EFFECT OF HUMAN ACTIVITY ON RIVERS 

S M. Govorushko 

Director of EIA Centre, Pacific Geographical Institute, 7 Radio St., 

Vladivostok, 690041, Russia; e-mail: sgovor@tig.dvo.ru 

Human impact on rivers is large-scale process that leads to diverse negative consequences. There are following ways of such impact: 1) river flow redistribution in 

time; 2) river flow redistribution in space; 3) river flow withdrawal; 4) physical disturbance of river-beds; 5) pollution; 6) water clogging; 7) thermal pollution. First way 

mainly occurs in case of reservoir creation, it is characteristic for the USA, Russia, 

Canada, Brazil, and China. Run-off redistribution in space used for water supply, 

navigation, hydropower generation, irrigation, etc. The most large-scale water transfers are typical for Canada, USA, Turkmenistan, and India. Irretrievable water consumption currently constitutes approx. 150 km3/year, which equals 1% of normal 

run-off of fresh water. Agriculture uses 70.1% of fresh water, industries take 20%, 

and municipal sector – 9.9%. Under physical disturbance of river-beds we mean any 

man-made changes of water level (cut-offs, changes in depth of the river by excavation or covering of ground, etc.). Open pits in river-beds for extraction of building 

materials and excavation works for navigation purposes are the most frequent examples of such impact. Water contamination is tremendous and ever-increasing 

challenge. By its origin, three chief water pollutant groups may be distinguished: 1) 

municipal waste; 2) industrial waste; 3) agricultural waste. Under water clogging we 

mean accumulation of foreign substances, mainly insoluble. Thermal pollution connects mainly with cooling water released from electricity generating stations. Further 

research of human impact on rivers is necessary in order to minimize negative consequences of such impact in the future. 

Key words: rivers, water transfers, pollution, water use, river flow 
BASIN WATER MANAGEMENT 465

INTRODUCTION 

Human impact on rivers is large-scale process that leads to diverse negative consequences. Human activity impacts on rivers in the following ways: 1) river flow 

redistribution in time; 2) spatial river flow redistribution; 3) river flow withdrawal; 4) 

physical disturbance of riverbeds; 5) pollution; 6) water clogging; 7) thermal pollution. 

RIVER FLOW REDISTRIBUTION IN TIME 

River flow redistribution in time mainly occurs in case of reservoir creation (fig. 

1). Later on those reservoirs are used for various purposes, specifically water-supply, 

flood protection, recreation, power generation, fish industry, water transportation, 

etc. The first reservoir was made 5 thousand years ago in Egypt [Goudie, 1997]. Presently, there are approx. 37-38 thousand reservoirs increasing 1 million m3 in volume. 

 

Fig. 1. Example of river flow redistribution in time. 

The aerial view of Hoover Dam on The Colorado-River, Nevada, USA. This dam 

was constructed between 1930 and 1936. A height of its water level is 170 m. The 

reservoir is used for flood and silt control, power, irrigation, and industrial and domestic water supplies. Photographer Bruce Molnia 

Today there are about 50,000 dams in the world whose height exceeds 15 meters. 

These dams can retain more than 6.5 trillion m3 of water that constitutes approx. 15 % 

of annual global river flow. The fact that the largest free-flowing river in the world 

(the Yukon in Alaska) is on the twenty-second position in terms of annual mean flow 

proves that impact made by dams on rivers is widespread world-wide [Dams ..., 

2006]. 
466 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS ON RIVER BASIN MANAGEMENT

Reservoir creation modifies regime of river flow downstream of dam, including 

part of sea water near mouth. Water storages affects the following parameters: 1) 

natural hydrological regime; 2) volume of river flow; 3) alluvial river flow; 4) hydrochemical regime; 5) thermal regime; 6) ice regime; 7) ichtiofauna. 

Alteration of natural hydrological river regime leads to leveling river flow volumes within a year and modifies the character of riverbed processes. It is clearly seen 

in marks’ lowering of ridges’ rifts and bottom’s rising of reach’s sites, that is, to put it 

short, levels river flow profile. Another alteration caused by reservoir creation is 

decrease of flow quantity. This feature is induced by increase of evaporation. For 

instance, the river flow to the basin of the Caspian Sea has reduced by 10-12 km3

exceptionally due to creation of water reservoirs [Reservoirs ..., 1986]. In most cases, 

the sediment runoff also sharply decreases. 

Owing to alterations in hydrological regime all drawn and the overwhelming 

part of suspended alluvium stay within reservoir. The total mass of alluvium, accumulated in all reservoirs of the world, is estimated at 13.4 billion tons per year [Skurlatov et al., 1994; Yasamanov, 2003]. Absolute dimensions of alluvium, located in 

each reservoir, depend on the turbidity of the river and volume of streamflow. For 

instance, sediment river flow of Samur River (Dagestan, Russia) before hydrotechnical regulations amounted 7.6 million tons per year. Currently, it equals 0.5 million 

tons. Similarly, before construction of Chirkeiskaya hydroelectric power station in 

1974 the delta of Sulak River annually received 13.2 million tons per year, while 

today it has only 1.64 million tons [Geoecological changes ..., 1997]. In Spain, construction of hydroelectric power station’s dams on Ebro in 1940s led to reduction of 

Ebro’s sediment river flow from 20 million tons per year to less than 3 million tons 

per year [Dolotov, 1996]. 

Alteration of hydrochemical river regime causes leveling of seasonal chemical 

water mixture, as well as reduction of biogenic substances’ river flow. Water quality 

in reservoirs depends on specific conditions and therefore may be either better or 

worse than in rivers. Processes of natural purification, resulting from sedimentation, 

desiltition, dilution, destruction of organic substances, contribute to improving water 

quality. In turn, water quality worsens when influenced by deceleration of water 

exchange, development of organic life and processes of oxygen and thermal stratification. 

Alteration of thermal river regime downstream is explained by the fact that in 

autumn reservoir water is warmer, and in spring is colder, than river water. Moreover, those distinctions amount to 2-4°С, and the zone of influence of this effect 

sometimes equals hundreds kilometres [Avakyan et al., 1987]. 
BASIN WATER MANAGEMENT 467

Abrupt alteration of ice regime occurs due to unevenness of daily and weekly 

water flow. In areas with cold climate it frequently brings about jams which cause 

raising of water level. Reservoirs creation affects ihtiofauna, in particular modifies 

the rates of fish growing, amount and structure of populations, as well as life span, 

conditions of fish reproduction and growing. Dams’ construction on the majority of 

large rivers of the world created the barrier on the migration ways of valuable anadrom and semi-anadrom fish (sturgeons, salmons, herrings). Their spawning sites 

became unapproachable for species. Fish perishes when passing through turbines 

and dams during migration. Fish dies when swims through high-pressure junctions. 

Those losses take place due to barotraumas of swimming-bladders when fish leaves 

the reservoir for lower pool of the dam. However, one should also mention positive 

impact of dams’ creation on ichtiofauna, since the area of biotopes favorable for fish 

fattening and spawning considerable increases. Commonly, fish hauls in reservoirs 

increase those made before reservoir creation. To the utmost river flow redistribution 

in time is typical for the USA, Russia, Canada, Brazil, and China. 

RIVER FLOW REDISTRIBUTION IN SPACE 

Spatial river flow redistribution is usual as well (fig. 2). Under the notion ‘spatial 

river flow redistribution’ we imply the process of water withdrawal from one source 

(rivers, reservoirs, lakes, etc.) and its further transportation by riverbed, channel, 

tunnel or pipeline to consumers. One can subdivide such water transportations into 

transfers for water-supply, providing navigation, hydro-power engineering, irrigated 

farming, drainage of over-humid lands. The channel which connected the Tiger River 

and the Euphratus River was dug approx. 2400 B.C. and became one of the earliest 

examples of channel-building. It was dug with a view to ameliorate irrigation system, since water rise in the Tiger River did not coincide with that one in the Euphratus River [Anderson, Trigg, 1981]. The volume of transported water and the distance 

it is transported to are the crucial parameters of river flow transportation system. The 

most widespread index to estimate the scale of river flow modification is calculated 

as multiplication of annual river flow transported (km3 per year) by the distance of 

transportation way (km). Presently, majority of river flow transfers are carried out 

for irrigation needs and classified as small or average (up to 1000 km3 per year). So 

far Karakum Channel in Turkmenistan remains the largest channel, judging by this 

index. It transports 1100 km3 per year over a distance of 1100 km. Still, creation of a 

new channel in China has already started. This channel will transfer 44.8 km3 per 

year over a distance of 1300 km from the Yandzy River to Northern-Chinese plain 

[Govorushko, 2005]. 
468 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS ON RIVER BASIN MANAGEMENT

Fig. 2. Example of spatial river flow 

redistribution. 

Photo of Tennessee – Tombigbee 

Waterway in eastern Mississippi, 

USA. This 376-kilometres-long 

inland water route provides a link 

between two existing navigational 

systems. 

Photographer Lynn Betts, 15 of 

September 1992.

Describing spatial river flow redistribution, it is necessary to distinguish three 

zones which differ from each other in the impact made upon natural habitat: 1) zone 

of water withdrawal; 2) zone of water transportation; 3) zone of water usage. This 

impact is following [Shiklomanov, Markova, 1987]. Zone of withdrawal is characterized by decrease of river flow, lowering of water level, intensification of riverbed 

processes, diminution of waterlogged sites, expansion of salty sea waters’ penetration, etc. Zone of transportation is characterized by increase of river flow, rise of 

water-level, underflooding and waterlogging of nearby lands, intensification of erosion and evaporation, etc. Zone of water usage is characterized by intensification of 

erosion and evaporation, worsening of surface water’s quality, etc. 

There were cases when river flow was almost completely taken away in the zone 

of withdrawal. One may cite as an example the Colorado River which stopped flowing into Calilfornian gulf, since water was used to irrigate fields of the USA and 

Mexico [Rosenberg et al., 2000]. The Syrdarya River and the Amudarya River did not 

reach Aral Sea in low-water years (for instance, 1980 and 1985) [Sempere-Antuan, 
BASIN WATER MANAGEMENT 469

2000]. Decrease of the Jordan River flow caused lowering of the Dead Sea [Goudie, 

1997]. 

The measures, aimed at water losses’ decreasing in the zone of transportation, 

are very important. Quite often sizeable volumes of transported water are lost because of ground leakage. Thus, in the first years after Karakum Channel creation 3 

km3 per year (out of 11) were lost in that manner; nowadays, those losses reduced to 

1 km3 per year due to silting of the leakage [Gorshkov, 1992]. Altogether, more than 

2200 channels with total length of 170 thousand km have been built in the basin of 

the Aral Sea; but for all that no measures to mitigate filtration were taken in most 

cases [Stadnitskiy, Rodionov, 1996]. Water losses in irrigation system of Pakistan 

amount to 55-65 % [Shiklomanov, Markova, 1987]. In the zone of water usage, river 

flow considerably increases. Thus, the annual river flow of the Berntvood River, 

inflow of the Nelson River, which transports water to the Nelson River increased 

from 3.3 to 27.3 km3 per year, or by 800% [Shiklomanov, Markova, 1987]. The most 

large-scale river inflow transfers are typical for Canada, the USA, India, and Turkmenistan. 

RIVER FLOW WITHDRAWAL 

Irrevocable water consumption presently totals approx. 150 km3 per year, or 1% 

of sustainable river flow [Stadnitskiy, Rodionov, 1996]. Most water is taken for needs 

of agriculture (70.1%), industries (20%) and residential areas (9.9%) [Comprehensive 

Assessment ..., 1997]. It takes 1500 m3 of water to produce a ton of wheat; 7000 m3

and 10000 m3 to produce a ton of rice and cotton respectively [Rudskiy, Sturman, 

2005]. Production of a ton of meat requires averagely 20000 m3 of water [Stadnitskiy, 

Rodionov, 1996]. 

In industry, intensive water consumption is typical for heat-and-power engineering, petrochemistry, pulp and paper industry. Altogether they account for 80-

90% of total industrial water usage [Merkulov et al., 1994]. Production of synthetic 

caoutchouc (2000-3000 m3 per ton) and capacitor paper (1300-6000 m3 per ton) are the 

most water-consumptive manufactures [Stadnitskiy, Rodionov, 1996]. Production of 

chemical fiber (2000-3000 m3 per ton) and cellulose (400-500 m3 per ton) also require 

much water [Milanova, Ryabchikov, 1986]. Considerable water consumption also 

distinguishes a number of light industries, namely spinning, weaving and trimming 

manufactures which averagely require 300-330 m3 per ton of output [Marinich et al, 

2000]. In housing and communal services water is mainly used for hygiene and sanitary purposes (baths, laundries, etc.), food cooking, sewerage system, etc. 
470 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS ON RIVER BASIN MANAGEMENT

PHYSICAL DISTURBANCE OF RIVERBEDS 

As for physical disturbance of riverbeds, here we put any anthropogenic alterations of planned or high marks. The most intensive impact on riverbeds is made 

during extraction of building materials or other fossils in riverbed carriers (fig. 3), 

dredging works with a view to facilitate navigation, and construction of pipelines’ 

underwater sections. Such activities change the evolution of riverbed processes that 

affects hydrobionts’ natural habitat. In the course of extraction of ground from riverbeds and its transportation to dumps water becomes muddier for some time. Extraction of large massifs of riverbeds’ ground causes deepening and straightening of 

riverbeds, as well as decreasing of its branching and lowering water level during 

low-water seasons. Dredging works for navigation facilitation are considered to be 

less harmful for hydrological regime than extraction of non-metallic building materials, since in the first case ground taken from riverbeds is not withdrawn irrevocably 

but is only removed from the navigation route to outside [Botvinkov et al., 2002]. 

Physical disturbances of riverbeds are rather large-scale in some areas, but on the 

whole their importance is not very high. 

Fig. 3. Example of physical 

disturbance of riverbeds. 

Photo shows drag gold exploitation in the upper of the 

Yahsu River (basin of the 

Amudarya River, Tajikistan). 

Photographer Lev Desinov, 

July of 1988. 

WATER POLLUTION 

Water pollution constitutes ever-increasing problem. By its origin, it is advisable 

to subdivide water pollutants into three groups [Goudie, Viles, 1997]: 1) municipal 

wastes; 2) industrial wastes; 3) agricultural wastes. 

Municipal wastes mainly consist of human faeces and contain relatively few 

chemical pollutants; yet, they are notable for high concentration of pathogenic organisms. Communal wastes, or sewage, make approx. 20% of all effluents’ volume, and 

their share constantly increases as the amount of industrial effluents decreases. They 

have more or less permanent structure. A person daily produces 65 gram of suspended matter, 8 gram of ammonia nitrogen, 3.3 gram of phosphates, 9 gram of chlorides, 60-75 gram of organic matter [Rudskiy, Sturman, 2005]. 
BASIN WATER MANAGEMENT 471

The impact of communal wastes upon rivers varies from country to country. Out 

of 3119 cities and towns of India only 209 possess structures for partial purification of 

sewage, and only 8 of them have total cycle purification systems at their disposal. 

Commonly, sewage comes directly to rivers. For instance, the Gang River is being 

daily polluted by unpurified sewage waters and cremation remains from 114 cities 

and towns [Pimentel et al., 1999]. Naturally, this situation is not so grave in developed countries, though river pollution is a sensitive issue there as well. For instance, 

the New York Metropolitan area alone produces 6.8 billion littres of sewage per 

day of which about 16% is raw. Much of this enters the Hudson and East Rivers 

around New York [Goudie, 1997]. 

Industrial wastes (fig. 4) are subdivided into [Stadnitsky, Rodionov, 1996]: 1) 

waters of reaction, polluted both by parent substances and reaction products; 2) 

waters coming from raw materials and raw products; 3) scourage which appears 

after ablutions of raw materials, packages, equipment, etc.; 4) water extractants and 

absorbents; 5) sewage waters; 6) atmospheric precipitation, flowing down on industrial enterprises’ territories. 

Fig. 4. Rivers can be polluted by 

many different manners. 

Sewage is one of the most typical 

ways of river pollution. On this 

photo you can see unpurified sewage 

produced by industrial enterprise of 

Volgograd, Russia. On the background – the Volga River. 

Photo of GREENPEACE – Russia
472 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS ON RIVER BASIN MANAGEMENT

Industrial calamities greatly contribute to river pollution. Accidents on tailing 

dumps of ore mining and processing enterprises are the most detrimental ones. Two 

disasters on tailing dumps of gold-mining enterprises in Guyana and Romania 

should be noted especially. The enormous negative impact of these two accidents 

was caused by peculiarities of gold-enrichment technology. Specifically, in order to 

separate thin plates of gold from other materials, high-toxic solid salt of hydrocyanic 

acid was applied. It is necessary to mention that 2 parts of this acid to 1000000 parts 

of water are capable of killing many water organisms. 

Guyana accident broke out on the 19th of August, 1995. The dam burst, and 

approx. 3.3 billion litre of slime-like liquid mixture started moving from tailing 

dump to the Essekibo River and had been moving for 5 days. That annihilated river 

ichtiofauna on the distance of 80 km down the river (Carson, 1995). The accident in 

Romania occurred on the 30th of January, 2000. The dam breach led to penetration of 

100 thousand m3 of liquid and suspended wastes, containing from 50 to 100 tons of 

cyanides, as well as copper and other heavy metals, into nearby river (fig. 5). In this 

event, seriously suffered fish resources, mostly not Romanian but Hungarian (the 

Tisza River and its inflows). In addition to it, water supply was interrupted in 24 

municipalities [Water ..., 2006]. Similar accidents happened also at Californian goldmines, USA, in 1991, copper and zinc mines in Philippines in 1996, zinc mines in 

Spain in 1998 [Accidental ..., 2001]. Oil pipelines’ accidents are dangerous, too. In 

Russia, 15 million tons of crude oil leak out annually, with most of leakages taking 

place in underwater sites into rivers and shelf sea area. 

Fig. 5. River pollution as a 

result of accidents occurs not so 

frequently, yet brings about 

more severe consequences. 

On this photo you can see 

the breach in a tailings dam 

near Baia Mare (Romania), 

through which on the 30 

January, 2000, 100,000 m3

 of 

cyanide-rich tailings waste 

fell into the Somes, the Tisza 

and finally reached the 

Danube Rivers. 

Photo of UNEP 

Agricultural wastes are characterized by excessive amount of phosphorus and 

nitrogen, being part of fertilizers and cattle breeding wastes, as well as by high concentration of pesticides and herbicides. Agricultural wastes also pose a serious threat 
BASIN WATER MANAGEMENT 473

for river habitats. For example, a 378,000 liters spill of wet manure in Minnesota 

killed almost 700,000 fish along 30 kilometres of a major stream. American agriculture now discharges 1.16 million tons of phosphorous and 4.65 million tons of nitrogen into waterways annually. Agriculture also exerts indirect influence on rivers. 

Ploughing intensifies soil erosion that increases amount of different substances entering rivers. Early soil discharge from agricultural land to waterways in the United 

States is estimated at over 1 billion tons of sediments and 447 million tons of total 

dissolved solids. The Mississippi River alone carries 331 million tons of topsoil to the 

Gulf of Mexico annually [Ruhl, 2000]. 

WATER CLOGGING 

Under water clogging we imply processes of insoluble materials’ amassment in 

river waters, namely amassment of solid industrial and communal wastes, construction wastes, etc. Litter is logically subdivided into floating litter which pollutes surface water, and sinking litter which pollutes bottom of the river. Quite often, floating 

litter adsorbs oil which adheres to it. Accumulation of sinking litter sometimes modifies natural habitat of fish and water plants [Botvinkov et al., 2002]. River transport 

greatly contributes to water littering. Vessels amass remains of bulk (grain, coal, 

timber, ores, scrap, etc.). When ships change their bulk, those remains are frequently 

thrown overboard. Timber rafting also affects rivers producing various kinds of 

litter, mainly bark, branches and logs (fig. 6). Hence, 0.5% of lumber remains within 

riverbed after each timber rafting [Manukovsky, Patyakin, 2004]. On the whole, the 

importance of littering for river habitats is inessential in comparison with other kinds 

of impact. 

Fig. 6. The importance of 

littering in comparison with 

other kinds of impact on 

rivers is insignificant. 

The typical example of such 

impact is timber rafting which 

causes river littering with 

wastes, bark, branches, and 

logs. Up to 0.5% of all lumber 

remains within riverbed after 

transportation. Timber rafting 

on Ma River (Vietnam) is 

demonstrated on this photo. 

 Photographer Peyton Johnson, 1995 (credit FAO, picture 

19203)
474 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS ON RIVER BASIN MANAGEMENT

THERMAL POLLUTION 

Thermal pollution emerges as a result of functioning of heat-and-power engineering aggregates and heat exchanging plants. Heat-and-power engineering aggregates (thermoelectric power stations, nuclear power plants, heat-engines) convert 

heat into electric or mechanical power. Heat exchanging plants apply heat to modify 

physicochemical properties of materials and convert substances from one aggregative state into another. By such plants we imply heaters, plants for drying, melting, 

evaporation, and agglomeration of multifarious materials [Problems..., 1995]. 

Heat ejected into the atmosphere disperses relatively quickly and therefore does 

not have substantial impact on the environmental situation in general. Still, its particular impact on reservoirs is much more considerable. High water temperature 

leads to diminution of species variety of algae and phytoplankton, decrease of average life-span of animal plankton, increase in amount of blue-green algae which contains different toxins and affects herbivorous organisms. 

Since dissolubility of gases in liquid is inversely proportional to its temperature, 

water heating decreases amount of oxygen, nitrogen and carbonic gas in water. Besides, rise of water temperature increases the need of organisms in dissolved oxygen. 

So concentration of oxygen decreases even more. 

Importance of thermal pollution mostly depends on the state of a waterway 

which receives thermally polluted water. For instance, ejection of warm water from 

one of thermoelectric power stations into the Severn River, Great Britain, rises water 

temperature in the river on 0.5 degrees during freshets and 8 degrees during lowwater season [Goudie, 1997]. In the USA, 200 km3 of water are annually withdrawn 

for cooling needs, and approx. 80% of this amount is used in power industry 

[Gorshkov, 1992]. 

Though in comparison with a number of above-mentioned kinds of human impact on rivers the importance of thermal pollution is not very high, in some areas of 

the world it is predominantly substantial. Thermal impact causes slowing of photosynthetic plankton activity, perish of fish and other hydrobionts, deficit of oxygen, 

deterioration of sanitary-microbiological state of water. 

Further research on anthropogenic impact on rivers is necessary in order to 

mitigate negative consequences of it. 

Research funded by Russian Foundation of Basic Research, project 06-05-96127. 
BASIN WATER MANAGEMENT 475

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