Michael L. Avery

Supervisory Research Wildlife Biologist 

USDA-APHIS-Wildlife Services 

National Wildlife Research Center

Gainesville, Florida

Martin Lowney 

State Director 

USDA-APHIS-Wildlife Services 

Lakewood, Colorado

Human-Wildlife Conflicts

Black and turkey vultures cause problems 

in several ways. The most common 

problems associated with vultures are 

structural damage, loss of aesthetic value 

and property use related to offensive odors 

and appearance, depredation to livestock 

and pets, and air traffic safety. 

Management of these diverse problems 

often can be addressed by targeting the 

source of the birds causing the problem, 

namely the roost where the birds spend 

the night. Often the roost itself is the 

problem, such as when birds roost on a 

communication tower and foul the 

equipment with their feces or when they 

roost in a residential area. There, 

droppings and regurgitations create odors 

and their presence is perceived as a threat 

by the homeowners. Several methods are 

available for roost dispersal. As in many 

other situations, roost dispersal might best 

be accomplished through the integrated 

use of more than one damage 

management method.

The details of the situation will dictate 

which management approach is the most

Wildlife Damage Management 

Technical Series

U.S. Department of Agriculture

Animal & Plant Health Inspection Service

Wildlife Services

October 2016 Vultures

Figure 1. Black vultures (Coragyps atratus) are very social 

with an extended period of parent-offspring interaction. 

Quick Links

Human-Wildlife Conflicts 1

Damage Identification 3

Management Methods 3

Economics 8

Species Overview 9

Legal Status 13

Glossary & Key Words 14

Resources 15 

Appendix 17 
appropriate, and experience has shown that best results 

are obtained if the source roost can be dispersed. 

Livestock and Pets

Livestock losses to black vultures are a major concern for 

many producers. Black vulture depredation of livestock 

involves killing or injuring animals that are sick, weak, or 

otherwise unable to defend themselves. 

This usually involves newborn calves, piglets or lambs and 

the associated heifers, sows, and ewes (Figure 2). Black 

vultures are opportunistic and readily recognize and take 

advantage of vulnerable animals. Because black vultures 

are social, the feeding behavior of one or two birds usually 

attracts many more and they can easily overwhelm the 

affected prey animal. 

At a cattle ranch in central Florida, both species of vultures 

focused their activities in pastures where active calving 

was occurring. The vultures were frequently observed 

feeding on afterbirth as well as fresh droppings from 

calves.

Structures

Property damage, especially from black vultures, includes 

tearing and removing window caulking, screen enclosures, 

roof shingles, vinyl seat covers from boats and tractors, 

windshield wipers and door seals on cars, and plastic 

flowers at cemeteries (Figure 3). 

Droppings of turkey and black vultures create nuisance 

conditions, especially when the birds loaf on roofs of 

houses, office buildings, communication towers, and 

electrical transmission structures (Figure 4). The 

accumulation of droppings on electrical transmission 

towers causes arcing and power outages. 

Human Health and Safety

Vultures pose hazards to aircraft, especially when landfills, 

roosts, or other congregating sites are located near 

approaching or departing flight paths (Figure 5). 

The Federal Aviation Administration considers putrescible 

waste landfills within 10,000 feet of an airport with jet 

aircraft incompatible with aircraft operations because 

these landfills are attractive to birds that are hazardous for 

aviation.

In addition, vultures can cause human health and safety 

problems by contaminating water sources with their 

droppings. Contamination has occurred when coliform 

bacteria from droppings entered water towers or springs 

from which residences drew water. 

Figure 2. Livestock producers must be vigilant because black vultures are 

known to kill and injure vulnerable animals, especially newborns and those 

giving birth.

Page 2

Figure 3. Damage by black vultures to structures, vehicles and other property 

is a common occurrence.

WDM Technical Series—Vultures
Nuisance Problems

Citizens frequently have health concerns because of the 

accumulation of droppings from roosts and loafing areas 

near their homes (Figure 6). Many people consider vultures 

a nuisance because of the white-wash effect their droppings leave on trees and structures at roost sites, the ammonia odor emanating from roost sites, and a general feeling of doom when vultures congregate nearby. 

Vultures are large, obvious animals that travel in groups. 

Their presence is indicated by copious amounts of whitish 

fecal matter giving a characteristic ammonia odor to the 

surroundings. In open areas, shed feathers and regurgitated pellets also will be obvious (Figure 6). Damage to materials and surfaces is indicated by tears, scratches, and 

gouges. 

Management of vultures is most effective when a variety of 

control methods is used. 

Habitat Modification

Vultures are attracted to roost sites for reasons largely unknown. Altering the vegetation structure of a given roost 

may affect the thermodynamic properties of the site. 

Therefore, thinning branches on trees within the roost or 

removing some trees to open up the roost site could reduce the attractiveness of the site for roosting birds. This 

method likely will be difficult to apply in most cases, as 

preservation of trees is frequently an important goal in 

communities. Furthermore, there are no proven guidelines 

for how best to thin or modify roost vegetation to discourage vultures. Vultures may repeatedly be attracted to a site 

due to the abundance of a stable food supply. The proper 

disposal of dead livestock and removal of other humanmade foods may reduce vulture use of some areas. 

Page 3

Figure 4. Vultures frequently loaf or roost on buildings and other structures 

where accumulations of droppings create nuisance and health concerns.

Figure 5. Vultures represent major safety hazards to civil and military 

aircraft.

U.S. Department of Agriculture

Damage Identification

Figure 6. Fecal material from vulture roosting and loafing can render 

facilities such as playgrounds unsafe and unappealing. Fecal accumulation, 

feathers, and regurgitated pellets signify presence of a vulture roost. 

Management Methods
Vultures may use a site for multiple reasons, however, and 

the removal of a food source might be insufficient to 

disperse vultures roosting or loafing at a site.

Exclusion

Various techniques have been developed to prevent 

vultures from perching on window ledges, roofs, and other 

areas where they are not wanted. Many of the various bird 

spikes that are commercially available will not deter 

vultures. In many cases, the birds are able to place their 

feet in the spaces between the spikes, and they readily 

bend the longer, more pliable spikes down to create a 

hospitable perching substrate. The spikes that work best 

against vultures are short, sharp, tightly spaced, and 

resistant to bending. Wires suspended above a roof or 

ledge do not have long-term effectiveness as vultures can 

avoid such obstacles when they land and either perch 

beside the wires or directly on top of them.

Coyote Roller® is a commercially available device that can 

create an unstable perch for vultures. As birds try to land 

on the devices, the cylinder rotates and the birds spin off. 

This could be particularly effective on the ridge line of a 

roof or on a narrow ledge or railing where the availability of 

perch sites is limited (Figure 7). 

Perhaps even more effective is the use of commercially 

available electric tracks that can be assembled to any 

desired length. These can be affixed to roofs, chimneys, 

ledges, or wherever perching is likely to occur. Solarpowered electric fence chargers are available so access to 

a power outlet is not necessary. A bird that contacts the 

track receives an unpleasant, but harmless, shock and 

leaves the site.

Black vulture depredations to livestock can be minimized 

by locating lambing, pigging, and calving activities in sheds 

or buildings, or by using paddocks close to barns or 

buildings with human activity so that birthing animals can 

be monitored closely.

Scare Devices

Effigies

In most roost situations, whether in trees or on a structure, 

birds can be dispersed quickly and efficiently by proper 

installation of a vulture carcass or effigy. An effigy can be 

either a taxidermic preparation or an artificial device 

designed and constructed to look like a dead vulture.

Regardless of the type, proper installation is crucial. 

Display the carcass or effigy from a high, prominent 

location so that birds using the roost notice it. Hang the 

stimulus upside down by its feet, far enough from branches 

or other points of contact to prevent entanglement. Hire a 

professional to install the carcass or effigy on a tower 

Figure 7. The Coyote Roller® can be an effective device for preventing 

vulture perching. 

Page 4

Figure 8. Installation of an effigy is effective for dispersing a vulture roost.

WDM Technical Series—Vultures
(Figure 8). To suspend a carcass or effigy at a tree roost, 

use a modified bow and arrow rig to launch the line up and 

over a branch in a prominent location.

Vulture carcasses and taxidermic vulture effigies have 

been effective in resolving a variety of roost problems involving property damage, communication towers, crop and 

livestock protection, and aircraft safety. Generally, vultures 

that encounter a hanging carcass or taxidermic effigy vacate their roost within 5 days and do not return as long as 

the stimulus is in place. In some cases, vultures do not 

return even when the carcass or effigy is removed. 

Despite good results, this roost dispersal method is not 

universally effective. Where vultures occupy mixed-species 

roosts with wading birds, cormorants, and anhingas, installation of a vulture carcass or taxidermic vulture effigy has 

been ineffective. It is not clear why vultures in multispecies roosts are unresponsive to the effigy approach. 

Perhaps the birds sense greater security with the other 

species present. Whatever the reason, other methods 

need to be applied to disperse mixed-species roosts. 

Effigies have been used with mixed success to discourage 

vulture use of houses and other facilities during the day. 

Black vultures have been reported to tear effigies when 

used at daytime loafing sites but are repelled from roost 

sites where effigies are hung. It is unclear why vultures 

respond to effigies at roosting locations but occasionally 

show no dispersal response from daytime loafing sites. 

Also, effigies have not reliably dispersed vultures from multi-story buildings, or from small animal parks and zoos. At 

this time, researchers do not understand why effigies are 

not effective in some of these situations. 

Dispersal of vulture roosts near a livestock operation can 

help reduce the likelihood of depredations. Dispersal is 

often best accomplished by suspending a vulture carcass 

or taxidermic effigy in the roost, but other roost dispersal 

options, such as pyrotechnics, could produce a similar result. Roost dispersal is not always an effective option, however, as vultures are capable of using various roost sites 

within a given area. Thus, dispersal at one main roost location might cause birds to relocate to alternate roost sites 

but might not affect their use of livestock production areas.

Important constraints apply to the general use of a vulture 

carcass or taxidermic effigy. Both species of vultures are 

protected by federal laws, and it is unlawful to take or possess a live bird or carcass without a permit from the U.S. 

Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). Permits are not required 

for effigies made from feathers of domestic fowl. The hanging of a vulture carcass or taxidermic effigy could be distasteful to some members of the public. It might be prudent to contact local conservation or birding groups or local 

media to explain the use of the carcasses or effigies, so 

that those hung in areas of high visibility are not mistaken 

for birds that accidentally became entangled. Prolonged 

exposure to the weather deteriorates the carcass or effigy.

The development of an effective, durable, readily available 

artificial effigy is desirable because no permit is needed to 

use it. To date, the most consistently effective artificial effigy is a decorative vulture statuette made in China and sold 

on-line (Figure 9). 

The likeness is approximately 16.5 inches tall. The body is 

covered with brown feathers and the head is red. The effigy 

has been used to disperse vulture roosts from trees, towers, refinery plants, and power plants.

U.S. Department of Agriculture Page 5

Figure 9. Artificial vulture effigy used for roost dispersal is made in China 

and can be purchased online.
Lasers

This tool recently became available for wildlife managers 

and has been effective in dispersing various bird species. 

Vultures respond well to low-powered red lasers. Field trials 

at wooded roosts, as well as on buildings and electric 

transmission line towers, have repeatedly demonstrated 

that vultures can be moved from the roost by using the 

laser from about 30 minutes before sunset, or as soon as 

it is dark enough for the birds to see it, until about 30 

minutes after sunset. Once it becomes too dark and the 

birds are settled in for the night, the laser often will not 

make them disperse. 

Generally, vultures respond immediately to the bright spot 

of light and either take flight, or run or hop to a new perch. 

As soon as the first few birds take off from the roost, 

others follow so that dozens of birds can be dislodged by 

directly exposing just a few to the laser light.

Lasers are safe, quiet, and effective over distances of 

several hundred yards, depending on ambient light. 

Vultures can be dispersed without disruption to people and 

from well beyond the effective range of pyrotechnics. One 

downside is that vultures may habituate to lasers after 

multiple nights of harassment. Birds will vacate a roost for 

a given night but then return the next night. It is not known 

how long laser harassment needs to continue for 

permanent abandonment of a roost. Lasers can cost up to 

$2,000. 

Pyrotechnics

Vultures can be harassed from a roost by pyrotechnics 

(screamer-sirens and bird bombs) fired from a 15-mm 

launcher (starter pistol), shellcrackers shot from a 12-

gauge shotgun, electronically generated sounds, or 

propane cannons. Prior to initiating a harassment program 

in urban areas, consult state, provincial, county, and local 

ordinances regarding the location of bird sanctuaries, 

noise ordinances, and the possession and use of firearms 

and pyrotechnics. Pyrotechnics, launchers, shellcrackers, 

propane cannons, and other harassment tools can be 

purchased readily from a variety of commercial sources. 

Some pyrotechnics require a federal explosives permit 

from the U.S. Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms. 

Commercial vendors can identify pyrotechnics requiring the 

federal permit prior to purchase.

Other Harassment

Pyrotechnics and other noisemakers often are not 

permitted in residential areas, zoos, parks, or business 

sites. Nevertheless, vultures can be effectively harassed 

using other methods. 

Helium-filled balloons tethered by Mylar® tape and raised 

into hardwood trees at roost sites have dispersed vultures 

in the past. Each roost site was in an urban area where 

either vultures had habituated to noise harassment or local 

noise ordinances did not allow harassment with 

pyrotechnics and other auditory scare devices. There were 

40 to 100 vultures at each test site. In each instance, the 

vultures immediately left the roost area but returned 6 to 

12 months later when the balloons and Mylar® tape had 

fallen from the trees. After balloons were used for 2 years 

at an Appomattox, Virginia, urban roost, vultures 

habituated and no longer dispersed. If sufficiently dark, 

lasers can be applied to move vultures. Even during 

daylight hours, lasers can be used as long as the birds are 

able to detect it against the ambient light. Alternatively, 

paintball guns can be employed with good effect on 

troublesome vultures. The birds are bothered by the sound 

of projectiles whizzing past and they do not enjoy being 

struck by a paintball. Eventually the “pop” sound generated 

by the compressed gas alone is enough to cause birds to 

take flight. To minimize the chance of injury, birds should 

not be shot at close range (less than 10 yards). Follow 

proper firearm safety measures whenever using paintballs. 

Whatever technique is used, for best results harass birds 

as soon as they begin to use the site. It must be persistent 

so that birds do not have opportunities to return.

Another option for harassment is a motion-activated 

sprinkler (Figure 10). All that is required is a spigot or other 

source of pressured water. The sudden onset of a sprinkler 

triggered by the vultures’ movement startles them and 

tends to keep them from the site. The sound of the 

sprinkler, sight of the water stream, and unpredictability of 

the stimulus all combine to cause a deterrent effect. Such 

Page 6 WDM Technical Series—Vultures
units have been successful against vultures on roofs of 

houses, on boat docks, and around backyard patios.

Firing .22-caliber or larger rifle ammunition reportedly will 

disperse loafing vultures from pastures. Pyrotechnics or 

shotguns also can be used, but their range is not as great. 

Such harassment often has only a short-term benefit, as 

vultures will return to the site within a few hours. Do not kill 

or wound vultures unless you have a Migratory Bird Depredation permit issued by the USFWS.

Guard dogs are another form of harassment that some 

producers use with success. While we are not aware of any 

formal evaluation of this method to protect livestock from 

black vultures, we have talked to livestock producers 

whose dogs chase vultures. This method seems like a feasible alternative if the dog is properly trained. 

To be most effective, harassment must be diligent and 

constant, and initiated as soon as the problem is recognized. The use of a variety of harassment tools at the same 

time increases the likelihood of dispersing vultures. To disperse a roost, begin harassment at dusk as the vultures 

come to roost and continue until dark. Harassment on several consecutive nights may be required to disperse a 

roost. Normally, it takes 7 to 9 consecutive nights of harassment to disperse a vulture roost when 15 mm and 12-

gauge pyrotechnics are used alone or with propane cannons. The number of nights needed to disperse a roost can 

be shortened to 4 to 5 nights when effigies and lasers are 

used simultaneously with the pyrotechnics. On some occasions, it may be necessary to shoot some vultures to reinforce harassment with pyrotechnics and reduce habituation to the harassment program.

Shooting

Given increasing population trends for both vulture species 

and their basic life history attributes, selective lethal control is unlikely to affect the overall population. Selective 

removal of problem vultures, however, could contribute to 

resolving local conflicts with vultures. 

At three Texas industrial plants, each hosting about 200 

birds, shooting with .22-caliber rifles was initiated after 

other methods had failed to resolve vulture problems. Removal of 5, 25 and 45 vultures resulted in abandonment 

of the sites for 12 months, 4 months, and 10 weeks, respectively. 

Additional documentation is needed to support the assertion that removal of a few vultures from a local population 

increases the efficacy of harassment programs and prevents habituation to harassment. A Migratory Bird Depredation Permit issued by the USFWS is required before vultures can be killed.

Trapping

Vultures are relatively easy to trap, especially with large 

baited walk-in traps (Figure 11). Turkey vultures seem inhibited from entering traps already holding black vultures. 

For specific targeted individual birds, padded-jaw foothold 

traps can be used. For example, in Virginia and Maryland, 

vultures were damaging buildings by pulling latex window 

gaskets from windows, tearing holes in the rubber membrane of the roof, and disturbing building occupants with 

persistent daily attacks against their images in the glass. 

After nonlethal methods failed to stop the damage, the 

vultures were captured with padded-jaw foothold traps 

placed around a carcass on the rock ballast roof of the 

multiple story buildings. Trapped vultures were euthanized 

and damage ceased. 

Page 7

Figure 10. Motion-activated sprinklers are effective for scaring vultures from 

rooftops, boat docks, and other places with access to a source of 

pressurized water.

U.S. Department of Agriculture
Translocation

The benefits of translocating trapped vultures are 

questionable. In Texas, translocating trapped birds did not 

reduce problems at industrial facilities where the birds 

were trapped. Furthermore, complaints increased 

regarding vultures at the release sites. In Florida, four of 

eight transmitter-equipped vultures released more than 

150 miles from the trap site eventually were tracked to 

within 10 miles of their original roost, indicating that 

problems at the original site are likely to persist unless the 

habitat is modified so the original site is less attractive to 

vultures. Although translocation is a nonlethal control 

method, little evidence exists that translocating vultures is 

an effective management tool. 

Disposal

Check your local and state or provincial regulations and 

USFWS depredation permit regarding carcass disposal. 

Black vultures and turkey vultures are part of the multispecies scavenging guild which provides valuable 

ecosystem services, including carrion removal, disease 

suppression, and nutrient recycling. To our knowledge, the 

Page 8 WDM Technical Series—Vultures

Figure 11. Baited walk-in traps are effective for capturing large numbers of 

vultures.

Economics

monetary value of these services has not been estimated 

but no doubt is considerable. The recent decimation of Old 

World vulture populations has had profound, unanticipated 

societal impacts, in addition to disruption of wildlife 

community functions. By contrast, since their recovery 

from the deleterious impacts of persistent pesticides, 

populations of New World vultures have increased and 

expanded.

While the positive economic benefits (i.e. ecosystem 

services) of the expanding black and turkey vulture 

populations have not been quantified, there is information 

pertinent to the negative side of the vulture balance sheet. 

In the United States, vultures are among the most costly 

species in terms of damage to military (> $2.9 million/

year) and civil (>$1.2 million/year) aircraft (Table 1). Only 

geese and pelicans have greater economic impacts 

according to U.S. Air Force bird strike data. The monetary 

impacts are probably underestimates of the actual costs 

because not every bird-aircraft collision is reported. These 

data do not reflect the serious potential costs to human 

health and safety.

While both vulture species have economic impacts to 

aircraft, the black vulture can also be an economic 

detriment for many livestock producers. The most recent 

data available (2010) from the USDA National Agricultural 

Statistics Service (NASS) attribute 11,900 cattle and calf 

deaths valued at $4.64 million to vultures. NASS 

estimated the total monetary loss from all cattle/calf 

predation to be $98.48 million. Black vulture impacts to 

livestock extend to pigs, goats, and sheep, but comparable 

economic data are not available.

Both vulture species cause property damage to vehicles, 

houses, office buildings, equipment and various other 

items. Their roosting on cell towers, water towers, 

buildings, and other tall structures necessitates roost 

dispersal, cleaning, and repairs. The collective economic 

impacts of these activities are unknown. 
Identification

Two species of vultures are common in North America: the 

turkey vulture (Cathartes aura) and the black vulture 

(Coragyps atratus). These species are in the family Cathartidae. Vultures are sometimes known locally as buzzards. 

Physical Description

Turkey vultures are large dark brown birds with 5.7- to 6-

foot wing spans and a body mass of 3.5 to 4.4 pounds. 

Distinguishing characteristics of turkey vultures are a 

bright red head on adults, the leading edge on the underside of the wing is black while the trailing edge is gray, and 

a long tail extends well beyond the body when in flight 

(Figure 12).

In contrast, black vultures have a 4.6- to 5-foot wing span 

and weigh 3.5 to 4.9 pounds. Adult and juvenile black vultures have a dark grey head (Figure 1), the underside of 

the wings is dark grey to black with a white area at the end 

of each wing, and a relatively short tail (Figure 13).

The mode of flight between black and turkey vultures differ 

due to different wing lengths supporting about the same 

body mass. Turkey vultures flap their wings a few times 

Species Overview

and glide when at low altitudes, whereas black vultures 

flap frequently, interspersed with brief glides when at low 

altitudes unless a strong wind blows. At high altitudes both 

vultures primarily glide when riding thermal wind currents.

Table 1. Number of vulture-aircraft collisions and their associated costs involving civil and military aircraft compiled by the Federal Aviation Administration (25 years) and the U.S. 

Air Force (20 years), respectively. FY denotes the federal fiscal year which runs from October through the following September.

Civil Aircraft (1990-2014) Military Aircraft (FY1995-FY2014) 

Species Number of 

Collisions 

Estimated Cost Cost/Year Number of 

Collisions 

Estimated Cost Cost/Year 

Black vulture 127 5,599,881 223,995 350 28,072,183 1,403,609

Turkey vulture 585 12,432,485 497,299 439 31,602,775 1,580,139

Vulture species 308 12,339,858 493,594 N/A N/A N/A

Total 1,020 30,372,224 1,214,889 789 59,674,958 2,983,748 

Figure 12. Turkey vultures (Cathartes aura) are characterized by long, narrow 

wings, a relatively long tail, and a red head (in adults).

U.S. Department of Agriculture Page 9
Range

Turkey vultures occur in all of Mexico, most of the U.S., and 

the southern tier of Canada (Figure 14). Black vultures are 

common in South America and Central America and occur 

throughout the southeastern U.S., Texas, Mexico, and parts 

of Arizona. Their range has continued to expand into New 

York and the Great Lake States (Figure 15). 

The ranges of both species have expanded northward in 

the past 50 years. Several possible explanations exist for 

their range expansions and population growth. The pesticide DDT and its derivative DDE adversely affected vulture 

fecundity. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency prohibited the use of DDT in 1972 due to negative environmental impacts to many animal species, and vulture populations in the U.S. have grown steadily in the last 40 years. 

The recent gradual, overall warming trend in North America 

might have contributed to these broad-scale northern 

range expansions. Also, vultures have benefited from fragmentation of the landscape by humans, which creates mosaics of forested and open areas for roosting, nesting, and 

foraging. Vultures clearly have adapted and thrived in the 

presence of human activity.

Northern populations of turkey vultures migrate from summer breeding areas to southern wintering areas. Black vultures are considered locally resident, but they engage in 

short term local movements in advance of bad weather. Figure 14. Turkey vulture distribution in North America.

Figure 13. Black vultures have a black head and broad white-tipped wings.

Page 10 WDM Technical Series—Vultures

Sign

Nests in structures or abandoned vehicles are found by 

observing movements of adult birds. Nests on the ground 

are very shallow scrapes and difficult to find. Roost sites 

are characterized by a distinctive ammonia-like odor, and 

by accumulations of droppings, feathers, and regurgitated 

pellets. 

Voice and Sounds

Black vultures make a low-pitched grunt or “woof,” audible 

at close range, when disturbed. 
U.S. Department of Agriculture Page 11

Figure 15. Black vulture distribution in North America.

Reproduction

Breeding Bird Survey data suggests turkey vulture 

populations in the U.S. increased at an annual rate of 3.0% 

from 1999 to 2009. Black vulture population data, mainly 

from North Carolina, suggest that high rates of survival and 

fertility, and first breeding at about 5 years of age, combine 

to produce an annual rate of increase of 10.6%. 

It is believed vultures nest annually. Each species normally 

lays two eggs per clutch. Incubation lasts about 40 days. 

Adults feed and care for young for 2 to 3 months before 

fledging. A lengthy period of parental care ensues as the 

young birds learn to forage. 

Nesting

Vultures nest on the ground in thickets, on rock ledges, in 

abandoned buildings and vehicles, and in caves and 

hollow logs. In Florida, black vultures nest as early as 

January. Vultures congregate in single- or mixed-species 

communal roosts, especially during late fall through early 

spring. Roosting is believed to enhance the ability to find 

food and might reduce risk of predation. Roosts may 

contain thousands of vultures.

Mortality

Turkey vultures have been reported to live for more than 

17 years. The most common cause of illness, injury, or 

death is trauma from collisions or injuries from foothold 

traps, principally among juveniles.

Black vultures have been reported to live up to 25 years of 

age. Predation on eggs and flightless chicks may be 

common and collisions with power lines and shooting for 

livestock protection are additional sources of mortality. 

Analysis of the black vulture population in Virginia 

indicated that 3,500 birds could be culled annually from 

the population without adversely affecting its long-term 

sustainability.

Population Status

Each species shows a widespread, increasing population 

trend. Using the best available information, the median 

population estimate for black vultures in Virginia was 

91,190 in 2006, but similar estimates are not available for 

other states. 

Habitat

Both species of vultures inhabit mixed farmland, pasture, 

and wooded areas. For loafing and foraging, black vultures 

seem attracted to pond, lake, and other water shorelines 

(Figure 16).

Vultures roost in various types of trees including pine, 

cypress, palm, and hardwoods, as well as on 

communication towers, support structures for transmission 

lines, water tanks, and buildings. Roost trees typically are 

larger than average surrounding trees. Both vulture 

species often occur at sanitary landfills and each are 

known to loaf on office buildings and houses. Black 

vultures especially are tolerant of human activities and 

habituate to being in proximity to people. 
Behavior

Turkey and black vultures fill important ecological roles as 

scavengers in the environment. Dead animals may have 

bacteria or viruses that are pathogenic or zoonotic. When 

feeding on carcasses, vultures consume and destroy large 

quantities of bacteria before the bacteria form spores 

resistant to digestion. It is possible, however, that while 

some bacteria are destroyed in a vulture’s digestive tract, 

some bacteria could be transmitted on the bird’s feathers 

and feet. Thus, while vultures could reduce the spread of 

most infections in a locality, they also could introduce 

infections into new areas. The intestinal micro flora of 

turkey vultures suggests that these birds are reservoirs of 

intestinal bacterial pathogens. 

Vultures have weak feet for grasping but have strong bills 

for pulling and tearing flesh. Their eyesight is keen, and 

their sense of smell is highly developed in turkey vultures, 

but less so in black vultures. Black vultures rely on eyesight 

to locate sources of food and fly at higher altitudes than 

turkey vultures. From that vantage point, they can observe 

behavior of turkey vultures and other scavengers to learn 

the location of available food. At a carcass, black vultures 

are dominant over turkey vultures. Turkey vultures tend to 

specialize on smaller carcasses, which they can quickly 

ingest before black vultures have time to displace them.

Food Habits

Turkey and black vultures primarily are scavengers. Their 

diets include carrion, fish, and invertebrates. Black 

vultures will kill other animals and tear the animals apart 

for food, including livestock giving birth and their 

defenseless offspring. Turkey vultures rarely take live prey. 

Reports of turkey vultures attacking livestock likely are 

mistaken identification of black vultures. 

Landfills are major feeding sites for turkey and black 

vultures, where they join crows, gulls, and many other 

species. 

On a smaller scale, black vultures often plunder dumpsters 

and garbage cans, and they frequent waste transfer 

stations, zoos, and any place where food scraps are 

regularly available (Figure 17). Both species are adaptable 

and capable of exploiting feeding opportunities created by 

human activity.

Page 12

Figure 17. Vultures exploit feeding opportunities created by human activity.

WDM Technical Series—Vultures

Figure 16. Black vultures often roost and forage near water.
Vultures are protected by the Migratory Bird Treaty Act, and 

are managed by the federal government. Vultures may be 

harassed without federal permits, but can be killed only 

after obtaining a Migratory Bird Depredation Permit from 

the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. State wildlife agencies 

may require state permits prior to killing migratory birds.

Page 13

Legal Status

U.S. Department of Agriculture
Page 14

Acknowledgements

Figure 1. Photo by Martin Lowney, USDA-APHIS-WS 

Figure 2. Photos by Eric Tillman, USDA-APHIS-WS, NWRC 

Figure 3. Photo by USDA-APHIS-WS 

Figure 4. Photo by John Humphrey, USDA-APHIS-WS, NWRC 

Figure 5. Photos USDA

Figure 6. Photos by John Humphrey (left) and Eric Tillman (right), USDA-APHIS-WS, NWRC 

Figure 7. Photo by Eric Tillman, USDA-APHIS-WS, NWRC 

Figure 8. Photos by USDA-APHIS-WS

Figure 9. Photo by USDA-APHIS-WS

Figure 10. Photo by Eric Tillman, USDA-APHIS-WS, NWRC 

Figure 11. Photo by Eric Tillman, USDA-APHIS-WS, NWRC 

Figure 12. Photos by Eric Tillman, USDA-APHIS-WS, NWRC (left) and The Cornell Lab of Ornithology (right) 

Figure 13. Photo by Michael Avery, USDA-APHIS-WS, NWRC 

Figure 14. Map from Kirk and Mossman, 1998 The Birds of North America Online/The Cornell Lab of Ornithology

Figure 15. Map from Buckley 1999, The Birds of North America Online/The Cornell Lab of Ornithology 

Figure 16. Photos by John Humphrey, USDA-APHIS-WS, NWRC 

Figure 17 Photo by Michael Avery, USDA-APHIS-WS, NWRC 

Glossary

Effigy: A likeness of a vulture. An effigy can be an actual 

vulture carcass, a carcass that has been taxidermically 

prepared, or an artificial vulture likeness. 

Property Damage: Includes marring, tearing, scratching, 

defecation and soiling residential and business structures, 

vehicles, boats, cell towers, signage, playground equipment, etc. 

Roost: A site where vultures gather to loaf, rest or spend 

the night. Vultures typically gather in roosts during all seasons outside the nesting season. 

Zoonotic: Disease that can be transmitted from animals to 

people.

Key Words

Aircraft hazard, black vulture, Cathartes aura, Coragyps 

atratus, effigy, laser, livestock damage, property damage, 

turkey vulture

Disclaimer

Wildlife can threaten the health and safety of you and others in the area. Use of damage prevention and control 

methods also may pose risks to humans, pets, livestock, 

other non-target animals, and the environment. Be aware 

of the risks and take steps to reduce or eliminate those 

risks. 

Some methods mentioned in this document may not be 

legal, permitted, or appropriate in your area. Read and follow all pesticide label recommendations and local requirements. Check with personnel from your state wildlife agency and local officials to determine if methods are acceptable and allowed. 

Mention of any products, trademarks, or brand names 

does not constitute endorsement, nor does omission constitute criticism. 

WDM Technical Series—Vultures

Citation

Avery, M.L. and M. Lowney. 2016. Vultures. Wildlife Damage Management Technical Series. USDA, APHIS, WS National Wildlife Research Center. Ft. Collins, Colorado. 17p.
Page 15

Resources

Avery, M. L. 2004. Trends in North America vulture populations. Vertebrate Pest Conference 21:116-121.

Avery, M. L., J. S. Humphrey, T. S. Daughtery, J. W. Fischer, M. P. Milleson, E. A. Tillman, W. E. Bruce, and W. D. Walter. 2011. Vulture flight behavior and implications for aircraft safety. Journal of Wildlife Management 75:1581-1587.

Avery, M. L., J. S. Humphrey, E. A. Tillman, K. O. Phares, and J. E. Hatcher. 2002. Dispersal of vulture roosts on communication towers. Journal of Raptor Research 36:44-49.

Blackwell, B. F., G. E. Bernhardt, and R. A. Dolbeer. 2002. Lasers as nonlethal avian repellents. Journal of Wildlife 

Management 66:250-258.

Buckley, Neil J. 1999. Black Vulture (Coragyps atratus), The Birds of North America Online (A. Poole, Ed.). Ithaca: 

Cornell Lab of Ornithology; Retrieved from the Birds of North America http://bna.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/411

doi:10.2173/bna.411. Accessed 11 November, 2104.

DeVault T. L., B. D. Reinhart, I. L. Brisbin, Jr., and O. E. Rhodes, Jr. 2005. Flight behavior of black and turkey vultures: 

implications for reducing bird-aircraft collisions. Journal of Wildlife Management 69:601–608.

Dolbeer, R. A., S. E. wright, J. R. Weller, A. L. Anderson, and M. J. Begier. 2015. Wildlife strikes to civil aircraft in the 

United States, 1990-2014. FAA, National Wildlife Strike Database, Serial Report Number 21, Washington, DC.

Humphrey, J. S., E. A. Tillman, and M. L. Avery. 2002. Guidelines for using effigies to disperse nuisance vulture 

roosts. USDA, Wildlife Services, National Wildlife Research Center, Gainesville, FL. Unpubl. report. 

http://www.aphis.usda.gov/wildlife_damage/nwrc/research/invasive_wildlife/content/VultureEffigy%20GuidelinesrevisedMar2010.pdf. Accessed 11 November, 2104.

Kirk, David A. and Michael J. Mossman. 1998. Turkey Vulture (Cathartes aura), The Birds of North America Online (A. 

Poole, Ed.). Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornithology; Retrieved from the Birds of North America Online: 

http://bna.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/339 doi:10.2173/bna.339 . Accessed 11 November, 2014.

Lowney, M. S. 1999. Damage by black and turkey vultures in Virginia, 1990-1996. Wildlife Society Bulletin 27:715-

719. 

Markandya, A., Taylor, T., Longo, A., Murty, M. N., Murty, S., and Dhavala, K. 2008. Counting the cost of vulture decline: An appraisal of the human health and other benefits of vultures in India. Ecological Economics 67:194–204.

Runge, M. C., J. R. Sauer, M. L. Avery, B. F. Blackwell, and M. D. Koneff. 2009. Assessing allowable take of migratory 

birds. Journal of Wildlife Management 73:556-565.

Sauer, J. R., J. E. Hines, J. E. Fallon, K. L. Pardieck, D. J. Ziolkowski, Jr., and W. A. Link. 2014. The North American 

Breeding Bird Survey, Results and Analysis 1966 - 2012. Version 02.19.2014 USGS Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, Laurel, MD Accessed 11 November, 2104.

Stager, K. 1964. The role of olfaction in food location by the turkey vulture (Cathartes aura). Los Angeles County 

Mus. Contrib. Sci. 81:1-63.

U.S. Department of Agriculture
Page 16 WDM Technical Series—Vultures

Tillman, E. A., J. S. Humphrey and M. L. Avery. 2002. Use of effigies and decoys to reduce vulture damage to property and agriculture. Vertebrate Pest Conference 20:123-128.

USAF. 2016. Strike statistics. http://www.safety.af.mil/Divisions/Aviation-Safety-Division/BASH (accessed 6 October 2016).

USDA. National Agricultural Statistics Service. 2011. Cattle death loss. http://usda.mannlib.cornell.edu/usda/

current/CattDeath/CattDeath-05-12-2011.pdf (accessed 6 October 2016).

Wenny, D. G., T. L. DeVault, M. D. Johnson, D. Kelly, C. H. Sekercioglu, D. F. Tomback, and C. J. Whelan. 2011. The 

need to quantify ecosystem services provided by birds. Auk 128:1-14.
Damage Management Methods for Vultures

 

Type of Control 

 

Available Management Options 

Exclusion  Electric track

 Coyote Roller®

 Stout anti-perching spikes

Frightening Devices  Vulture effigies

 Hand-held lasers

 Pyrotechnics 

Habitat Modification No proven guidelines for how best to thin vegetation or modify roost sites 

Repellents None registered

Toxicants None registered 

Trapping  Large baited walk-in traps 

 Padded-jaw foothold traps with 3-inch jaw spread

Shooting Shooting effective for individual troublesome vultures. Type of firearm and ammunition 

depends on specific circumstances.

Page 17

Appendix