Forest Service 

Southem Forest 

New Orleans, 

Louisiana 

General Technical Report SO-64 

October 1 986 

A Guide to the Insect Borers, 

Pruners, and Girdlers of 

Pecan and Hickory 

J. D. Solomon and J. A. Payne 
Many insect borers, pruners, and girdlers attack, damage, and 

kill pecan and hickory trees. By using the idormation contained 

in this publication, resource managers, landowners, and other 

interested people should be better able to identify and manage 

these pests. Yellow-bellied sapsuckers are also discussed because 

damage caused by these birds is ofken confused with that of insect 

borers. Class, order, and family names of these pests are listed in 

the Appendix as additional idormation for the reader. 
CONTENTS 

mmODUCmON ............................................ 1 

PECAN CBPENTERWOW ................................. 2 

DOGWOOD BORER .......................................... 4 

BORER .................................. 5 

ACROBASIS SHOOT BORERS ............................... 7 

mCKORY SHOOT CURCULXO ............................... 8 

HICKORY BORER ........................................... 10 

BROADNECKED ROOT BORER .............................. 11. 

TLEHORNED PRIONUS .................................... 11 

TWIG GIRDLER ............................................. 14 

TWIG PRUNER .............................................. 16 

OAK TWG PRUNER ........................................ 16 

BRANCH PRUNER .......................................... 17 

HICKORY SPIRAL BORER .................................. 19 

FLATHEmED WPLETREE BORER ......................... 20 

PIN-HOLE BORERS ......................................... 22 

HICKORY BARK BEETLE ................................... 24 

WD-SHOULDER SHOTHOLE BORER ....................... 25 

APPLE TIW'IG BORER ........................................ 25 

YELLOW-BELLIED SAPSUCKER ............................ 27 

LITEMTURE CITED ........................................ 28 

APPENDIX 

Common and Scientific Names .............................. 31 
A Guide to the Insect Borers, Pruners, and Girdlers of Pecan 

and Hickory 

J. D. Solomon and J. A. Payne 

Pecan, Cava iZLi nsis (Wangefi.) K. Koch, and 

at least 10 species of hickory, Curya spp., are native to 

the Eastern United States, Eight of these are economically important when grovvn for timber production, 

commercial nut production, ornamental purposes, 

and ~ldlife food. Pecan is best known for it8 nutritious nuts, which are produced in quantities that 

make them a major economic commodity, but is also a 

prized species for use in fine fwiture and paneling 

(Kennedy and others 1981). During recent years, it 

has been commonly called the "black walnut of the 

South," and interest in commercial plantings is growing because of its high stumpage value (Adrams and 

Thielges 1976-77). The hickories have long been 

known for their use in the manufacture of handle 

stock, sporting goods, and some furrriture. 

Insect borers, pruners, and girdlers are injurious 

pests of pecan and hickory. Although most of these 

pests have a wide distribution, they seldom threaten 

trees over large areas. Damaging populations typically occur on a local basis, such as a nursery, individual nut-producing grove, forest stand, young timber 

plantation, or ornamental trees in a neighborhood or 

small geoeaphic locality. Much has been written on 

the insect pests aBecting the nuts and foliage of 

pecan, but little has been published on the insect 

borers affecting the tree itself. The cryptic habits of 

the insect borers have hampered eEorts to document 

this grou of pests, kinom infomation is widely scattered and 5 ound in older literatwe, much of which is 

not generally available to those wbo need to use it, 

The kminals, branches, tmrr3rs, and roots of trees 

of all sizes are vulnerable to borers. Natural regeneration is sometimes heavily infested by girdlers and 

ers. Nurseries and young plantings located close 

to heavily infested stands or woodlots are most likely 

to be damaged. toss of teminals and main stems in 

young timber plantations adversely affects tree fom. 

rs and girdlers can dlrastically reduce the numnut-bearing branches and subsequent nut crop 

of nut-producing trees. Girdled branches can create 

cleanup problems on residential propedies. Young 

transplanted trees are particularly susceptible to borers and often need protection. Borer holes and associated stain and decay cause defects in the wood that 

reduce its value for lumber, veneer, handle stock, and 

other products. Wo oles and bark scars also adversely afl'ect the aesthetic beauty of shade an 

mental trees. Borers sometimes invade the ca 

and callus around new grafts and prevent union of 

scion and stock; recently top-worked trees have smffered serious damage in the past. Stressed trees are 

particularly susceptible to bark beetles and pin-hole 

borers. Bark beetles have caused widespread mortality of hickory during extended periods of drought. 

Yellow-bellied sapsuckers are included in this guide 

because the holes they peck in the bark are often 

confused with those caused by insect borers. 

Impact from pests can be minimized through good 

management. Cultural practices that maintain and 

promote tree vigor are of utmost importance. New 

plantings should be on good sites, preferably away 

from heavily infested stands, woodlots, or old, deteriorating orchards. Adequate space, water, and nutrients should be provided. EEods should be made to 

keep injuries such as cuts, bwises, and broken limbs 

resulting from cultivation, mowing, thinning, and 

harvesting equipment to a minimum. Injuries that do 

occur should be promptly treated to speed the healing 

process. -actices such a '"pick-up and destroy" and 

"pmne-out and destroy" can help to reduce damage by 

ers, especially when practiced on an 

area or neighborhood basis. Wen possible, practices 

should be adopted that favor natwal controls such as 

predators, parasites, and insect pathogens. Chemical 

control may oecasionally be needed. 

J. D. Solomon is research enbmologist at the Southern H Laboratory, mainlain& at Stoneville, MS, by the Southern Forest 

Experiment Station, Forest Service-USDA, in coopration with the Mississippi Agricultural and Forestry Experiment Station and the 

Southern Hardwood Forest Research Group. J. A. Payne is research entomologist at the Southeastern Fruit and Nut Research Laboratow, 

Agricultural Research Service, USDA-Byron, GA. 
This publication should aid forest managers of timber resomces, fam managers of nut producing 

poves, exknsion and pest control persouel, and 

homeovvners to identify, manage, md control the 

major insect borer, p er, and girdler pests of pecan 

and hickow. Descriptions and illustrations of the 

pests and their damage-including galleries, frass, 

size and portion of tree ideskd, and tree conditionare presenbd tr, aid in identification. Infomation on 

biofom and control are given to help in predicting 

damage, managing populations, and making control 

decisions. Specific chemical controls are not given in 

this publication. For the latest intbmation on pesticides contact your State Foreskr, Extension Agent, or 

the nearest oflice of State and Private Forestry, 

USDA Forest Service. 

PECAN CARPENI'ERWORM 

Cossuia magnifica (Strecker) 

Importance. ---me pecan carpentemom, Cossula 

magnifica (Strecker), is primarily a pest of pecan, but 

is also found in the hickories and repostedly some 

oaks throughout the Southern. 'United States and 

Mexico (Baker 1972, Matz 1918, Moznette and others 

1931). It attacks the branches and trunks of trees of 

all sizes, but shows a preference for trees 8 to 31 cm 

d.b.h. Small branches may break or dieback at the 

tunneled sites. Although very few trees break or die 

from carpentemom attack, heavy repeated attacks 

may stmcturally weaken the tree, reduce its vigor, 

and provide ent ays for decay fungi and other 

pathogens. The value of sawlogs and lumber from infested trees is markedly reduced because wodoles 

will cause the wood to be degraded. Although populations may be heavy locally, widely scattered infestations and sporadic appearance minimize the overall 

economic impact of the pecan carpenternom. 

Description. -The adult is a grayish moth mottled 

with brown and black blotches (fig. LA) (Moznette and 

others 1931, Baker 19'72, Gill 1924). The forewings 

are mottled with small brown patches, and each has a 

large bromish area at the distal end; the hindwings 

are unifomly darker vvithout distinct markings. The 

wingspan ranges from 37 to 44 mm. The larva is pinkish in color and naked or only sparsely covered with 

short fine hairs that arise from the numerous tubercles (fig. 1B). The head, cervical shield, and anal plate 

are shiny dark brom. The full-grown larva may 

reach 37 mm in length. The pupa is brom and has a 

sharp projection on its head that is used to help force 

its way through the pupal cell and along the larval 

burrow to the exit hole. 

Evidence of mestation. -The earliest signs of attack are entrance holes, sap-stained bark, and small 

quantities of moist frass on the small branches during 

1.-Life stages of Cossula magnifica: (A) adult mth; (B) 

matukure larva. 

mer and early fall (fig. 2A). Dissecting the ind branch will reveal the larval tunnel (fig. 2B). 

However, these signs are ofken overlooked because the 

infested branches may be high above the ground, and 

the frass becomes scattered as it falls to the ground. It 

becomes easier to recognize the attacks when the larvae later bore into the trunk during the autw 

(Moznette and others 1931, her and others 1918). 

Although attacks may occur at any point on the 

trunk, they are usually concentrated around the basal 

part of the trunk from groundline up to about 1.2 m. 

Attacks in the trunk are charrscterked by a small 

circular entrance hole about 6 mm in diameter with 

sap-stained bark below the entrance and a 6w excrement pellets and fine frass in bark crevices (fig. 2C). 

Pellet-like fram often accumulates in piles on the 

ground mound the base of idesbd trees. Entrance 

holes are enlarged to about 9 mm just prior to pupation. Brown pupal skins may be found protruding 

from entrance holes ddng emergence in lLMay and 

June. Entrances to galleries heal over leaving uniformly round or oval bark scars for several years as 

evidence of previous attacks. 

Biology. -Eggs are deposited on the bark of small 

branches in the tops of trees r emergence and mating of the adult moths fkom late April through June 

(Baker 1972, Moznette and others 1931, Gill 1924). 

The newly hatched larvae first attack small twigs and 
Figure 2.-Injury by larvae of Cossula magnifica in pecan: (A) entrance hole with sap-stained bark in sdl bmeh; (B) small branch dissected 

to expose galk.ry; (C) entram hole, frass, and stained bark in large trunk; (D) completed gallery in wood of large trunk; {E) 

wormhole and stain defects in lumber. 

branches and tunnel out the pithy center (fig. 2B). 

When the larva becomes too large for the small twig, 

it crawls out and enters a large branch. Entrances in 

twigs and small branches are usually made adjacent 

to buds, leaf petioles, or small secondary branches. 

The larva may tunnel up to 10 cm in both directions 

from the entrance hole, leaving only shells of small 

branches 10 to 13 mm in diameter. By early fall the 

ae vacate their branch galleries, crawl downward 

on the bark, and bore into the tmnk and large 

branches. Larvae attacking the tmnk usually initiate 

galleries in bark crevices and tunnel ho~ontally or 

obliquely upward for 13 to 32 mm, then vertically for 

another 6 to 13 can (fig. 2D). Many larvae also tunnel 

downward from the point of entrance another 5 to 

10 cm. The cross-section of the vertical portion of the 

gallery is usually round, and about 6 mm in diameter. 

The wornholes and associated stain and decay show 

up as defects in the lumber (fig. 2E). The insect overwinters as a larva within the gallery. The follouring 

April or May the mature larva enlarges the entrance 

hole and then encloses itself and pupates in the upper 

end of the gallery behind a very peculiar but characteristic barrier or network of threadlike material. The 

sharp projection on the head end of the pupa enables 

the pupa to move through the barrier and down the 

tunnel to the entrance hole for emergence. Entrances 

to vacated galleries heal over, leaving uniformly 

round or oval bark scars in the bark (fig. 3). Although 

little is known about the life history, there appears to 

be one generation per year. 

Control. -Although reported to occur throughout 

the South from North Carolina to Florida and west to 

Texas, infestations are generally widely scattered 

(Boethel and others 1980). Trees planted as ornamentals or in orchards, groves, or other open-grown situations are generally more heavily infested than those 

growing in well-stocked forest stands. Care should be 

exercised so that new plantings are not established 

adjacent to old orchards or stands heavily infested 

with carpenhrvvoms. Keeping the trees in vigorous 

condition and free of disease cankers and mechanical 

injuries will help to prevent infestation. Two tachinid 

pmasites, Phorocera comstocki Williston (Leiby 1925) 

and P. sigwkt Aldrich and Webber have been reared, 

but little is known of their effect on carpentemom 

populations. Small numbers of borers can be controlled by injecting a fuanigant into the gallery and 

then using clay or putty to plug the entrance hole. 

Insecticides used periodically in groves to control nut 
Description ---The adult is a delicate bluish-black 

ing moth with yellow markings on the thorax, 

yellow-band4 legs, and yellow sl~pes on sepends 

two and four of the abdmen (fig, 4A) (Herrick 1904, 

Pf ess and Stadey 19671. Wings me transparent with 

bluish-black margins and have a engspan of 14 to 

20 mm. Eggs are p 

shape, and about 0. 

reddish-brom heads, and range in size fiom less than 

1 mm when newly hatched to 14 mm when mature 

(fig. 4B). The prothoracic shield has two dorsal 

yello~sh-brom spots. The pupa is brow and remains inside an cscssn anti!. time fir adult emergence. 

Evidence of Infestathn. --The most easily recognized early sip of attack is the presence of fine frass 

that has been extmded from the tunnels through 

small openings in bark crevices (Herrick 1904, Underhill 1935). By cutting away the outer bark, larval 

tunnels and feeding larvae can be exposed (fig. 4B). 

men inspecting trees for damage, it is impodant to 

examine the lower trunk of young trees, especialliy 

around and just above the groundline. Trees wounded, 

Figure 3.-Round, oval scars in bark provide evidence ofprevious a&xk by Cossula magnifica. 

and foliar insects provide some, but not complete, control of carpenterworms. Chemical control specifically 

for pecan carpenterworm. is seldom justified (Boethel 

and others 1980). 

DOGWOOD BORER 

Synanthedon scitula (Harris) 

Importance. -Although the dogwood borer, Synanthedon scitula (Harris), is perhaps best known for its 

economic damage to the flowering domood for which 

it is named, it sometimes causes serious damage to 

pecan (Herrick 1904, Moznette and others 1931). It 

has also been found attacking hickory, oak, and many 

other species. It is known from southeastern Canada 

southward over the Eastern United States west to 

Texas. Damage results from the larvae feeding just 

beneath the outer bark in the phloem and cambium. 

Individual branches and even young trees may be 

completely girdled and killed, but most often the stem 

is only pastially girdled or patches of bark killed, Attacks may occur at any point on the tmnk and 

branches of trees of all sizes. Trees that are wounded, 

diseased, or in poor vigor are most susceptible to attack. It often attacks d and budded trees, destro~ing much of the cambium and tissue and Figure *.--$,ife stages and tunnels of Synanthedon seitula in 

preventing the union of scion and stock. Topworked pecan: (A) adult churning moth; (El) bark removed extrees have suffered serious damage in the past. posing the kroae and burrows. 
&seased, or in poor vigor are most susceptible Lo athek md should be inspecbd fieqaently, Abr tree@ 

have been ideskd for a yem or SO, the dead bark over 

the borer tmnels be@ns to loosen and break away, 

wmetime8 exposing the wwd b;laeath !fig, 5A), nes 

that are badly ideskd may have anz ujazher%ltlby appemiance, exkibit dieback of branche~ in pa& of the 

cram, and send out sprout;s &om nem the groundline. 

Xrlol-eality wcw~ if trees are eomplekly @rdled, GraB 

failures should be inspckd closely for evidence of 

idesbtion. Frass around fresh woands a& points of 

nafiing and budding can mean the beginning of an 

idestation. Small brom pupal skins may be found 

protmding fromnn tke bark frsm April through O&bw 

(fig. SB). Exposwe of ideabd siks by pfying the barli 

loose keqaently rewals one to a dozen or more larvae 

of various sizes feeding close together in Ioealized tunnels. 

Biology--Adults merge &om April to October with 

the geatest nuder appearing in "Efre early pa& &the 

yeas (Pierce and Nickels 1941, Pless ad Stanley 

1967). Eggs may be deposikd on the bark anvhere 

along the tmnk or Branches, althsu& mst are placed 

close ta wounds, on or adjacent to frass, near openings 

produced by other borers, and mound grab or buds. 

Rwe 5,-Evidem of attaGk by Synanthedan situla in pecan: 

(A) active attack on aunk ofyoung tree; (23) pupal skins 

in bark are positive signs of infestation; (C;i &rh-brawn 

pass-covered cocoons just udr the bark with protruding pupal skins. 

The eggs hatcfi in 8 Lo 9 days. New& hatched lamae 

are small, fira&le, and vev sensitive to humidity; 

many die eom dessication before loeating a suit;tble 

niche ta be&^ boring, The ntswly hatched I 

able Lst move sha& distances and usually seek waunds, 

hsh ga&s, and tunnets of other borers to become 

established, although a few are abIe ta ~t~cees~h11y. 

ws ad minjwed siks. tamae m&e 

imemlmly shaped tmnefs or ws that spiral upward in the bmk and embi fthough the sapwood may be ekhedl, na bumows are made into the 

gapwood, Lamsae of vaPious sizs weminter in their 

foumows and we able to withstand a wide range of 

temperatwes. me following spring .I;he immature larng, while the mature ones pupate. 

usually prepares a cocoon of frass 

ow beneath the ouGer 

bark for pupation (fig. 5C). F)upae within cocoons are 

rmely &und in the leaves rand trash around tihe base 

of the tree, The pupal stage lasts 8 to 12 days. mere 

is one generation per year, with 88me evidence ~f 8 

second generation in iLs southern range. 

Control, -Except under conditions favorable for 

the borers, natwal enemies usually keep infestations 

in clkeck (Pless and Stanley 196'1, 'Underhill 1935). 

Parasites that have been recovered are four braconids, Apanteles seske Viereck, Agathis buttricki 

Viereek, Microbracon sanninoidae Gahan, M metlitor 

Say, two ichneumonids, Phogenes ater Cress., 

Scambus (Itoptectis) conquisitor Say, and one eulophid, Hyssopus sanninoidae Gir, In some cases, up 

to 50 percent of the larvae are parasitized. A disease 

caused by the fungus Cordyeeps sp. has been found 

but is not prevalent. Woodpeckers excavate a small 

number of larvae. Adhering to recommended cultural 

practices for keeping trees vigorous and free of bark 

injdes is impodant in preventing serious damage 

due to dogvvood borers. Direct control is seldom 

needed in natural stands but is sometimes needed in 

groves, nurseries, and ornamental trees (Pierce and 

Nickels 1941). 

E uzaphera semi funeral& (Walker) 

Importame,-me American plum borer, Euzophera semifuneralis (Walker), a pest of pecan and 

hickory., has a wide host range, being especially troublemme ta fruit trees (Blakeslee 1915, Pierce and 

Nickels 1941). It is widely distributed throughout the 

United States and is also found in Canada, Mexico, 

bia, South America (Heinrich 1956, Forbes 

1890)* It is primarily a pest of trees in poor vigor, 

u~ualfy attacking trees that have been mechanically 

wounded or infected by cader-type fungous diseases. 

The larvae rarely succeed in establishing themselves 

on healthy, uninjured trees. Damage results from the 
larvae feeding in the cambial area, sometimes 

girdling and killing small trees. It may also be found 

feeding on the callus tissue of recenLly ~afted or 

budded trees. Graft; failures are sonretimes attribukd 

to this borer. 

Dmcription. ---The adult has a light-say bdy with 

grayish-brom hrewings that have a broad, wav 

band of black and brovvn markings (fig. 6A) 

(Blakeslee 1915, Heinrich 1956, Forbes f 890). The 

hindwings are smokey pr~y with a distinct black margin. The vvingspan, ranges from 17 to 25 mm. Eggs 

vary from dull white vvhen deposited to pink or brom 

as incubation propesses. Each egg is oval and measures about 0.6 mm long and 0.4 mm in diameter, The; 

larva is white when newly hatched but the color 

varies from dull white to pinkish or reddish brom as 

it develops (fig. 618). The head is dark brown and the 

cervical shield is pale yellow with black markings on 

the sides. Full-sown larvae range from 16 to 28 mm 

and average about 25 mm in length. The pupa is 

brownish black and is found inside a white silken 

cocoon. 

Evidence oflrnfestation. -The most obvious sign of 

idestation is an accumulation of dark-brown or black 

frass adhering to the bark at the site of attack 

(Blakeslee 1915, Pierce and Nickels 1941), The frass 

typically is made up glmost entirely of excrement pellets shek or aaering loosely .t;ogeLlner by sap exudab 

and silken threads. Attacks are limikd almost entirely to trees with mechanical wounds, hst damage, 

su scalds, diwage cankers, pmning and recent grafts and buds (frg. 7A). PiaLches of dead or disor paslially &rdled skrns are favored 

siks for invasion, L 

into the living ti~sue,, 

be exposed by lifting p 

of one or more loosely woven cocoons of white silken 

he bark is vezly cbaradristic of the 

borer (fig. ?B), The white silken coh this borer hm the dogt~rood borer, 

which has dark-brom or black cocoons usually entirely covered with frass. Attacks may be found on 

trees and branches of all sizes, but they are, most eornmonly found on the lower trunk just above the 

groundline. 

Biology.-The insect oveminters as a 1 

white silken cocoon under loose bark near the entrance to its feeding burrows (Blakeslee 1915, Pierce 

and Nickels 1941). Pupation occurs within the cocoon 

during March and early April and lasts 20 to 30 days, 

Adults emerge during April and May. The females 

mate and begin ovipositing 1 to 3 days ahr emerFigure 6.-Life stages of Euzophera semifuneralis: {A) adult moth; 

{BI nearly grown lama. 

Figure 7.-Evidence of infesation by Euzophera semifuneralis in 

pecan: (A) bark removed to expose tunneling injury; 

(23) closeup of white silken coeoolls in mined cavity. 
gene and deposit eggs for 1 to 4 days, Females deposit 

from 12 to 74 eggs singly on twigs or in small eoups 

in crack and crevices of the bark of suitable host 

trees, The eggs habh in 8 to 14 days afld the young 

lama@ seek waun&, caders, a-nd other s~table sjites 

to begin feeding. The 1 1 development pe.ocS is 4 

6 weeks. The mature e constmct loosely woven 

ewoons of white silken threads under the bmk for 

pupation. The pupation pedod for 

lasts 10 to 18 days, about half the time required for 

spring pupation. There are two or more generations 

per year. Larvae may be found almost continuamly, 

indicating considerable overlapping of broods. 

Control. -Because the insect is lmgely incapable of 

establishing itself in healthy, vigorous, uninjwed 

trees, damage is unlikely except when trees sder 

from frost injury, sun scald, mechanical wounh, or 

canker-type hngous diseases (Blakeslee 1915, Kelsey 

and Shames 1960, Pierce and Nickels 1941). Therefore, good cultwal practices that prevent such injhes 

help to minimize damage from the herican plum 

borer. Five ichneumonid parasites, Mesostenus thoraeicus (Cress.), 44. graeilis Cress., ItopZectis m-arginatus (Prov.), Pimpla sp., and Ihchthis sp., help to suppress infestations. An unidentified threadworm 

parasite has also been reared. fiedators include 

lamae of the ostomid, Teazebrioides corliealis 

Melsheimer, ants, and woodpeckers. Chemical control 

is possible but seldom needed. 

AGROIBASIS SHOOT BORERS 

Acrobasis spp. 

Importame. -me acrobasis shoot borers are pests 

of pecan and hickory as well as black walnut and 

butternut from Ontario and Quebec in southeastern 

Canada southward to Florida and west to Texas in the 

United States (Baker 1972, Neumig 1972). Some of 

the more important species include Acrobasis 

nuxvorella Neumig, A. juglandis (h%aron), A. caryivorella hgonot, aad A. &motella Grote. The acrobasis shoot borers are perhaps best known for their damage to foliage and nuts, although they often act as 

shoot borers during spring when grovvLh begins 

(Pape and others 1979, NF?unzig 1972). Boring and 

tunneling by the shoot borers cause many new tender 

shoots to become stunded, distorted, or die. Seedlings 

in nurseries can suBer serious damage. Mortality to 

the teminals of young trees intended for timber production is perhaps the most damaging type of injury 

(Kearby 1978). The destruction of teminals causes 

reduced grovvth and dichobmous branching, which 

results in forks, crooks, and abnomal branching. Repeated terminal injury during early growth can adversely afYect the tree form that is so important when 

the goal is prduction of saw logs for lumber, veneer, 

and other products. 

DeseriptiQn. -The adults are vayish to bromish 

moths with rddi~h, black, or white markings an the 

fbrewings and a engspm of 12 to 20 mm (fig. 8A) 

(Pape and others 1979, Gill 1925, Neumig 1972). 

''I%@ eggs are oval to elliptical, conva abave and flatbrred below, with a reticular rnieropakbm on the 

outer sdace of the charion, Wen first deposikd, the 

eggs are greenish whih, but they gradually ass 

whitish md then reddi~h. tinge as developme 

gresses. Eggs vq from 0.5 to 0.8 nnm, in length and 

0.25 to 0.36 rnm in vvidth.. Newly hatched larvae are 

pale rddish brom and about 0.8 rnnn lang, Mature 

ae (fig. 8B) are cyl , taper slightly toward 

each end, and 10 to 19 in len@h. Head and 

mouthp&s are dark yellovvish brom; the prothoracic 

shield is pale brow; and the body is olive green t;o 

jade green, usually darker dorsally than ventrally. 

The newly fomed pupa is olive eeen but gradually 

changes to light brow. 

Evidence of Infestation. -Shoot damage occurs almost entirely during the spring (Martinat and Wilson 

1978, Neumig 1972, Payne and others 1979). The earliest evidence of injury may be holes in the swelling 

and unfolding buds. The majority of attaeks to the 

shoot occurs after the buds have opened, but before 

there is much elongating or unfolding of the leaflets. 

Entrance holes are usually made into the basal part of 

the shoot just above the terminal leaf scar of the previous season's growth. However, some larvae make 

entrance holes some distance out on the shoot, usually 

where the inner base of a petiole joins the shoot (fig. 

9A). Small amounts of frass are extruded from the 

gallery entrance and silked together to make a short 

loose tube, often foming an extension of the tunnel in 

all except A. &motella, whose larvae do not form a 

frass tube. The frass tube often becomes prominant as 

loosening bud scales and additional frass are silked 

together. Tunnels excavated in the tender shoots by 

the larvae range from 6 to 45 mm long (fig. 9%). The 

injury usually causes the teminal parts of the tender 

shoot to wilt, turn yellow and then brown, and die (fig. 

9C). nnneled shoots sometimes become enlarged, 

swollen, or gall-like. In~ured shoots that smive often 

become stunted and defomed and lose apical domiFigure 8.-Life s-es of Aerobasis spp.: (A) adult moth; (23) Earn 

in burrow. 
Figure 9.-Sgns of infeslatka by Adasis sgp. in pecan: {A) entra 

(C) sbt terminal killed by larval Lunwling. 

nance to a lateral shoot. The diEerent species of 

Acmbasis can be pdially separated by habits in attacking buds and shoots, site of entrance into the 

shoot, mount of tumeling, and chasacteristics of the 

frass tuk m&or silking bgether of adjacent leaves, 

petioles, and shoots (N 

Biohgy. -The shoot nter as partially 

grown lmae in tightly woven coeoons called hibernacula, typically found where a bud joins the stem 

ig 1972, Mardinat and Wallner 1980, Payne 

and others f 919). me I ae emerge fkom the hibernacula in early spdrrg md tumel inh the swelling 

buds and tender new shoots. men matwe, a few larmder baskplabes or hop to the 

irrb the litbr or soil and pupak. 

The pupal shge la~b 11 dco 18 day@, Moths emerge and 

Zy or in small groups, usually on nub 

afgrx lobes, on or near buds, and on 

edels. The eg$s hateb in about 7 to 

10 days, mere may %se one to f~)m generations per 

year depn&ng on ;13pies and no&-south lwation. 

In the fall, third in csn~tmct and ove 

ter in cent to a bud. Only during Lh attack the shoob; later 

broods feed on the nuk and foliage (Pape md others 

1979). 

lnce hole in termiml shoot; (B) young shoot dissected to expose galtery; 

Control, -Natural enemies help in keeping the acrobasis shoot borers in check. Parasites are probably 

the most important group of natural controls; many 

species of parasites have been reported (Neunzig 

1972, Mastinat and Wallner 1980, Gill 11925). When 

new plantings are established, they should be located 

away from existing areas containing Carya and 

Jugkns spp. Corrective pming during early grovvt;h 

may be the best alternative to control, especially 

den plantings are intended for timber purposes 

(McKeague and Simmons 1978). 

done in May or early Jme, soon aaer the current 

season" shoot damage ceases. The pmning technique 

shodd retain the stronge~t ne developing shoot as 

the new bminal. Corrective ing aims to reestablish apical dominance by one shoot in order to correct 

forks that may have resulted hm Leminal bud injusly, thw impso~ng tree fom. Insecticides may be 

necegsasy when idestations are heavy (Payne and 

ot;lhers 1979). 

Inzpo&ru=e. -The hickory shoot ewculio, Comtruebzlus aratus (Germ=), atlacks pecan and hickory 

thoughout the Easkm Unikd Stabs &om Massa- 
ekrasedts south to Florida and west to Texas and Kansas (Phillips 2964, Schosf 1942, Bro.ooks 1922). Inju 

results from both adult and larval feding. Tnjq 

from lapptrae tunneling within the new shoots and leaf 

atems is most damaang, resulting in prematwe faliage loss and weakening or &ath of nud-producing 

shoots. Loss of kminrsrls in young trees intended for 

timber production can result ins forks and abnormal 

tm& development* Heav;ti damage has occurred in 

twigs and shoots on young budded trees in nurseries. 

%%yere infestations are found most often on unmanaged trees or in aoves adjacent to woodlands containing native pecan and hieksry Grees (Bayne and others 

2979). Fifty percent or more of the shoots can become 

infeskd, Two other curculio shoot borers, 6, elegans 

(Say) and @, tibUZkis Bmoks, cause inijuries similar to 

C, aralus but are less prevalent. 

Descnjgptisn,-The adult is a weevil-type beetle 

with a shsffd, swut snout that is slightly curved and 

about one-third the len@h of the body, or about as 

long as the head and thorax combined, and has the 

sternum grooved Ifor reception of the beak (fig. 10A) 

(Brooks 1922, Payne and others 1979, Schoof 19423. 

The color is dull payislrr to reddish brom with an 

indistinct broad band sf yellowish pubescence behind 

the middle sf the elylrsn and a namsw line of the same 

color on eaek side of the thorax, Adults average about 

5 mrn Bong and 2 mrn wide. The egg is oval to oblong, 

cireamy white, semitranspare* and averages 1.1 rnm 

long and 8.7 mm in diameter, The larva is yellowish 

white with a brown bead and black jaws and has a 

scattering of short; but noticeable setae (fig. 10B). The 

larva is legless, slightly curved or crescent shaped, 

and averages about 6.0 rnm long and 1.5 mm in diameter. The pupa is delicate and white but gradually 

darkens. 

Evtdenee oflnfestation. -Soon after grovvth begins 

in. "&ke spring, feeding and oviposition puncture marks 

made by adult ewculios can be found on tender shoot 

tips and leaf petioles (Brooks 11922, Phillips 1965, 

Payne and others 1979). Egg glanctures are characterized by dark triangular V-shaped marks or spots 3 

mm long on the peen bark. These dark puncture 

marks occur singly just above each leaf axil, but there 

may be 3 to 10 punctures per shoot. The favorite feedRmre 18----Life swes of6ontstraehelus aratus: ('.] adult weevil; 

159) mture lama. 

ing place of t11e larva ins in the bulblike swelling at the 

base of the ledpetisle, but it also mines in the pith of 

new shoots and leaf skms (fig, 11 A), An active larval 

gallery usually has a small amount of dark frass at 

the entrance (fig* IIBb* Dissection will reveal. the 

crescent-shaped larvae. The burrows or galler-ees may 

range &om 25 to 51 mm long (fig l1C)- The aEected 

shoot tips and leaves usually become ~~prg?%lowish or 

brsm and wither ern the tree or drop away, Shoots 

that are hea~ly tumefed oRen break and droo without turning yellow and withering. Late sunames and 

fall feeding by the newly emerging adults cause feeding puncture wounds along the shoot and leaf petioles, 

but Iak season damage is negligible. 

Biology. ---The hickoq shoot curculis overwinters 

in the adult stage in litter, trash, or debris on the 

noud near host trees (Brooks 1922, Payne and 0thers 1979, Schsok" 19421. Adults emerge from hibernation and become active in early ~pri-ng as buds begin 

unfolding and shook as*h begins, Feeding I>e@ns in 

late March and April in the south and 2 to 4 weeks 

later in the nodhern range. After feeding for a shorC; 

time, females deposit eggs singly in. puncture niches 

in the tender shoot tips and leaf petioles just above the 

enlarged petiole base, Eggs hatch in about a week and 

the larvae be@n feeding and tunneling within the 

tender new aodh where they complete their larval 

development. men ;Paally gown by midsummer, the 

mature larvae vacate their galleries, drop do the 

pound beneath the tree, and burairow into the soil. to a 

depth of 12 to 51 mm where they form unlined, 

earGIhen cells for pl;lpatioan- The pupal period lasts hr 

2 to 3 weeks. The adult; eureulios emerge from the 

pun9 mostly during AumsL and September, Emerging adults are eomparativeiiy inactive and feed rPeq 

little before entering hibernation in the autumn. 

There is one generation per year, 

Control.-Fifty pearcent or more sf the lama1 population may be destroyed by parasites (Brooks f 922). 

The three species 06 parasites identified from %he 

larvae are two tachnids, My iophasia globssa 

(Townsend) and Cholomy iae inaecq uipes Bigot, and 

one chlorapid, Chaetochlorops inquikinus (Ccrquil-bett ) . New planztings should be esta"$al%shed, when possible, 

away from heavily infeskd woodlots, Sanitation and 

cultural practices such as clipping, collecting, and destroying infested shoots can reduce populations when 

only a single or few high-value trees isolated from 

unding host trees are involved, E%iminatisn of 

trash and debris ear% also help to eliminak hibemation sites, Chemical control is usually not necessary 

but occasionally may be needed when many adults rare 

present or when there is a history of damage (Payne 

and others 1979, Phillips 1965, Brooks 19221, Up do 

three spray applications, beginning in early spring 

when unfolding buds have 6 to 25 mm of new podh, 

mq be necessa~ to control the adults before they lay 

their eggs, 
Figure k 1.-Young hiekcaq shoots infested Fly Gsnotrachelucj aratus: CAI swollen sbt with lama1 entrance kole; (B) dark frass being ejected 

from gallery entrance; fC) terminal dissected to expose gctktc?~ and young larva. 

HICKORY BORER 

Goes puleher (Haldeman) 

Importance. -The hickory borer, Goes puleher 

(Haldeman), is found from southern Canada throughout the Eastern United States, and although primarily a pest of the hickories, will occasionally attack 

pecan (Baker 1972, Beal and others 1952, Solomon 

1974). The larvae tunnel in the sapwood and heartwood of young trees 2 to 14 em in diameter, mostly 

from poundline up to about 5 m. Attacks in large 

trees are infrequent and usually restricted to the 

branches, Borer injuries in vigorously gowing trees 

usually heal widbin a few months after the borers 

emerge, but in trees of poor vigor, up to 3 years are 

repired. Galleries that heal slowly are frequently 

occupied by ants L"or nesting sites and sometimes kept 

open indefinitely, thus permitting the establishment 

of stain and decay fungi. Trunks weakened by dunnels, woodpecker excavations, and decay oeeasionajily 

break during windstorms. The holes, together with 

the associated stain and decay, degade the wood for 

any commercial use. 

Description.-The adult is a typical long-horned 

beetle with a prominent lateral spine on each side of 

the pronotum (Solomon 1974). The beetle is light 

brown with dark elytral bands at the base and just 

beyond the middle of the wing covers (fig. 12A). They 

are moderately robust, elongate, and range from 17 to 

25 mm long and 5 to 8 mm wide. Females are slightly 

larger than males and have heavier abdomens but 

slightly shorter antennae. The eggs are yellowish 

white, elongate, and average 4 mm long and 1 mm in 

diameter with a parchment-like surface texture. The 

larva is slightly robust, fleshy, and generally cylindrical but veq slightly flattened dorsally and ventrally; 

the dlasraeic sepeats are slightly broader anteriorly 

(fig, X2B). The color varies from white to yellowish 

except for prominant dark-brown mandibles and 

amber spiracles. Larvae average 4 mm long when 

newly hatched and reach 18 to 28 mm at maturity. 

The pupa is white to geenish initially, but gradually 

becomes yellowish, and its eyes, mandibles, and appendages darken as adult transformation approaches. 

Evidence oflnfestaticrn, -The earliest signs of infestation are single or small goups of niches 4 to 8 mm 

in diameter chewed in the bark exposing the 
Figure 12.-Life stages ofGoes pulcher: (A) adult beetle; (B) mature 

lama. 

yellowish-brown phloem beneath (fig. 13A) (Beal and 

Massey 1942, Solomon 1974). However, the most obvious evidence is the sap-stained bark and yellowish 

frass protruding from the elongate entrance hole (fig. 

13B). Sap oozing from the point of attack initially 

darkens the bark, but in succeeding years the stain 

becomes bleached or yellowish brown. The frass extrudes from the entrance in curved shapes or ribbonlike pieces that accumulate on the ground below. Numerous excelsior-like wood fibers 8 to 12 mm long in 

the frass signal larval maturity and approaching pupation. Each borer leaves two holes, an elongate entrance hole and a 7-mm round exit hole (fig. 130. As 

these wounds heal, the bark scar at the entrance site 

appears slightly sunken, with a small bulge around 

the periphery. The exit hole heals in much the same 

way that a branch stub is overgrown. The bark scars 

remain in evidence for several years. Wormholes 10 to 

13 rnm in diameter in sawn lumber provide good evidence of hickory borer infestation (fig. 13D). 

Biology. -The adults emerge during May and June 

(Solomon 1974). After feeding on tender twigs, leaf 

petioles, and leaf midribs and then mating, the female 

begins oviposiding. She chews an oval niche in the 

bark, then forces her ovipositor through the opening 

and downward between the bark and sapwood to lay 

a single egg. One female will deposit up to 14 eggs 

under experimentat conditions on caged trees but 

would probably deposit many more under natural conditions. Adults live from 11 to 32 days. Females usually deposit their eggs singly, although clusters of two 

or three egg niches are sometimes ICound. Open-vswn 

trees and those growing near openings are most fiequently selected for oviposition, with a preference 

shown for branch crotches. The larvae produce small 

mines 1 to 2 cm in diameter under the bark and then 

bore directly into the sapwood. The galleries extend 

horizontally or obliquely upward in the sapwood and 

headwood for 2 to 5 cm, rise vertically for another 6 

to 12 cm, then turn horizontally back to the surface 

(fig. 13E). By the time the larva pupates, galleries 

range from 9 to 16 em long and 10 to 13 mm in diameter. The life cycle is 3 to 5 years. During late fall and 

early spring of the final year of the life cycle, the 

mature larva prepares a pupation chamber at the 

uppermost portion of the gallery by plugging the 

gallery tightly with long excelsior-like fibers. Pupation lasts for 15 days. The new adult chews a round 

exit hole at the upper end of the pupal chamber to 

emerge. 

Control. -Woodpeckers, one of the most imporLant 

natural enemies, may capture up to one-third of the 

larvae (Solomon 1974). Some natural mortality is 

found in vigorous trees that produce heavy sap that 

oozes from the oviposition sites. Direct controls have 

not been investigated, but borers in individual trees 

can be controlled by injecting a fumigant into the 

galleries, then plugging the entrance holes with clay 

or putty. Where problems exist in plantings near or 

adjacent to forests, removal of brood trees in the adjacent woodland is advised. 

BROADNECKEDROOTBORER 

Prionus laticollis (L.) 

TILEHORNEI) PRIONUS 

Prionus imbricornis (Drury) 

Importance. -The broadnecked root borer, Prionus 

Laticoltis (L.), and the tilehorned prionus, 

P. imbrieornis (Drury), are pests of pecan and hickory 

as well as many other trees from southern Canada 

throughout the Eastern United States and extending 

west to the Plains States (Payne and others 1976, 

Linsley 1962). Injury occurs from the larvae feeding 

on and destroying the roots. The larvae feed first on 

the root bark, but they soon enter the wood, completely hollowing large roots and often severing them. 

The larvae move from root to root through the soil, 

feeding on the surfaces of smaller roots as they go, 

causing many injuries and wounds. Open-grown mature trees and those weakened by disease, drought, 
Figure 13.-Habzllf; and signs of infestation by Goes pulcher in hickory: fAl egg nkhe cut in bark by female beetle; (Bi ribbon offrass being 

extrud~d porn gallery entrance indicating aetiue abhek; fC) elongate entrance hole made by larva below and round exit hole made 

by adult above; 03) defecb in sawn lumber; (23) sectioned stem shoging typical larual gallery. 

mechanical damage, or soil conditions are most susceptible to attack, but young, vigorous trees can also 

be attacked and are occasionally cut off at the poundline. Severe root damage results in reduced gowtb, a 

poor nut crop, and eventual death of the tree. In southwest Georgia, pecan powers estimated that 3 Lo 10 

percent of the trees showed sips of attack (Payne and 

others 1970). 

Description. -The adults are robust, broad, somewhat flattened, and blackish brown to reddish brown 

(fig. 14A) (LinsZey 1962). They have antennae about 

half as long as the body, and there are broad spines on 

each side of the prothorax. Adults of P. laticollis 

measure up do 45 rnm long land adults of P. inzbricornis measure up to 3'7 rnm long. The eggs are irreplarly punchate and glossy yellow, but later darken and 

lose their glossiness (Farrar and Kerr 99681, One end 

of the egg is slightly larger than the other, Eggs average 3.5 mm long and 1.4 mm wide. The large roodboring larvae are fleshy, elongate-cylindrical, and 

creamy white to yellowish; they have three pairs of 

small legs and small heads armed with strong 

mandibles adapted for boring in wood (fig. 14B) 

(Payne and others 19'90). Mature larvae attain 

lenehs of 9 cm or more and weigh up do 15 g. Pupation takes place inside eadhen cells, and pupae are 

white hitially, but their eyes, mandibles, and appendages darken as adult transformation approaches. 

Evidence of Infestation. -Since injury to the roots 

occurs below pound le-vel, correct diawosis is often 

dificult (fig. 14C) (Payne and others 1970). Only by 

excavating the tree and examining the roots can one 

confirm the infestation (fig. 15A, 15B). The abovepound syndrome is a gadual decline, characteristic 

of any tree under severe, prolonged stress (fig. 16). 

Symptoms often resemble a nutrient deficiencyleaves may be sparse, reduced in size, and have a 

Iigkk-peen to yellowish tinge. Nut yields from infested trees may be three to seven times less than 

ifrorn healthy trees. As an infestation propesses over 

a period of several. years, 70 to 90 percent of the root 

system may be destroyed, resulting in a limb-by-limb 

death of the tree (Sparks and others 1974). 

Biology -Adults emerge from the soil in late spring 

sand early summer (Baker 1972, Benham and Farrar 

19761, The beetles are normally nocturnal or crepuscular in habit and during the day remain hidden beneath debris or loose bark at the base ofthe tree. The 

females are short-lived-abouL B week-but deposit 

300 to 500 eggs either singly or in groups in the soil 
16.-D~msa'~ forWonus spp. in pecan: (A) muutfting 14.-Life sme8 of and inju~y jbrn Prionw spp: (A) adult rw& dr, eonfirm Wonw infestation; (B) closeup of root beetle; (B) mature lama; (C) pecan mot girdled and sp&m shsuiw holes and girdling-most of smaller 

hotlowed by lam=. mtS hue been consumed by the lam. 

near the base of host trees. %%en the eggs hatch in 2 

Lo 3 weeb, the young larvae dig down to the roots and 

bgin feeding on the bark. They move from root to root 

though the mil feeding on the sdaces of smaller 

rmb as t)iley go and causing many injuries and 

woun?els. Thy enkr the vvood of larger roots and hollow, grdle, or sever them. In the smer, the larvae 

feed on roots in the upper 15 to 45 cm of the soil, but 

in winter they are often found at depths down to 

80 em, The feeding period lasts 3 to 5 years. In early 

spring, matwe 1 ae come to within 6 to 12 cm of the 

soil %dace and prepare large, oval earthen cells in 

which they pupate and transfom to the adult stage. 

Control, -Root bolrers usually attack trees weakened by other faebrs such as disease, drought, mechanical dmage, or soil conditions (Sparks and others 1974), merefore, cu1t;ural practices shodd be 

follow4 .ko keep trees th~fty and vigorous. Since 

these roo% borers are also pests of other tree species, it 

is ad+sab%e to e~tablish new plantings some distance 

away from orchmcls and trads of woodlad that are 

already ideshd, Although little is known about natural enemies, they undoubtedly play a role in regulating root borer ppulations. A bchnid parasite (near 

Dat'lk) has bees reared hrn P. &ticullis (BeAam 

and Fanar 19761, and geveral backria and Eungi have 

been isolated from dead 1 ae and pupae of P. laticcrllis. It may be necessau Lo use insecticides occasionally if root borer ppulations threaten high-value 

trees (Pame and others 19'76). 
Fiere 16.- Pecan tree in declining condition-symptom of root 

injury by Prionus spp. 

TWIG GPRDLER 

Oneideres cingulata (Say) 

Importance. -The twig girdler, Oncideres cingulafa (Say), a pest of pecan and hickory, and to a lesser 

extent several other hardwood species, is found most 

commonly in the Southern States but is known as far 

north as New England and westward to Arizona (Gill 

1924, Herrick 1904, Beal and Massey 1942). The aciult 

beetles girdle twigs and small branches causing the 

injured portions to break away or hang loosely on the 

tree. It is not uncommon to see the ground under infested trees almost covered with twigs that have been 

cut off: This affects .the beauty and aesthetic quality of 

ornamental plankings. The fruiting area of heavily 

infested trees is oRen geatily reduced, resulting in 

low nut yields the following year and sometimes 

longer. This type of injury causes the development of 

many offshoots that adversely affect the symmetry of 

the tree, Pecan. nurseries located close to heavily infested woodlots seeasionally sufer considerable loss 

&om girdled seedlings. Repeated girdling of terminals 

causes r'srks, crooks, and other stern deformities in 

young timber plantations as well as in natural reproduetion (Kennedy and others 1981). 

Description,-The adults are typical long-horned 

beetles that range from 22 to 16 mm in len@b (fig. 

1IA) (Bilsing 1916, Gill 8924, Herrick 1904). The 

body is cylindrical and generally gayisltr brown with 

a hoarl, ashy-gay band across the middle of the wing 

c~rbers, The eggs are white, elongate oval, and about 

2.5 rnm in len@fi, The larvae are whitish, cyfidneal, 

legless ~bs that reach 16 to 25 mm in, leur@h at 

maturity (fig, 1"7B). The pupae are white with sko&, 

dark spines on the dorsal sides of sements. 

Evidence oftTnfestal"ion, -The presence during late 

summer and fall of sever4 bigs on the ground, hanging loosely attached or lodged in the canopy is good 

evidence of infestation (Gill 1924, Herrick 19016). Most 

girdled twigs are from 6 tea 12 mm-sceasionalb ranging up to 18 mm-in diameter, and 30 to 60 ern in 

lengtih. The nature of the girdle ikself distinwishes 

the twig girdler from sther branch pruners. The cut 

by the twig girdler is the only one made from the 

outside by the adult beetle and has been described as 

a unifom V-shaped cut (fig. 17A). The cut is seldom 

Figure 17.-Life stwes of Oneideres cineiata: Mi adult beetle 

girdling pecan stem; iki;) mtkdure larucr in galle~. 
complete, leaving a small cent-er with a jagged sdace 

caused by the break. Since the t~gs are@rdled while 

the leaves are present, the severed twigs rekin the 

brom leaves for some time (fig. 18). Severed tegs 

lodged in the tree canopy sr on the pound o&n retain 

leaves even ahr the tree sheds 1%~ leaves in the autumn, Close inspeetion of the severed twigs will reveal tiny egg niches innd many mandible marks or 

grooves made in the bark by the &male: bwtles. Lmge 

trees usually sustain the most ~rdling, but young 

plantation trees are sometimes heavily damaged 

(fig* 19). 

Biology-me adults emerge from fate Auest to 

early October (Efilsing 11916, Gill 1924, Herrick 1904). 

They feed on the hnder bark near bramh ends and 

mate before ovipositing and girdling the twigs. The 

branches are apparently g.irdled by the female so that 

congenial conditions will be provided for the developae, whieh are unable to survive in 

living twigs. The girdling extends through the bark 

and well into the wood in a cornplete circle around the 

stem and leaves only a thin column of the center wood 

attached, which breaks easily (fig. 117A). Eggs are laid 

during or after the cuetirrg process, but never before 

the beetle malkes part of the cut, They are inserted 

singly beneath the bwk or slightly in-to the wmd, 

usually near a bud sew or adjacent I;r, a side shoot, The 

ber of eggs per t~g varies from 3 do 8 but may 

range up to 40, Mults live 6 ta 90 weeks, Females 

deposit 50 tx, 200 eggs each, whieh hatch in about 

3 weeks, After oveminte~ng, tbe larvae gow rapidly 

in the spring md hnnel toward the severed end sfthe 

twig by feeding only on the woody g-tofiiorn and leaving 

the bark intact, A few small eireulm holes are made 

in the bark to eject pelleb of frass and excrement, The 

mature larvae close off the gallev with shredded 

fibers to fom a pupation. chamber, Pupation occurs 

during Au~st and September and lasts 12 to 14 days. 

'I'he adult chews a eircdar hole in the bark do emerge* 

There is one generation per year* 

Control .-In orchards, nurseries, and ornamental 

plantings, the severed twigs on the gound as well as 

those lodged in the trees should be gathered and 

burned during the kll, wider, and spring when the 

eggs and wbs are in the twigs (Gill 1924, Mozr=ne.dte 

and others 1931). The same practice should be followed in nearby woodlots when plandings in the vieinity have a history of serious damage from this insect 

pest. Insecticides may be necessaq to prevent damage 

from heavy idestations, although they are probably 

Figure 18.-Hain stem ofyou% &e girdled by &cideres cinefala. 

Figure 19.-Yoang plantation tree with krminai and mast sf 

bramhs girdled By Oncideres einwlata. 
mnecessary in natural forest stands, Natural controls are important in keeping twig girdler populations low; desiccation of the eggs is apparently the 

greatest single decimating factor. Three parasiks: an 

lidis Ash,, one ichneumsaaid, Iphiauk agr&li (A~b.3, and one eulophid, 

Horismnus sp., help to reduce the girdler population 

(Beal and Massey 1942). A clerid predator, Cymtodera undulata Say, has also been reared. 

IG PRUNER 

Elaphidiomides villosus (F.) 

OAK TWIG PRUNER 

Elaphidionoides paralblus Newan 

Importance. -The twig pruner, Elaphidionoides 

uillosus (F.) and oak twig pruner, E, parallelus Newman, are found throughout the Eastern United States 

northward to Canada and westward to Texas, reaching greatest importance in their northern range 

(Chittenden 1910, Linsley 1963, Moznette and others 

1931). They attack pecan and hickory as well as other 

forest, shade, and fruit trees but show a marked preference for the oaks. The larvae, boring in the stems, 

cut off or prune twigs and small branches. Pruned 

twigs drop to the ground or hang loosely from partially severed branches. The ground under heavily 

infested trees may be littered with fallen twigs and 

branches. Such pruning and littering adversely afl'ect 

the aesthetic quality of ornamental plantings and 

cause clean up problems; heavy twig losses reduce the 

fruiting area and, in turn, the nut crop; and young 

trees may be deformed. Injuries to trees in natural 

stands are seldom serious. 

Description. -The adult beetles are elongate, slender, and parallel-sided (fig. 20A) (Chittenden 1910, 

Linsley 1963). The bodies are light to dark brown and 

clothed with irregular patches of fine gray hairs giving them a mottled appearance. There are spines on 

the first few joints of the antennae and the tips of the 

wing covers are notched and bispinose. They range 

from 12 to 18 mm in length. Elaphidionoides vilLosus 

resembles E. parallelus very closely, but E. parallelus 

is usually slightly smaller and somewhat more slender. The larvae are elongate, cylindrical, and creamy 

white; they have short rudimentary thoracic prolegs 

and measure about 14 to 22 mm in length at maturity 

(fig* 20I3). 

Evidence ofInfestation. -During the summer, fall, 

and winter pruned twigs from 8 to 20 mm in diameter 

and from 20 to 90 em in length litter the ground under 

infested trees (Gill 1924, Moznette and others 1931). 

Pruned twigs may also hang from the crown. The nature of the girdle itself distinguishes the twig pruners 

from the twig girdler and branch pruner. The cut by 

twig pruners is made frorn inside by the larva, which 

gnaws a circular groove in the wood, leaving only the 

bark intact. The severed end of the twig presents a 

smoothly cut sdace, near the center of which is an 

oval 2-mm gallery opening onen plugged lightly with 

h88~ (fig. 21). d smaller side-twrg 1s usually halowed 

out and may be broken in its fall to %fie &round, There 

are no egg niches or mandible marks on the bark 

surface as seen, with the twig @rdfer. Moreover, splitting the freshly pruned twig reveals the near1 y grow 

twig pmner larva inside, while the twig girdler either 

has not hatched or the larva is too small to be noticed 

until the following spring and summer, 

Biology. ---The adults emerge frorn early spring to 

early summer (Chittenden 1910, &sling 1978). The 

female deposits her eggs in slits in the bark at leaf 

axils near the tips of very small teen twigs that arise 

from a larger twig 8 to 20 mm in diamter, The young 

larva burrows down the center of the twig toward its 

base, hollowing it out more or less completely. When 

the larva reaches the larger limb, it bores into the 

branch and burrows a short distance down the center 

of the stem. In late summer or fall the larva severs the 

branch by making concentric circular cuts from the 

Figure 20.-Life sbges of Elaphidionoides sp: (A) adult beetle; 

(23) mature larva. 
center outward to, but not including, the thin bark. 

Severed branches later break and fall to the ground 

with the lamae in them. The larva retreats back into 

its bumow and plugs the oval gallery at the severed 

end with small fibrous frass and pupates within the 

burrow the folbwing spring, There is usually one gsneration per year, but a 2-year generation life cycle has 

been repo*d for E. parallelus in its northern range 

(Gosling 1978). 

Control. -Control of twig pruners in orchards, 

nurseries, and ornamental plandings is similar to that 

for the twig girdler (Chid-tenden 1910, Gill 1924). That 

is, all severed twigs on the pound or lodged in the 

tree should be collected during fall and winter and 

destroyed while the gubs are still in the twigs. To be 

most eEective, the severed twigs should be collected 

over the entire orchard, woodlot, or neighborhood. Insecticides are rarely needed; natural controls help to 

keep infestations in check. Two braconid parasites, 

Bracon eurygaster Brulle and Odontobracon elaphivorus Rohwer, have been recovered from the twig 

pruner (Linsley 1963), while two braconids, Meteorus 

tibialis Muesebeck and IphiauEax eutygaster Brulle, 

one ichneumonid, Agonoeyptus discoidaloides 

Viereck, and one tachinid, Minthozelia ruficauda 

Reinhard, were reared from the oak twig pruner 

(Gosling 1978). The downy woodpecker, Dryobates 

pubescens I;., blue jay, Cyanoeitta cristata L,, and 

black-capped chickadee, Parus atricapillus L., have 

been reported to destroy large numbers of the twig 

prunes (Chitf enden 1 9 10) .. A spider, Theridium tepikriorum 6. Koch, has also been observed preying 

upon the twig pmner. Rodents, such as squirrels, 

have destroyed up to 31 percent of the oak twig pruner 

population in Michigan studies (Gosling 1978). 

BRANCHPRUNER 

Psyrassa unicolor (Randall j 

Importance. -The branch pruner, Psyrassa unicolor (Randall), attacks pecan and hickory, and to a 

lesser extent the oaks and a few other species 

throughout the Eastern United States from Minnesota south to Alabama and west to Texas (Linsley 

1963). The larvae tunneling in the stems cut OR or 

prune large branches. Pruned branches, due to their 

size and weight, usually drop to the ground; they seldom hang loosely from partially severed branches as 

seen with the twig girdler and the twig pruner. AIthough individually pruned branches are generally 

larger than those girdled by the twig girdler or the 

twig pruner, the number of pruned branches is usually less. Although individual shade and ornamental 

trees and occasional1y orchard trees may be seriously 

pruned, entire stands or groves seldom sustain economic damage. 

Description. -The narrow, elongate adults are colored light to reddish brown, have short and inconspicuous pubescence, and are coarsely punctured (fig. 

22A) (Linsley 1963). The antennae are about as long 

as the body in the female and slightly longer in the 

male. In length, females range from 9 to 13 mrn and 

males 7 to 11 mm. In width, females average 2.2 mm 

and males 1.8 mm. The larvae (fig. 22B) are slender, 

elongate, cylindrical, and whitish with dark-brown 

mandibles; they have yellowish thoracic shields, very 

short rudimentary thoracic prolegs, and measure 

about 12 to 18 mm long at maturity. 

Evidence offnfestation. -Branches are pruned and 

fall to the ground during spring as opposed to summer, fall, and winter for those cut off by the twig 

pruners and twig girdler. Pruned branches are often 

much larger than those cut off by other pruners and 

girdlers, ranging from 10 to 50 mm in diameter and 

0.6 to 3.6 m long. Pruned branches generally fall free 

to the ground, seldom hanging from the tree by the 

severed end as is true for the other pruners and 

girdlers (fig. 23A). The cut made by the branch pruner 

Figure 21.-Laroal and ends of twigs by Elaphid- is similar to that of the twig pruner in that is is made 

ionoidos sp. Note oual holes with f~s in en& of from the inside by the larva, which chews a uniformly 

sewred twigs. smooth, circular cut in the wood, leaving only the 
Figure 22.-Life stages of Psyrassa unicolor: (A) adult beetle; 

(B) mtura larva. 

bark intact (fig. 23B). It diEers from the twig pruner 

in that the larval hole is not at the center of the twig, 

but instead is near one side, usually just below the 

bark near a small side-twig, and the hole is often ' 

plugged with frass. Although the larva usually tunnels in the pruned branch, it will sometimes tunnel in 

the pruned stub still on the tree. 

Biolol5ry.-Adults emerge from late April to early 

June. Eggs are deposited on small twigs that arise 

from a larger branch 10 to 50 mm in diameter. The 

a tunnels dom the center of the t~g toward its base, but it does not hollow out the small twig 

as completely as Elaphaiomides spp. Upon reaching 

the larger brmch, it bores into the branch and begins 

to girdle it. The girdle is completed during late winter 

and spring when the lama makes a smooth, unifom 

concerat~e circular cut, ~f"ten completely severing the 

wood, but leaving the bark intact (fig. 23B). Severed 

branches may break at my time, but breakage occurs 

mostly during spring vvinbtoms. If breakage dues 

not occur immediately, the 1 a usually tunnels into 

the severed portion of the branch just beneath the 

bark near the junction of the small! twig. Here it tunnels toward the center of the stem for 15 to 30 mm 

then back Loward the sdace, and finally 

tally just mder the barlr; for 30 to 80 mm (fig. 23C). A 

Figure 23.-Evideme of infestation by Psyrma micolor in peean: 

(A) large severed bmltches have fallen to ground; 

(B) severed branch illustrating nal'ure of lantal cut; 

(C) brval gallery extendintg porn small side branch 

into severed min branch. 

small number of 1 ae, however, tunnel basally from 

the point of girdle. Larvae are sometimes dislodged at 

the time of the break and fall to the gjround and die. 

Some retreat into the small twig before the branch 

breaks. hpation Lalres place thin. the galleq just 

beneath the bark. The adult chews an imewlarly 

shaped hole though the bark to emerge, Although 

the life history is little known, a generation apparently requires 1 to 2 years. 

Control.-Severed branches on. the pund under 

trees in orchards and ornamental plantirzgs should be 

picked up in the spring and destroyed before the 

adults emerge in late spring and early sruramer, 'I'a be 

most effective, the pick-up md des%roy practice should 
be done for the entire orchard, woodlot, or neighborbood. Direct conkol in natural forest stands is rarely 

needed, Two icheumunid parasites of P. unieolor, 

Labena grallator Say and Agronocryptus diser>idaloide,c; Viereck. help to reduce infestations (Linsley 1963). 

HICKOEY SPIRAL BORER 

Agrilus areuatus Say 

Importance. --The hickory spiral borer, Agrzlus arcuatus Say, is primarcify a. pest of pecan and hickory 

but occasionally attacks o"tber &ciduous species 

throughout the eastern half of the United States (Beal 

and Massey 1942, Brooks 1926). Twigs, branches, and 

terminals up to 48 mm in diameter on drees of all sizes 

may be severed. Many of the severed branches break 

and drop to the ground, Serious damage to large trees 

results in reduced nut production, ragged appearance, 

and poor tree symmetry. Repeated attacks on young 

reproduction may cause stunted, misshapened, 

crooked, and forked stems. Although individual trees 

may be seriously damaged, entire stands, groves, 

nurseries, and other pIantings are seldom badly damaged. Serious damage is most likely to be found in 

plantings adjacent or close to forested tracts containing many heavily infested hiekrrries. 

Description. --The adults are dark, slender 

buprestid beetles (fig. 24A) (Brooks 1926). The head 

and thorax of the male are geenish bronze, the wing 

covers are purplish black, and the undeqarls are 

brassy; the female is bronze in color throughout. The 

average length of males is 8 mm and that of females 

about 10 rnm. Eggs are flat, disklike in shape, 0.8 to 

1.1 rnm in diameter, and glued firmly to the smooth 

bark of the twigs. They resemble the shield of a small 

scale insect. Initially the eggs are smooth and pale 

yellowish green, but before hatching they beesme 

slightly wrinkled and almost black. The larva is a 

slender, fat, legless pub, with Fdll-gown specimens 

reaching 15 to 20 mm long and 2 mm wide (fig, 24m. 

They are yellowish white except for dzark brown or 

black mouth parts and tail forceps* 

Euidence of Infeshtion. -Branches and terminals 

are severed during the winter and spring (fig. 251 

(Baker 1972, Brooks 1926). The portion above the 

girdle usually dies in the spring before the foliage 

appears, the islJury becoming appareat as the rest of 

the tree puts forth leaves, Severed branches rnay 

break and fall to the pound either before or after 

bud-break in the spring* Stems 8 do 48 mrn in diameter and 0.5 to 2.5 rn long may be severed; although 

many of these stems are larger than those girdled by 

twig girdlers and twig pruners, on the average they 

are slightly smaller than those pruned by the branch 

pruner. The spiral cut made by the lama is a eharacteristic winding, corncentric cut from the inner bark to 

the heart of the branch or stem, &he coils of the thin. 

burrow J'01Pling and completely sevel.imsg the wood except for the bark and sometimes a slender fiber of 

wood at the center (fig, 26A). 

Figure 24.--Life stages of Agrilus areuatus: (Al adult beetle; 

fB) nearly mature Iarva. 

Fipre 25.-Young hiekoy with min skm severed by Agritus areuatus. 
Figure 26.-Chracteristies of injury by Agrilus arcuatus in hickory: (A) severed branch illustrating spiral cut made by 

the larva; (B) bark removed to expose lama1 nine leading to the spiral' cut. 

Biology.-Adults emerge from late April to late 

June, depending on location, and feed on the foliage, 

making elongate notches and slits in the edges of the 

leaves (Brooks 1926, Ruggles 1918). Females begin 

oviposition 10 to 14 days after emergence. A single 

egg is deposited on the bark surface of terminal or 

lateral twigs, usually near the base of a small shoot of 

the current season's growth, and is covered with a 

transparent secretion that glues the egg to the bark. 

Each female lays from 2 to 55 eggs over a period of 1.5 

to 2 months. The eggs hatch in 3 to 4 weeks. The larva 

hatches by chewing its way through the bottom of the 

egg chorion and directly into the twig, In the twig it 

makes an elongate threadlike burrow under the bark. 

Late in autumn it begins a spiral burrow, partially 

severing the twig by spring, The mining larva packs 

the gallery behind itself with fine wood dust. During 

the second summer it mines basally under the bark 

along the stem for 20 to 60 cm leaving a shallow but 

relatively wide burrow packed with brown-colored 

frass (fig. 26B). During late fall it changes its course 

abmptly and cuts a thin symmetrical ring around the 

stem. men the first circuit is completed, it bores spirally inward, encircling the stem until the stem tenter is reached. The larva then turns upward toward 

the bark where it mines under the bark for 25 to 

76 mm where it forms a crescent-shaped pupal chamber. The ends of the chamber extend to the bark, and 

the bottom curves toward the stem center. Both ends 

of the pupal chamber are plugged with frass, Pupation 

occurs during May and June and lasts about 3 weeks. 

The adult gnaws a D-shaped hole in the bark 25 to 

76 mm above its spiral bunow to emerge from the 

pupal chamber. A generation requires 2 years. 

Control.-Young trees in heavily idesbd nurseries and orchards should be pruned to remove the 

killed branches and Leminals as soon as leaves develop in the spring in order to collect and destroy the 

larvae (Beal and Massey 1942, Brooks 1926, Ruggles 

1918). Special care should be taken to remove the 

small dead twigs that have been severed by the firstwinter larvae. Such twigs should be clipped several 

centimeters below the dead part in order to make sure 

of getting the borer. Also, any severed branches or 

terminals should be picked up and destroyed promptly 

before adult emergence begins. Three parasites: an 

ichneumonid, Labena apicalis Cress., a braconid, 

Monogonogastra agrili Ashm., and pkromalid, Zatropus sp. (near nigroaeneus Ashm.), help reduce populations (Brooks 1926). 

FLATHEARERAPPLETREEBORER 

Chrysobothris femorata (Olivier) 

Iwtportance. -The flatheaded appletree borer, 

Chrysobothris femorata (Olivier), is a pest of pecan 

and hickory as well as many other deciduous trees, 

extending from Mexico throughout the United States 

into Canada (Baker 1972, Brooks 1919). It generally 

attacks trees that have recently been transplanted, 

stressed from various causes, or have bark that has 

been damaged by tools, disease, rodents, sun scald, or 

other insects. Injury results from the larvae tunneling 

in the bark and cambium area. Trees of all sizes may 

be attacked; those 5 cm or less in diameter may by 

girdled and killed, and larger trees may be severely 

weakened and scarred. Since wooded tracts often 

harbor high populations of beetles, damage is usually 

most pronounced when plantings are made in close 

proximity to woodland or old declining orchards. 

Description. --The adult is a broad, oval, flattened 

beetle about 7 to 16 mm in length (fig. 27A) (Brooks 

1919, Moznette and others 1931). The beetle is metallic colored and indistinctly marked with spots and 

irregular bands of dull gray. The underside is a 

coppery-bronze color and the sides beneath the wings 

are a metallic greenish blue. The egg is pale yellow, 

flattened, disklike, winkled, and about 1.5 mm in 

diameter, It is firmly attached to the bark by its flat 

surface. The larva is yellowish white, legless, and 

about 25 mm long when fully grown (fig. 27B). The 

three thoracic segrrrents are much broadened and 

compressed, giving the larva the appearance of having a large flattened head, which accounts for the 

name "flathead." The larvae within their galleries 
Figure 27.-Life stagcls ofCbrysobotbris femorata: (A) adult beetle; 

(Bj nearly mature larule. 

nearly always assuale the curved shape of a horseshoe. The pupa is somewhat more yellow than the 

larva and resembles the adult in structure. 

Evidence of I-fifestation. -Points of infestation can 

usually be detected by white, frothy sap oozing from 

cracks in the bark (fig, 28A) (Fenton 1942, Brooks 

1919, Moznette and others 1931). The bark gradually 

assumes a darkened, wet or greasy appearance. Little 

or no frass is ejected except at cracks in the bark. 

Injured areas usually become depressions, and later 

the bark may split at the injured sites (fig. 2833). Attacks occur most often on the sunny aspect of the tree. 

The burrows under the bark are broad and irrewlar 

and filled tightly with fine9 sawdustlike frass. In 

young trees with thin bark, the tunnels are usually 

long and winding, sometimes encircling the tree. In 

older trees with thick bark, the burrows are confined 

to a circular area under the bark. Wounds may be 

enlarged year after year by succeeding generations. 

As mentioned previously, attacks are often associated 

with injuries. Trunks lxay be attacked at any point 

above ground level; branches may also be attacked. 

Biology. ---Adults appear from March to November, 

but they are most abundant during May and midAugust to mid-September (Fenton 1942, Moznette 

Figure 28.3igns of infestation by Chrysobothris femorata: 

(A) fsoth*y sap owing from bark LS early symptom of 

infeshtion; JBl bask depressions, loosened bark, and 

oval exit hole provide euidence of znfestation. 

and others 1931). Beetles are active, run rapidly, and 

take flight quickly when disturbed. On hot, clear 

days, they may be found on the sunny side of trunks 

and larger branches. The female spends much time 

running over the surface, probing the bark with her 

ovipositor for places to oviposit, Females mate and 

begin ovipositing in 4 to 8 days; they live about 

1 month after emergence. Each female lays about 100 

eggs, depositing them singly in eraeks or crevices of 

the bark, under bark scales, and at bark injuries. 

Eggs hatch in 8 to 16 days. The newly hatched larva 

chews through the bark and feeds in the phloem and 

surface of the sapwood* In trees sufficiently weakened, the larvae produce long tortuous burrows and 

develop rapidly, In more vigorous trees, larval development is slow and many larvae die, probably due to 

heavy sap ooze, As soon as the larva is fully developed, 

it tunnets from tho cambium area radially into the 

sapwood where a pupal chamber is prepared by plugging the burrow tightly with frass. Here it overwinters as a larva. The larva pupates during the following spring or summer. The pupal stage lasts about 

8 to 14 bays. Adults emerge by cutting small oval 

emergence holes through the bark (fig, 28B), Nor- 
mally there is one generation per year, but some generations require 2 to 3 years. 

Control, -Because flatheaded borers rarely injure 

healthy, vigorous trees, cultural methods should be 

select-ed that keep trees vigorous, such as proper 

tran~planting, cultivation, fedilization, spraying, 

pmning, thinning, and irrigation (Baker 1972, 

Brooks 1919, Fenton 1942, hfoznette and others 

19311, Since young transplanted trees are under 

stress and particularly susceptible, additional measures may be warranted such as mapping the trunks 

with a double thickness of newspaper, burlap, or crepe 

paper from the ground to the lower limbs to prevent 

oviposition (fig. 291, or by shading the tmnks fram 

sunlight to deter the ovipositing females. Painting the 

trunks white to reduce injuries from sun scald may 

also help, Injuries by equipment, stom, frost, and 

other causes should be minimized and any fresh 

wounds promptly painted with pruning compound. 

Borers may be removed from individual trees with a 

knife, being careful to avoid unnecessary cutting and 

damage. All dead and dying trees and all pruned 

branches should be removed from ornamental and orchard plantings to reduce breeding sites for the 

beetles, Natural enemies also help to reduce flatFigwe 29.-Wrapping trunk ofyoung transplant-ed pecan tree with 

crepe paper for protection from Chrysobothris 

femorata. 

headed borer populations. Two ichneumonids, Labena 

grallator Say, Cr3tptoheleostizus chrysobothridis 

Cushan, one chalcid, Phasgonophora sulcata Westwood, and one braconid, Atanycolus rugosiuentris 

Ashm., are parasites of flathead borers; two clerids, 

Chariessu pilma (Foster) and C. pilosa onusta Say, 

one asilid, Andrenosoma fulvieauh Say, and woodpeckers are predators. 

PIN-HOLE BORERS 

Platy-pus compositus (Say) and Xyleborus spp. 

Importance-The pin-hole borers, Platypus cornpositus (Say), Xyleborus amnis EichoE, X. ferrugineus 

(F.), and X. saeseni (Ratzeburg), also called ambrosia 

beetles, are best knom for their damage to green logs 

and unseasoned lumber. They inhabit the trunks and 

branches of pecan and hickory as well as many other 

deciduous trees (Baker 1972, Bright 1968). The 

Qleborus spp. are widely distributed from Canada 

throughout the eastern half of the United States. 

Platypus cornpositus is found from Mexico throughout 

the Southern United States nofihward to West Virginia. Ambrosia beetles seldom attack healthy, vigorous trees; their attacks are largely limited to stressed 

trees weakened from drought, disease, old age, insect 

defoliation, wounding, and other factors that produce 

tree stress. Thus, when trees are successfully attacked 

by ambrosia beetles, one can be sure that the trees 

have been under stress of some sort. The beetles tunnel through the bark directly into the sapwood and 

sometimes even into the heartwood, especially 

P. compositus. Although ambrosia beetles are not tree 

killers, the physical wounds produced by large numbers of beetles provide ports of entry for disease 

agents that may cause tree death. The pinholes and 

associated stain quickly degrade the wood for lumber 

and other wood products. 

Description. -Adults of the Xyleborus spp. are 

small, brown, reddish-brown, or black elongate 

beetles with compact cylindrical bodies that vary from 

1.5 to 3.0 mm in length (Bright 1968, Chamberlin 

1939, Blackman 1922). The adults of P. compositus 

can be distinguished by having longer and more slender bodies and wide heads flattened In front (fig. 30A). 

The first segrnent of the tarsus is as long as all the 

other tarsal segrnents combined and about 4.5 mm in 

length. The eggs are elongate oval and pearly white. 

The larvae of Xyleborus spp. are C-shaped, legless, 

white to cream colored, and reach 3 to 4 mrn in length; 

larvae of P. compositus (fig. 30B) are straight to only 

slightly C-shaped, legless, white to cream colored, and 

reach 5 to 6 mrn in length. 

Evidence of Infestation. -Infested trees are usually 

attacked by numerous beetles that bore many uniform, round (0.8- to 1.7-mm diameter) holes directly 
Fiere 30.-Life stages ofPlatypus eompasilus: (2%) adult beetle; 1'23) 

nearly mature larua. 

through the bark into the wood (Chamberlin 1939). 

As the beetles construct their galleries, they push the 

fibrous ( P. cornpositus 1 or panufar ( XyEeborus spp.) 

boring dust to the outside through the entrance holes 

(fig. 31A). The boring dust is usually in evidence on 

the bark just below the entrance holes or in loose piles 

at the base of the tree; during humid weather it may 

stick together as it is pushed out to form string-like 

masses. Sap frequently oozes from many of the entrance boles, staining the bark around and below the 

entrances. Active galleries are kept free of boring dust 

and are light colored; vacated galleries are stained 

black by fungi. The galleries extend directly into the 

sapwood and then branch several dimes-the branehing pattern depending on the species (fig. 31B). These 

galleries cause dark-stained pinholes that will show 

up as defects in sawn lumber (Gg. 316). 

Biology.-In the deep South the beetles are active 

most of the year, but funher north they hibernate in 

brood galleries in the host tree (Chamberlin 1939 1, In 

the spring the adults emerge and initiate new attacks 

can the same tree or on diEerent trees. Both adults and 

larvae feed on moldlike fungi that they culture in the 

galleries. The insects carry the specific inoculum from 

one tree to another and grow the fungi in pure culture 

on the walls ofthe tunnels* Galleries 03 do 1.6 mm in 

diameter are bored horizontally into the sapwood, 

then branch. several times for a distance of 10 to 

40 cm, Galleries of P, con~prasitus are much more extensive and extend deeper into sapwood and heartwood than those of Xyleborus spp, Females deposit 

eggs in loose clusters in the galleries and may lay up 

to 200 eggs each. The eggs hatch in 6 to 18 days, and 

the young larvae wander freely about the mines and 

feed on the ambrosia funps, Several adults may occupy each gallery. Both adults and larvae help to excavate and extend the galleries. When full-grown, the 

larvae of P. cornpositus excavate cells along the main 

gallery in which they transform to pupae and adults; 

those of Xykeborus spp. pupate freely in the galleries 

without making cells. Development from egg to adult 

during the summer requires 5 to 8 weeks, There are 

several generations per year in the Gulf Coast States. 

Successive broods may continue to attack a tree as 

long as it remains suitable, Infested trees that die 

Figuse 31.-Evcdence of infestatmn by Xylebom~ and Plat3;pus sp. in pczean: {A) fresh white frms at- pinhole entmnees in trunk; (B1 blackshined branch tng galleries tn sapwood; (C1 pinhole deficts in sawn lumber. 
become unsuitable for brood deveIopment 2.38 Soon as 

the moistwe csnknd hops below about 48 gemearrd. 

Gorttrol. -Since ambrosia belles rwely aa;dack 

haltthy vigorous bees, gwd dtwal practices should 

be foIlovve?d to pmmak and maihin tree vigar (Baker 

1972, Payne and others 1979). nees that are weakened or stressed appamnt1y emit fernenling-like 

dsrs that attract ambrosia beetles. Because healthy 

trees do not emit these odors, they remain unal;i;raeLive, Insecticides may be needed sccasionafly. 

HICKORY BARK BEETLE 

Scokytus gmdrkpinosus Say 

Prnpo~ance, -The krickoq bark beetle, Seolytus 

y mdrtspimsus Say, is a pest of pecan and hickomy and 

reportedly butternut and black tvalnut (MeDaniel 

1933, Goeden, and Nsrsis 19641, However, it shows a 

strong preference fcsr the hickories and is report-ed to 

be the most impomctatnt pest of this group of trees 

(MeDaniel 2933). Id is found from Quebec southward 

throughout the eastern half of the United States Lo 

the Gulf Coast States and westward to Texas. Both 

adults and lawae produce galleries: between the bark 

and wood of trunks and branches. men attacks are 

numerous, the galleries soon girdle the tree. Trees 

stressed and weakened from drought, fire, stom, disease, or sther cause are most susceptible to attack. 

Vigorous trees are seldom attacked except when large 

beetle populatiom are produced from nearby brood 

material. Although heav idestations usually kill 

the tree, light infestations may only girdle branches 

OP a podion of the tmnk, causing top dieback. 

Descriptzon. -The adult is a short;, 4- to 5-mm long, 

stout, thickly cylindrical, black to reddish-brown, almost hairless beetle (fig, 32A) (heden and Norris 

1964, McDaniel 1933). mere is a short; curved spine 

or book on the front tibia. The venter of the male is 

deeply excavated; the third abdominal seperrt is 

ed with three spines, the fourth with one large 

median spine, me venter of the female is without 

spines. The egg is ellipsoidal, cream colored, and 

barely ~sible? dQ the naked eye, The lama is short, 

Fiwe 32,-Lifi stages of&olflaaa quarlrispinosus: (A) adult beetle; 

(I31 mature larva, 

ed or slightly 6-shaped, legless, yellowish white, 

and 5 to 8 mm in len&h when mature (fig. 32B)- The 

body appiurs wikled- Thc? pupa is compact, fragile, 

and white. 

Euiknee of Prtfestcetton. -Darnage occurs from feeding in bminaf poeh and by tunneling in tmnks 

and large branches far breeding puqoses (Blackman 

and Ellis 1915, heden and PIJsmis 1965). Throughout 

the summer months, aewly emerged adults feed on 

twigs in Z;%ze tlree crom. Their short food tunnels are 

mainly- canfirred Lo axiflary bud8 and leaf bases in the 

cument year" powth and the junctions of cument and 

l-year-old gro%%h, Hea~ twig feeding may cause yellowing and premature &opping of leaves and braken 

twigs scattered throughout the crown, but this seldom 

seriously weakens the tree. 

me most set.ious damage results from tunneling 

and reproducing in the tmnks (fig. 33). In the fall and 

winter aRer initial attack, the presence of numerous 

round, 3-mm diameter entrance holes in the bark are 

often the only sims of attack. During winter and 

spring, woodpecker holes in the bark are good indieators of infestation; in spring, sparse or yellowed foliage me signs of beetle attack. Dead or dying trees 

with bark per-forated by numerous 3-mm holes fiom 

which beetles have emerged also indicate the beetles' 

presence along with galleries beneath and within the 

bark of such trees. The inner bark and wood surfaces 

are ensaved with peculiar centipede-shaped designs 

consisting of broad ve&ical galleries wi"c narrow burFiwe 333.-&lkrks of Seolytus quad~spilaoaw berteath bark of 

hkkory. No& vertical egg galkeg with larval galleries 

sdkting oulward. 
rows radiating outwmd like centipede legs from either side of them. The foliage of heavily idested trees 

turns red vvithin a few weeks afster attack and frnally 

brom as the tree suecumbs (fig. 34). 

logy. -The beetles oveminter as larvae in various developmental instars (Geden and Noes 1964, 

1965, MeDaiel 1933). During spring the oldest larvae trasfom ts pupae in elliptical chambers terminating each larval turnel just beneath the bark surface. Beetles emerge &om May through late August. 

population and seasonal activity reach a 

during July and early August. The newly 

emerged beetles fly ko the eroms of host trees and 

feed mainly in terminal and twig grovvth for 10 to 15 

days. Siexually mature beetles are then attracted to 

low-vigor trees where they bore into the trunks and 

branches for breeding purlposes. Here the females excavate short (12 to 50-mm) vedical egg galleries between the bark and wood. Mating and egg laying continue throughout the summer, with each female 

depositing 20 to 60 eggs singly in small niches along 

either side of the egg gallery. Each egg is covered with 

a plug of macerated frass. The eggs hatch in 10 to 12 

days. The larvae mine at right angles to the main 

gallery and parallel to each other, but as the larvae 

become larger their gallefies &verge more and more, 

Figure 34.-Ekbry (pigkt1 &ing ficom SGOlytus inusua 

attack. 

ng of "centipede legs.'? 

or more away from t 

eesYfood and water conducting 

leave the cambim and bore 

inta the outer bark where they construct pupation 

cells. There is one generatian per year in the no&hem 

range and two per year in the southern distribution. 

Conhi. -Since hickory bark beetles rarely attack 

healthy trees, goad cultwal practices such as thining, ferctilization, and irrigation are irmporfor promoting and maintaining good tree vigor 

don and Norris 1964, Hopkins 1912). The most 

effective means of controlling a hickory bark beetle 

infesktion is by destroying trees in which larvae are 

overvvintering. Infested trees should be cut and 

burned or submerged in water, have the bark peeled, 

or be sprayed with an insecticide before beetle emergence begins in May or June. To protect high-value 

trees, thoroughly spraying the trunks and large 

branches with an insecticide during early July will 

curtail most breeding attacks. 

RED-SHOWERED SHOTHOLE BORER 

Xylobiops basilaris (Say) 

APPLE TWIG BORER 

Amphiceris bicaudatus (Say) 

Irnprtame. -The red-shouldered shothole borer, 

Xylobiops basilaris (Say), and apple twig borer, Amphiceris bicaudatus (Say), are found throughout the 

United States east of the Rocky Mountains and in 

southern Canada (Baker 1972, Gill 1924, Moznette 

and others 1931). Pecan and hickory are among their 

favored hosts, but they also attack several other deciduous hosts. They generally attack severely 

stressed and dying or recently dead trees. Trunks of 

healthy trees growing in close proximity to heavily 

infested trees are occasionally attacked but seldom 

with success; however, A. bkaudatus may tunnel the 

twigs and small branches causing them to wither and 

die back. Although these borers may cause some twig 

dieback and possibly hasten the death of trees already 

stressed or dying from other causes, the threat to 

healthy living trees is minimal. 

Description.-The adults of X. basilaris are 3 to 

5 mrn long, black, and bullet-shaped, with many 

small pmctmes over the body. The basal part of the 

elytra is dull reddish or yellow-hence the name '"redshouldered." The wing covers end in. an oblique angle 

at the posterior end, the edges of which are armed 

with three conspicuous teeth on each side. The adults 

of A. bicaudatus (fig. 35A) are similar to X. basiktris 

except they are larger, range from 6 to 11 mm long, 

are dark brown, and lack the reddish marking on the 

wing covers. The larvae of both species are white and 
Figure 36.-Life swes ofbphice~s tsicarsafakw: (4 adult hetb; 

(231 nzature 6-sbpd larva. 

C-shaped; when full-grow, X. basilaris is about 5 to 

6 mm long and A. bicauhtus is 6 to 12 mnn long 

(fig. 35%). The head of the larva is globular and 

greatly enlarged into the prsthoru, the mouthparts 

extend fornard, and there are three pairs of thoracic 

prolegs. 

Evictenee of Infestation. -The adults of X, basitaris 

make small round exit holes 2 to 3 rnm in diameter; 

the holes of A. bicaudaLus are 3 to 4 mrn in diameker 

and generally much less numerous (Payne and others 

1979, Baker 1972, Gill 1924). The holes give a tree 

trunk the appearance of having been hit by birdshot, 

hence these borers are oRen referred to as "shothole" 

borers (fig. 36A). Light sawdwt pbicles my b gbbsewed coming from the holes. me borings or fkass of 

the Iamae aso vev he and powderlike in appearance; they are &m1y packed or compressed within the 

galleries, which parallel with the grain of the 

woad (fig, 36231, s cut back so severely that the 

trunk becomes saemabd with sap are auscepbibfe to 

ideshtiaa by X. bmtltkrk, *igs that have withered 

and brom leaves usually contain single, round entrance hokes 2 b 4 mm in diameter adjacent to a bud 

or led base (fig. 366). Dissection of the twigs usually 

reveals a hollow twig that is aha? occupied by a single 

adult beetle from la& fall do late spring. 

Biology,-Adults emerge dwing the s 

fly in search 06 suitable hst trees where they bore 

through tbe bmk and into the sapwood (Gill 1924, 

Lugger 1899, Baker 1972, Dean 11920). Tunnels are 

constmcded across the pain just under the wood sur- 

&ce in the sapwood. mesa; tunnels may eomplekly 

girdle small-diameter limbs and trunks (fig. 36D). 

Eggs are deposited at intemals along the sides of the 

tunnel. me lamae feed mostly in the sapwood and to 

some extent in the headwood. Lama1 mines run parallel with the $rain and are packed with fine, white, 

powderlike dwd. Feeding may continue until the 

wd is g~b w. me winkr is spent mostly as maFigure 36.-hbi& a& sigm of am& by Xyfobiops basii~s ad hphicefis bictsudatu~ in pertn: (4 ail holes (shotholes) in bar&; 

(B) cross-seetbn of stem showing ends of pass-pked ksrvczl sllerks; if21 dult erztmnce hob between baf scar and bud; 

[Dl girdling tunnel Just beneath bark by dult beetle; (23) tl~er~intering gallery ma& by dutt of Amphieeris bicaudatus. 
ture larvae in mines; lamae pupah and emerge as 

ahlts the following spring and s er though circulrir holes cut in the bark. Adults of A, bkauci'sttus 

oRen bore into twigs for food and slrelkr and eommanly spend the fall, winter, and spring in galle~es 

within the tvvigs (fig. 36E). A gene 

from egg Lo adult in 1 pa mder o 

but longer periods of the are 80 

Control,-mese borers present little threat to 

healthy well-kept trees; P;herefsre, gwd eultural praetices should be followed to maintain tree vigor (Dem 

1920, Moznetb arad others 1932). Sowees of idestation can be eliminakd by promptly removing a 

stro~~ing all dead and dying twigs and brancbes 

ings, and dead trees. 

YELLOW-BELLIED SAPSUCmR 

Sphyrapicus varius L. 

Impodonce. -The yellow-bellied sapsucker, Sphyrapieus varius L., pecks small holes in tree bark, causing injuries that are often mistaken for insect 

borers-hence its coverage in this paper. This pest is 

found over most of the United States and southern 

Canada, but its damage is best known in the Eastern 

United States, It attacks pcan and lhickory as well as 

over 250 othr trees and shbs (Beal and McAe 

crf the bark and camb 

row pe&d holes, the vihfity of the! 

en the iinjatsy is exdensive, in&Gdual branches or a;be entire tree ~lnw be comy1ebIy 

Pinged or girdled and killed, Sapsucker peeking disfigures ornamental trees and gves ~se to boles, to sap 

spots, and sulis~equently d@ waled bmk defomities 

that ruin the aesthetic appearance of the trees, Disease and wwd-boring insecb ofien become @stablished at sapsucllker wounds. me greatest damage 

done by sapsuckers, r, is to cause defeeb in the 

mod of trees cut for , veneer, and handle stock. 

Economic losses to er inhstry in hickory 

alone have been estimahd at 1.2 million dollars annually (Dale and Krefting 1966). 

Deseriptbn. -The yellow-bellied sapsucker is a 

member of the woodpecker family (Picidae) and resembles the woodpeckers in appeasance (fig. 37A). 

However, its habits are detrimental as opposed to the 

generally beneficial habits of woodpeckers. The identifying field markings of adult birds are a black crescent on the breast, pale yellow belly, longitudinal 

white stripe on the mostly black wings, and crimson 

Figure 37.-Characteristics of injury by Sphyrapicus varius in pecan: (A) bird pecking tmnk ofyoung tree; (23) heauy bird-peck injury to trunk 

of large tree; (C) bird-peck defects in sawn lumber. 
red cram (Peterson 1947, Ostry and Micholls 1976). 

Although it most closely resembles the hairy and 

domy woodpeckers and is between the two in size, it 

is the only woodpecker with a red forehead in combination with a black patch on the breast. In addition, 

the male has a crimson chin and throat that distineish him from the female whose chin and throat are 

white. 

Euidenee of Infestation.-The yellow-bellied sapsucker pecks a series of small holes about 5 mm in 

diameter in the bark (Beal and McAtee 1952). Generally, the holes are made in horizontal rings (full or 

pa~ial) around the trunk or branches (fig. 337B). The 

holes extend through the bark to the cambium, sometimes penetrating the sapwood to a depth of 3 mm, 

Occasionally the holes in a series are padually enlarged until they girdle or partially girdle the stem. 

Dissections of trees that have sugered from repeated 

yearly attacks reveal characteristic symptoms of previous damage by sapsuckers. The evidence consists of 

uniformly spaced peck-marks surrounded by dark 

verdical stains, often with small pockets of ingown 

bark and decay. These defects degrade the lumber 

sawn from damaged trees (fig. 376). Attacks may be 

seen at any point on the trunk and branches but are 

perhaps most common on the bole area just below the 

lower branches. Small trees are particullarly susceptible to attack. 

Biology. -Although the yellow-bellied sapsucker is 

a member of the woodpecker family, it has a short 

brush tongue in contrast to that of true woodpeckers, 

which have long tongues equipped with barbed tips 

for preying upon wood-boring grubs. The sapsucker's 

staple diet is the living cambium layer, inner bark, 

and sap that flows from the pecked wounds (Dale and 

Krefting 1966). After settling in a locality, each bird 

pecks many trees but then selects a few trees for most 

of its feeding. Pecked holes are revisited several times 

daily to drink sap oozing from the wounds and to eat 

small insects attracted to the sap. On favored trees, 

boles are often enlarged as the sapsucker feeds on the 

cambium to freshen the wound and to stimulate sap 

flow. The yellow-bellied sapsucker is a migratory bird 

that spends its summers and nests primarily in the 

Northern States and southern Canada (Peterson 

1947). In the fall it migrates southward, sometimes as 

far as the Gulf Coast. 

Control. -Control is diricult, but several remedies 

have been used with some success on high-value trees 

fOstry and Nicholls 1976, Beal and McAtee 1922). 

Trunks of individual trees may be wrapped with 

burlap or some other material to prevent attacks. 

Painting damaged trees with tree-wound paint will 

sometimes discourage the birds. Commercially available repellents have been used successfully in repelling sapsuckers. Spraying the trunk periodically 

with a soap solution has also helped to discourage 

attacks. Often only a single bird is responsible for 

damage to a shade or ornamental tree; thus, if it can 

be discouraged or eliminakd, the problem is solved. 

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Appendix-common and Scientific Names 

CLASS: INSECTA 

Lepidoptera 

Cossidae 

Pecan carpenterworm, Cossula magnifica (Strecker) 

Sesiidae 

Dogwood borer, Synanthedon scitula (Harris) 

Pyralidae 

American plum borer, Euzophera semifuneralis (Walker) 

Acrobasis shoot borers, Acrobasis spp. 

Coleoptera 

Curculionidae 

Hickory shoot curculio, Conotrachelus aratus (Germar) 

Cerambycidae 

Hickory borer, Goes puleher (Haldeman) 

Broadnecked root borer, Prionus latieollis (L.) 

Tilehorned prionus, Prionus imbricornis (Drury) 

Twig girdler, Oncideres cingulata (Say) 

Twig pruner, Elaphidionoides uillosus (F.) 

Oak twig pruner, Elaphidionoides parallelus Newman 

Branch pruner, Psyrassce unicolor (Randall) 

Buprestidae 

Hickory spiral borer, Agrilus arcuatus Say 

Flatheaded appletree borer, Chrysobothris femorata (Olivier) 

Platypodidae 

Pin-hole borer, Platypus compositus (Say) 

Scolytidae 

Pin-hole borers, Xyleborus spp. 

Hickory bark beetle, Scolytus quadrispinosus Say 

Bostrichidae 

Red-shouldered shothole borer, Xylobiops basilaris (Say) 

Apple twig borer, Amphieeris bicaudatus (Say) 

CLASS: AVES 

Piciformis 

Picidae 

Yellow-bellied sapsucker, Sphyrapicus uarius L. 
Solomon, J. D.; Payne, J. A. A guide to the insect borers, 

pruners, and girdlers of pecan and hickory. Gen. Tech. Rep. 

SO-64. New Orleans, LA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, 

Forest Service. Southern Forest Experiment Station; 1986. 

31 p. 

The importance, identification, biology and indirect control 

of insects attacking shoots, branches, trunks, and roots of 

trees are presented. Damage due to and control of the yellowbellied sapsucker is discussed. 

Additional keywords: Carya, impact, identification, 

pests, control, bird damage, yellow-bellied sapsucker.