National Park Service

U.S. Department of the Interior

A National Historic Landmarks Theme Study

Finding a Path Forward

ASIAN AMERICAN PACIFIC ISLANDER

NATIONAL HISTORIC LANDMARKS THEME STUDY

Edited by Franklin Odo
ii AAPI National Historic Landmarks Theme Study

Use of ISBN

This is the official U.S. Government edition of this publication and is herein identified to 

certify its authenticity. Use of 978-0-692-92584-3 is for the U.S. Government Publishing 

Office editions only. The Superintendent of Documents of the U.S. Government Publishing Office requests 

that any reprinted edition clearly be labeled a copy of the authentic work with a new ISBN.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Odo, Franklin, editor. | National Historic Landmarks Program (U.S.),

issuing body. | United States. National Park Service.

Title: Finding a Path Forward, Asian American and Pacific Islander National

Historic Landmarks theme study / edited by Franklin Odo.

Other titles: Asian American and Pacific Islander National Historic Landmarks

theme study | National historic landmark theme study.

Description: Washington, D.C. : National Historic Landmarks Program, National

Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior, 2017. | Series: A National

Historic Landmarks theme study | Includes bibliographical references and

index.

Identifiers: LCCN 2017045212| ISBN 9780692925843 | ISBN 0692925848

Subjects: LCSH: National Historic Landmarks Program (U.S.) | Asian

Americans--History. | Pacific Islander Americans--History. | United

States--History.

Classification: LCC E184.A75 F46 2017 | DDC 973/.0495--dc23 | SUDOC I

29.117:AS 4

LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017045212

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Publishing Office

Internet: bookstore.gpo.gov Phone: toll free (866) 512-1800; DC area (202) 512-1800

Fax: (202) 512-2104 Mail: Stop IDCC, Washington, DC 20402-0001

ISBN 978-0-692-92584-3
394 AAPI National Historic Landmarks Theme Study

Note: * after page numbers represent

content in figure captions.

A

abalone industry, 64–65

Abiko, Kyutaro, 150–151

abolitionism, 28

Acapulco, 18–19

acculturation, 5

activism, 9–11, 265–266, 271–283

Asian American women’s movement, 279–280

campus, 260–261, 276–277

early organizations, 275–276

grassroots, 41, 274–275

labor, 103–104, 131, 134, 257–258

redressing internment, 280–281

rural, 279

“Serve the People,” 277

transnational organizing, 278

urban redevelopment and, 278–279

actors, 261–264

Adelante, 20

adoption, 226, 239–240, 296–297, 309–310, 319–320

affirmative action, 336

affordable housing, 278–279

Afghanistan, 3

African Americans

citizenship for, 28, 29, 32

end of slavery and, 28

personhood of, 25

racism and, 31, 259

African slaves, 19, 21, 22, 88

Agbayani Village, 257, 279

Aghurubw Warriors, 240*

Agricultural Workers Organizing Committee (AWOC),

131, 279

agriculture, 65–66, 89–90, 91, 131, 143, 148–149, 151, 256

Aguinaldo, Emilio, 32

Ah Louis Store, 369

Akamatsu, Donald Shunji, 182

Alcatraz occupation, 265

Alfafara v. Fross, 214

Alien Land Acts, 172, 214, 273, 274, 299

aliens, 24–25, 32–33

Aloha ‘Âina, 195

Aloha Betrayed (Silva), 1

Amerasians, 9, 294–296

America

See also United States

colonial, 4, 17–19, 22–23

discovery of, 18

American Citizens for Justice (ACJ), 281

American empire, 4–8, 10

American ideals, 361

American Indians. See Native Americans

“American Progress” (Gast), 26*

American Protection Association, 29

American Samoa, 9, 235, 237, 247

American spirit, 29–30

Angel Island Immigration Station, 1*, 2, 87, 97–100, 97*, 

286, 354

Anthony, Susan B., 28

anti-Asian violence, 135, 258–259, 281–282, 314, 336

anti-Chinese movement, 94–95

anti-immigration movements, 94–97, 100–104

Antonio, Frank, 136

Aoki, Guy, 264

appropriation, 2

Arabs, 39

Arai, Kichio Allen, 174–175

Arbegast, Mai Haru Kitazawa, 182–183

archaeology, 12, 364–365

archeological research

on Asian Americans, 53–84

Asian diaspora, 54–56

Asian material culture, 56–60

Chinatowns, 57–60

gender and sexuality, 69–73

holistic studies, 73–74

Japanese and Japanese Americans during WWII, 66–69

Japantowns, 60

National Register of Historic Places and, 75–76

rural and industrial communities, 60–66

archeological resources, 344–345, 353

architects, Japanese American, 173–184

architecture, 12–13, 361–362

Japanese American, 161–187

in Nikkei communities, 170–173

Arctic Ocean, 37

areas of significance, 349

Index
Index 395

Arlington Height citrus groves, 90*, 91*

arranged marriages, 92

art forms, 120–121

artifacts, 54, 70, 191–192

arts, 247

Asia, 3, 5, 18, 23–24

See also specific countries

Asian American and Pacific Americans (AAPA), 4

Asian American businesses, 9, 141–158

analytic frame for preservation, 152–153

Chinese laundries, 59–60

Chinese owned, 90

ethnic communities/enclaves and, 144–147

“magnate” phenomenon and, 150–152

regional economic complexes, 147–149

types of, 144

Asian American communities, 307–324

See also ethnic communities/enclaves

Asian Indian, 314–316

Chinese American, 308–311

Filipino American, 311–314

formation of, 298–300

Korean American, 319–321

Vietnamese American, 316–319

Asian American Comparative Collection, 54

Asian American Legal Defense and Education Fund 

(AALDEF), 309, 336

Asian American movement, 231

beginnings of, 331–332

early organizations, 275–276

grassroots, 274–275

Asian American Pacific Islander Heritage Initiative, 391

Asian American Political Alliance (AAPA), 231, 261, 275,

276, 277

Asian Americans Advancing Justice (AAAJ), 336

Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders (AAPI), 2, 35–37

activism by, 265–266, 271–283

archeological research on, 53–84

during Asian exclusion era, 100–104

citizenship of, 25

in Civil War, 29

Cold War and, 7–8, 225–232

communities, 4, 8–9, 12, 111–124

cultural retention/assimilation, 255–268

defined, 3–4

elected and appointed officials, 332–335

electoral growth, 332

emigration routes, 3*

as immigrant workers, 5

incorporation of, 32–33

labor history of, 127–136

labor of, 10

military service of, 212–213, 259–260

as “model minority,” 228–229, 273–274, 337

national historic sites and, 127–139

political history, 10–11

political mobilization of, 230–231, 327–338

political organizational infrastructure for, 335

population growth, 307–308, 332–335

resistance by, 9–11, 12

stereotypes of, 36

World War II and, 205–222

Asian Americans for Action (AAA), 275

Asian Americans for Equal Employment (AAFEE), 281

Asian American Theater Company, 263

Asian American women, 279–280

as brides, 293–294

in public office, 331

Asian and Pacific Islander Americans in Historic 

Preservation (APIAHiP), 392

Asian Community Center (ACC), 277

Asian diaspora, archeology of, 54–56

Asian immigrants, 87–108

See also immigrants and immigration; specific 

nationalities

as aliens, 25

citizenship for. See citizenship

community formation by, 298–300

discrimination against, 87–88, 94–97, 100–104, 229, 256, 

258, 272–273, 286–288

in early America, 88

exclusion of, 87–88

farming by, 143

growth of, 285–286

labor of, 286–287, 288

post-WWII, 285–304

recruitment of, 288

to U.S., 24, 87–108

women, 89, 100, 215–216, 289–290

Asian Immigrant Women’s Advocates, 135

Asian Immigrant Workers Association, 135

Asian Indian communities, 314–316

Asian Law Caucus (ALC), 231

Asian material culture, 56–60, 70–73

Asian Pacific American Labor Alliance, 135, 337

Asian Pacific American Municipal Officials (APAMO), 335

Asian Pacific Americans (APA), 4

Asian Sisters, 280

Asian women, 69–70

See also Asian American women

Asian Women’s Center (AWC), 280

Asia Pacific region, 36

Asiatic Barred Zone, 96, 272, 287

Asiatic Exclusion League, 172

assimilation, 12, 101, 172–173, 255–268

Association for Asian American Studies, 35

Atlantic Ocean, 37–38

atomic bombs, 281
396 AAPI National Historic Landmarks Theme Study

Australia, 12, 38

auto industry, 135, 281

Azuma, Eiichiro, 2, 175

B

Bald, Vivek, 133

Baldoz, Rick, 7

Bank of Manhattan Trust Building, 176*

banks, 143–144, 147

bathhouses, 120

Bayside Cannery, 61*

beauty pageants, 267

Beaux-Arts, 174

bilingual education, 266–267

Billy, Richard K., 240

biodiversity, 37

birthplaces, 366

birthright citizenship, 102–103

blackbirding, 239

Black Lives Matter movement, 259

Black Panthers, 260, 277

Black Power movement, 260, 265, 274

boat people, 291, 316

Bodie Historic District, 126*, 355–356

Bok Kai Temple, 13*, 370

Bordallo, Ricardo J., 238

Boston Tea Party, 23, 130

brain drain, 288

brides, 92, 96*, 99, 215, 216, 226, 272, 293–294, 319

Britain, Opium Wars and, 20, 111

British East India Company, 23

British Empire, 4, 20, 22, 111

British West Indies, 21

Broadway musicals, 263–264

Brown, H. Rap, 275

Brown, Rebecca, 29

Brown, William, 29

Buck, Pearl S., 360–361

Buddhism, 117, 171, 173

Buddhist Churches of America (BCA), 171

Buddhist temples, 168, 170–171, 174–175

Buell, Evangeline Canonizado, 312

buildings, 345

moved, 366

Bulosan, Carlos, 227*, 313

Bunker, Christopher, 29

Burgess, John, 31

burial sites, 68–69, 366

Burlingame Treaty, 286

Bush, George W., 332, 333

businesses, Asian American, 9, 141–158

business networks, 112, 115, 116, 119

butchering practices, 72–73

C

CA+T, 313

Cabatit, Irineo, 274*

California, 27, 36, 300

agriculture, 131, 151, 256

gold rush, 27, 36, 57, 256

Los Angeles, 18, 133, 143, 144*, 149, 214–215

mining camps, 12

Monterey Bay, 147–148, 152

politics in, 330, 334

Sacramento, 57–58

San Francisco, 101, 131, 132, 276–277, 370–371

California Alien Land Law, 133

California Flower Market, 149

“called immigrant” system, 91–92

Cambodian Americans, 146

Cambodian refugees, 291, 292, 293, 298

Camp Amache, 67, 357–358

Camp Pendleton, 9, 290–291

campus activism, 260–261, 276–277

Canada, 12, 96

canneries, 114, 142

canoes, 42–43

capitalism, 30, 89–90, 111, 131

Caribbean

Monroe Doctrine and, 30

plantations, 20, 21, 32, 88

U.S. in, 32

cartographies, 37–38

celebrities, 261

cemeteries, 68–69, 366

Centennial Exposition (1876), 163–164

Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), 292

Central Pacific Railroad, 12, 89

Central Utah Relocation Center, 7*

ceramics, 54, 58, 66

Chafee, Adna Romanza, 31

chain migration, 230

Chamorro people, 5*, 10, 197–198, 235, 239, 240, 245

Chan, Charlie, 228

Chan, Wilma, 332

chants, 191

Chao, Elaine, 333

Charr, Easurk Emsen, 272–273

Chavez, Cesar, 257, 279, 331

Chen, Christine, 335

Cherokee Nation v. Georgia, 31

Chicago, 29

Chicago World’s Fair, 163–164, 164*

Child Citizenship Act (2000), 297

children

adoption of, 226, 239–240, 296–297, 309–310, 319–320

Amerasian, 9, 294–296

orphans, 226, 296
Index 397

Chin, Vincent, 135, 258, 281, 336

China, 3, 8

communist, 226

instability in, 88–89

one-child policy, 297

open-door policy, 32

Opium Wars, 20, 111

as source of labor, 20–21

trade with, 23–24, 27–28, 32, 39, 130

China Doll, 121

Chinatowns, 54, 56–60, 62*, 74–75, 101, 134–135, 145, 145*,

152, 275–276, 308–309, 332, 370–372

Chinese Alien Wives of American Citizens Act, 215

Chinese American archaeology, 12

Chinese American Citizens Alliance (CACA), 119, 336

Chinese American resources, 367–373

Chinese and Chinese Americans, 9, 54

See also Chinese immigrants

business run by, 143–144

in Civil War, 29

Cold War and, 7–8

communities of, 100–101, 308–311

forced labor of, 19, 20*, 21

growth of population, 100

in maritime industries, 64–65

social networks, 59–60

during WWII, 212, 214

Chinese Association, 115*

Chinese associations, 115

Chinese cemeteries, 68–69

Chinese Communist Party, 7–8

Chinese Confessions Program, 227

Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association, 115*, 119

Chinese diaspora, 12, 54, 56

Chinese Exclusion Act (1882), 5, 7, 29, 94–95, 98, 113, 129, 

272, 287, 308

Chinese for Affirmative Action (CAA), 336

Chinese Hand Laundry Association, 258

Chinese Historical Society of American (CHSA), 310

Chinese immigrants, 5, 7, 8, 12, 18, 54, 88–90

after 1965, 288

Angel Island and, 98–99

to Caribbean, 88

construction by, 118–119

discrimination against, 94–95

entrepreneurs, 150

exclusion of, 5, 7, 29, 94–95, 98, 113, 272–273, 287

farmers, 65–66, 90

during gold rush, 88

Irish and, 28–29

labor of, 88–90

in Mexico, 18–19

miners, 63–64, 72–73

motivations of, 286

railroad workers, 61–63, 89, 129, 134, 257

schools, 147

women, 89, 90, 100

Chinese laundries, 59–60, 258

Chinese medicine, 70, 72

Chinese New Year, 308

Chinese porcelain, 23, 23*, 56

Chinese Railroad Workers in North America Project, 61

Chinese Revolution (1911), 88

Chinese Six Companies, 115*

Chinese War Brides Act (1946), 293

Chinese War Relief Association, 212

Chon, Charles, 259

Chop Suey Circuit, 121

Chow, Ruby, 331

Choy, Catherine Ceniza, 9

Christianity, 40, 116, 130, 173

Christian missionaries, 26, 40, 130, 286

Chu, Judy, 332

cinemas, 120

cities

Chinatowns in, 57–60

growth of, 132

immigration to, 29

Japantowns in, 60, 184–188

Citizens Committee to Repeal Chinese Exclusion

(CCRCE), 214

citizenship, 24, 25, 28, 32–33, 98, 272–273

barriers to, 272–273, 287

birthright, 102–103

lawsuits, 102–103

civic associations, 119–121

civic participation, 271–283

Civil Liberties Act (1988), 281, 332

civil rights, 29, 335–337

Civil Rights Act (1866), 28

Civil Rights Act (1875), 31

Civil Rights Act (1991), 136

civil rights movement, 231, 260–261, 262, 265, 266, 276, 

287, 331

Civil War, 28–29, 259

Clark, William, 26

Cleaver, Eldridge, 275

Clinton, Bill, 136, 332

coins, 56

Cold War, 7–8, 36, 194, 198, 225–232, 273–274, 287–288

college education, 216

Collins, Wayne, 211

colonialism, 8, 17–19, 40, 116

English, 22–23

indigenous peoples and, 12

internal, 11

in Pacific Islands, 36, 37, 244–245

power relations and, 1
398 AAPI National Historic Landmarks Theme Study

Colorado River Relocation Camp, 134, 134*

Columbus, Christopher, 18, 21

comfort women, 216

commemoration, 74–75, 247

commemorative properties, 367

commercial culture, 120–121

Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of

Civilians (CWRIC), 280

Committee Against Anti-Asian Violence (CAAV), 281,

336–337

Committee Against Nihonmachi Eviction (CANE), 278

Committee of Safety, 193

communism, 226–227

See also Cold War

Communist Party of the Philippines, 227, 278

Communities, ethnic, 298–300

communities, 4, 8–9, 12, 111–124

Asian American, 298–300, 307–324

Asian Indian, 314–316

Chinese, 54, 56, 57–60, 74–75, 101, 145, 308–311, 370–372

civic and political associations, 119–121

ethnic, 133, 144–147

Filipino, 9, 102, 149, 311–314

formation of, 36, 298–300

Japanese, 101, 133

Korean, 9, 101–102, 146, 319–321

migration networks and, 112–114

Nikkei, 170–173

social, mutual aid, and spiritual institutions, 114–117

South Asian, 102, 146

Southeast Asian, 9

urban, 133

Vietnamese, 133, 316–319

community organizations, 337

community spaces, 130–132

Compromise of 1850, 27

Congressional Asian Pacific American Caucus (CAPAC),

332, 335

construction industry, 172

construction projects, 118–119

consumer goods, 70

containment doctrine, 226–227

“Continuous Journey” order, 96

Cook, James, 25, 26

coolie-ism, 19, 21

coolies, 88

Costa Rica, 21

cotton, 19

counter narratives, 133–135

creation stories, 242

criminal organizations, 146

Cuba, 10, 21, 30, 31, 32, 88

cultivation techniques, 118–119

cultural heritage, of Pacific Islanders, 235–252

cultural histories, of Pacific Islanders, 42–44

cultural retention, 11–13, 255–268

culture

during Cold War, 227–228

commercial, 120–121

Japanese, 101, 163–164

material, 56–60, 70–73

pop, 261–265

youth, 267

D

Daly City, 149, 312

Danico, Mary Yu, 12

Daniels, Roger, 209

Das, Tarak Nath, 120

Davidson, J. O., 8

Dawes Act, 32

Dayal, Har, 120

Declaration of Independence, 23

decolonization, 37, 40–41

Delano Grape Strike, 257

De Mars, Venron Armand, 178–179

democracy, 29, 88

Democratic Party, 216

deportations, 298

“Destiny’s Child,” 29–31

Development, Relief, and Education for Alien Minors

(DREAM) Act, 298

Dewey George, 30–31

DeWitt, John L., 208

Diasporic Vietnamese Artists Network (DVAN), 318

discrimination, against immigrants, 87–88, 94–97, 100–104,

229, 256, 258, 272–273, 286–288

Displaced Persons Act (1948), 290

districts, 346, 362–363

Domingo, Silme, 136, 278

Domoto, Kaneji, 167, 169

Domoto, Kantero and Motonoshin, 166

Domoto, Toichi, 166–167

Donaldson, J. O., 258

Donner Party, 72–73

Dred Scott decision, 29, 32

drug trade, 146

Dubrow, Gail, 12

Dumont d‘Urville, Jules, 37

Dunn, James, 24

Duyungan, Virgil, 335*

E

East Indies, 39

Ebens, Ronald, 258, 281

economy, 256–261

education, 40, 102, 266–267, 272

elected officials, 231, 331, 332–335
Index 399

elections, 9

electoral growth, 332

Elgin Air Force Base, 9, 291

Elk v. Wilkins, 32

Embrey, Sue Kunitomi, 280

employment opportunities, 214

Empress of China, 23–24

Eng, Raymond, 330

English colonies, 22–23

English First, 267

English language, 266–267

Enlightenment, 37

entertainment, 120–121, 143

entrepreneurs, 9, 150–152, 153, 289, 320

epochal chronologies, 38–42

ethnic communities/enclaves, 133, 144–147, 298–300

See also Communities

Chinatowns, 54, 56–60, 62*, 74–75, 101, 145, 370–372

Japantowns, 60, 184–188, 375–376, 377

Korean, 146

ethnic studies, 11*

ethnocentrism, 5

Eugene J. de Sabia, Jr., Teahouse and Tea Garden, 375

European Americans, 5

European exploration, 17, 18, 25, 39–40

Executive Order 9066, 7, 208, 256, 259, 267

expansionism, 23, 26–28

Ex parte Endo, 211

F

Fabie, Ramon, 18

Families with Children from China (FCC), 309

family reunification, 230, 289

family structures, 91–92

Farmer, James, 275

farmers, 65–66, 90, 119, 143, 148–149, 151, 166, 208

Federated States of Micronesia (FSM), 236

femininity, 70

Festival of Pacific Arts, 247

Fiancee’s Act, 215

15th Amendment, 28

Fiji, 3

Filipino Agricultural Laborer’s Association (FALA), 104

Filipino American National Historical Society, 313

Filipino Community Hall, 378

Filipino Labor Union (FLU), 103–104, 134

Filipinos and Filipino Americans, 5, 8, 31, 88, 93–94, 132

in Civil War, 29

communities, 9, 102, 149, 311–314

discrimination against, 97

immigration by, 18, 100, 113–114, 287, 311

labor activism, 103–104

mixed heritage, 312

nurses, 290, 312

resources, 378

sailors, 114

small businesses of, 145–146

social clubs, 115–116

workers, 258

during WWII, 208, 212

Fillmore, Millard, 27

films, 121, 261–262

financial institutions, 143–144, 147

First Transcontinental Railroad sites, 379–380

fisheries, 114, 258

Flower Drum Song, 262

Fong, Hiram, 329

Fong Eu, March, 331

Fong Won Herb Company Building, 368

Forbidden City Nightclub, 368

forced labor, 19–22, 88

Fort Chaffee, 9, 290

Fort Indiantown Gap, 9, 291

Forty Acres, The, 279, 356–357

442nd Regimental Combat Team, 209, 259, 281

14th Amendment, 25, 28, 29

France, 40

fraternal organizations, 116, 329

French Polynesia, 40

Friendship Society, 119–120

Friends of Freedom for India, 120

frontier, 29–30

Fuji-kan theater, 121

Fujita-Rony, Dorothy, 10

Fu Manchu, 228

funerals, 68–69

fur trade, 25

G

Gadar Movement, 192

gambling halls, 120

gaming, 60

gangs, 146

gardens

Chinese, 66, 142–143

Japanese, 165–170

garment workers, 135, 257

Gast, John, 26

Gee, Emma, 275

gender, 25, 28, 69–73, 215, 279–280

genealogy of place, 191–192

genocide, 31

Gentaro, 168

Gentlemen’s Agreement, 95–96, 272, 287, 319

gentrification, 309

geography, 37–38

geo-politics, 36, 226–227

George Nakashima Woodworkers Complex, 359–360
400 AAPI National Historic Landmarks Theme Study

Geron, Kim, 10

Gerry’s, 149

Ghadar Party, 120

G.I. Bill, 216

Gidra, 279–280

Gilroy Yamato Hot Springs, 170, 375

Gin Lin Hydraulic Mining Site, 373

Goethe, Charles M., 207

gold mining, 63–64

gold rush, 27, 36, 57, 88, 256

“gook” discourse, 226, 281

Government House, 357

Graham, Charles, 8

“Grain of Sand, A,” 264

Granada Relocation Center, 67, 357–358

grassroots activism, 41, 274-275

graves, 366

Great Depression, 134

Great Sugar Strike, 257

Greene & Greene, 161

Guam, 3, 5*, 8, 10, 17, 31, 32, 36, 132, 192, 195–198, 235, 237, 

238, 247

Guamanians, 36

Guan, Yuan, 21

Guangdong Province, 21

Guantanamo Naval Station, 32

guanxi, 58

Gulch Site, 64

H

H-1B visas, 288

Hagiwara, Makoto, 165

Haley, Nikki, 334

Hall, George, 25

Hall, Lisa Kahaleole, 2

Hanamura, Robert, 180–181

Hand Laundryman’s Alliance, 329

Harada House, 355

Harlins, Latasha, 259

Hart-Celler Immigration Act, 230, 274

hate crimes, 258–259, 281–282

Hawai‘i, 3, 17, 32, 36

annexation of, 5, 6, 23, 32, 193–194, 240

conquest of, 25–26

Democratic Revolution of 1954, 274

Great Sugar Strike, 257

Japanese Americans in, 207–208

Japanese immigrants in, 172

Kalama Valley, 279

Kanaka Maoli, 10–11

Kanaloa Kaho‘olawe, 193–196

map of, 190*

martial law in, 207

music of, 265

nationalist movements, 101

Okinawan community, 212

politics in, 329

rebirth of, 195–196

republic of, 193–194

sovereignty, 195

state of, 40

sugar plantations, 113, 131

Hay, John, 30, 32

Hayakawa, S. I., 276, 334

Heard, Augustine, 24

Hearn, Lafcadio, 8, 258

He Ko‘ihonua no Kanaloa Kaho‘olawe, He Moku, 201–203

heritage hikes, 198

heritage tourism, 74–75

Hernandez, Amado, 227

Hindu invasion, 96–97, 100

Hinduism, 117

Hindustani Welfare and Reform Society, 116

Hing, Alex, 275

Hirabayashi, Lane, 9

Hirabayshi v. United States, 210–211

Hirono, Maizie, 334

Hiroshima, 281

historical ethnography, 73

Historic Filipinotown, 378

historic preservation, 11–13, 74–75

in Pacific Islands, 246–247

historic preservation offices (HPOs), 247

Hokukano-Ualapue Complex, 364

holistic studies, 73–74

Hollywood films, 261–262

Holt, Bertha and Henry, 296

homelands, 237–238

Hong Kong, 20, 21

Ho-o-Den, 163–164

hotels, 144, 151, 153

Huerta, Dolores, 257, 279, 331

huiguan, 115

Huilua Fishpond, 364

Hukbalahap (Huk) movement, 227

human settlement, 42

human smuggling, 146

Huston, John, 29

“hyper-selectivity” regime, 230

I

Ichioka, Yuji, 172, 275

Idaho, 27

I-Hotel campaign, 278–279, 313, 332

Iijima, Kazu, 275

Imada, Kinjo, 179–180

“immigrant acts,” 102–104

immigrants and immigration, 5, 7, 8, 36, 87–108
Index 401

See also specific nationalities

assimilation, 101

citizenship for, 28, 32–33, 98, 102–103

communities and, 8–9

discrimination against, 87–88, 94–97, 100–104, 113, 

272–273, 286–288

diversity of, 9

fear of, 29

global streams of, 112

hostilities faced by, 12

labor of, 10

laws, 5, 96, 229–230

lawsuits by, 102–104

to Northern cities, 29

post-WWII, 285–304

processed through Angel Island, 97–100

reforms, 4, 9

undocumented, 297–298

women, 89, 100, 215–216

Immigration Act (1917), 96, 287

Immigration Act (1924), 272, 287

Immigration Act (1965), 9, 229–230, 285, 287, 308, 328

Immigration and Nationality Act (1952), 287, 288

immigration laws, 24–25, 29, 229–230, 272, 287, 308

Immigration Restriction League, 29

imperialism, 5–8, 17–33, 88, 111

defined, 18

resistance to, 9–11

sites of resistance to, 189–203

inclusion, 2

indentured servants, 19–22, 24, 88

India

British conquest of, 111

cultural influences of, 39

immigrants from, 93

India Home Rule League, 120

Indian Americans, 9, 147, 378–379

Indian communities, 314–316

Indian immigrants, 96–97, 151

Indian Independence League, 120

Indian migrants, 10

Indian Ocean, 3

Indian wars, 31

indigenous peoples

colonialism and, 12

as racially inferior, 5

resistance by, 9–11

indios, 18

individualism, 67

Indochina Migration and Refugee Assistance Act (1975),

291

industrial communities, 60–66

industrialization, 89–90, 112, 116

industrial spaces, 130–132

infectious diseases, 20

inferior races, 25

Influence of Sea Power upon History, The (Mahan), 6, 30

innovation, 142

Inouye, Daniel, 215, 274, 280, 330

Insular Cases, 241

integrity

aspects of, 351

considerations for archeological resources, 353

considerations for non-archeological resources,

352–353

evaluation of, 352

of properties, 351–353

Intercollegiate Chinese for Social Action (ICSA), 276

internal colonialism, 11

international brides, 293–294

International Hotel, 278–279, 313, 332

International Hotel Tenants Association (IHTA), 278

International Longshoremen’s and Warehousemen’s 

Union (ILWU), 134, 227, 257, 278

international students, 288–289

International Theater, 121

international trade, 36

internment

assembly centers, 209

court challenges to, 210–211

of Japanese Americans during WWII, 2–3, 6–7, 6*, 55,

66–67, 178–184, 206–212, 259–260, 280–281

redressing, 280–281

sites, 66–67

‘Iolani Palace, 194*, 358, 358*

Irish, 28–29

issei, 101, 147, 166, 171–172, 175, 206

Itliong, Larry, 257, 279, 331

I Wor Kuen (IWK), 276

J

Jamaica, 88

James I (king), 22

Jamestown, 22

Japan, 3, 7

in 19th century, 163

family structures, 67

opening of, 27–28, 111

post-war economic reconstruction of, 36

Japanese American archaeology, 12

Japanese American Citizens League (JACL), 231, 273, 329,

336

Japanese American Confinement Sites (JACS) program,

2–3, 392

Japanese American Financial Company, 147

Japanese American resources, 374–377

Japanese and Japanese Americans, 9, 148–149

See also Japanese immigrants
402 AAPI National Historic Landmarks Theme Study

archaeological sites, 55

architects, 173–184

architectural legacy of, 161–187

architecture and landscape of, 12–13

communities, 133

discrimination against, 178

entrepreneurs, 150–151

family structures, 67

internment of, 2–3, 6–7, 6*, 55, 66–67, 178–184, 206–212, 

259–260, 280–281

issei, 101, 147, 166, 171–172, 175, 206

in logging industry, 64

military service of, 213–214, 259–260

nisei, 206, 211

status of, 103

unionization by, 134

women, 92, 171–172, 213, 272

workers, 5, 8

during World War II, 66–69, 205–222

WWII historic sites, 357–358

Japanese and Korean Exclusion League, 172, 272

Japanese bathhouses, 120

Japanese cemeteries, 68–69

Japanese Cultural and Trade Center, 177–178

Japanese culture, 101, 163–164

Japanese empire, 111

Japanese gardens and landscape design, 165–170

Japanese Gulch Site, 377

Japanese immigrants, 90–92, 299

Angel Island and, 99–100

communities of, 101

discrimination against, 95–96

Japanese Language Schools, 374–375

Japanese Mexican Labor Association (JMLA), 128

Japantowns, 60, 184–188, 332, 376–377

Jarvis, Jonathan, 2

Jefferson, Thomas, 26

Jersey City Asian Merchant Association (JCAMA), 314

Jewell, Sally, 2

Jindal, Bobby, 334

Jinsha Mission shrine, 168, 168*

Johnson, Lyndon B., 230

Johnson-Reed Act, 272

Jones Act, 32

K

Kaho‘olawe, 10, 10*

Kake Cannery, 356

Kalama Valley, 279

Kalaupapa Leprosy Settlement, 361

Kalayaan collective, 278

Ka Lea, 365

Kaloko-Honokôhau National Historical Park, 364

Kamakahonu, 364–365

Kam Wah Chung Company Building, 355

Kanahele, Edward, 199

Kânaka Maoli, 10–11, 235

Kanaloa Kaho‘olawe, 192–196

Kaneena (chief), 34*

Kang, Kristy H. A., 321

Katipunan ng mga Demokratikong Pilipino (KDP), 278

Kaunolu Village Site, 364

Kawabe, Harry Sotaro, 150

Kawaiaha‘o Church and Mission houses, 358–359

Kawakita, Saichiro, 182

Keku Canning Company, 114*

Kenny, Robert, 214

Kikuchi-Yngojo, Robert, 264

Kim Brothers Company, 151

Kimura, Masaharu, 182

King, Rodney, 320

kin networks, 112, 115, 116, 119

Kiyota, Minoru, 209

Knox, Frank, 207

Kochiyama, Yuri, 260, 275

Koga, Keisaburo, 150

Kokusai Theater, 121

Korea, 36

Korean immigrants, 8, 92, 100, 119–120, 143, 151, 272

Korean Immigrant Workers Association, 135

Koreans and Korean Americans, 9

communities, 9, 101–102, 146, 319–321

race riots and, 259

resources, 377–378

during WWII, 212, 213

Korean War, 194, 226, 285, 294, 319

Korean women, 216

Koreatowns, 320, 321

Korematsu, Fred, 260

Korematsu v. United States, 211, 260

Kuru, Masamichi, 164

Kushubiki, Peter Yumeto, 164

Kwan, Nancy, 262

Kykuit Japanese garden, 181*

L

labor

agricultural, 131

Chinese, 61–63, 88–90, 120, 134, 257

demand for, 112, 115

exploitation, 19–22, 88

history of Asian American, 127–136

immigrant, 286–288

racial oppression and, 256–261

resistance, 133–135

strikes, 103–104, 133–135, 257

transient, 115, 131

labor activism, 103–104, 131, 134, 257–258
Index 403

labor camps, 54

Lâhainâ Historic District, 363

Lai, Him Mark, 150

land laws, 214, 273, 274, 299

landmarks, indigenous perspective on, 199

landscape, sites of resistance, 191

landscape architecture, 12–13, 165–170, 361–362

land tenure, 40

language, 38, 40, 266–267

Lao Americans, 146–147

Lao refugees, 291, 292

Laputa pottery, 38

laundries, 59–60

Lau v. Nichols, 267, 336

League of Nations Mandate, 240

Ledyard, John, 26

Lee, Bruce, 262

Lee, Edwin, 334

Lee, Erika, 8

Lee, Mary Paik, 208

Lee, Rose Hum, 150

legal organizations, 335–337

Legitimate Ways (Leways), 275

leper colonies, 244

Lewis, Meriwether, 26

Liang, C. K., 228*

Lin, Gin, 63

Little Manila, 149, 153, 313

Little Saigon, 133, 317–318

Little Tokyo Historic District, 121, 133, 133*, 143, 148, 185, 363

Little Tokyo People’s Rights Organization (LTPRO), 278

Liu, Carol, 332

livestock, 118

Loaloa Heiau, 365

Locke, Gary, 334

Locke Historic District, 363

Lodge, Henry Cabot, 31

logging, 64

London Company, 22

Long Beach, 132

Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, 135–136

Los Angeles, 121, 133, 143, 144*, 148, 149, 214–215, 289, 298,

320–321

Louisiana Purchase, 26, 27

Lowell, Massachusetts, 146

Luce-Celler Act, 273, 287, 287–288

Luke, Wing, 330–331

M

Macao, 21

MacArthur, Douglas, 290

Madame Butterfly, 262

Maeda, Daryl, 11

“magnate” phenomenon, 150–152

Magnuson Act, 273, 287

Mahan, Alfred Thayer, 6, 30

Maki, Jack, 270*

Malay Peninsula, 39

Malcolm X, 260, 275

malnutrition, 21

Malo, David, 26

man@ngs, 313

Manchurian Candidate, The (film), 226

Maneki restaurant, 173

Mangaoang, Ernesto, 274*

manifest destiny, 5, 6, 27–31, 32, 190

Manila Galleon trade, 8, 18

Manila men, 258

Manzanar, 209, 210, 210*

Manzanar Committee, 280

Manzanar riot, 209

Mao Zedong, 226, 277

maps, 37–38

Marcos, Ferdinand, 278, 311

Mare Island Naval Shipyard, 132*

Marianas, 192, 235

maritime industries, 64–65

markets, 145–146, 147, 148–149, 150

Market Street Chinatown Archaeology Project, 58–59, 74

marriages, 114, 215, 216, 226, 262, 293–294, 319

Marsh, Kelly G., 8–9

Marshall Islands, 3, 236

masculinity, 70

mass migration, 36

Masuda, Minn, 275

material culture, 56–60, 70–73

Matsui, Robert, 231, 231*, 280

Matsui, Yasuo, 176–177

Matsumoto, George, 180

Matsunaga, Spark, 280

Mauna Kea Adz Quarry, 365

Mauritius, 19

McCarran-Walter Act, 229, 273, 274, 287

McDermott, Jim, 136

McGee, Frederick, 31

McGregor, Davianna, 10

McKinley, William, 30, 31, 240

Media Action Network for Asian Americans, 264

medicine, 70, 72

Mendocino Joss House, 370

mercantilism, 22–23

merchant marines, 114

mestizos, 18

Mexican-American War, 27

Mexicans, 32

Mexico, 4, 8, 17–19, 27, 40

Meyer vs. Nebraska, 266

Miami Confederacy, 23
404 AAPI National Historic Landmarks Theme Study

migrant labor, 5, 8, 10

migration

See also immigrants and immigration

chain, 230

mass, 36

networks, 89, 112–114

Pacific Islanders, 238–240, 242–243

pre-historical, 38

militarism, 131–132, 275

militarization, 244–245

military bases, 9, 132, 198, 245, 290–291

military brides, 293–294

military service, 212–213, 259–260

military training academies, 120

Miller Gulch Sawmill Site, 373

Mineta, Norman, 231, 280, 332, 333

mining, 62–64

mining camps, 12, 72–73, 75*

Mink, Patsy, 231, 274, 330*, 331, 333*

Minnesota Adopted Koreans (MAK), 319–320

missionaries, 26, 40, 130, 286

Miss Saigon, 262

Moa‘ulaiki, Kaho‘olawe, 188*

mobility, 42–43

model minority, 228–229, 273–274, 337

Mo Hock Ke Lok Po v. Stainback, 266

Monroe Doctrine, 30

Monterey Bay, California, 147–148, 152

Monterey Park, California, 309, 334

Mo‘okini Heiau, 362

Mo‘olelo O Koho’olawe, 193

Moore Gulch Placer Mining Community, 380

Morris, Robert, 23, 26

mortality rates, of indentured servants, 21

mortuary behavior, 68–69

Moua, Mee, 333–334

moved buildings, 366

Mt. Vernon, 2

Mukaida, Sam, 276*

multinational companies, 36

municipal policing, 120

Murray, Hugh, 25

Museum of Chinse in America (MOCA), 310–311, 310*

music, 264–265

Muslims, 117, 298

mutual aid societies, 8, 114–117

My America or Honk if You Love Buddha (1997), 255

N

Nagasaki, 281

nail salons, 320

Nakanishi, Don, 332

Nakashima, George, 181–182, 359–360

Nan Madol, 43–44

Na`puti, Tiara R., 8–9

National Act (1940), 32

National Asian American Theatre Company, 263

National Coalition for Redress and Reparations (NCRR),

280

National Council of Asian Pacific Americans (NCAPA),

337

National Defense and Highways Act, 185

National Defense Education Act, 266

National Farm Workers Association (NFWA), 131, 279

National Historic Landmarks (NHLs), 2, 7*, 13, 54, 152

application of criteria to AAPI properties, 353–367

areas of significance, 349

with Chinese American associations, 342, 367–373

criteria exceptions, 348–349

criteria for evaluation, 347–350

with Filipino American associations, 378

with Indian/Southeast Asian associations, 378–379

integrity of, 351–353

with Japanese American associations, 342, 373–377

with Korean American associations, 377–378

with Pacific Islander associations, 342

period of significance, 349–350

property types, 345–346

registration requirements for designation of, 341–381

Study List, 343–344, 383–389

thematic framework, 350–351

national historic sites

Asian Americans and, 127–139

community spaces and, 130–132

industries and, 130–132

reframing, 129–130

resistance and counter narratives, 133–135

National Historic Sites Act, 152

nationalist movements, 101, 103, 192

National Japanese American Student Relocation Council,

211

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

(NOAA), 43

National Park Seminary, 160

National Park Service (NPS), 2, 4, 152, 153

National Register of Historic Places (NRHP), 2, 13, 54

archaeology and, 75–76

Pågat, 5*, 10

national significance, within past 50 years, 367

National Woman Suffrage Association, 28

Native American and Indigenous Studies Association

(NAISA), 36

Native Americans, 4, 17, 18

citizenship of, 25, 32

colonies and, 22

Dawes Act and, 32

land of, 23

treaties with, 23, 32
Index 405

treatment of, 31

Native Hawaiians, 2, 5, 6, 10, 20, 240, 241, 242, 245, 265, 266,

279, 329

nativism, 5, 287

naturalization, 24, 25, 29, 32–33, 96, 272–273

Naturalization Act, 24, 25, 103, 142, 287

natural resources, 112

Naves, Vincent, 274*

navigational skills, 42

navy, 30

New Bedford, Massachusetts, 6

New Caledonia, 40

New Chinatown, Los Angeles, 144*

New Democrats, 275

New Guinea, 38

New Mexico, 27

New Orleans, 8, 258, 318

New People’s Army (NPA), 278

New Spain, 18–19, 25

newspapers, 147

New World, 18

New York City, 29, 134–135, 145, 175, 177, 276, 298

New Zealand, 12, 40

nightclubs, 121

Niiya, Brian, 6–7

Nikkei communities, architecture in, 170–173

99 Ranch Markets, 150

Nippon Kan Hall, 173

Nippon Kan Theater, 121

nisei, 206, 211

Nishiura, 168

Nitz, Michael, 258, 281

“noble savages,” 40

noble savages stereotype, 245

Northern Mariana Islands, 3, 9, 235, 241

Northwest Asian American Theater, 263

Northwest Passage, 25

Northwest Territory, 23

NPS programs, 152, 391–392

nuclear testing, 194, 245

nurses, 290, 312

O

Oakland Japantown, 377

Obama, Barack, 298

Obata, Gyo, 180

objects, 346

oceangoing vessels, 42–43

Ogawa, Frank, 330

Okamoto, Rai Yukio, 185–186

Okihiro, Gary, 5–6

Okinawan community, 212

Old Koloa Mill, 131

Old Sugar Mill of Koloa, 130, 131, 359

Olympics, 9

Operation Babylift, 296

opera troupes, 120–121

opium, 60, 73, 74*

opium dens, 120

Opium Wars, 8, 20, 88, 111, 286

Oregon, 27

Oregon Territory, 27

Organic Act of Guam, 198

organizational infrastructure, 335

Organization of Chinese Americans (OCA), 336

orphans, 226, 296

Osaki, Wayne, 185–186

O’Sullivan, John, 27

Ouray, Colorado, 59–60

Ouray Chinese Laundry/Vanoli Site, 373

Overseas Chinese archaeology, 54–55

overseas contract workers, 313

Ozasa, Saburo, 174

Ozawa, Takao, 103, 273

Ozawa v. United States, 273

P

Pacific Coast Hindustan Association, 120

Pacific Coast Japanese Association Deliberation Council,

273

Pacific Islanders, 2

See also Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders

cultural histories, 42–44

distinctiveness, from Asian cultures, 36–37

epochal chronologies, 38–42

heritage of, 235–252

historic preservation for, 11–12

history of, 242–246

homelands of, 237–238

migration of, 238–240, 242–243

mobilities, 35–44

navigational skills, 12

political relationships, 240–241

presence in U.S., 241–242

resistance by, 245–246

voyaging by, 238–240, 244–245

Pacific Islands, 3–4

cartographies, 37–38

colonization of, 36, 37, 40, 244–245

contemporary political entities, 48–50*

decolonization of, 40–41

historic preservation programs in, 246–247

history of, 242–246

militarization of, 244–245

remembrance and commemoration in, 247

scientific expeditions in mapping of, 47–48*

settlement of, 38–39

Pacific Ocean, 3, 5, 12, 37
406 AAPI National Historic Landmarks Theme Study

Pâgat, Guam, 5*, 10, 195–198

Page Act (1875), 89, 272

Pago Pago, 32

Pakistan, 3, 93

paleogeography, 37

Palmyra Atoll, 240

Panama, 21

Panama Hotel, 133, 173, 174, 362

Pan Asian Repertory Theater, 263

Papahãnaumokuãkea Marine National Monument, 43

“paper sons,” 98–99

Parker, Daniel, 23

Passport in Time program, 75

Patels, 9, 151

Payette National Forest, 75

Peace and Freedom Party, 275

Peace Pagoda, 184*

peanut galleries, 121

Pearl Harbor, 206, 259

Pearl S. Buck House, 360–361

People Against Chinatown Evictions (PACE), 278

period of significance, 349–350

“perpetual foreigner,” 36

Perry, Matthew, 27–28

Peru, 20, 21

Philippine-American War, 281, 285

Philippines, 3, 4, 5, 8, 18, 40, 132, 136

Cold War and, 226–227

under Marcos, 278, 311

political destabilization in, 290

Spanish-American War and, 30–31

status of, as U.S. territory, 32

U.S. control of, 111

U.S. war in, 31–32

Philippine Sea, 3

Phoenix Hall, 163–164

physical landscape, transformation of, 118–119

“picture brides,” 92, 96*, 99, 272

picture brides, 272, 319

Pierce, Idaho, 73

pig-dealing, 21

Pi’ilanihale Heiau, 359

Pilipino American Collegiate Endeavor (PACE), 276

Pio DeCano case, 214

place, 43-44

memories through, 1–2

names, 191

plantations, 19–22, 20*, 32, 40, 88–91, 112, 113

Platt Amendment, 32

Plessy v. Ferguson, 31

Pokaneloa, 10*

political associations, 119–121

political history, 10–11

political mobilization, 230–231, 327–338

political participation, 327–338, 329–331

political relationships, 240–241

politicians, 231, 331

Polk, James, 27

Pol Pot, 292

Polynesians, forced labor of, 20

pool halls, 120

pop culture, 261–265

population growth, 285–286, 307–308, 332–335

porcelain, 23, 56, 66

Poston War Relocation Center, 134*

postwar global order, 226–227

power relations, colonial, 1

Promontory Summit, 12, 129

properties

commemorative, 367

integrity of, 351–353

reconstructed, 367

religious, 365–366

property types, 345–346

prostitution, 120, 272

protectorates, 40

proximate businesses, 146

public office holders, 331, 332–335

Puerto Rico, 8, 10, 17, 30, 31, 32, 132, 241

Pure Land Buddhism, 171

Q

Qing Empire, 88

Quan, Jean, 334

quota system, 287

R

race, 24–25, 29, 32, 103

race riots, 94, 97, 214–215, 258–259

racialized management, 130–131

racial oppression, 256–261

racial tensions, 320–321

racial triangulation, 228–229

racism, 5, 7, 30, 31, 97, 213, 214–215, 228–229, 259, 274, 

281, 332

ragpicking, 62*

rags-to-riches stories, 150

railroads, 60–62, 89, 112, 129, 131, 256

Rapa Nui (Easter Island), 20, 40

rape, 21

rational action theory, 153

Reagan, Ronald, 281

reconstructed properties, 367

Red Guard Party, 275–276

Refaluwasch, 235, 239

refugees, 4, 9, 143, 230, 285–286, 290–293, 298, 317, 319, 332

regional economic complexes, 147–149

religion, 116–117, 173
Index 407

religious properties, 365–366

religious schools, 117

remembrance, 247

Republic of Hawai‘i, 193–194

Republic of Palau (ROP), 236

Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI), 236

Rescission Act (1946), 290

resistance, 133–135

activism and, 265–266

labor, 133–135

nature of, 192

by Pacific Islanders, 245–246

racial oppression and, 256–261

restoration and, 194

sites of, 189–203

strategies, 1, 9–11, 12

restaurants, 120, 121, 146–147, 149, 173, 239

revitalization, 245–246

Revolutionary War, 23

Reynolds, L. D., 265

Riverside Chinatown, 74–75, 371–372

Rodrigo, Tony, 335*

rooming houses, 144

Roosevelt, Franklin D., 7, 256

Roosevelt, Theodore, 27, 30, 272

Roque, Frank, 282

Ross, Doug, 12

rural activism, 279

rural communities, 60–66

S

Saarinen, Eero, 177

Saarinen, Eliel, 177

Sacramento, California, 57–58

Sahul, 38

Sakata, Harry Kyusaburo, 169–170

Salazar, Ken, 2

Salinas Lettuce Strike, 103–104

saloons, 120

Samoa, 3, 17, 32, 36, 235, 237

Samoans, 36

sandalwood, 131

San Francisco, 131, 132, 276–277, 299

San Francisco Chinatown, 62*, 101, 145*, 308, 370–371

San Francisco State College, 379

San Francisco State University, 11, 11*

San Jose Japantown, 376

San Miguel Abalone Fishery, 379

San Miguel Island, 64

Santos, Angel, 234*

Sasaki, Bob Hideo, 162, 183–184

Sawahata, Alfred Kadzuo, 178

sayings, 191

School for Indian Languages and Cultures (SILC), 316

schools, 147, 266–267, 272

seafaring, 42–43

sea power, 30

Seattle, 132, 145, 146, 173, 330–331

Seattle Buddhist Church, 171, 175

self-determination, 241, 245–246

September 11, 2001, 281–282, 298

Serramonte Mall, 149

“Serve the People,” 277

sexuality, 69–73

Shah, Nayan, 8

Shimamoto, George Gentoku, 168

Shinto shrines, 167–168, 167*

Shinzaburo, 168

Shiota, Takeo, 176

Shivers, Robert, 207

shrines, 167–168

Sikh immigrants, 117, 151, 281–282, 314

Sikh Temple, 118*

Silicon Valley, 9

Silva, Noenoe, 1

silver, 18

Singh, Jawala, 151

Singh Saund, Dalip, 329

Si Saito, Siberius, 178–179

Sister Cities movement, 186

sites, 346

without buildings or structures, 366

sites of resistance

case studies, 192–199

genealogy of place, 191–192

indigenous perspective on, 199

Kanaloa Kaho‘olawe, 192–196

landscape, 191

Mo‘olelo O Koho‘olawe, 193

Pâgat, Guam, 195–198

restoration of, 194

Six Companies, 367–368

slavery, 19–22, 24–25, 27, 28, 88

small businesses, 141–156, 239, 320

Smith, Adam, 23

Smith, John, 22

social Darwinism, 5, 30, 190

social institutions, 114–117

social relationships, 59–60

social service organizations, 337

Sociedad de Beneficencia de los Hispano Filipinos, 8

Sodhi, Balbir Singh, 282

Solomon Islands, 3

Song, Alfred H., 330

songs, 191

South Asian American Digital Archives (SAADA), 316

South Asian immigrants, 92–93, 96–97, 100

South Asians, 24
408 AAPI National Historic Landmarks Theme Study

Angel Island and, 100

backlash against, 96–97

in Civil War, 29

communities, 102, 146

forced labor of, 19, 21

South China Sea, 3

Southeast Asia, 36

forced labor in, 19

refugees from, 4, 9

Southeast Asian communities, 9

Southeast Asian resources, 378–379

South Pacific Commission (SPC), 40–41

Southwest, 27

Soviet Union, 7, 226

See also Cold War

Spain, 18, 30, 31

Spanish-American War, 10, 30–31, 198, 259, 281

Spanish empire, 4, 8, 18–19

spiritual institutions, 114–117

Stanton, Elizabeth Cady, 28

steamships, 112, 114

stereotypes, 36, 245, 263–264, 319

Stillman, Amy, 11–12

Stockton, California, 313

stories, 191

strikes, 103–104, 131, 133–135, 257

Strong, Josiah, 30

structures, 191–192, 345–346

student activism, 11, 260–261, 276–277

Su, L. T., 150

Subic Naval base, 132

suffragist movement, 28

sugar capitalism, 131

sugar plantations, 19–21, 20*, 32, 89–90, 113, 131

Summit Camp, 61–62, 372

Sunda, 38

Sun Yat-Sen, 192

Sutter, John, 27

T

Taft, William Howard, 32

Taiping Rebellion, 88

Takahashi, Motoyuki, 182

Takamine, Jokichi, 169

Takase, Hayahiko, 186

Takei, George, 263, 267, 268

Takima-Pena, Renee, 255

Tanaka, Umekichi, 172

Taney, Roger Brooke, 32

Taotao Håya (Chamorro), 5, 10, 235

Tape, Mary and Joseph, 102

Tape v. Hurley, 272

Taruc, Luis, 227

Tasmania, 38

Tea Act, 23

teahouses, 170*

tech industry, 151

temples, 168, 170–171, 174–175, 314

territorial regional complexes, 147–149

terrorism, 281–282, 298

Texas, 27

Texas Republic, 27

Thailand, 292

theaters, 120, 121, 263

Thind, Bhagat Signh, 103, 273

Third World Liberation Front (TWLF), 7, 11, 231, 260, 

276, 277

13th Amendment, 28

Thompson, Nainoa, 42–43

Tiananmen Square Massacre, 290

Tiger Brigade, 213

Tinker, Hugh, 19

tobacco, 19, 22, 73

Tokelau, 40

Tonga, Kingdom of, 40

Toothman, Stephanie, 2

Topaz Relocation Center, 7*

torture, 31

tourism, 146, 308

heritage, 74–75

Toyota v. United States, 273

Toyo-za theater, 121

trade

with China, 23–24, 27–28, 32, 39, 130

fur, 25

international, 36

Manila galleon, 8, 18

mercantilism, 22–23

silver, 18

transcontinental railroad, 5, 12, 129, 256

transnational adoptions, 296–297

transnational organizing, 278

transportation routes, 36, 112, 129–130

transracial adoption, 296–297

travel writing, 227–228

Treaty of Greenville, 23, 32

Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo, 27

Treaty of Kanagawa, 28

Treaty of Paris, 23, 31

Trinidad, 88

Truman, Harry, 226, 273–274, 290

Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands (TTPI), 36, 240–241

Tsumanuma, Iwahiko, 175–176

tuberculosis colonies, 244

Tule Lake camp, 211

Turlock Assembly Center, 6*

Turner, Fredrick Jackson, 29

Tydings-McDuffie Act, 97
Index 409

U

Underrepresented Community Grants, 391–392

undocumented immigrants, 297–298

unexploded ordnance (UXO), 244

unincorporated territories, 241

Union of Democratic Filipinos (KDP), 264

United Farm Workers of America, 257, 331–332

United Nations, 9

United States, 21–22

Asian immigrants to, 24

citizenship, 24, 25, 28, 32–33

Civil War, 28–29, 259

during Cold War, 225–232, 273–274

colonial, 4, 17, 18–19, 22

empire of, 4–8

foreign policy of, 231, 285

immigration laws, 24–25, 96, 229–230, 272, 287, 308

immigration to, 29, 87–108

imperialism, 17–33

independence for, 23–24

labor exploitation in, 19

race in, 24–25

slavery in, 22, 24–25

westward expansion, 23, 26–28

United States v. Bhagat Singh Thind, 273

urban communities, 133

urban redevelopment, 278–279

urban renewal, 185

USA PATRIOT Act, 298

U.S. Colored Troops (USCT), 29

U.S. Constitution, 5

U.S. Immigration Center, Angel Island, 1*, 2, 87, 97–100, 

97*, 354

U.S. military, 10, 36, 114, 131–132, 194–195, 198, 212–213, 245,

290, 312

U.S. Navy, 132, 194, 196, 198

USS Maine, 30, 30*

U.S. soldiers, children born to, 9, 114, 294–296

U.S. territories, 235–237, 240–241

U.S. Virgin Islands, 8

V

vaudeville, 121

Vera Cruz, Philip, 264, 279, 331

Vespucci, Amerigo, 18

veterans, 290

Viernes, Gene, 136, 278

Vietnamese Americans, 9, 133, 292–293, 316–319

Vietnam War, 260, 274, 276, 285, 290–291, 292, 296

violence, 314

anti-Asian, 135, 258–259, 281–282, 314, 336

against Chinese immigrants, 94

against immigrants, 113

Virgin Islands, 241

Vivekananda, Swami, 117

Vo, Linda, 9

voting rights, 9, 28

voyaging, in Oceania, 42–43, 238–240, 244–245

W

wahi pana, 199

Wah Long Hum, 150

Wakamatsu, Norio, 181

Wakamatsu Tea and Silk Colony, 374

Walleye Kid (Shio), 320

Walnut Grove Japanese American Historic District,

376–377

war brides, 215, 216, 226, 262, 293–294

War Brides Act, 215

Wards Cove case, 136

War on Terror, 32

War Relocation Authority (WRA), 209–212

Warren, Earl, 207, 207*

Washington, 27

Washington, George, 2, 23

Washington Place, 360

Weaverville Joss House, 369–370

Wei Min She (WMS), 277

Wen Ho Lee, 135–136

West Indies, 88

whaling oil, 131

White House Initiative on Asian Americans and Pacific

Islanders, 36, 392

whiteness, 24–25, 28, 256

White Point Hot Spring Resort, 120

white supremacists, 5

white supremacy, 6, 25, 30

Wickersham, George, 273

Willows Korean Aviation School, 377–378

Wilson, Woodrow, 4

women

Chinese, 90, 100, 213

“comfort,” 216

depiction of Asian, 261–262

elected officials, 331, 332

Japanese, 92, 171–172, 213, 272

Korean, 101, 319, 320

migration of, 89, 100, 215–216, 289–290

military service of, 213

war brides, 215, 216, 226, 262, 293–294

women’s movement, 279–280

Wong, Anna May, 261*

Wong Chin Foo, 257

Wong How House, 372

Wong Kim Ark, 102–103, 102*

Wong Kim Ark v. United States, 103

worker housing, 119

workers. See labor
410 AAPI National Historic Landmarks Theme Study

world maps, 37–38

World Trade Center, 176*, 178

World War II, 259

aftermath of, 215–216, 273–274

Asian Americans and, 205–222

Guam and, 198

impacts of, 212–215

Japanese American interment during, 2–3, 6–7, 6*, 55,

66–67, 178–184, 206–212, 280–281

Japanese and Japanese Americans during, 66–69

Wounded Knee, 265–266

Wright, Frank Lloyd, 161

Wyatt, Barbara, 2

Y

Yamasaki, Minoru, 162, 177–178

Yasui v. United States, 210–211

“yellow peril,” 36, 95–96

Yellow Seeds, 277

Yew, Peter, 281

YMCAs, 116

You Chong (Y.C.) Hong Law Office, 369

Young Communist League, 275

youth culture, 267

Yuasa, Hachiro, 178

Yugantar Ashram press, 120

Z

Zoot Suit riots, 214–215