’s degree recipients. 

women in the unemployment rate for bachelor’s 

degree recipients. 

Among bachelor’s degree recipients who were 

employed full time 1 year after graduation in 1994 

and 2001, women earned lower average annual 

salaries than men in both cohorts. On average, 

women earned $5,100 less than men or 84 percent 

of male salaries in 1994, and $6,800 less or 83 

percent of male salaries in 2001 (in constant 2001 

dollars) (tables B and 16). Moreover, in 2001, 31 

percent of men earned $45,000 or more, compared 

with 12 percent of men in 1994. In contrast, 14 

percent of women earned $45,000 or more in 

2001, compared with 7 percent in 1994. Thus in 

both 1994 and 2001, proportionally more men 

earned salaries of $45,000 or higher than women. 

Even when controlling for undergraduate field 

of study, men earned higher average annual 

salaries than women in at least one-half of the 

fields examined. For example, in both cohorts, 

men who majored in engineering, mathematics, 

and science fields earned higher average full-time 

annual salaries than women who majored in these 

fields ($33,300 vs. $27,900 in 1994 and $45,200 

vs. $34,200 in 2001). In other words, in 1994 

women with degrees in these fields earned, on 

average, $5,400 less than men, or about 84 percent 

of what men earned, and 7 years later in 2001, 

women earned $11,000 less or 76 percent of what 

men earned. Additionally, in 2001, men who 

majored in fields related to humanities and 

social/behavioral science or health, 

vocational/technical, and other technical/ 

professional fields earned higher annual average 

salaries than their female counterparts, while such 

a difference was not detected in 1994. 

ix
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

—

Table B.—

Executive Summary 

Table B. Average annual salary of 1992–93 and 1999–2000 bachelor’s degree recipients who were employed full time,

by undergraduate field and gender: 1994 and 2001

Gender and undergraduate field of study

Average annual salary (in constant 2001 dollars)

1994 2001

Total

Male

 Female

$32,500

27,400

$39,400

32,600

Business/management

Male

 Female

33,600

29,900

42,300

39,000

Education

Male

 Female

35,100

21,900

29,600

28,100

Engineering, mathematics, and sciences1

Male

 Female

33,300

27,900

45,200

34,200

Humanities and social/behavioral science

Male

 Female

27,300

26,500

34,600

29,400

Health, vocational/technical, and other technical/professional fields

Male

 Female

35,400

30,300

38,100

34,300

1

Sciences include life sciences, physical sciences, and computer/information science.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1993/97 and 2000/01 Baccalaureate and Beyond

Longitudinal Studies (B&B:93/97 and B&B:2000/01).

Conclusions 

Over the past two decades, the rates at which 

women have enrolled in undergraduate education 

and attained college degrees increased faster than 

those of men. Part of this increase may be related 

to an increase in the percentage of traditional 

students who were women. However, women are 

still overrepresented among nontraditional 

students such as adult students with families, 

students in the lowest income level, and students 

age 40 or older. 

When looking at changes in high school 

academic preparation among 1982 and 1992 high

school graduates who entered postsecondary

education within 2 years of high school 

completion, women had closed some existing

gender gaps and, in some cases, surpassed men 

over the 10-year period. Also, in the later cohort, 

among students who had higher levels of high

school academic preparation, women were more 

likely than men to earn a bachelor’s degree—a 

difference not found in the earlier cohort. In other 

words, women not only narrowed the gender gap 

in high school academic preparation, but even 

among those best prepared to enter college, 

women were more likely than men to attain a 

bachelor’s degree. 

Even though women have surpassed men in 

some aspects of academic preparation and college 

persistence and attainment, as of 2001, their fulltime earnings were lower than those of men. Even 

when controlling for undergraduate field of study, 

x 
Executive Summary 

men earned higher salaries than women in several behavioral sciences—indicating that some of the 

fields—including the combined field of gains women made in postsecondary education 

mathematics, science, and engineering, as well as may not be realized off campus. 

the field comprising humanities, and social and 

xi
 

 

 

 

 

Foreword 

This study provides an in-depth look at gender differences in rates of participation and 

completion of undergraduate education, focusing on changes over time in college enrollment, 

degree awards, and demographic and enrollment characteristics of undergraduate men and 

women in the 50 states and District of Columbia. The analysis also examines trends in high

school academic preparation, postsecondary persistence and degree completion, and early labor 

market outcomes among bachelor’s degree recipients. 

The analysis draws upon several publications and postsecondary datasets to provide a 

detailed account of how the undergraduate educational experiences of men and women differ. 

These include tables from The Condition of Education 2002 and Digest of Education Statistics 

2003, which compile data from the Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS) 

and Current Population Survey (CPS); three administrations of the National Postsecondary

Student Aid Study (NPSAS:90, NPSAS:96, NPSAS:2000), a cross-sectional survey of all 

postsecondary students enrolled in a given academic year; two high school cohorts (the High 

School and Beyond Longitudinal Study and the National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988), 

representing high school graduates in 1982 (HS&B-So:80/92) and 1992 (NELS:88/2000); two

administrations of the Beginning Postsecondary Students Longitudinal Study, representing

students who first began their postsecondary education in 1989–90 (BPS:90/94) and 1995–96 

(BPS:96/01); and two cohorts of college graduates (1992–93 and 1999–2000) from the Baccalaureate 

and Beyond Longitudinal Studies (B&B:93/97 and B&B:2000/01). This report and others using

these datasets can be accessed and downloaded from the NCES web site (http://nces.ed.gov). 

The estimates presented in this report were produced using the NCES Data Analysis 

System (DAS), a statistical application that allows users to specify and generate tables for the 

BPS, B&B, HS&B, NELS, and NPSAS surveys. The DAS produces the design-adjusted standard 

errors necessary for testing the statistical significance of differences among estimates. The DAS 

is available as a web-based application. For more information, consult the DAS website 

(http://nces.ed.gov/das/). Additional information on the datasets used in this report can be found 

in appendix B. 

xii 
 

Acknowledgments 

The authors wish to acknowledge the contribution of many individuals to the production of 

this report. At MPR Associates, Andrea Livingston, Barbara Kridl, and Patti Gildersleeve edited, 

proofed, and formatted the report. Ellen Bradburn and Robin Henke provided guidance and 

comments through the first draft. 

At NCES, Dennis Carroll guided the development and review of the report through 

publication, and Paula Knepper and Marilyn Seastrom provided technical, methodological, and 

substantive reviews. Catharine Freeman (NCES), Clifford Adelman (Office of Vocational and 

Adult Education), and Michael Cohen (Bureau of Transportation Statistics) also reviewed the

first draft. Outside the U.S. Department of Education, the authors extend a special thanks to 

Jacqueline King (American Council on Education) for her comments on the draft report. 

Lisa Bridges (Institute of Education Sciences) guided the final report through IES review

by two outside peer reviewers. All of these reviewers provided insightful comments and helpful 

criticism. 

xiii 
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Table of Contents 

Page 

Executive Summary .................................................................................................................. iii

Foreword.................................................................................................................................... xii

Acknowledgments...................................................................................................................... xiii 

List of Tables ............................................................................................................................. xvii 

List of Figures............................................................................................................................ xix 

Introduction............................................................................................................................... 1 

Organization of Report.......................................................................................................... 2

Key Questions ....................................................................................................................... 2 

Data Sources and Methods....................................................................................................... 5 

Trends in Postsecondary Enrollment and Degree Awards ................................................... 7 

Postsecondary Enrollment..................................................................................................... 7

Degree Attainment ................................................................................................................ 7 

Changes in Undergraduate Student Profiles and Enrollment Characteristics................... 13 

Student Profiles..................................................................................................................... 13 

Enrollment Characteristics.................................................................................................... 16 

Summary ............................................................................................................................... 19 

Preparation, Persistence, and Progress Through Undergraduate Education..................... 21 

High School Academic Preparation and Subsequent Attainment......................................... 21 

Postsecondary Persistence and Degree Completion.............................................................. 29 

Summary ............................................................................................................................... 34 

Early Labor Market Outcomes Among Bachelor’s Degree Recipients ............................... 37 

Employment Status ............................................................................................................... 37 

Average Annual Salary.......................................................................................................... 37 

Summary ............................................................................................................................... 41 

Conclusions................................................................................................................................ 43 

References.................................................................................................................................. 45 

xv
Table of Contents 

Page 

Appendix A—Glossary ............................................................................................................. 47 

Appendix B—Technical Notes and Methodology .................................................................. 55 

xvi
 

List of Tables 

Table Page 

Executive Summary 

A High school academic intensity of 1982 and 1992 high school graduates who entered 

postsecondary education within 2 years, by gender ........................................................ vii 

B Average annual salary of 1992–93 and 1999–2000 bachelor’s degree recipients who 

were employed full time, by undergraduate field and gender: 1994 and 2001 ............... x

Text 

1-A Number of associate’s degrees conferred by degree-granting institutions, by

race/ethnicity and gender: 1980–81, 1990–91, and 2001–02.......................................... 9 

1-B Number of bachelor’s degrees conferred by degree-granting institutions, by

race/ethnicity and gender: 1980–81, 1990–91, and 2001–02.......................................... 9 

2 Percentage of undergraduates who were women, by student characteristics and 

academic year: 1989–90, 1995–96, and 1999–2000 ....................................................... 14 

3 Percentage distribution of undergraduates by type of institution, by gender and 

academic year: 1989–90, 1995–96, and 1999–2000 ....................................................... 17 

4 Percentage of undergraduates who attended full time, by academic year, type of 

institution, and gender: 1989–90, 1995–96, and 1999–2000 .......................................... 18 

5 Percentage distribution of bachelor’s degrees by field of study, by gender of student: 

1980–81, 1990–91, and 2000–01 .................................................................................... 19 

6 Immediate college enrollment rates of high school completers (in thousands), by

gender: 1980–2002.......................................................................................................... 22 

7 Percentage distribution of 1982 and 1992 high school graduates who entered 

postsecondary education within 2 years, by high school academic intensity and 

gender.............................................................................................................................. 23 

8 Percentage distribution of 1982 and 1992 high school graduates who entered 

postsecondary education within 2 years, by highest mathematics course taken in high 

school and gender............................................................................................................ 24 

xvii 
 

 

List of Tables 

Table Page 

9 Percentage distribution of 1982 and 1992 high school graduates who entered 

postsecondary education within 2 years, by high school grade point average (GPA) 

and gender ....................................................................................................................... 25 

10 Percentage distribution of 1982 and 1992 high school graduates who entered 

postsecondary education within 2 years, by senior test level and gender........................ 26 

11 Percentage distribution of 1982 and 1992 high school graduates who entered 

postsecondary education within 2 years, by highest degree attained, high school 

academic intensity, and gender: 1992 and 2000.............................................................. 28 

12 Percentage of 1989–90 and 1995–96 beginning postsecondary students who had 

completed a degree or were still enrolled 5 years after beginning postsecondary

education, by type of first institution attended, gender, and year enrolled...................... 31 

13 Percentage of 1989–90 and 1995–96 beginning postsecondary students identified as 

traditional college students who had completed a degree or were still enrolled 5 years 

after beginning postsecondary education, by type of first institution attended, gender, 

and year enrolled ............................................................................................................. 33 

14 Percentage of 1995–96 beginning postsecondary students leaving by spring 1998 who 

gave various reasons for their departure, by gender........................................................ 34 

15 Percentage distribution of 1992–93 and 1999–2000 bachelor’s degree recipients by

their employment status and the corresponding unemployment rate 1 year after 

graduation, by gender...................................................................................................... 38 

16 Among 1992–93 and 1999–2000 bachelor’s degree recipients who were employed 

full time 1 year after graduation, percentage distribution by amount earned and 

average amount earned, undergraduate field of study, and gender: 1994 and 2001........ 39 

Appendix 

B-1 Lowest weighted item response rates for variables used in this report ........................... 63 

B-2 Standard errors for table 2: Percentage of undergraduates who were women, by

student characteristics and academic year: 1989–90, 1995–96, and 1999–2000 ............ 64 

xviii 
 

List of Figures 

Figure Page 

Executive Summary 

A Percentage of 25- to 29-year-olds with a bachelor’s degree or higher, by gender: 

March 1980–2003 ........................................................................................................... v 

B Percentage of undergraduates attending full time, by gender and year enrolled: 1989–

90, 1995–96, and 1999–2000 .......................................................................................... vi 

C Among 1982 and 1992 high school graduates who entered postsecondary education 

within 2 years, percentage whose highest attainment was a high school diploma and 

percentage who attained a bachelor’s degree or higher, by high school academic 

intensity and gender: 1992 and 2000............................................................................... viii 

Text 

1 Total fall undergraduate enrollment in degree-granting institutions (in thousands), by

gender: 1980–2001.......................................................................................................... 8 

2-A Percentage of associate’s degrees awarded to women, by race/ethnicity: 1980–81, 

1990–91, and 2001–02 .................................................................................................... 10 

2-B Percentage of bachelor’s degrees awarded to women, by race/ethnicity: 1980–81, 

1990–91, and 2001–02 .................................................................................................... 11 

3 Percentage of 25- to 29-year-olds with a bachelor’s degree or higher, by gender: 

March 1980–2003 ........................................................................................................... 12 

xix 
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Introduction 

Over the last three decades, the educational gender gap favoring men, in many respects, has 

been reversed: women have surpassed their male peers in educational expectations, enrollment in 

postsecondary education, and college degree attainment (Freeman 2004). Between 1970 and 

2001, women went from being the minority to the majority of all undergraduates, increasing their 

representation from 42 percent to 56 percent of undergraduates. Projections to 2013 indicate that 

women’s undergraduate enrollment will increase to 8.9 million or 57 percent of the 

undergraduate population (Gerald and Hussar, table 19). 

The apparent decline in the proportion of students enrolled in postsecondary education who 

are male has been the subject of much discussion among educational researchers, policymakers, 

and the media. Mortenson (2001) has argued that “women have done extraordinarily well in the 

K–12 and higher educational systems over the last three decades, and men by comparison have 

not done well at all” (p. 6). King (2000, p. 2) disputed this argument by claiming that past 

literature is “based on aggregate data on the educational achievement of all men and women, 

regardless of age, race/ethnicity, or socioeconomic status,” and therefore does not tell the 

complete story of educational equality. As King pointed out, gender differences are not uniform 

across race/ethnicity and socioeconomic status, and the gender gap is much greater for Black 

students and low-income students than it is for students from other racial/ethnic and income

groups. Findings from a profile of undergraduates enrolled in postsecondary education in the 

academic year 1999–2000 revealed such differences. For example, while women constituted 56 

percent of all undergraduates, they made up 63 percent of Black undergraduates, 62 percent of 

students age 40 or older, and 70 percent of single parents (Horn, Peter, and Rooney 2002, table 

3.1). 

This study aims to provide an in-depth look at gender differences in undergraduate 

education in the 50 states and District of Columbia, focusing on changes over time between 1980 

and 2001. The analysis draws on several publications and postsecondary datasets to provide a 

detailed account of how the undergraduate educational experiences of men and women differ. 

1 
 

 

 

 

 

Introduction

Organization of Report 

The report begins with an overview of college enrollment and associate’s and bachelor’s 

degree awards, showing the trends from 1980 to the period in which most recent data are 

available (in most cases, 2001 or 2003). Using institutional data, the report presents trends in 

undergraduate participation and degree attainment for men and women and how they have 

changed over time. 

Second, using student-level data, the report shows 10-year trends in the demographic and 

enrollment profile of men and women by comparing the characteristics of undergraduates 

enrolled in the academic years 1989–90, 1995–96, and 1999–2000. This section details gender 

differences with respect to race/ethnicity, age, income, and other student characteristics. It also 

examines changes over time in where students enrolled and whether they attended full or part 

time. 

Third, the analysis uses longitudinal data to examine how men and women differed in their 

preparation for and progress through undergraduate education. Two cohorts of high school 

graduates (1982 and 1992) who entered postsecondary education are used to show gender 

differences in academic preparation, while two cohorts of first-time freshmen are used to analyze 

changes in rates of persistence and 5-year degree completion between those who first enrolled in 

1989–90 and their counterparts who enrolled in 1995–96. 

Lastly, two cohorts of recent college graduates (1992–93 and 1999–2000) are used to 

examine labor market participation and salaries among those who entered the labor force 

immediately after obtaining a bachelor’s degree. 

Key Questions 

The report addresses these major questions: 

• Over the period from 1980 to 2001, how did college enrollment and undergraduate 

degree awards change for men and women?

• Among undergraduates enrolled in postsecondary education in 1999–2000, were 

gender differences consistent across race/ethnicity, age, and income levels and other 

demographic characteristics? How had these characteristics changed over time between

1990 and 2000?

• How did undergraduate men and women differ with respect to the type of institution 

they attended and their enrollment intensity (i.e., full- vs. part-time enrollment)?

2 
 

 

 

Introduction 

• Among 1982 and 1992 high school graduates who entered postsecondary education, 

how did young men and women differ in their high school academic preparation?

Controlling for high school academic preparation, what were the degree completion 

rates for men and women?

• Comparing students who first began their postsecondary education in 1989–90 with 

those who first enrolled in 1995–96, what were the differences in the rates of 5-year 

degree completion and persistence? How did the gender gap change over time?

• Comparing bachelor’s degree recipients in 1992–93 who immediately entered the labor 

market without attending graduate school with their counterparts who graduated in 

1999–2000, what were the employment rates and average salaries of men and women 

by undergraduate field of study?

3 
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Data Sources and Methods

This report draws upon several publications and many datasets to provide a detailed 

account of how the undergraduate educational experiences of men and women differ. Tables 

from The Condition of Education 2002 and Digest of Education Statistics 2003 are used to

present an overview of long-term trends in college enrollment and degree awards. These tables

compile data from the Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS) and Current 

Population Survey (CPS). Three administrations of the National Postsecondary Student Aid 

Study (NPSAS:90, NPSAS:96, NPSAS:2000), a cross-sectional survey of all postsecondary

students enrolled in a given academic year, are used to examine changes over a 10-year period 

(1990 to 2000) in the demographic characteristics of undergraduate men and women. NPSAS 

data are also used to examine changes in their enrollment characteristics. For consistency across 

surveys, analyses include only students and institutions in the 50 states and District of Columbia

(i.e., respondents from Puerto Rico or outlying areas were excluded). 

Two high school cohorts are used in this report to analyze changes in students’ high school 

academic preparation and postsecondary attainment. The High School and Beyond Longitudinal 

Study (HS&B-So:80/92) represents high school graduates in 1982 who were last surveyed 10 

years after high school graduation (HS&B:80/94), and the National Education Longitudinal 

Study (NELS:88/2000) represents 1992 high school graduates who were last surveyed 8 years 

after high school graduation. The analysis looks at how students progress through their 

postsecondary education program by using two administrations of the Beginning Postsecondary

Students Longitudinal Study, representing students who first began their postsecondary education 

in 1989–90 (BPS:90/94) and 1995–96 (BPS:96/01). The BPS studies are a longitudinal 

component of NPSAS. 

Finally, this report uses two cohorts of college graduates (1992–93 and 1999–2000) from 

the Baccalaureate and Beyond Longitudinal Studies (B&B:93/97 and B&B:2000/01) to analyze 

gender differences and changes over time in the early labor market participation and salaries of 

college graduates who did not immediately enroll in graduate school. The B&B studies provide 

data on students who received a bachelor’s degree in the 1992–93 and 1999–2000 academic 

years, regardless of when they began their postsecondary education. Salary differences are 

examined 1 year after college graduation. More information about the datasets analyzed in this 

report may be found in appendix B. 

5 
 

Data Sources and Methods

This analysis examines differences according to gender and changes over time using

standard t-tests to determine statistical significance. Statistical significance is reported at p <

0.05. Where applicable, comparisons are discussed in the following order: change over time (or 

between cohorts) for men, change over time (or between cohorts) for women, and differences by

gender. 

6 
 

 

 

 

 

 

Trends in Postsecondary Enrollment and Degree Awards

Postsecondary Enrollment 

Between 1980 and 2001, the total fall undergraduate enrollment in degree-granting

institutions increased from 10.5 million students to 13.7 million students (U.S. Department of 

Education 2004, table 189; figure 1). While the number of students enrolled increased for both 

men and women, the increase was greater for women. Over this time period, the number of 

women enrolled in degree-granting institutions increased by 41 percent (from roughly 5.5 million 

in 1980 to 7.7 million in 2001), while the number of men enrolled increased by 20 percent (from 

about 5 million to 6 million).1 Between 1980 and 2001, the percentage of all undergraduates who 

were women increased from 52 percent to 56 percent. 

Degree Attainment 

No one disputes the employment benefits of earning a college degree. The earning potential 

and employment opportunities of college degree recipients, especially those who attain 

bachelor’s degrees, far surpass those of their peers whose education stops with a high school 

diploma (Cappelli et al. 1997; Farley 1995). In the roughly two decades between 1980 and 2001, 

the number of degrees awarded increased for both men and women, but as with enrollment, 

women experienced greater gains. 

Associate’s Degree Awards 

For both men and women, the number of associate’s degrees awarded increased between 

the 1980 and 2001 school years: the number of associate’s degrees earned by women increased 

by roughly 129,000—from 228,000 in 1980–81 to 357,000 in 2001–02—while the number of 

degrees earned by men increased by 49,000—from 189,000 to 238,000 (table 1-A). This 

translates into a 57 percent increase in the associate’s degrees awarded to women over the two 

decades, and a 26 percent increase in associate’s degrees awarded to men. In other words, women 

went from earning 55 percent of associate’s degrees awarded in 1980–81 to earning 60 percent in 

2001–02 (figure 2-A). 

1 Percentages calculated from U.S. Department of Education 2004, table 189. 

7 
 

 

 

 

 

—

Figure 1.—

Trends in Postsecondary Enrollment and Degree Awards

Figure 1. Total fall undergraduate enrollment in degree-granting institutions (in thousands), by gender: 

1980–2001

Number in

thousands

0

2,000

4,000

6,000

8,000

10,000

12,000

14,000

16,000

80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01

Year

Total Male Female

NOTE: Data for 1999 are imputed. For more information, see U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education 

Statistics. (2002b). Digest of Education Statistics, 2001 (NCES 2002–130), pp. 509–510.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). (2004). Digest of Education 

Statistics 2003 (NCES 2005–025), table 189. Data from U.S. Department of Education, NCES, 1980–86 Higher Education 

General Information Survey (HEGIS), “Fall Enrollment in Colleges and Universities” and Integrated Postsecondary Education 

Data System, “Fall Enrollment Survey” (IPEDS-EF:87–01).

Examining associate’s degrees awarded to women within racial/ethnic groups also reflected 

the overall increase in degrees awarded to women. By 2001–02, women of all racial/ethnic 

groups earned a majority of degrees conferred. Black and American Indian women in particular 

earned two-thirds of associate’s degrees awarded to Black and American Indian students, 

respectively. Among Asian and Hispanic students, women went from being in the minority (36 

and 47 percent, respectively) to the majority of associate degree recipients (57 and 60 percent,

respectively). 

Bachelor’s Degree Awards 

As with associate’s degrees, the number of bachelor’s degrees awarded to both men and 

women increased between the 1980 and 2001 school years, but the increase for women was 

greater. The number of bachelor’s degrees earned by women increased by roughly 277,000—

from 465,000 in 1980–81 to 742,000 in 2001–02—while the number of degrees earned by men 

increased by 80,000—from 470,000 to 550,000 (table 1-B). In other words, women experienced 

8 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

—

Table 1-A.—

—

Table 1-B.—

Trends in Postsecondary Enrollment and Degree Awards 

Table 1-A. Number of associate’s degrees conferred by degree-granting institutions, by race/ethnicity and 

gender: 1980–81, 1990–91, and 2001–02

Asian/ NonAmerican Pacific resident

Years Total Indian Islander Black White Hispanic alien

Male

1980–811 188,638 1,439 7,164 14,143 161,858 10,738 3,292

1990–91 198,634 1,439 7,164 14,143 161,858 10,738 3,292

2001–02 238,109 2,306 13,259 22,800 170,627 23,963 5,154

Female

1980–811 227,739 1,476 4,093 21,040 187,925 9,473 2,348

1990–91 283,086 2,432 8,093 24,692 229,406 14,802 3,661

2001–02 357,024 4,524 17,688 44,537 247,112 36,040 7,123

1

Total includes 4,819 men and 1,384 women whose racial/ethnic group was not available.

NOTE: For years 1990–91 and 2001–02, reported racial/ethnic distributions of students by level of degree, field of degree,

and gender were used to estimate race/ethnicity for students whose race/ethnicity was not reported. American Indian

includes Alaska Native, Black includes African American, Pacific Islander includes Native Hawaiian, and Hispanic includes 

Latino. Race categories exclude Hispanic origin.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). (2004). Digest of Education 

Statistics 2003 (NCES 2005–025), table 261. Data from U.S. Department of Education, NCES, Higher Education General 

Information Survey (HEGIS), “Degrees and Other Formal Awards Conferred” and Integrated Postsecondary Education Data

System, “Completions Survey” (IPEDS-C:1990–91 and 2001–02).

Table 1-B. Number of bachelor’s degrees conferred by degree-granting institutions, by race/ethnicity and

gender: 1980–81, 1990–91, and 2001–02

Years Total

American

Indian

Asian/

Pacific

Islander Black White Hispanic

Nonresident

alien

Male

1980–811

1990–91

2001–02

469,883

504,045

549,816

1,700

1,938

3,625

10,107

21,203

37,666

24,511

24,800

39,194

406,173

421,290

414,885

10,810

16,598

32,953

16,324

18,216

21,493

Female

1980–811

1990–91

2001–02

465,257

590,493

742,084

1,893

2,645

5,540

8,687

21,326

45,435

36,162

41,575

77,430

401,146

492,803

543,700

11,022

20,744

50,016

6,265

11,400

19,963

1

Total includes 258 men and 82 women whose racial/ethnic group was not available.

NOTE: For years 1990–91 and 2001–02, reported racial/ethnic distributions of students by level of degree, field of degree,

and gender were used to estimate race/ethnicity for students whose race/ethnicity was not reported. American Indian

includes Alaska Native, Black includes African American, Pacific Islander includes Native Hawaiian, and Hispanic includes 

Latino. Race categories exclude Hispanic origin.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). (2004). Digest of Education 

Statistics 2003 (NCES 2005–025), table 264. Data from U.S. Department of Education, NCES, Higher Education General 

Information Survey (HEGIS), “Degrees and Other Formal Awards Conferred” and Integrated Postsecondary Education Data

System, “Completions Survey” (IPEDS-C:1990–91 and 2001–02).

9 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

—

Figure 3-A.—

Trends in Postsecondary Enrollment and Degree Awards

Figure 2-A. Percentage of associate’s degrees awarded to women, by race/ethnicity: 1980–81, 1990–91, and

2001–02

Race/ethnicity

58

60

59

66

57

66

60

53

58

59

64

53

63

59

42

47

54

60

36

51

55

Nonresident alien

Hispanic

White

Black

Asian/Pacific

Islander

American Indian

Total

1980–81

1990–91

2001–02

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Percent women

NOTE: For years 1990–91 and 2001–02, reported racial/ethnic distributions of students by level of degree, field of degree,

and gender were used to estimate race/ethnicity for students whose race/ethnicity was not reported. American Indian

includes Alaska Native, Black includes African American, Pacific Islander includes Native Hawaiian, and Hispanic includes 

Latino. Race categories exclude Hispanic origin.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). (2004). Digest of Education 

Statistics 2003 (NCES 2005–025), table 261. Data from U.S. Department of Education, NCES, Higher Education General 

Information Survey (HEGIS), “Degrees and Other Formal Awards Conferred” and Integrated Postsecondary Education Data

System, “Completions Survey” (IPEDS-C:1990–91 and 2001–02).

a 59 percent increase in the degrees awarded over the two decades, compared with a 17 percent

increase in degrees awarded to men. Of all bachelor’s degrees awarded, women earned 50 

percent in 1980–81 and 57 percent in 2001–02 (figure 2-B). 

By 2001–02, women in all racial/ethnic groups earned 55 percent or more of bachelor’s 

degrees awarded. Black women earned 66 percent of bachelor’s degrees awarded to Black 

10 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

—

Figure 3-A.—

Trends in Postsecondary Enrollment and Degree Awards 

Figure 2-B. Percentage of bachelor’s degrees awarded to women, by race/ethnicity: 1980–81, 1990–91, and

2001–02

Race/ethnicity

48

60

57

66

55

60

57

38

56

54

63

50

58

54

28

50

50

60

46

53

50

Nonresident alien

Hispanic

White

Black

Asian/Pacific

Islander

American Indian

Total

1980–81

1990–91

2001–02

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Percent women

NOTE: For years 1990–91 and 2001–02, reported racial/ethnic distributions of students by level of degree, field of degree,

and gender were used to estimate race/ethnicity for students whose race/ethnicity was not reported. American Indian

includes Alaska Native, Black includes African American, Pacific Islander includes Native Hawaiian, and Hispanic includes 

Latino. Race categories exclude Hispanic origin.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). (2004). Digest of Education 

Statistics 2003 (NCES 2005–025), table 264. Data from U.S. Department of Education, NCES, Higher Education General 

Information Survey (HEGIS), “Degrees and Other Formal Awards Conferred” and Integrated Postsecondary Education Data

System, “Completions Survey” (IPEDS-C:1990–91 and 2001–02).

undergraduates, while American Indian and Hispanic women earned 60 percent of degrees 

awarded to American Indian and Hispanic students, respectively. 

The rate of bachelor’s degree attainment among 25- to 29-year-olds provides a useful 

summary of completions because most people who will obtain a bachelor’s degree enter college

soon after high school graduation. The percentage of 25- to 29-year-olds with a bachelor’s degree 

or higher increased from 23 percent in 1980 to 28 percent in 2003 (figure 3). The percentage of 

11 
 

 

 

 

 

—

Figure 2.—

Trends in Postsecondary Enrollment and Degree Awards

Figure 3. Percentage of 25- to 29-year-olds with a bachelor’s degree or higher, by gender: March

1980–2003

Percent

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03

Year

Total Male Female

NOTE: The Current Population Survey (CPS) questions used to obtain educational attainment were changed in 1992. In 1994,

the survey instrument for the CPS was changed and weights were adjusted. For more information, see 

http://www.bls.census.gov/cps.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2002). The Condition of Education 2002 

(NCES 2002–025), indicator 25 and U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, March Current Population 

Surveys, 1981–2003.

men in this age group with a bachelor’s degree increased from 24 percent to 26 percent—with no 

more than 28 percent of 25- to 29-year-old men with a bachelor’s degree in any year between 

1980 and 2003. For women, the percentage in this age group with a bachelor’s degree increased 

from 21 percent to 31 percent over the period. Throughout the 1980s, a greater percentage of men 

in the 25- to 29-year-old age group had a bachelor’s degree, but by the mid-1990s, women in this 

age group had surpassed their male counterparts in attainment. So, while in the beginning of the 

period, smaller percentages of women than men had a bachelor’s degree, by 2003 more women 

than men in this age group had reached this level of attainment.

12 
 

 

 

 

Changes in Undergraduate Student Profiles and Enrollment 

Characteristics 

Women accounted for 55 percent of undergraduates in the 1989–90 academic year, 57 

percent in 1995–96, and 56 percent in 1999–2000 (table 2). Over the past decade, women have 

generally been overrepresented among older students and students with characteristics that place 

them at risk of not completing postsecondary education (see following discussion for definition 

of risk). In 1999–2000, for example, they accounted for roughly 60 percent of all students older 

than 29 years and 57 percent of students with any risk characteristics. However, the analysis that

follows shows a small but significant increase in the percentage of traditional students (i.e., 

students who enroll in college full time immediately after graduating from high school) who were 

women. 

Student Profiles 

Persistence Risk Factors 

Research by Horn and Premo (1995) identified specific risk characteristics associated with 

students’ likelihood of leaving postsecondary education without attaining a credential (includes 

bachelor’s degree, associate’s degree, or vocational certificate). These persistence risk factors 

include dropping out of high school (including dropouts who later complete a General 

Educational Development [GED] or high school equivalency certificate), delaying postsecondary

enrollment more than a year after high school graduation, having dependents other than a spouse, 

being a single parent, attending school part time, being financially independent, and working full 

time (35 or more hours per week) while enrolled.2 Students with none of these risk characteristics 

are typically considered to be “traditional” college students—those who enroll in college full 

time immediately after graduating from high school. 

As shown in figure 2, the percentage of women ages 25 to 29 years with a bachelor’s 

degree increased from 23 percent in 1990 to 30 percent in 2000. Consistent with these findings, 

between 1989–90 and 1999–2000, a slight increase was detected in the percentage of traditional 

students (i.e., those with no risk characteristics) who were women, from 54 to 55 percent (table 2). 

2 For more information, see Horn and Premo (1995). 

13 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

—

Table 6.—

Changes in Undergraduate Student Profiles and Enrollment Characteristics 

Table 2. Percentage of undergraduates who were women, by student characteristics and academic year:

1989–90, 1995–96, and 1999–2000

Student characteristics 1989–90 1995–96 1999–2000

U.S. Total (excluding Puerto Rico) 55.3 56.8 56.3

Risk status for not completing1

No risk factors (traditional students) 53.6 54.4 55.2

 One or more risk factors 56.0 56.4 56.8

Race/ethnicity2

 American Indian 47.9 65.1 60.7

Asian/Pacific Islander 48.1 51.3 51.4

Black 63.3 63.1 63.5

White 55.1 56.0 55.6

Hispanic 52.2 57.5 55.6

Age

18–23 52.5 54.4 55.0

24–29 52.0 55.2 53.5

30–39 62.2 61.3 60.1

40 or older 66.1 64.5 62.2

Income level

Low income 59.3 60.2 60.2

Middle low income 56.3 56.5 56.3

Middle high income 55.7 55.7 56.0

High income 50.9 54.5 53.4

Dependency status

 Dependent 51.7 52.6 53.3

 Independent

 Never married, no children 47.5 49.2 50.0

Married/separated, no children 60.1 66.8 57.7

Married/separated, children 62.4 61.2 61.8

Single parent 80.6 73.0 68.9

Hours worked per week while enrolled

 Did not work 62.1 59.5 58.7

1–24 hours 60.6 59.8 59.7

25–34 hours 57.2 51.8 56.7

 More than 34 hours 48.3 52.7 53.3

1

Risk factors include delaying enrollment, not having a high school diploma, enrolling part time, being financially independent

(typically students over 24), having dependents other than a spouse, being a single parent, and working full time while enrolled.

For more information, see Horn, L.J., and Premo, M.D. (1995). Profile of Undergraduates in U.S. Postsecondary Education 

Institutions: 1992–93, With an Essay on Undergraduates at Risk (NCES 96–237). 2

American Indian includes Alaska Native, Black includes African American, Pacific Islander includes Native Hawaiian, and

Hispanic includes Latino. Race categories exclude Hispanic origin.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1989–90, 1995–96, and 1999–2000 

National Postsecondary Student Aid Studies (NPSAS:90, NPSAS:96, and NPSAS:2000).

14 
 

 

 

Changes in Undergraduate Student Profiles and Enrollment Characteristics 

However, in 1999–2000, at-risk students still were more likely than traditional students to be 

women: 55 percent of students with no risk factors were women, compared with 57 percent of 

students with one or more risk factors. 

Age and Dependency Status 

Between 1989–90 and 1999–2000, the percentage of 18- to 23-year-olds who were women 

increased from 53 to 55 percent and the percentage of 24- to 29-year-olds who were women 

increased from 52 to 54 percent (table 2). Conversely, the percentage of students in the 40 or 

older age group who were women declined from 66 percent in 1989–90 to 62 percent in 1999–

2000. 

Consistent with the findings for the younger age groups, between 1989–90 and 1999–2000, 

the percentage of undergraduates who were women increased for both dependent students 

(typically students under age 24) and independent students who had never married and had no 

children. In 1989–90, 52 percent of dependent students were women and 48 percent of 

independent students who had never married and had no children were women, compared with 

53 percent and 50 percent, respectively, in 1999–2000. The percentage of single parents who 

were women declined, although in 1999–2000 women were still overrepresented in this group 

(69 percent of single parents were women vs. 56 percent of all students). 

Income and Hours Worked 

Between 1989–90 and 1999–2000, the percentage of high-income students who were 

women increased (from 51 percent to 53 percent; table 2). No difference was detected in the 

percentage of low-income students who were women in each survey year. Nonetheless, in 1999–

2000, women were still overrepresented among low-income students (60 percent were women) 

and underrepresented among high-income students (53 percent) when compared with all students 

(56 percent). 

Over the time period studied, the percentage of women among students who did not work 

declined from 62 percent to 59 percent, while their representation among students who worked 

more than 34 hours per week while enrolled increased from 48 percent to 53 percent. The 

increase in the percentage of women among students who worked more than 34 hours per week 

is consistent with the same increase among independent students who had never married and had 

15 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Changes in Undergraduate Student Profiles and Enrollment Characteristics 

no children.3 Still, in 1999–2000, women made up a greater proportion of students who did not 

work than among those who worked more than 34 hours per a week while enrolled. 

Race/Ethnicity 

Few changes were detected over the three survey periods in the percentage of 

undergraduates who were women by race/ethnicity (table 2). The exception was that the 

percentage of Hispanic students who were women increased from 1989–90 to 1995–96 (from 52 

to 58 percent). While it appears that the percentage of American Indian students who were 

women increased from 1989–90 to 1995–96 as well, the apparent difference was not statistically

significant. 

In 1999–2000, women made up a greater percentage of Black students than they did among

White, Hispanic, and Asian/Pacific Islander students (64 percent vs. 56, 56, and 51 percent, 

respectively). In fact, when compared with all 1999–2000 undergraduates, a greater percentage of 

Black students were women by almost 8 percentage points (56 percent of all undergraduates were 

women vs. 64 percent of Black students). As was shown in table 1, in 2000–01, Black women 

also earned a greater percentage of the degrees awarded than their male counterparts. While it 

appears that women made up a greater percentage of American Indian students than they did 

among White, Hispanic, and Asian/Pacific Islander students, the apparent difference was not 

statistically significant and no other differences could be detected in the percentages of 

undergraduates who were women by racial/ethnic group in 1999–2000. 

Enrollment Characteristics 

Type of Institution 

In 1999–2000, the majority of undergraduates attended public institutions (Horn, Peter, and 

Rooney 2002). Forty-three percent of men and women were enrolled in public 2-year institutions, 

and 30–33 percent were enrolled in public 4-year institutions (table 3). Between 13 and 14 

percent were enrolled in private not-for-profit 4-year institutions, and 4–5 percent were enrolled 

in for-profit institutions. 

Examining changes over time by the type of institution attended revealed similar patterns 

by gender. Between 1989–90 and 1999–2000, for both men and women, the percentage attending

public 2-year institutions increased, and, in 1999–2000, no difference could be detected between 

3 In 1999–2000, 58 percent of independent female students who had never married and had no children worked more than 34 

hours per a week (data not shown). 

16 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

—

Table 3.—

Changes in Undergraduate Student Profiles and Enrollment Characteristics 

Table 3. Percentage distribution of undergraduates by type of institution, by gender and academic year:

1989–90, 1995–96, and 1999–2000

Private not-forGender Public 4-year profit 4-year Public 2-year All for-profit Other

1989–90

Male 31.5 13.1 36.6 5.9 12.9

Female 28.3 12.0 38.6 7.7 13.4

1995–96

Male 32.4 13.7 42.7 4.5 6.6

Female 28.8 13.7 44.4 5.7 7.4

1999–2000

Male 32.7 13.1 42.7 4.4 7.1

Female 30.4 13.6 42.8 5.1 8.2

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1989–90, 1995–96, and 1999–2000 

National Postsecondary Student Aid Studies (NPSAS:90, NPSAS:96, and NPSAS:2000).

men and women in the percentage who attended public 2-year institutions. In 1989–90, 37 

percent of male undergraduates and 39 percent of female undergraduates attended public 2-year 

institutions, compared with 43 percent of both groups in 1999–2000. Over the same period, the 

percentage of women attending public and private not-for-profit 4-year institutions increased by

about 2 percentage points, although women were less likely than men to attend public 4-year 

institutions in 1999–2000 (30 vs. 33 percent). 

Attendance Status 

Consistent with the increase in the proportion of traditional students discussed earlier, the 

percentage attending full time increased between 1989–90 and 1999–2000 for both men and 

women (from 42 to 52 percent for men and from 37 to 51 percent for women; table 4). In 1989–

90 and 1995–96, men were more likely than women to attend full time, but by 1999–2000, there 

was no measurable difference. 

Similar patterns were found when examining changes in attendance status by type of 

institution. In 1989–90, men at public and private not-for-profit 4-year institutions were more 

likely than women to attend full time, but in 1999–2000, there were no measurable differences. 

17 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

—

Table 4.—

Changes in Undergraduate Student Profiles and Enrollment Characteristics 

Table 4. Percentage of undergraduates who attended full time, by academic year, type of institution, and 

gender: 1989–90, 1995–96, and 1999–2000

Gender 1989–90 1995–96 1999–2000

 Total1

Male

Female

42.1

37.3

53.4

49.3

52.3

51.2

Male

Female

62.3

57.4

 Public 4-year

68.3

65.9

67.2

66.1

Male

Female

71.4

62.8

 Private not-for-profit 4-year

72.2

70.2

73.7

71.0

Male

Female

20.5

18.1

 Public 2-year

31.0

26.9

31.2

29.9

1

Includes students at institutions not shown separately.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1989–90, 1995–96, and 1999–2000 

National Postsecondary Student Aid Studies (NPSAS:90, NPSAS:96, and NPSAS:2000).

For all survey years, no difference could be detected in the percentage of men and women 

attending full time at public 2-year institutions.4

Degree Field 

In 2000–01, almost half of all degrees awarded to men were in three main fields of study: 

one-quarter of bachelor’s degrees awarded to men were business degrees, 12 percent were social

sciences and history degrees, and 11 percent were engineering degrees (table 5). Although these 

fields accounted for the largest percentages of degrees awarded to men throughout the previous 

two decades, there was a slight decrease in the percentage of degrees awarded in business and 

engineering from 1980 to 2001. In 2000–01, 18 percent of degrees awarded to women were 

business degrees, followed by 11 percent in education and between 8 and 9 percent each in social

sciences and history, health professions and related sciences, and psychology. About 2 percent of 

degrees awarded to women were in engineering. Between 1980 and 2001, the proportion of 

women earning degrees in education and health professions and related sciences declined while

the proportion earning business degrees increased, especially during the first half of the decade. 

4 Even though it appears as though a higher percentage of men than women attended public 2-year institutions full time in 1995–

96, the apparent difference was not statistically significant. 

18 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

—

Table 5.—

Changes in Undergraduate Student Profiles and Enrollment Characteristics 

Table 5. Percentage distribution of bachelor’s degrees by field of study, by gender of student: 1980–81, 

1990–91, and 2000–01

Male Female

Field of study 1980–81 1990–91 2000–01 1980–81 1990–91 2000–01

Total1 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Business 26.7 26.1 25.1 15.8 19.9 18.5

Education 5.8 4.6 4.6 17.4 14.8 11.4

Social sciences and history 11.9 13.6 11.5 9.5 9.6 9.3

Health professions and related sciences 2.2 1.9 2.2 11.4 8.4 8.6

Psychology 3.1 3.2 3.1 5.7 7.2 8.0

Communications 3.0 4.1 4.2 3.7 5.4 5.1

Visual and performing arts 3.1 3.1 4.7 5.5 4.5 5.1

Biological sciences/life sciences 5.1 3.9 4.6 4.1 3.4 5.1

English language and literature/letters 2.4 3.4 3.0 4.5 5.9 4.9

Computer and information sciences 2.2 3.5 5.7 1.1 1.2 1.6

Engineering 14.3 13.4 11.0 1.7 1.8 1.8

Agriculture and natural resources 3.2 1.8 2.4 1.4 0.7 1.5

Physical sciences 3.8 2.2 2.0 1.3 0.9 1.0

Mathematics 1.4 1.6 1.1 1.0 1.2 0.8

1

Includes other fields not shown separately.

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). (2003). Digest of Education 

Statistics 2002 (NCES 2003–060), tables 246 and 276–297. Data from U.S. Department of Education, NCES, Higher

Education General Information Survey (HEGIS), “Degrees and Other Formal Awards Conferred” surveys, and Integrated

Postsecondary Education Data System, “Completions Survey” (IPEDS-C:86–87 through 2000–01).

There was also an increase in the percentage of degrees awarded to women in the field of 

psychology. Despite these changes, in both 1980–81 and 2000–01, men were more likely than 

women to earn degrees in business, engineering, and social sciences and history, while women 

were more likely to earn degrees in education, health professions and related sciences, and 

psychology. 

Summary

Over the past decade, women have generally been overrepresented among older students 

and students with characteristics that place them at risk of not completing postsecondary

education. Women are overrepresented among single parents, among those 40 years or older, and 

among those in the lowest income group. In addition, when compared to all 1999–2000 

undergraduates, a greater percentage of Black students were women by almost 8 percentage

points (56 percent of all undergraduates were women vs. 64 percent of Black students). As was 

19 
 

Changes in Undergraduate Student Profiles and Enrollment Characteristics 

shown in table 1, in 2000–01, Black women also earned a greater percentage of the degrees 

awarded than their male counterparts. 

However, comparisons between the three cohorts also reveal a small but significant shift 

toward more women who are traditional students than in previous years. These trends are 

reflected in changes that include an increase in the percentage of women among traditional

students (i.e., students with no persistence risk characteristics), among students in younger age 

groups (18–29 years old), among dependent students (those under age 24), and among

independent students who had never married and had no children. Further, it appears that women 

have closed the gender gap in the likelihood of attending full time; that is, while both men and 

women increased their likelihood of attending full time, women increased more. 

Despite changes in field of degree, relationships by gender held strong for the top three 

fields of study. That is, in both 1980–81 and 2000–01, men were more likely than women to earn 

bachelor’s degrees in business, engineering, and social sciences and history, while women were 

more likely to earn degrees in education, health professions and related sciences, and psychology.

20 
 

 

 

 

Preparation, Persistence, and Progress Through Undergraduate 

Education 

Over the past two decades, the number of high school completers declined (from roughly

3.1 million in 1980 to 2.8 million in 2002; table 6). Conversely, the number of high school 

completers who immediately enrolled in college increased (from 1.5 million in 1980 to 1.8 

million in 2002). As a result, the percentage of high school completers who immediately enrolled 

in college increased from 49 percent in 1980 to 65 percent in 2002. This was true for both men 

and women: there was a decline in the number of high school completers over the period and an 

increase in the number of high school completers who immediately enrolled in college. Sixty-two 

percent of male high school completers immediately enrolled in college in 2002, up from 47 

percent in 1980 (an increase of 15 percentage points), and 68 percent of female high school 

completers immediately enrolled in college in 2002, up from 52 percent in 1980 (an increase of 

16 percentage points). Although it appears that women were more likely than men to enroll in 

college immediately after high school in every year since 1996, in 1999 and 2001, the apparent 

difference was not statistically significant. 

High School Academic Preparation and Subsequent Attainment 

High School Academic Preparation 

A comparison of 1982 and 1992 high school graduates who entered postsecondary

education by the end of their second year after leaving high school revealed a shift in the high

school academic preparation of men and women. Between the two cohorts, women closed some 

existing gender gaps in high school academic preparation and, in some cases, even surpassed 

men. 

The following discussion on high school academic preparation is based on students who 

graduated high school in 1982 and 1992 and subsequently entered postsecondary education 

within 2 years. Thus, the findings reflect the level of high school academic preparation in the 

early 1980s and 1990s, respectively. In 1982, more women than men completed high school 

(1,592,000 vs. 1,509,000) but in 1992, no difference could be detected between men and women 

in the number of high school completers (table 6). Between 1982 and 1992, the percentage of 

high school completers who immediately enrolled in college increased for both men and women 

21 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

—

Table 6.—

Preparation, Persistence, and Progress Through Undergraduate Education

Table 6. Immediate college enrollment rates of high school completers (in thousands), by gender:

1980–2002

Total high school completers1 Total

Enrolled in college2

Male Female

Year Total Male Female Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent

1980 3,088 1,498 1,589 1,523 49.3 700 46.7 823 51.8

1981 3,056 1,491 1,565 1,648 53.9 817 54.8 831 53.1

1982 3,100 1,509 1,592 1,569 50.6 741 49.1 828 52.0

1983 2,963 1,389 1,573 1,562 52.7 721 51.9 841 53.4

1984 3,012 1,429 1,584 1,663 55.2 801 56.0 862 54.5

1985 2,668 1,287 1,381 1,540 57.7 755 58.6 785 56.8

1986 2,786 1,332 1,454 1,498 53.8 743 55.8 755 51.9

1987 2,647 1,278 1,369 1,503 56.8 746 58.3 757 55.3

1988 2,673 1,334 1,339 1,575 58.9 761 57.1 814 60.7

1989 2,450 1,204 1,246 1,460 59.6 693 57.6 767 61.6

1990 2,362 1,173 1,189 1,420 60.1 680 58.0 740 62.2

1991 2,276 1,140 1,136 1,423 62.5 660 57.9 763 67.1

1992 2,397 1,216 1,180 1,483 61.9 729 60.0 754 63.8

1993 2,342 1,120 1,223 1,467 62.6 670 59.9 797 65.2

1994 2,517 1,244 1,273 1,559 61.9 754 60.6 805 63.2

1995 2,599 1,238 1,361 1,610 61.9 775 62.6 835 61.3

1996 2,660 1,297 1,363 1,729 65.0 779 60.1 950 69.7

1997 2,769 1,354 1,415 1,856 67.0 860 63.6 995 70.3

1998 2,810 1,452 1,358 1,844 65.6 906 62.4 938 69.1

1999 2,897 1,474 1,423 1,822 62.9 905 61.4 917 64.4

2000 2,756 1,251 1,505 1,745 63.3 749 59.9 996 66.2

2001 2,545 1,275 1,270 1,569 61.7 762 59.7 808 63.6

2002 2,796 1,412 1,384 1,824 65.2 877 62.1 947 68.4

1

Individuals ages 16–24 who graduated from high school or completed a GED during the preceding 12 months. 2

Enrollment in college as of October of each year for individuals ages 16–24 who completed high school during the preceding

12 months.

NOTE: Data are based upon sample surveys of the civilian population. High school graduates include GED recipients.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2004). Digest of Education Statistics 2003 

(NCES 2005–025), table 186. Data from American College Testing Program, unpublished tabulations, derived from statistics

collected by the U.S. Bureau of the Census and U.S. Department of Labor, “College Enrollment of High School Graduates,”

1980–2002.

(from 49 to 60 percent of men and from 52 to 64 percent of women). For both years, no 

difference could be detected by gender in the percentage of students who immediately enrolled in 

college. 

High School Academic Intensity 

High school academic intensity is a composite measure of students’ highest mathematics 

courses, total mathematics credits, total Advanced Placement (AP) courses, total English credits, 

total foreign language credits, total science credits, total core laboratory science credits, total 

22 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

—

Table 9.—

Preparation, Persistence, and Progress Through Undergraduate Education 

social science credits, and total computer science credits.5 Table 7 shows the percentage

distribution of 1982 and 1992 high school graduates who entered postsecondary education by

level of high school academic intensity. Among 1982 and 1992 high school graduates who 

entered postsecondary education by the end of their second year out of high school, roughly half 

were in the top two levels or top 40 percent as measured by the academic intensity indicator; 1 in

10 were in the lowest 20 percent. 

Table 7. Percentage distribution of 1982 and 1992 high school graduates who entered postsecondary 

education within 2 years, by high school academic intensity and gender 

Gender

Bottom

20 percent

Lower middle

20 percent

Middle

20 percent

Upper middle

20 percent

Top

20 percent

Male

Female

9.6

11.4

1982 high school graduates

12.7 17.9

14.8 22.5

26.8

26.7

33.0

24.6

Male

Female

9.3

9.1

1992 high school graduates

18.4 17.3

16.4 22.3

28.9

23.2

26.1

29.0

NOTE: Includes 1982 high school graduates who entered postsecondary education by December 1984 and 1992 high school 

graduates who entered postsecondary education by December 1994. High school academic intensity is a composite measure 

of students’ highest level of mathematics, total mathematics credits, total Advanced Placement courses (AP), total English

credits, total foreign language credits, total science credits, total core laboratory science credits, total social science credits, 

and total computer science credits. For more information, see Adelman, C., Daniel, B., and Berkovits, I. (2003). Postsecondary

Attainment, Attendance, Curriculum, and Performance (NCES 2003–394). Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond Longitudinal

Study of 1980 Sophomores (HS&B-So:80/92) and National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88/2000). 

When comparing the two cohorts, an upward shift in the proportion of women in the upper 

high school academic intensity levels was evident, accompanied by a downward shift for men. 

That is, among high school graduates who went to college the percentage of women in the top 20 

percent increased (from 25 percent to 29 percent), while the percentage of women in the lowest 

20 percent decreased (from 11 percent to 9 percent). Conversely, the percentage of men in the top 

20 percent decreased from 33 percent to 26 percent, while the percentage of men in the second to 

the lowest group increased from 13 to 18 percent. 

Ultimately, among 1982 high school graduates who went on to postsecondary education, 

men were more likely than women to be in the top 20 percent, but among their 1992 

counterparts, no such difference was detected. Still, among the 1992 high school graduates, men 

5 For more information, see Adelman, Daniel, and Berkovits (2003). 

23 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

—

Table 0.—

Preparation, Persistence, and Progress Through Undergraduate Education

were more likely than women to be in the upper middle group (i.e., second to the highest level), a 

difference not found among the 1982 high school graduates. 

Highest Mathematics Course 

Similar patterns were found for other high school academic preparation indicators. Both 

male and female 1992 high school graduates who entered postsecondary education by the end of 

their second year out of high school were more likely than their 1982 counterparts to have taken 

an advanced mathematics course in high school (including calculus and precalculus) and less 

likely to have taken no mathematics course beyond algebra 1 (table 8).

Table 8. Percentage distribution of 1982 and 1992 high school graduates who entered postsecondary 

education within 2 years, by highest mathematics course taken in high school and gender 

Gender

Less than

Algebra 1 Algebra 1 Geometry Algebra 2 Trigonometry Precalculus Calculus

Male

Female

9.2

8.4

14.7

18.6

1982 high school graduates

15.2 29.2

19.4 30.0

14.6

11.2

7.9

6.1

9.3

6.3

Male

Female

2.8

2.5

10.6

9.6

1992 high school graduates

13.0 30.2

14.0 32.1

14.2

13.3

15.2

15.1

14.0

13.4

NOTE: Includes 1982 high school graduates who entered postsecondary education by December 1984 and 1992 high school 

graduates who entered postsecondary education by December 1994. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond Longitudinal

Study of 1980 Sophomores (HS&B-So:80/92) and National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88/2000). 

Furthermore, it appears that women closed the existing gender gap in terms of the highest 

mathematics course taken in high school. Among the 1982 cohort, men were more likely than 

women to take trigonometry, precalculus, and calculus, but among the 1992 cohort, no gender 

differences could be detected in the highest mathematics course taken in high school. Among the 

earlier cohort, in total, 32 percent of men and 24 percent of women took trigonometry, 

precalculus, or calculus, and among the later cohort, 43 percent of men and 42 percent of women 

did so. 

Grade Point Average 

Between 1982 and 1992, the high school grade point average (GPA) of graduates who 

entered postsecondary education by the end of their second year out of high school increased for 

24 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

—

Table 2.—

Preparation, Persistence, and Progress Through Undergraduate Education 

both men and women (table 9). For men, the average GPA increased from 2.68 in the first cohort 

to 2.74 in the second cohort, and for women the average GPA increased from 2.85 to 2.91. In

both cohorts, the average GPA for women was 0.17 points higher than that of men. 

Table 9. Percentage distribution of 1982 and 1992 high school graduates who entered postsecondary 

education within 2 years, by high school grade point average (GPA) and gender

Gender Less than 2.50 2.50–2.99 3.00–3.49 3.50 or greater Average

Male

Female

41.9

31.6

25.2

24.3

1982 high school graduates

20.4

26.3

12.5

17.8

2.68

2.85

Male

Female

34.7

24.1

29.5

26.7

1992 high school graduates

21.3

28.2

14.5

21.0

2.74

2.91

NOTE: Includes 1982 high school graduates who entered postsecondary education by December 1984 and 1992 high school 

graduates who entered postsecondary education by December 1994. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond Longitudinal

Study of 1980 Sophomores (HS&B-So:80/92) and National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88/2000). 

Of 1982 and 1992 high school graduates who entered postsecondary education by the end 

of their second year after high school, the percentage of students in the lowest high school GPA 

category (less than 2.50) decreased (from 42 percent to 35 percent for men and from 32 to 24 

percent for women). However, for men, the corresponding increase was in the second to lowest 

GPA category (2.50–2.99, where it increased from 25 percent to 30 percent); for women, the 

increase was in the highest GPA category (3.50 or greater, where it increased from 18 percent to 

21 percent). 

For both cohorts, women were more likely than men to have a GPA of 3.00 or greater, and 

conversely, men were more likely to have a GPA of less than 2.50. Among the latter cohort, for 

example, 49 percent of women and 36 percent of men had a GPA of 3.00 or greater, while 24 

percent of women and 35 percent of men had a GPA of less than 2.50. 

Senior Test Score 

In their senior year in high school, students completed a series of cognitive tests. The 

combined tests included 116 items to be completed in 85 minutes and covered four subject areas, 

including reading comprehension; mathematics; science; and history, citizenship, and geography. 

Table 10 shows the senior test scores for both cohorts as a percentage distribution by five levels. 

Among high school graduates who went to college, over half were in the top 40 percent, and 10 

25 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

—

Table 13.—

Preparation, Persistence, and Progress Through Undergraduate Education

Table 10. Percentage distribution of 1982 and 1992 high school graduates who entered postsecondary 

education within 2 years, by senior test level and gender

Bottom Lower middle Middle Upper middle Top

Gender 20 percent 20 percent 20 percent 20 percent 20 percent

1982 high school graduates

Male 5.3 12.6 18.1 26.2 37.9

Female 8.2 16.5 20.2 25.0 30.1

1992 high school graduates

Male 9.3 11.7 20.9 25.2 32.9

Female 8.0 14.8 21.5 26.0 29.7

NOTE: Includes 1982 high school graduates who entered postsecondary education by December 1984 and 1992 high school 

graduates who entered postsecondary education by December 1994. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond Longitudinal

Study of 1980 Sophomores (HS&B-So:80/92) and National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88/2000). 

percent or less were in the lowest 20 percent. Between 1982 and 1992, the percentage of men 

who scored in the top 20 percent on the senior test decreased, while the percentage in the lowest 

20 percent increased. For women, no difference could be detected between the two cohorts in the 

percentage distribution by senior test levels. 

Thus, in the 1982 cohort, women who went on to college were more likely than their male 

counterparts to be in the lowest 40 percent, but in the 1992 cohort, no such difference could be 

detected. Although the gap in senior test scores by gender seems to have narrowed, for both 

cohorts, men were more likely than women to score in the top 20 percent (38 vs. 30 percent 

among the 1982 cohort and 33 vs. 30 percent among the 1992 cohort). In other words, although 

senior test scores for women were similar in both cohorts, men did not perform as well in the 

second cohort. As a result, the gender gap in senior test scores narrowed, although men were still 

more likely to be in top 20 percent. 

As noted earlier, the academic preparation data presented above is based on cohorts of men 

and women who graduated from high school in 1982 and 1992. Although the same data is not 

available for any cohorts of high school graduates in the current decade, Freeman (2004) reported 

gender differences in educational expectations and college preparatory coursework. In particular, 

2000 high school transcript data revealed that young women were more likely to complete 

advanced placement (AP) courses and to take the AP exams. The same study also reported that

female high school seniors in 2001 were more likely than their male peers to report definite plans 

to graduate from a 4-year college. 

26 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Preparation, Persistence, and Progress Through Undergraduate Education 

Attainment by High School Academic Intensity 

Between 33 and 40 percent of male and female 1982 and 1992 high school graduates who 

had entered postsecondary education by the end of their second year after high school had not 

attained more than a high school diploma by 1992 or 2000, respectively, and 41–50 percent had 

attained a bachelor’s degree or higher6 (table 11). For men, no difference could be detected in the 

percentage of 1982 and 1992 high school graduates who had entered postsecondary education 

and had earned a bachelor’s degree or higher (45 percent in both years). For women, the 

percentage earning a bachelor’s degree or higher increased between the 1982 and 1992 cohorts: 

41 percent of women in the earlier cohort had attained a bachelor’s degree or higher by 1992, 

while half of the women in the later cohort had reached this level of attainment by 2000. No 

difference could be detected between the two cohorts in the percentage earning no more than a 

high school degree, a pattern that held for both men and women. 

Among 1992 high school graduates who entered postsecondary education by December 

1994, women were more likely than men to earn a bachelor’s degree or higher (50 vs. 45 

percent), and men were more likely than women to earn no more than a high school diploma (40 

vs. 33 percent). This pattern differed from that for the earlier cohort, in which no difference could 

be detected by gender in the percentage whose highest degree earned was a high school diploma 

or bachelor’s degree or higher. In this case, it appears that the gender disparity in bachelor’s 

degree attainment is a result of an increase between the cohorts in attainment rates for women. 

High School Academic Intensity: Highest Level 

Students performing at the highest academic intensity level for high school preparation are 

expected to go on to college and to be academically prepared to succeed once there. The 

attainment patterns for all students who graduated high school and went on to postsecondary

education generally held for students in the top 20 percent in the academic intensity indicator. 

For men in the top 20 percent, no differences were detected between the two cohorts in the 

percentage who had attained a bachelor’s degree or higher or had earned no more than a high

school diploma (table 11). For women in the top 20 percent, the percentage who had earned a 

bachelor’s degree increased between the two cohorts (from 73 percent to 82 percent), while no 

6 Degree attainment was determined 10 years after high school graduation for the 1982 cohort and 8 years after for the 1992 

cohort. Therefore, it might be expected that attainment rates would be higher for the earlier cohort given the longer time frame.

However, this did not appear to be the case. On the contrary, women increased the rate at which they earned bachelor’s degrees 

in the later cohort, while no difference was detected between cohorts for men. Moreover, for this analysis the main comparison is 

between men and women within cohorts rather than between time periods. Men and women do not differ in the rate at which they

earn a bachelor’s degree in more than 6 years according to findings based on all bachelor’s degree recipients using the 

Baccalaureate and Beyond survey (McCormick and Horn 1996). 

27 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

—

Table 14.—

Table 14.—

Preparation, Persistence, and Progress Through Undergraduate Education

Table 11. Percentage distribution of 1982 and 1992 high school graduates who entered postsecondary 

education within 2 years, by highest degree attained, high school academic intensity, and 

gender: 1992 and 2000

Bachelor’s degree or higher

Gender High school Certificate Associate’s Total Bachelor’s Post-bachelor’s

Total

1982 high school graduates

Male 36.8 8.2 9.6 45.4 37.1 8.3

Female 35.6 11.0 12.5 41.0 34.9 6.0

1992 high school graduates

Male 39.5 6.3 8.9 45.2 40.7 4.6

Female 32.9 7.8 9.3 50.0 44.1 6.0

High school academic intensity: Top 20 percent1

1982 high school graduates

Male 21.9 2.5 4.7 70.8 53.8 17.0

Female 17.7 3.5 6.1 72.7 58.6 14.1

1992 high school graduates

Male 23.8 1.3 3.1 71.9 61.0 10.9

Female 13.0 1.9 2.8 82.3 70.3 12.0

High school academic intensity: Middle 60 percent1

1982 high school graduates

Male 41.9 8.8 12.0 37.3 32.5 4.8

Female 39.0 11.8 13.7 35.4 31.3 4.2

1992 high school graduates

Male 42.0 6.3 10.9 40.7 37.6 3.1

Female 34.3 8.8 12.6 44.3 39.7 4.6

High school academic intensity: Bottom 20 percent1

1982 high school graduates

Male 58.4 21.1 11.6 8.9 8.9 0.0

Female 50.2 20.9 21.6 7.3 6.7 0.6

1992 high school graduates

Male 58.6 14.1 15.8 11.5 11.2 0.3

Female 53.9 19.4 13.9 12.7 12.4 0.4

1

High school academic intensity is a composite measure of students’ highest level of mathematics, total mathematics 

credits, total Advanced Placement courses (AP), total English credits, total foreign language credits, total science credits, total

core laboratory science credits, total social science credits, and total computer science credits. For more information, see 

Adelman, C., Daniel, B., and Berkovits, I. (2003). Postsecondary Attainment, Attendance, Curriculum, and Performance

(NCES 2003–394). 

NOTE: Includes 1982 high school graduates who entered postsecondary education by December 1984 and 1992 high school 

graduates who entered postsecondary education by December 1994. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond Longitudinal

Study of 1980 Sophomores (HS&B-So:80/92) and National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88/2000). 

28 
 

 

 

 

 

 

Preparation, Persistence, and Progress Through Undergraduate Education 

statistical difference could be detected between the two cohorts in the percentage earning no 

more than a high school diploma. 

Among 1992 high school graduates who scored in the top 20 percent for the academic 

intensity indicator and who went on to college, men were more likely than women to earn no 

more than a high school diploma, while women were more likely than men to earn a bachelor’s 

degree or higher, differences not detected in the 1982 cohort. That is, in the 1992 cohort, 24 

percent of men and 13 percent of women had earned no more than a high school diploma by

2000, while 72 percent of men and 82 percent of women had earned a bachelor’s degree or 

higher. No differences could be detected between men and women in the percentage earning a 

certificate or associate’s degree in the same cohort. So, in addition to improving their academic 

preparation relative to men, even among students who were better prepared academically in high

school and had entered college, women were more likely than men to attain a bachelor’s degree. 

High School Academic Intensity: Lowest Level 

As would be expected, students who scored in the bottom 20 percent of the academic

intensity indicator had lower rates of postsecondary attainment (table 11). In both cohorts, 

between 50 and 59 percent of high school graduates who scored in the bottom 20 percent for the 

academic intensity indicator and who went on to college earned no more than a high school 

diploma. For men in the bottom 20 percent, no differences could be detected between the two 

cohorts in the highest degree attained. For women, the percentage earning a bachelor’s degree or 

higher increased over time (from 7 percent to 13 percent) and the percentage earning an 

associate’s degree decreased (from 22 percent to 14 percent). Thus, it appears that even among

women who are less academically prepared for college, those in the later cohort increased their 

chances of attaining a bachelor’s degree, compared with their counterparts in the earlier cohort. 

Nonetheless, for both cohorts, no differences could be detected between men and women in the 

bottom 20 percent of the academic intensity scale in their rates of postsecondary attainment, with 

one exception: in 1982 women were more likely than men to earn an associate’s degree. 

Postsecondary Persistence and Degree Completion 

The following section compares two cohorts of students who began their postsecondary

education in 1989–90 and 1995–96. Unlike the previous section, this includes all beginning

postsecondary students, not just recent high school graduates. Comparing students who first 

began their postsecondary education in 1989–90 with those who first enrolled 6 years later in 

1995–96, Horn and Berger (2004) found that roughly two-thirds of students in both cohorts had 

either completed a postsecondary credential or were still enrolled 5 years after beginning their 

29 
 

 

 

 

 

Preparation, Persistence, and Progress Through Undergraduate Education

postsecondary studies. The total degree completion rate was lower for the 1995–96 beginners 

than for their 1989–90 counterparts; however, the study detected no changes in bachelor’s degree 

completion rates for either men or women. At the same time, an increase was observed in the

percentage of students who had not yet completed a degree but were still enrolled in a 4-year

institution 5 years after beginning their postsecondary studies. The apparent decrease in the 

percentage of students who had completed a postsecondary credential between the two cohorts 

was statistically significant only for women: 53 percent of women completed a certificate,

associate’s, or bachelor’s degree in the first cohort, and 49 percent did so in the second. 

However, when persistence was included in the measure (i.e., either completed or were enrolled 

5 years later), no difference could be detected between the two cohorts in the percentage who 

completed or persisted for either men or women. Their findings suggest that women in the 

second cohort may be taking longer than 5 years to attain a credential and that ultimately, they

may have similar rates of attainment as those of their counterparts in the first cohort. 

The current study determined that among 1989–90 beginning postsecondary students, 

women were more likely than men to complete each type of degree and less likely to be not

enrolled without a degree (table 12). In the first cohort, 53 percent of women had attained a 

degree and 46 percent of men had done so, while 36 percent of women had left without a degree 

and 38 percent of men had done so. In the second cohort, it also appears that women still were 

more likely than men to complete a degree in 5 years (49 vs. 44 percent), but the apparent 

difference was not statistically significant. Similarly, when persistence was included, no 

difference could be detected in the 5-year persistence and completion rates between men and 

women. 

Persistence and attainment was also analyzed for specific types of institutions. For both 

men and women, the percentage who completed or persisted at public 4-year institutions 

increased between the two cohorts (from 70 to 76 percent for men and from 75 to 79 percent for 

women). While women were more likely than men to complete or persist at public 4-year

institutions in the first cohort, no difference could be detected by gender in the second cohort. For 

private not-for-profit 4-year institutions and public 2-year institutions, no difference could be 

detected in the rates of persistence and completion between men and women in each cohort. 

Traditional College Students and Persistence 

For students identified as “traditional” college students—that is, dependent students who 

enrolled in postsecondary education full time immediately after high school graduation—gender 

differences in persistence and completion rates portray a different pattern. Among men who were 

traditional students, no difference could be detected between the two cohorts in the likelihood of 

30 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

—

Table 15.—

Table 15.—

Preparation, Persistence, and Progress Through Undergraduate Education 

Table 12. Percentage of 1989–90 and 1995–96 beginning postsecondary students who had completed a

degree or were still enrolled 5 years after beginning postsecondary education, by type of first

institution attended, gender, and year enrolled 

Gender

Total

completed

Highest degree completed

Associate’s Bachelor’s

Certificate degree degree

Persistence status

Still enrolled

at 2-year Still enrolled

or less at 4-year

Total

completed No degree,

or not

persisted enrolled

Total1

1989–90

Male

Female

45.9

53.3

11.3

14.4

10.2

12.1

24.4

26.7

5.6

4.8

10.0

6.3

61.6

64.5

38.4

35.5

1995–96

Male

Female

44.0

49.0

9.6

13.4

10.6

9.1

23.8

26.5

6.6

6.6

13.7

9.5

64.3

65.1

35.7

34.9

Public 4-year

1989–90

Male

Female

49.3

59.2

2.4

3.8

4.8

4.7

42.1

50.6

2.1

2.5

19.1

13.8

70.4

75.4

29.6

24.6

1995–96

Male

Female

48.8

57.6

1.9

3.2

3.6

4.1

43.3

50.3

5.0

2.7

22.2

18.9

76.1

79.3

23.9

20.7

Private not-for-profit 4-year

1989–90

Male

Female

70.4

73.5

2.2

2.4

2.3

3.7

65.9

67.4

0.6

1.8

9.2

5.4

80.2

80.7

19.8

19.3

1995–96

Male

Female

66.6

73.9

1.5

1.6

2.6

2.6

62.5

69.7

2.3

1.8

12.9

8.4

81.8

84.1

18.2

15.9

Public 2-year

1989–90

Male

Female

33.8

39.6

12.7

13.2

15.5

19.4

5.6

7.0

10.5

8.7

6.7

3.7

50.9

51.9

49.1

48.1

1995–96

Male

Female

32.2

31.8

9.0

9.6

16.4

15.0

6.8

7.2

9.7

11.3

12.0

7.1

53.8

50.3

46.2

49.7

1

Includes students at institutions not shown separately.

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1990/94 Beginning Postsecondary Students

Longitudinal Study (BPS:90/94) and 1996/01 Beginning Postsecondary Students Longitudinal Study (BPS:96/01).

31 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Preparation, Persistence, and Progress Through Undergraduate Education

completing a degree or certificate (table 13). However when persistence is taken into account, the 

percentage who either completed or were still enrolled after 5 years increased from 72 percent to 

76 percent. For women who were traditional students, the percentage completing a degree

decreased between the two cohorts, from 69 percent to 62 percent due to a decline in associate’s 

degree or certificate completion. However, no difference could be detected between the two 

cohorts in the percentage who completed a degree or were still enrolled 5 years after they had 

begun postsecondary education (79 percent each). 

Among 1989–90 and 1995–96 beginning postsecondary students identified as traditional 

college students, women were more likely than men to complete a postsecondary credential 

(certificate, associate’s degree, or bachelor’s degree) within 5 years. Among the first cohort, 69 

percent of women and 55 percent of men had completed a postsecondary credential, and among

the second cohort, 62 percent of women and 54 percent of men had done so. However, once 

persistence and completion were considered together, no significant difference could be detected 

between men and women in the second cohort, again, indicating that men may be taking longer 

than women to complete a credential. This pattern held in all institution types: among the 1995–

96 cohort, no difference could be detected by gender in total completion and persistence rates for 

traditional students at public 4-year institutions, private not-for-profit 4-year institutions, and 

public 2-year institutions. 

Reasons for Leaving Postsecondary Education 

Thirty-two percent of 1995–96 beginning postsecondary students had left college without 

earning a credential within 3 academic years (Bradburn 2003). Those beginning postsecondary

students who had left by 1998 without a credential gave a variety of reasons for their departure 

(table 14). Students could identify up to three reasons for leaving postsecondary education, and 

about one-quarter did not cite any of the reasons. 

Men were most likely to report that they had left because they needed to work (28 percent). 

Twelve percent cited other financial reasons, 10 percent each said they were not satisfied or had 

completed the classes they wanted, and 6–7 percent said that they were taking time off from their 

studies, had conflicts with their job, conflicts at home or personal problems, or academic 

problems. Four percent of men cited a change in their family status as a reason for leaving

college. For women, 17–18 each percent reported that they had left because they needed to work 

or had other financial reasons, 14 percent cited conflicts at home or personal problems, 12 

percent cited a change in family status, and 11 percent said they were done taking their desired 

classes. Between 5 and 7 percent of women gave conflicts with job, taking time off, and not 

satisfied as reasons for their departure, and 2 percent of women cited academic problems. 

32 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

—

Table 16.—

Table 16.—

Preparation, Persistence, and Progress Through Undergraduate Education 

Table 13. Percentage of 1989–90 and 1995–96 beginning postsecondary students identified as traditional

college students who had completed a degree or were still enrolled 5 years after beginning

postsecondary education, by type of first institution attended, gender, and year enrolled

Gender

Total

completed

Highest degree completed

Associate’s Bachelor’s

Certificate degree degree

Persistence status

Still enrolled

at 2-year Still enrolled

or less at 4-year

Total

completed

or

persisted

No

degree,

not

enrolled

Total1

1989–90

Male

Female

55.4

69.1

4.2

8.4

11.4

13.5

39.8

47.3

2.4

1.6

13.7

8.7

71.5

79.3

28.5

20.7

1995–96

Male

Female

53.7

61.7

3.0

5.3

11.0

8.4

39.7

48.0

4.9

4.5

17.3

12.6

75.9

78.8

24.1

21.2

Public 4-year

1989–90

Male

Female

54.8

64.0

1.9

3.2

4.8

3.7

48.0

57.1

2.2

2.0

19.5

14.9

76.4

80.9

23.6

19.1

1995–96

Male

Female

54.3

62.8

1.2

2.2

3.6

3.2

49.5

57.4

4.9

2.4

21.1

18.7

80.3

84.0

19.7

16.0

Private not-for-profit 4-year

1989–90

Male

Female

72.8

80.4

1.2

2.0

1.9

3.3

69.6

75.1

0.6

1.6

9.3

4.2

82.6

86.2

17.4

13.8

1995–96

Male

Female

71.8

78.5

0.4

0.9

2.7

2.1

68.7

75.6

1.8

1.4

12.9

7.8

86.4

87.7

13.6

12.3

Public 2-year

1989–90

Male

Female

42.2

64.2

4.9

9.0

27.3

36.9

10.0

18.3

4.8

1.0

11.8

4.9

58.8

70.1

41.2

29.9

1995–96

Male

Female

40.7

44.8

3.9

6.5

23.6

20.7

13.3

17.6

7.0

9.0

17.6

10.5

65.2

64.3

34.8

35.7

1

Includes students at institutions not shown separately.

NOTE: Traditional college students are defined as dependent students who enrolled in postsecondary education full time

immediately after high school graduation. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1990/94 Beginning Postsecondary Students

Longitudinal Study (BPS:90/94) and 1996/01 Beginning Postsecondary Students Longitudinal Study (BPS:96/01).

33 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

—

Table 18.—

Preparation, Persistence, and Progress Through Undergraduate Education

Table 14. Percentage of 1995–96 beginning postsecondary students leaving by spring 1998 who gave

various reasons for their departure, by gender

Done Conflicts

taking Change at home/ Conflicts Other

Academic desired Not Taking in family personal with job/ Needed financial

problems classes satisfied time off status problems military to work reasons

Male 5.9 10.0 10.2 6.5 3.9 5.9 6.7 28.4 12.2

Female 2.2 10.9 7.1 5.7 12.0 14.2 4.9 18.1 17.0

NOTE: Includes students who left postsecondary education without a credential and without returning by spring 1998. Excludes

students who began at private not-for-profit less-than-4-year institutions, public less-than-2-year institutions, or private forprofit institutions. Students could identify up to three reasons for leaving postsecondary education, and about one-quarter did

not cite any of the reasons.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1996/01 Beginning Postsecondary Students

Longitudinal Study (BPS:96/01).

Men were more likely than women to cite academic problems (6 vs. 2 percent) or the need 

to work (28 vs. 18 percent) as reasons for their departure, while women were more likely to cite a

change in family status (12 vs. 4 percent) or conflicts at home or personal problems (14 vs. 6 

percent). 

Summary

A comparison of 1982 and 1992 high school graduates who entered postsecondary

education by the end of their second year out of high school revealed a change in the high school 

academic preparation of men and women. Between the two cohorts, some existing gender gaps in 

high school academic preparation narrowed and, in some cases, women even surpassed men. For 

example, in the case of GPA, although both men and women improved between the two cohorts, 

women improved more. In addition, among the two cohorts of high school graduates who went 

on to college, the percentage of women who earned a bachelor’s degree increased, while there 

was no corresponding increase among men. Thus, no gender difference could be detected in the 

percentage of 1982 high school graduates who entered college by December 1984 whose highest 

attainment was a high school diploma or bachelor’s degree or higher. On the other hand, among

1992 high school graduates who entered postsecondary education by December 1994, women 

were more likely than men to earn a bachelor’s degree or higher, and men were more likely to 

earn no more than a high school diploma. These relationships held for those in the highest level 

of academic intensity in high school. So, in addition to improving their academic preparation 

with respect to men, even among students who were better prepared academically in high school 

and had entered college, women were more likely than men to attain a bachelor’s degree. 

34 
Preparation, Persistence, and Progress Through Undergraduate Education 

Gender differences were also found for attainment among beginning postsecondary

students. For 1989–90 beginning postsecondary students, women were more likely than men to 

complete some type of degree and less likely to have left without a degree. Among the 1995–96 

cohort, women were still more likely than men to complete a degree within 5 years; however, no 

difference could be detected between men and women in the percentage who completed a degree 

or were still enrolled 5 years after they had begun postsecondary education. 

35 
THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK 
 

 

Early Labor Market Outcomes Among Bachelor’s Degree 

Recipients

Employment Status 

The majority of 1992–93 and 1999–2000 bachelor’s degree recipients (over 85 percent) 

were employed 1 year after graduation (table 15). Among men, those who graduated in 1999–

2000 were more likely than those who graduated in 1992–93 to be working 1 year later (89 vs. 86 

percent). The percentage of men who were out of the labor force decreased (from 9 percent to 5 

percent), and no difference was detected in the unemployment rate between the two groups. 

Among women, the unemployment rate increased between the two cohorts, from 5 percent to 7 

percent, but no difference was detected in the overall percentage of those who were working or 

who were out of the labor force. There was, however, an increase in the percentage of women 

who were working full time (from 72 percent in 1994 to 74 percent in 2001) and a decrease in the 

percentage who were working part time (from 16 percent to 13 percent). 

Among the second cohort, men were more likely than women to be working 1 year after 

graduation (89 vs. 86 percent), and women were more likely than men to be out of the labor force 

(8 vs. 5 percent). Among 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients, no difference was detected 

between men and women in the percentages who were working, the percentages who were out of 

the labor force, or the unemployment rate. For both cohorts, men were more likely than women 

to be working full time, and women were more likely than men to be working part time. In 1999–

2000, 81 percent of men were working full time and 9 percent were working part time, compared 

with 74 and 13 percent, respectively, among women. 

Average Annual Salary 

Comparing 1992–93 with 1999–2000 bachelor’s degree recipients who were employed full 

time 1 year after graduation, the average annual salary earned (in constant 2001 dollars) increased 

for both men and women (table 16). For men, the average annual salary earned increased from 

$32,500 to $39,400. Further, the percentage of men earning less than $25,000 declined by 22 

percentage points (from 36 percent to 14 percent), while the percentage earning $45,000 or more 

increased by 19 percentage points (from 12 percent to 31 percent). For women, the average 

annual salary earned increased from $27,400 to $32,600. Most notably, for women, the 

37 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

—

Table 15.—

Early Labor Market Outcomes Among Bachelor’s Degree Recipients

Table 15. Percentage distribution of 1992–93 and 1999–2000 bachelor’s degree recipients by their

employment status and the corresponding unemployment rate 1 year after graduation, by gender

Employment status

Working Out of Unemployment

Gender Total Full time Part time Unemployed1 labor force rate2

1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients

Male 86.4 75.1 11.3 4.8 8.8 5.3

Female 87.3 71.5 15.8 4.4 8.4 4.8

1999–2000 bachelor’s degree recipients

Male 89.3 80.5 8.9 5.9 4.8 6.2

Female 86.1 73.6 12.5 6.3 7.6 6.8

1

Includes unemployed (with or without benefits) for 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients and includes unemployed and waiting

to report to work or laid off for 1999–2000 bachelor’s degree recipients. 2

The unemployment rate is constructed to approximate the definition of the unemployment rate used by the Bureau of Labor

Statistics. In this table, the rate is calculated as the number of people who are unemployed divided by all those who are in the

labor force (unemployed plus those who are working; respondents who are out of the labor force are excluded from the

calculation).

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1993/97 and 2000/01 Baccalaureate and

Beyond Longitudinal Studies (B&B:93/97 and B&B:2000/01).

proportion of graduates working full time and earning an average annual salary of less than 

$25,000 decreased from about one-half of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients (52 percent) to 

one-quarter of 1999–2000 graduates. 

For both 1992–93 and 1999–2000 bachelor’s degree recipients who were employed full 

time 1 year after graduation, women had a lower average salary than men: on average, women 

earned $5,100 less than men or roughly 84 percent of what men earned in 1994; in 2001 women 

earned $6,800 less than men or 83 percent of what men earned in 2001. In 2001, 31 percent of 

men and 14 percent of women earned $45,000 or more—a difference of 17 percentage points. 

Among the first cohort, 12 percent of men and 7 percent of women were earning $45,000 or 

more 1 year out of college—a difference of 5 percentage points. It appears that, in addition to 

men earning higher average salaries than women in both cohorts, the gender gap in salaries may,

in fact, be widening. 

Average Annual Salary by Degree Field 

Even when controlling for undergraduate field of study, men earned higher average annual 

salaries than women in roughly half of the fields examined. In addition, the data in table 16

38 
 

 

—

Table 19.—

Table 19.—

Early Labor Market Outcomes Among Bachelor’s Degree Recipients 

Table 16. Among 1992–93 and 1999–2000 bachelor’s degree recipients who were employed full time 1 year

after graduation, percentage distribution by amount earned and average amount earned, 

undergraduate field of study, and gender: 1994 and 2001

Gender

Average annual amount earned (in constant 2001 dollars)

$25,000– $30,000– $35,000–

$1–24,999 29,999 34,999 44,999

$45,000

or more

Average

annual

salary

Total

1994

Male

Female

36.4

52.4

18.7

21.2

14.5

9.8

18.0

10.0

12.4

6.5

$32,500

27,400

2001

Male

Female

14.3

24.1

13.3

20.6

17.4

20.9

24.3

20.3

30.7

14.1

39,400

32,600

Business/management

1994

Male

Female

29.6

43.3

19.6

21.6

16.7

12.7

21.0

12.6

13.1

9.8

33,600

29,900

2001

Male

Female

7.1

10.6

9.4

13.0

18.5

19.5

31.4

32.9

33.7

24.1

42,300

39,000

Education

1994

Male

Female

53.5

66.0

22.2

24.2

9.3

7.0

4.7

1.9

10.3

0.9

35,100

21,900

2001

Male

Female

22.7

26.6

31.7

34.4

24.4

27.5

12.2

8.9

8.9

2.6

29,600

28,100

Engineering, mathematics, and sciences1

1994

Male

Female

25.8

51.4

16.9

17.9

16.6

10.6

25.9

13.3

14.8

6.8

33,300

27,900

2001

Male

Female

7.9

24.1

5.9

15.7

11.5

14.3

23.2

21.7

51.4

24.2

45,200

34,200

See notes at end of table.

39 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

—

Table 19.—

Table 19.—

Early Labor Market Outcomes Among Bachelor’s Degree Recipients

Table 16. Among 1992–93 and 1999–2000 bachelor’s degree recipients who were employed full time 1 year

after graduation, percentage distribution by amount earned and average amount earned, 

undergraduate field of study, and gender: 1994 and 2001—Continued

Average annual amount earned (in constant 2001 dollars) Average

$25,000– $30,000– $35,000– $45,000 annual

Gender $1–24,999 29,999 34,999 44,999 or more salary

Humanities and social/behavioral science

1994

Male 49.1 19.8 11.4 11.9 7.7 27,300

Female 61.2 24.1 7.3 5.3 2.1 26,500

2001

Male 23.2 18.0 19.6 20.6 18.6 34,600

Female 32.7 21.6 22.6 15.6 7.6 29,400

Health, vocational/technical, and other technical/professional fields

1994

Male 43.5 16.2 13.5 12.9 14.0 35,400

Female 40.3 16.2 12.0 18.3 13.1 30,300

2001

Male 16.7 15.7 18.3 25.1 24.2 38,100

Female 19.9 19.1 18.5 23.8 18.8 34,300

1

Sciences include life sciences, physical sciences, and computer/information science.

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1993/97 and 2000/01 Baccalaureate and

Beyond Longitudinal Studies (B&B:93/97 and B&B:2000/01).

suggest that the disparity may be increasing in some cases. For example, in both cohorts, men 

who majored in engineering, mathematics, and science fields earned higher average annual 

salaries than women who majored in these fields ($33,300 vs. $27,900 in 1994 and $45,200 vs. 

$34,200 in 2001, respectively). In other words, women with degrees in these fields earned, on 

average, $5,400 less than men or roughly 84 percent of what men earned in 1994, and about 

$11,000 less than men or 76 percent of what men earned in 2001. Also, in 2001, about one-half 

of men in these fields (51 percent) earned $45,000 or more, compared with about one-fourth of 

women. 

In some fields, gender disparities in annual salaries were evident in the later cohort that 

were not observed earlier. In 2001, men with bachelor’s degrees in fields comprising humanities 

and social/behavioral sciences, health fields, vocational/technical fields, and other 

technical/professional fields earned higher full-time salaries than women in the same fields. 

40 
Early Labor Market Outcomes Among Bachelor’s Degree Recipients 

These differences were not detected in the 1994 cohort. Although it appears that men in the first 

cohort with bachelor’s degrees in health fields, vocational/technical fields, and other 

technical/professional fields earned higher average salaries than their female counterparts, the 

apparent difference was not statistically significant. In business/management fields it also 

appears that men earned higher average annual salaries than women, but the difference was only

statistically significant in 1994. Still, 34 percent of men with a business degree were earning

$45,000 or more in 2001, compared with 24 percent of their female peers. Although it appears 

that men in the first cohort with bachelor’s degrees in education earned higher average salaries 

than their female counterparts, the apparent difference was not statistically significant. For both 

years, no gender difference was detected in the average annual salary of graduates with a degree 

in education. 

Summary

One year after attaining their bachelor’s degree, men and women displayed different 

patterns of employment. While both men and women were more likely to be working full time

than part time, for both cohorts, men were more likely than women to be working full time, and 

women were more likely than men to be working part time. Over the period studied, the

unemployment rate for men held steady, while it increased for women. Among bachelor’s degree 

recipients who were employed full time 1 year after graduation in 1994 and 2001, women earned 

less than men in both cohorts. Furthermore, the gender gap in salaries may have been widening. 

Even when controlling for undergraduate field of study, men earned higher salaries than women 

in several fields. 

41 
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Conclusions

Over the past two decades, the rates at which women have enrolled in undergraduate 

education and attained college degrees increased at faster rates than those of men. Part of this 

increase may be related to an increase in the percentage of traditional students who were women, 

although women are still overrepresented among nontraditional students. In addition, in 1999–

2000, women made up a greater percentage of Black students than they did among White, 

Hispanic, and Asian/Pacific Islander students and Black women earned proportionally more 

associate’s and bachelor’s degrees than Black men. 

When looking at high school academic preparation among 1982 and 1992 high school 

graduates who entered postsecondary education within 2 years of high school completion, 

women closed some existing gender gaps and, in some cases, surpassed men. In the later cohort, 

even among students who had higher levels of high school academic preparation, women were 

more likely than men to earn a bachelor’s degree—a difference not found in the earlier cohort. 

Among 1989–90 beginning postsecondary students, women were more likely than men to 

complete a degree and less likely to have left without a degree. Among the 1995–96 cohort, 

women were still more likely than men to complete a degree within 5 years. No difference could 

be detected, however, between men and women 5 years after they had begun postsecondary

education in their combined rate of completion and persistence, suggesting that men may be

taking longer than women to complete their degrees. 

Despite these changes, as of 2001, women were still less likely to be employed full time 1 

year after graduation. Between 1994 and 2001, the unemployment rate for men who had 

graduated the previous year held steady, while it increased for women. Still, for the more recent 

cohort, no difference could be detected in the unemployment rate for bachelor’s degree recipients 

by gender. Considering bachelor’s degree recipients who were employed full time 1 year after 

graduation in 2001, the average earnings for women were lower than for men. Further, the gender 

gap in salaries may, in fact, be widening. 

43 
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References 

Adelman, C., Daniel, B., and Berkovits, I. (2003). Postsecondary Attainment, Attendance, 

Curriculum, and Performance (NCES 2003–394). U.S. Department of Education, National 

Center for Education Statistics. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. 

Berkner, L., He, S., and Cataldi, E. F. (2002). Descriptive Summary of 1995–96 Beginning 

Postsecondary Students: Six Years Later (NCES 2003–151). U.S. Department of Education, 

National Center for Education Statistics. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. 

Bradburn, E. (2003). Short-Term Enrollment in Postsecondary Education: Student Background 

and Institutional Differences in Reasons for Early Departure, 1996–98 (NCES 2003–153). 

U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. Washington, DC: 

U.S. Government Printing Office. 

Cappelli, P., Bassi, L., Katz, H., Knoke, D., Osterman, P., and Useem, M. (1997). Change at 

Work. New York: Oxford University Press. 

Farley, R. (1995). State of the Union; America in the 1990’s, Volume One: Economic Trends.

New York: Russell Sage Foundation. 

Freeman, C.E. (2004). Trends in Educational Equity of Girls & Women: 2004 (NCES 2005–

016). U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. Washington, 

DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. 

Gerald, D.E., and Hussar, W.J. (2003). Projections of Education Statistics to 2013 (NCES 2004–

013). U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. Washington, 

DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. 

Horn, L., and Berger, R. (2004). College Persistence on the Rise? Changes in 5-Year Degree 

Completion and Postsecondary Persistence Rates Between 1994 and 2000 (NCES 2004–

156). U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. Washington, 

DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. 

45 
References

Horn, L., Peter, K., and Rooney, K. (2002). Profile of Undergraduates in U.S. Postsecondary 

Institutions: 1999–2000 (NCES 2002–168). U.S. Department of Education, National Center 

for Education Statistics. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. 

Horn, L.J., and Premo, M.D. (1995). Profile of Undergraduates in U.S. Postsecondary Education 

Institutions: 1992–93, With an Essay on Undergraduates at Risk (NCES 96–237). U.S. 

Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. Washington, DC: U.S. 

Government Printing Office. 

King, E.J. (2000). Gender Equity in Higher Education. Are Male Students at a Disadvantage?

Washington, DC: American Council on Education, Center for Policy Analysis. 

McCormick, A., and Horn, L. (1996). A Descriptive Summary of 1992–93 Bachelor’s Degree 

Recipients 1 Year Later, With an Essay on Time to Degree (NCES 96–158). U.S. Department 

of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. Washington, DC: U.S. Government 

Printing Office. 

Mortenson, T. (2001, July). College Participation by Gender Age 18 to 24, 1967 to 2000. 

Postsecondary Education Opportunity, 109. 

U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2002a). The Condition 

of Education 2002 (NCES 2002–025). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. 

U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2002b). Digest of 

Education Statistics, 2001 (NCES 2002–130). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing

Office. 

U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2004). Digest of 

Education Statistics 2003 (NCES 2005–025). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing

Office.

46 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Appendix A—Glossary

This glossary describes the variables used in this report. The items were taken directly from the NCES NPSAS:90,

NPSAS:96, NPSAS:2000, HS&B-So:80/92, NELS:88/2000, BPS:90/94, BPS:96/01, B&B:93/97, and B&B:2000/01 

Data Analysis Systems (DAS), NCES software applications that generate tables from the data. (See appendix B for a 

description of the DAS.) In the index below, the variables are listed in the order they appear in the report. If variable 

names are different for different cohorts, all variable names are listed. The glossary is in alphabetical order by

variable label within each data set in the order presented below.

GLOSSARY INDEX

NPSAS VARIABLES

Gender ............................................................ GENDER

Race/ethnicity .................................RACE (1990, 1996) 

RACE1 (2000) 

Age.......................................................................... AGE 

Income level.................................... PCTPVRTY (1990) 

PCTPOV94 (1996) 

PCTPOV98 (2000) 

Dependency status ......................................DEPEND5A

Hours worked per week

while enrolled.................................EMWKHR3 (1990) 

HRSWORK (1996) 

NDHOURS (2000) 

Risk status for not 

completing............................RISKNDX2 (1990, 1996) 

RISKNDX (2000) 

Type of institution...........................................AIDSECT

Attendance intensity....................................ATTNSTAT

HS&B AND NELS VARIABLES

Gender ...................................................... SEX (HS&B) 

F4SEX (NELS)

High school academic 

intensity....................................................ACCURHSQ 

Highest mathematics course.......................HIGHMATH 

Grade point average......................... SST_GPA (HS&B) 

GPA (NELS) 

Senior test quintile .......................................SRTSQUIN 

Highest degree attained...................HIGHDEG (HS&B)

F4HHDG (NELS) 

BPS VARIABLES

Gender...............................................H_GENDR (1994) 

SBGENDER (2001) 

Degree attainment and 

persistence .....................................ATTENRST (1994) 

PRENRL2A (2001) 

Type of first institution..................... OFCO8990 (1994) 

ITNPSAS (2001) 

Risk status....................................................RISKNDX2 

Reasons for leaving

Academic problems...................... RLACADB1 (2001) 

Done taking desired classes .......... RLDONEB1 (2001) 

Not satisfied...................................RLNOTSB1 (2001) 

Taking time off...............................RLTIMEB1 (2001) 

Change in family status.................. RLFAMIB1 (2001) 

Conflicts at home/personal 

problems.......................................RLHOMEB1 (2001) 

Conflicts with job/military................ RLJOBB1 (2001) 

Needed to work............................ RLWORKB1 (2001) 

Other financial reasons...................RLFINAB1 (2001) 

B&B VARIABLES

Gender.................................................. B2RSEX (1997) 

GENDER (2001) 

Employment status ........................... B2EM9404 (1997) 

EMPOLF (2001) 

Annual salary.................................. APRANSAL (1997) 

CEANNERN (2001) 

Undergraduate field of study ............. MAJORS3 (1997) 

BMAJORS3 (2001) 

47 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Appendix A—Glossary 

DAS Variable Name

NPSAS

Age AGE 

Indicates student’s age on December 31 of the sampled academic year. 

18–23 

24–29 

30–39 

40 years or older 

Attendance intensity ATTNSTAT

Indicates undergraduates who attended full time during the academic year. 

Dependency status DEPEND5A

Student dependency status for financial aid including marital status. Students were considered independent if they

met one of the following criteria: 

1) Student was 24 years old or older as of December 31 of the sampled academic year; 

2) Student was a veteran of the U.S. Armed Forces; 

3) Student was enrolled in a graduate or professional program (beyond a bachelor’s degree) during the 

sampled academic year; 

4) Student was married; 

5) Student was an orphan or ward of the court; or 

6) Student had legal dependents other than spouse. 

Dependent 

Independent

Never married, no children 

Married/separated, no children

Married/separated, children

Single parent

Gender GENDER

Student’s gender.

Male 

Female

48 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Appendix A—Glossary 

DAS Variable Name

Hours worked per week while enrolled EMWKHR3 (1990) 

HRSWORK (1996) 

NDHOURS (2000) 

Response to the question “how many hours did you work per week while you were enrolled?” This variable was 

asked in the CATI. 

Did not work

1–24 hours

25–34 hours

More than 34 hours 

Income level PCTPVRTY (1990) 

PCTPOV94 (1996) 

PCTPOV98 (2000) 

Indicates income level for all students based on the percent poverty levels for the given year. Low-income levels 

represent those whose family income did not exceed 125 percent of the established poverty level. The remaining

levels are evenly distributed above the low-income group. The source of income for dependent students is their 

parents or guardians; the source for independent students is their own earnings and assets.

Low income

Middle low income

Middle high income

High income

Race/ethnicity RACE (1990, 1996) 

RACE1 (2000) 

Student’s race/ethnicity, including Hispanic/Latino. 

American Indian

Asian/Pacific Islander 

Black

White 

Hispanic 

Risk status for not completing RISKNDX2 (1990, 1996) 

RISKNDX (2000) 

Represents an index of risk from 0–7 related to 7 characteristics known to adversely affect persistence and 

attainment. This variable was derived from items asked in the CATI. Characteristics included are the following:

a) Delayed enrollment after high school

b) No high school diploma (including GED recipients) 

c) Part-time enrollment 

d) Financial independence 

e) Having dependents other than spouse

f) Single parent status 

g) Working full time while enrolled (35 hours or more)

No risk factors 

One or more risk factors

49 
Grade point average SST_GPA (HS&B) 

GPA (NELS)

High school academic intensity ACCURHSQ

Appendix A—Glossary 

Type of institution 

DAS Variable Name

AIDSECT

Indicates the level and control of the institution attended. 

Public 4-year

Private not-for-profit 4-year 

Public 2-year

All for-profit 

Other 

HS&B and NELS

Gender SEX (HS&B)

F4SEX (NELS)

Student’s gender.

Male 

Female 

Student grade point average (GPA) for all high school courses taken for a grade on a 4.0 scale. 

 

Less than 2.50 

2.50–2.99 

3.00–3.49 

3.50 or greater 

A composite measure of students’ highest level of mathematics, total mathematics credits, total Advanced Placement 

courses, total English credits, total foreign language credits, total science credits, total core laboratory science

credits, total social science credits, and total computer science credits. 

Bottom 20 percent

Lower middle 20 percent

Middle 20 percent

Upper middle 20 percent

Top 20 percent

50 
 

 

 

 

 

 

Appendix A—Glossary 

DAS Variable Name

Highest degree attained HIGHDEG (HS&B) 

F4HHDG (NELS) 

Highest postsecondary degree attained as of 1992 and 2000 for 1982 and 1992 high school graduates, respectively.

High school

Certificate 

Associate’s

Bachelor’s degree or higher 

 Bachelor’s

 Post-bachelor’s

Highest mathematics course HIGHMATH

Highest level of mathematics completed in high school. 

Less than Algebra 1 

Algebra 1 

Geometry

Algebra 2 

Trigonometry

Pre-calculus

Calculus 

Senior test quintile SRTSQUIN 

In their senior year in high school, students completed a series of cognitive tests. The combined tests included 116 

items to be completed in 85 minutes and covered four subject areas including reading comprehension; mathematics;

science; and history, citizenship, and geography. Senior test score shown in quintiles.

Bottom 20 percent

Lower middle 20 percent

Middle 20 percent

Upper middle 20 percent

Top 20 percent

51 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Appendix A—Glossary 

DAS Variable Name

BPS

Degree attainment and persistence ATTENRST (1994) 

PRENRL2A (2001) 

Indicates the highest degree the student attained or the level of the institution in which the student is still enrolled if

no degree had been attained, as of June 1994 and 2001. 

Total completed

Certificate 

Associate’s degree 

 Bachelor’s degree 

Still enrolled at 2-year or less 

Still enrolled at 4-year

Total completed or persisted

No degree, not enrolled 

Gender H_GENDR (1994) 

SBGENDER (2001) 

Student’s gender.

Male 

Female 

Reasons for leaving (BPS:96/01) 

Academic problems

Done taking desired classes 

Not satisfied

Taking time off 

Change in family status

Conflicts at home/personal problems 

Conflicts with job/military 

 Needed to work

Other financial reasons 

RLACADB1

RLDONEB1

RLNOTSB1

RLTIMEB1

RLFAMIB1 

RLHOMEB1

RLJOBB1

RLWORKB1

RLFINAB1

Applies to 1995–96 beginning postsecondary students who left postsecondary education without a degree by spring

1998. Students were asked why they left. Up to three responses collected and coded into the proper category.

Risk status RISKNDX2

Represents an index of risk from 0–7 related to 7 characteristics known to adversely affect persistence and 

attainment. For this report, students with no risk characteristics were considered traditional students. Characteristics 

included are the following:

a) Delayed enrollment after high school

b) No high school diploma (including GED recipients) 

c) Part-time enrollment 

d) Financial independence 

52 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Appendix A—Glossary 

DAS Variable Name

e) Having dependents other than spouse

f) Single parent status 

g) Working full time while enrolled (35 hours or more)

No risk factors 

One or more risk factors

Type of first institution OFCO8990 (1994) 

ITNPSAS (2001) 

Level and control of the first institution attended. Students who began at for-profit institutions were not included in

breakout analysis. 

Public 4-year

Private not-for-profit 4-year 

Public 2-year

B&B

Annual salary APRANSAL (1997) 

CEANNERN (2001) 

Average annual amount earned 1 year after graduation in constant 2001 dollars. Salary distribution and average 

annual salary are presented.

$1–24,999 

$25,000–29,999 

$30,000–34,999 

$35,000–44,999 

$45,000 or more 

Employment status B2EM9404 (1997) 

EMPOLF (2001) 

Employment status 1 year after graduation.

Working Working full time or part time 

Full time Working full time 

Part time Working part time 

Unemployed Not working, but looking for work; laid off; or waiting to report to work

Out of labor force Not working and not looking for work; homemaker; or disabled 

Unemployment rate The number of people who are unemployed divided by all those who 

are in the labor force (unemployed plus those who are working;

respondents who are out of the labor force are excluded from the 

calculation). 

53 
Appendix A—Glossary 

DAS Variable Name

Gender B2RSEX (1997) 

GENDER (2001) 

Male 

Female 

Undergraduate field of study MAJORS3 (1997)

BMAJORS3 (2001) 

Major field of study for the bachelor’s degree. 

Business/management

Education

Engineering, mathematics, and sciences

Humanities and social/behavioral science 

Health, vocational/technical, and other technical/professional fields

54 
 

 

 

Appendix B—Technical Notes and Methodology

This analysis uses data from several surveys: three administrations of the National 

Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS:90, NPSAS:96, NPSAS:2000); the High School and 

Beyond Longitudinal Study (HS&B-So:80/92); the National Education Longitudinal Study

(NELS:88/2000); two administrations of the Beginning Postsecondary Students Longitudinal 

Study (BPS:90/94 and BPS:96/01); and two cohorts from the Baccalaureate and Beyond 

Longitudinal Studies (B&B:93/97 and B&B:2000/01). In addition, this report uses previously

published data from the Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS) and the 

Current Population Survey (CPS). 

The survey data underwent several data quality evaluations, which included both on-line 

data editing procedures and post-data collection editing. The on-line data editing ensured that the

data collected fell within legitimate ranges and where feasible, items were cross-checked against 

other related items. After data collection, the data were cleaned and edited using several steps 

including verification of one-way frequencies for each item, cross-tabulations of related items, 

standard variable recoding and formatting (such as dates), the determination of outlier values, 

and logical imputations. After the data were cleaned and edited, composite variables for specific 

data analyses were created, which were subjected to similar cleaning and checking procedures. 

The following is a description of all surveys used. Analyses from each survey used a 

representative sample of the 50 states and the District of Columbia. Thus, for surveys such as 

NPSAS that include Puerto Rico and outlying areas in the sample, these respondents were not 

included in the analysis. 

Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System

The Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS) is the core program that the 

U.S. Department of Education’s National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) uses for 

collecting data on postsecondary education (before IPEDS some of the same information was 

collected by the Higher Education General Information Survey [HEGIS]). IPEDS is a single, 

comprehensive system that encompasses all identified institutions whose primary purpose is to 

provide postsecondary education. 

55 
 

 

 

Appendix B—Technical Notes and Methodology 

IPEDS consists of institution-level data that can be used to describe trends in postsecondary

education at the institution, state, and/or national levels. Data are collected from approximately

9,900 postsecondary institutions, including the following: baccalaureate or higher degreegranting institutions, 2-year award institutions, and less-than-2-year institutions (i.e., institutions 

whose awards usually result in terminal occupational awards or are creditable toward a formal 2-

year or higher award). The completion of all IPEDS surveys is mandatory for all institutions that

participate or are applicants for participation in any federal financial assistance program 

authorized by Title IV of the Higher Education Act of 1965. 

IPEDS data for this report was initially published in the Digest of Education Statistics 2003

(NCES 2005–025), tables 186, 189, 246, 261, 264, and 276–297. Further information on the 

IPEDS can be found at http://nces.ed.gov/ipeds/. Further information on the Digest of Education 

Statistics can be found at http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/. 

The Current Population Survey 

The Current Population Survey (CPS) is a monthly survey of a nationally representative 

sample of approximately 50,000 households from the 50 states and the District of Columbia. The 

CPS has been conducted for more than 50 years. The Bureau of the Census conducts the survey

for the Bureau of Labor Statistics, asking a knowledgeable adult household member (known as 

the “household respondent”) to answer all the questions on all of the month’s questionnaires for 

all members of the household. 

The CPS collects data on the social and economic characteristics of the civilian, 

noninstitutional population, including information on income, education, and participation in the 

labor force. However, the CPS does not collect all this information every month. Each month a 

“basic” CPS questionnaire is used to collect data about participation in the labor force of each 

household member, 15 years old and above, in every sampled household. In addition, different 

supplemental questionnaires are administered each month to collect information on other topics. 

CPS data for this report was initially published in The Condition of Education 2002 (NCES

2002–025), indicator 25. Further information on the CPS can be found at 

http://www.bls.census.gov/cps. Further information on The Condition of Education can be found 

at http://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/. 

56 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Appendix B—Technical Notes and Methodology 

National Postsecondary Student Aid Study 

The National Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS) is a comprehensive nationwide 

study conducted by NCES to determine how students and their families pay for postsecondary

education.1 It also describes demographic and other characteristics of students enrolled. The 

NPSAS study is based on a nationally representative sample of all students in postsecondary

education institutions, including undergraduate, graduate, and first-professional students. 

Information is collected from institutions, student interviews, and government data files. For this 

study, data were analyzed for undergraduates from three administrations of the NPSAS survey: 

NPSAS:90, NPSAS:96, and NPSAS:2000. These surveys each represent more than 16 million 

undergraduates who were enrolled at some point between July 1 and June 30 of the survey years. 

The institutional weighted response rates for these NPSAS administrations all exceeded 85 

percent as discussed in the next section. 

The NPSAS:90 survey achieved an overall weighted response rate of 86 percent among

institutions. For the student Computer Assisted Telephone Interviews (CATI), the response rate 

was 76 percent.2 NPSAS:96 had an institutional response rate of 91 percent and a student CATI

response rate of 76 percent.3 For NPSAS:2000, the institutional response rate was 97 percent and 

the weighted overall student interview response rate was 66 percent.4 Because the student

telephone interview response rate for NPSAS:2000 was less than 70 percent in some institutional 

sectors, an analysis was conducted to determine if estimates were significantly biased due to 

CATI nonresponse. Considerable information was known for CATI nonrespondents and these 

data were used to analyze and estimate the bias. The distributions of several variables using the

design-based, adjusted weights for study respondents (study weights) were found to be biased 

before CATI nonresponse adjustments. The CATI nonresponse and poststratification procedures, 

however, adjusted for the bias in these variables; and the remaining relative bias ranged from 0 to

0.35 percent.5

1 For more information on NPSAS, consult the methodology reports for each survey: U.S. Department of Education, National

Center for Education Statistics, Methodology Report for the 1990 National Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NCES 92–080)

(Washington, DC: 1992), National Postsecondary Student Aid Study, 1995–96 (NPSAS:96), Methodology Report (NCES 98–

073) (Washington, DC: 1997), and National Postsecondary Student Aid Study, 1999–2000 (NPSAS:2000), Methodology Report 

(NCES 2002–152) (Washington, DC: 2002). 

2 U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Methodology Report for the 1990 National 

Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NCES 92–080) (Washington, DC: 1992). 

3 U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Postsecondary Student Aid Study, 1995–96 

(NPSAS:96), Methodology Report (NCES 98–073) (Washington, DC: 1997). 

4 U.S. Department of Education, NCES, National Postsecondary Student Aid Study, 1999–2000 (NPSAS:2000), Methodology

Report (NCES 2002–152) (Washington, DC: 2002).

5 For nonresponse bias analysis, see U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National 

Postsecondary Student Aid Study, 1999–2000 (NPSAS:2000), CATI Nonresponse Bias Analysis Report (NCES 2002–03)

(Washington, DC: 2002), available at http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=200203.

57 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Appendix B—Technical Notes and Methodology 

The NPSAS:90 survey had only one weight, the study weight (WTA00), while NPSAS:96 

and NPSAS:2000 had two weights, the study weight (WTA00), used for analysis of variables 

derived from sources other than the student interview, and the CATI weight (WTB00), used for 

analysis of variables asked in or derived from the student interview. In this study, the study

weight was used for analyzing all the variables except hours worked while enrolled and students’ 

risk status, which were derived from the CATI. In tables where these variables are included, the 

NPSAS:96 and NPSAS:2000 CATI weight was used. 

High School and Beyond Longitudinal Study 

The High School and Beyond Longitudinal Study (HS&B:80/92) followed two cohorts of 

students.6 It began in the spring of 1980 with the collection of Base-Year questionnaire and test 

data on a nationally representative sample of more than 58,000 high school seniors and 

sophomores. An extensive survey was administered in the base year along with a battery of 

cognitive tests. Both cohorts were followed up at 2-year intervals through 1986, and the 

sophomore cohort was followed up a fourth time in 1992. The sample used in this report was the 

based on the 1980 sophomore cohort and adjusted to reflect only those students who graduated in 

1982 and entered postsecondary education by December 1984. 

Cognitive tests were administered to the sophomore cohort during the first follow-up 

survey, when most were high school seniors. In addition, high school transcripts were collected 

and coded. The fourth follow-up included a collection of postsecondary transcripts for members 

of the sophomore cohort who had continued their education beyond high school. The HS&B

Postsecondary Education Transcript Study (PETS) includes transcript information to September 

1993. The CATI survey response rate was 85.3 percent and the transcript level response rate was 

90.1 percent. The weight used for the analysis of data from the HS&B-So:80/92 was WTH00, 

which includes students who entered postsecondary education. 

National Education Longitudinal Study 

The National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88) is a survey that began with 

a nationally representative sample of 1988 8th-graders and surveyed them every 2 years until 

1994 and again in 2000.7 Respondents’ teachers and schools were also surveyed in 1988, 1990, 

6 For more information on HS&B:80/92, consult U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High 

School and Beyond Fourth Follow-Up Methodology Report (NCES 95–426) (Washington, DC: 1995).

7 For more information on NELS:88/2000, consult U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics,

National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988: Base-Year to Fourth Follow-up Data File User’s Manual (NCES 2002–323)

(Washington, DC: 2002). 

58 
 

 

 

Appendix B—Technical Notes and Methodology 

and 1992, while parents were surveyed in 1988 and 1992. In contrast to previous longitudinal 

studies, NELS:88 began with 8th-graders in order to collect data regarding the transition from 

elementary to secondary education. For the purpose of providing a comparison group to 1980 

sophomores surveyed in one High School and Beyond Institutional Study (HS&B), the NELS:88 

sample was also “freshened” with new participants who were 10th-graders in 1990. The sample 

was also “freshened” in order to create a representative sample of 1992 seniors for the purpose of 

conducting trend analyses with the 1972 and 1982 senior classes (NLS-72 and HS&B). 

In spring 1992, when most of the NELS:88 samples were 12th-graders, the second followup took place. This survey focused on the transition from high school to both the labor force and 

postsecondary education. Students identified as dropouts in the first follow-up were also 

resurveyed in 1992. In the spring of 1994 and 2000, the third and fourth follow-up surveys were 

administered and provide data on students’ postsecondary persistence and attainment. The 2000 

follow-up included over 12,000 completed cases with a weighted response rate of 82.71. The 

weight used for the analysis of data from the NELS:88/00 was WTN00, which includes students 

who entered postsecondary education. 

Beginning Postsecondary Students Longitudinal Study 

The Beginning Postsecondary Students Longitudinal Study (BPS) is based on a sample of 

students who enrolled in postsecondary education for the first time in a specific academic year.8

Two BPS surveys have been conducted thus far, one that followed students who first began their 

postsecondary education in 1989–90 (BPS:90/94) and a second followed students who began in 

1995–96 (BPS:96/01). Unlike other NCES longitudinal surveys (such as the National Education 

Longitudinal Study of 1988), which follow age-specific cohorts of secondary school students, the 

BPS sample includes nontraditional students who have delayed their postsecondary education 

due to financial need or family responsibilities, or other reasons. Students who began their 

postsecondary studies before the base year of the study, or who stopped out, and then returned to 

their studies in the base year were not included, nor were students who were still enrolled in high 

school. Eligible students for the BPS samples were identified from participants in the two 

corresponding National Postsecondary Student Aid Studies (NPSAS:90 and NPSAS:96). 

A computer-assisted telephone interview (CATI) was conducted with BPS students twice 

after the Base Year survey. The final follow-up survey for BPS:90/94 took place about 5 years 

8 For more information on BPS, consult the methodology reports for each survey: U.S. Department of Education, National

Center for Education Statistics, Beginning Postsecondary Students Longitudinal Study Second Follow-up (BPS:90/94) Final 

Technical Report (NCES 96–153) (Washington, DC:1996) and Beginning Postsecondary Students Longitudinal Study:1996–

2001 Methodology Report (NCES 2002–171) (Washington, DC: 2002). 

59 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Appendix B—Technical Notes and Methodology 

after college entry (in 1994), while the final follow-up survey for BPS:96/01 took place 6 years 

after (in 2001). The CATI collected information concerning enrollment, program completion, 

education financing, employment, and family formation; graduate school access and enrollment; 

and civic participation. 

1989–90 Beginning Postsecondary Students Longitudinal Study 

BPS:90/94 survey followed approximately 9,000 students from the 1989–90 National 

Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS:90) sample who were identified as first-time 

beginning (FTB) students in academic year 1989–90.9,

10 These students were followed in 1992 

and 1994. The unweighted BPS:90/94 response rate is 91.4 percent. The weighted response rate, 

using the NPSAS:90 analysis weights, is 91.0 percent. Among respondents, about 10 percent of 

sample members did not have sufficiently detailed enrollment histories to allow for classification 

in the persistence variables used in this report. The weight used for the analysis of data from the

BPS:90/94 was WTA00, which includes students who responded to both the first and last followup surveys.

1995–96 Beginning Postsecondary Students Longitudinal Study 

BPS:96/01 is based on a sample of students who were enrolled in postsecondary education 

for the first time in 1995–96 and participated in the 1995–96 National Postsecondary Student Aid 

Study (NPSAS:96).11 This BPS study began with a sample of approximately 12,000 students who 

were identified in NPSAS:96 as having entered postsecondary education for the first time in 

1995–96. The second follow-up of the BPS cohort (BPS:96/01) was conducted in 2001, 6 years 

following college entry. All respondents to the first follow-up, as well as a subsample of 

nonrespondents in 1998, were eligible to be interviewed. Over 9,100 students were located and 

interviewed. The weighted response rate was 83.6 percent overall, but was somewhat higher 

among respondents to both the 1996 and the 1998 interviews (87.4 percent). The weight used for 

the analysis of data from the BPS:96/01 was WTD00, which includes students who responded to 

both the first and last follow-up surveys. 

9 Eligibility status could not be determined for about 6 percent of the BPS:90/94 sample. 

10 For more information on BPS:90/94, consult U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics,

Beginning Postsecondary Students Longitudinal Study Second Follow-up (BPS:90/94) Final Technical Report (NCES 96–153)

(Washington, DC:1996). 

11 For more information on BPS:96/01, consult U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics,

Beginning Postsecondary Students Longitudinal Study:1996–2001 Methodology Report (NCES 2002–171) (Washington, DC: 

2002). 

60 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Appendix B—Technical Notes and Methodology 

Baccalaureate and Beyond Longitudinal Study 

The Baccalaureate and Beyond Longitudinal Study (B&B) is based on a sample of students 

who received baccalaureate degrees.12 Two B&B surveys have been conducted thus far, one a 

study that tracks the experiences of a cohort of college graduates who received baccalaureate 

degrees during the 1992–93 academic year (B&B:93/97) and a second that tracks those who 

received baccalaureate degrees during the 1999–2000 academic year (B&B:2000/01). The data 

derived from this survey provide critical information about college graduates’ postsecondary

education outcomes, including graduate and professional program access, labor market

experience, and rates of return on investment in education. Eligible students for the B&B

samples were identified from participants in the two corresponding National Postsecondary

Student Aid Studies (NPSAS:93 and NPSAS:2000). 

1993/97 Baccalaureate and Beyond Longitudinal Study 

The First Follow-up of the Baccalaureate and Beyond Longitudinal Study (B&B:93/94), 

was the first follow-up interview of NPSAS:93 participants who received their bachelor’s 

degrees between July 1992 and June 1993.13 Of 12,500 NPSAS:93 respondents who were 

identified as potentially eligible for the first follow-up survey, about 1,500 were determined to be 

ineligible. The 1994 follow-up interview collected information from respondents 1 year after they

received the bachelor’s degree. A total of about 10,000 eligible individuals completed the 1994 

interview. The weighted overall response rate for the B&B:93/94 interview was 92 percent. 

These students were also followed in 1997 (B&B:93/97). The weight used for the analysis of data 

from the B&B:93/97 analysis file was WTB00, which includes NPSAS:93 bachelor’s degree 

recipients who responded to the first 1994 B&B follow-up survey. 

2000/01 Baccalaureate and Beyond Longitudinal Study 

The 2001 Baccalaureate and Beyond Longitudinal Study (B&B:2000/01) is a spring 2001 

follow-up of bachelor’s degree recipients from the 1999–2000 National Postsecondary Student 

Aid Study (NPSAS:2000).14 For B&B:2000/01, those members of the NPSAS:2000 sample who 

completed a bachelor’s degree between July 1, 1999 and June 30, 2000 were identified and 

12 For more information on B&B, consult the methodology reports for each survey: U.S. Department of Education, National

Center for Education Statistics, Baccalaureate and Beyond Longitudinal Study: 1993/97 Methodology Report, (NCES 99–159)

(Washington, DC: 1999) and Methodology Report for the 2001 Baccalaureate and Beyond Longitudinal Study (NCES 2003–

156) (Washington, DC: 2003). 

13 For more information on B&B:93/97, consult U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics,

Baccalaureate and Beyond Longitudinal Study: 1993/97 Methodology Report (NCES 99–159) (Washington, DC: 1999).

14 For more information on B&B:2000/01, consult U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics,

Methodology Report for the 2001 Baccalaureate and Beyond Longitudinal Study (NCES 2003–156) (Washington, DC: 2003). 

61 
 

 

Appendix B—Technical Notes and Methodology 

contacted for a follow-up interview. The estimates in this report are based on the results of 

surveys with approximately 10,000 bachelor’s degree recipients, representing about 1.3 million 

bachelor’s degree completers from 1999–2000. The weighted overall response rate for the 

B&B:2000/01 interview was 74 percent, reflecting an institution response rate of 90 percent and 

a student response rate of 82 percent. (Because the B&B:2000/01 study includes a subsample of 

NPSAS:2000 nonrespondents, the overall study response rate is the product of the NPSAS:2000 

institution-level response rate for BA-granting institutions and the B&B:2000/01 student-level 

response rate.) The weight used for the analysis of data from the B&B:2000/01 was WTA00, 

which includes NPSAS:2000 bachelor’s degree recipients who responded to the 2001 B&B

follow-up survey. 

Accuracy of Estimates 

The statistics in this report are estimates derived from a sample. Two broad categories of 

error occur in such estimates: sampling and nonsampling errors. Sampling errors occur because 

observations are made only on samples of students, not entire populations. Nonsampling errors 

occur not only in sample surveys but also in complete censuses of entire populations. 

Nonsampling errors can be attributed to a number of sources: inability to obtain complete

information about all students in all institutions in the sample (some students or institutions 

refused to participate, or students participated but answered only certain items); ambiguous 

definitions; differences in interpreting questions; inability or unwillingness to give correct

information; mistakes in recording or coding data; and other errors of collecting, processing, 

sampling, and imputing missing data. 

Item Response Rates 

Weighted item response rates were calculated for all variables used in this report. The 

weighted item response rates were calculated by dividing the weighted number of valid responses 

by the weighted population for which the item was applicable. Overall, most of the items had a 

high response rate. Items with weighted item response rates below 90 percent are shown in table 

B-1. Three variables had item response rates below 85 percent. For the three NELS:88/01 

variables (ACCURHSQ, HIGHMATH, GPA), the low weighted response rate is due in large part 

to unavailable high school transcript data. For these variables, an analysis of item nonrespondents 

was conducted and no differences could be detected between respondents and nonrespondents in 

percentage who were female. 

62 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

—

Appendix B—Technical Notes and Methodology 

Table B-1. Lowest weighted item response rates for variables used in this report

Data set Variable name Variable label Item response rate

Variables with response rates between 85 and 90 percent:

NPSAS:90 ATTNSTAT Attendance intensity 87.50

EMWKHR3 Hours worked per a week while enrolled 86.80

PCTPVRTY Income level 88.60

NPSAS:96 PAREDUC Highest education completed by either parent 85.60

NELS:88/01 SRTSQUIN Senior test quintile 87.10

BPS:90/94 ATTENRST Degree attainment and persistence 89.40

OFCO8990 Type of first institution 89.00

Variables with response rates lower than 85 percent:

NELS:88/01 ACCURHSQ High school academic intensity 83.10

HIGHMATH Highest mathematics course 84.10

GPA Grade-point average 83.80

NOTE: Weighted item response rates were calculated by dividing the total weighted number of valid responses by the weighted

total population for whom the question was applicable. Bias analyses were conducted for variables with a weighted item

response rate below 85 percent.

Data Analysis System

The estimates presented in this report were produced using the Data Analysis System 

(DAS) for each of the surveys analyzed. The DAS software makes it possible for users to specify

and generate their own tables. The DAS is publicly available and designed to protect the 

confidentiality of individuals. With the DAS, users can replicate or expand upon the tables 

presented in this report. In addition to the table estimates, the DAS calculates proper standard 

errors15 and weighted sample sizes for these estimates. For example, table B-2 contains standard 

errors that correspond to table 2, generated by the DAS. If the number of valid cases is too small 

to produce a reliable estimate (fewer than 30 cases), the DAS prints the message “low-N” instead 

of the estimate. All standard errors for estimates presented in this report can be viewed at

http://nces.ed.gov/das/library/reports.asp. 

In addition to tables, the DAS will also produce a correlation matrix of selected variables to 

be used for linear regression models. Included in the output with the correlation matrix are the

15 None of the survey samples were based on simple random sampling procedures and, therefore, simple random sample

techniques for estimating sampling error cannot be applied to these data. The DAS takes into account the complexity of the

sampling procedures and calculates standard errors appropriate for such samples. The method for computing sampling errors

used by the DAS is Balanced Repeated Replication (BRR). 

63 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

—

Table B-2.—

Appendix B—Technical Notes and Methodology 

Table B-2. Standard errors for table 2: Percentage of undergraduates who were women, by student 

characteristics and academic year: 1989–90, 1995–96, and 1999–2000

Student characteristics 1989–90 1995–96 1999–2000

U.S. Total (excluding Puerto Rico) 0.08 0.41 0.45

Risk status for not completing

 No risk factors 0.12 0.99 0.37

 One or more risk factors 0.10 0.66 0.15

Race/ethnicity

 American Indian 0.65 6.98 3.96

Asian/Pacific Islander 0.38 1.83 2.21

Black 0.20 1.12 0.95

White 0.09 0.53 0.49

Hispanic 0.24 1.39 0.65

Age

18–23 0.08 0.54 0.38

24–29 0.16 0.87 0.53

30–39 0.19 0.93 1.31

40 or older 0.23 0.89 0.80

Income level

Low income 0.14 0.90 0.84

Middle low income 0.14 1.12 0.57

Middle high income 0.13 0.75 0.83

High income 0.14 1.10 0.48

Dependency status

 Dependent 0.10 0.54 0.38

 Independent

 Never married, no children 0.16 1.01 0.57

Married/separated, no children 0.22 1.53 2.08

Married/separated, children 0.19 1.16 0.78

Single parent 0.24 1.19 0.89

Highest education level completed by either parent

High school or less 0.14 0.97 0.40

 Some postsecondary education 0.16 1.07 0.79

 Bachelor’s degree or higher 0.11 0.88 0.40

Hours worked per a week while enrolled

 Did not work 0.11 1.36 0.50

1–24 hours 0.12 0.96 0.71

25–34 hours 0.15 1.50 0.70

 More than 34 hours 0.13 1.26 0.43

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1989–90, 1995–96, and 1999–2000 

National Postsecondary Student Aid Studies (NPSAS:90, NPSAS:96, and NPSAS:2000).

design effects (DEFTs) for each variable in the matrix. Since statistical procedures generally

compute regression coefficients based on simple random sample assumptions, the standard errors 

64 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Appendix B—Technical Notes and Methodology 

must be adjusted with the design effects to take into account the stratified sampling method used 

in the surveys. 

For more information about the Data Analysis Systems, consult the NCES DAS web site 

(nces.ed.gov/das) or contact: 

Aurora D’Amico 

National Center for Education Statistics 

1990 K Street, NW

Room 8115 

Washington, DC 20006 

(202) 502-7334 

Internet address: Aurora.D’Amico@ed.gov

Statistical Procedures 

Differences Between Means 

The descriptive comparisons were tested in this report using Student’s t statistic. 

Differences between estimates are tested against the probability of a Type I error,16 or 

significance level. The significance levels were determined by calculating the Student’s t values 

for the differences between each pair of means or proportions and comparing these with 

published tables of significance levels for two-tailed hypothesis testing. 

Student’s t values may be computed to test the difference between estimates with the

following formula: 

E1 − E2

= (1)

where E1 and E2 are the estimates to be compared and se1 and se2 are their corresponding

standard errors. This formula is valid only for independent estimates. When estimates are not 

independent, a covariance term must be added to the formula: 

E1 − E2

t = (2)

se1

2 + se22 − 2(r)se1 se2

16 A Type I error occurs when one concludes that a difference observed in a sample reflects a true difference in the population 

from which the sample was drawn, when no such true difference is present. 

2

2

2

1 sese

t

+ 

65 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Appendix B—Technical Notes and Methodology 

where r is the correlation between the two estimates.17 This formula is used when comparing two 

percentages from a distribution that adds to 100. If the comparison is between the mean of a 

subgroup and the mean of the total group, the following formula is used: 

Esub − Etot t = (3) 2 2 2

se + se − 2 p se sub tot sub

where p is the proportion of the total group contained in the subgroup.18 The estimates, standard 

errors, and correlations can all be obtained from the DAS. 

There are hazards in reporting statistical tests for each comparison. First, comparisons 

based on large t statistics may appear to merit special attention. This can be misleading since the

magnitude of the t statistic is related not only to the observed differences in means or percentages 

but also to the number of students in the specific categories used for comparison. Hence, a small

difference compared across a large number of students would produce a large t statistic. 

A second hazard in reporting statistical tests for each comparison occurs when making

multiple comparisons among categories of an independent variable. For example, when making

paired comparisons among different race/ethnicities, the probability of a Type I error for these 

comparisons taken as a group is larger than the probability for a single comparison. When more

than one difference between groups of related characteristics or “families” are tested for 

statistical significance, one must apply a standard that assures a level of significance for all of 

those comparisons taken together. 

When significant results were detected in this analysis, which were not based on hypotheses 

being tested, the findings were reported only when p< .05/k for a particular pairwise comparison, 

where that comparison was one of k tests within a family. This procedure guarantees both that the

individual comparison would have p< .05 and that for k comparisons within a family of possible

comparisons, the significance level for all the comparisons will sum to p< .05.19

For example, in a comparison of males and females, only one comparison is possible 

(males versus females). In this family, k=1, and the comparison can be evaluated without 

adjusting the significance level. When students are divided into five racial/ethnic categories 

(American Indian, Asian/Pacific Islander, Black, Hispanic, and White) and all possible 

17 U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, A Note from the Chief Statistician, no. 2, 1993. 

18 Ibid. 

19 The standard that p≤ .05/k for each comparison is more stringent than the criterion that the significance level of the 

comparisons should sum to p≤ .05. For tables showing the t statistic required to ensure that p≤ .05/k for a particular family size

and degrees of freedom, see Olive Jean Dunn, “Multiple Comparisons Among Means,” Journal of the American Statistical 

Association 56 (1961): 52–64. 

66 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Appendix B—Technical Notes and Methodology 

comparisons are made, then k=10 and the significance level of each test must be p< .05/10, or p<

.005. The formula for calculating family size (k) is as follows: 

j(j − 1) k = (4) 2

where j is the number of categories for the variable being tested. In the case of race/ethnicity, 

there are five race/ethnicity groups, so substituting 5 for j in equation 4, results in the following

family size. 

5(5 −1) k = = 10 (5) 2

For this report, when there were comparisons in which a specific hypothesis was not being

tested, tests were adjusted to account for family size. Most of comparisons made were between 

two groups (e.g., between men and women or between two cohorts) and, therefore, had a k of 1. 

Comparisons among the three NPSAS studies had a k of 3. Comparisons among categories were 

also adjusted to take into account multiple comparisons. For example, when comparing the

proportion of women among students who did not work and among students who worked more 

than 34 hours in 1999–2000 (59 vs. 53 percent, table 2), the family size is 4 (did not work, 1–24 

hours, 24–34 hours, more than 34 hours) and the k is 6. 

67