U.S. Department of Education

Office of Educational Research and Improvement NCES 2000-026

NATIONAL CENTER FOR EDUCATION STATISTICS

Statistics in Brief November 1999

Home Literacy Activities and Signs of Children’s

Emerging Literacy, 1993 and 1999

Contact:

Kathryn Chandler

202-219-1767

Authors:

Christine Winquist Nord

Jean Lennon

Baiming Liu

Westat

Kathryn Chandler

NCES

Children begin the process of learning to read long before they enter formal

schooling (Sonnenschein, Brody, and Munsterman 1996; Teale and Sulzby

1989). Families, and parents in particular, play an important part in this

process. For decades, research has shown that children whose parents read to

them become better readers and do better in school (Snow, Burns, and Griffin,

1998; Saracho 1997; Moss and Fawcett 1995). But reading to children is not

the only activity that helps children become readers and to do better in school.

Activities such as telling stories and singing songs may also encourage the

acquisition of literacy skills (National Education Goals Panel 1997;

Sonnenschein, Brody, and Munsterman 1996; Moss and Fawcett 1995; Glazer

1989).

Why is it that home activities such as reading to children, telling them stories,

and singing with them help them learn? Research suggests that reading and

story telling stimulate the imagination, help to increase children’s vocabularies,

introduce them to components of stories (such as character, plot, action, and

sequence), and provide them with information about the world around them

(The National Education Goals Panel 1997; Moss and Fawcett 1995). Singing

songs probably also encourages a love of language and the rhythms of language

(Glazer 1989). It also encourages phonological awareness (that is, awareness of

the sounds and parts of language), which can be an important predictor of later

literacy learning (Bryant et al. 1990; Maclean, Bryant, and Bradley 1987).

Moreover, activities such as these are usually very child-centered, are

conducted in a relaxed atmosphere, and allow for a warm, positive interaction

between children and their parents (Sonnenschein, Brody, and Munsterman

1996; Strickland and Taylor 1989). Research suggests that the quality of

parent-child interactions is important for children’s development of literacy

(Saracho 1997).

Goal One of the National Education Goals recognizes the importance of familychild engagement in literacy activities to children’s learning and readiness for

school. The goal suggests that for all children in America to start school ready

to learn, parents need to devote time each day to teaching them.
2

This brief report presents information on the

extent to which families are engaged in literacy

activities with their 3- to 5-year-olds who are not

yet enrolled in kindergarten. It also presents

information on signs of emerging literacy, such as

whether children recognize letters, can write their

own names, or read or pretend to read. This

information is shown for selected child, parent,

and family characteristics. Some of these

characteristics, such as low parent education, are

often used to identify children as being at risk for

school failure. The report examines changes in

both home literacy activities that families engage

in and signs of children’s emerging literacy

between 1993 and 1999. During this period,

substantial research, policy, and media attention

has been devoted to the importance of family

involvement in children’s learning.

1

 The report

then examines the association between home

literacy activities and signs of emerging literacy

in 1999.

The data used in this report are from the 1993 and

1999 National Household Education Surveys

(NHES:1993 and NHES:1999). These data are

based on reports of the parent most

knowledgeable about the child, usually the

child’s mother. It is important to acknowledge

that parents may overestimate both their

involvement in home literacy activities and their

children’s skills because they recognize that such

activities and skills are socially desirable. The

tendency for respondents to give socially

desirable responses is one source of nonsampling

error in surveys. See the Survey Methodology

and Data Reliability section of this report for

information about nonsampling errors and for

details about the NHES:1993 and NHES:1999.

Home Literacy Activities

Families’ Engagement in Literacy Activities,

1999. Families have gotten the message about

the importance of reading to their young children.

Eighty-one percent of children ages 3 to 5 years

in 1999 who were not yet enrolled in

kindergarten were read to three or more times in

the last week by a family member (table 1).

Many families are also engaging in other literacy

activities with their 3- to 5-year-old children.

Fifty percent of children aged 3 to 5 years not yet

in kindergarten were told a story three or more

times in the last week by a family member.

Sixty-four percent were taught letters, words, or

numbers frequently by their families. Nearly half

(49 percent) were taught songs or music three or

more times in the last week, and more than a third

(39 percent) did arts and crafts with their families

three or more times in the last week. More than a

third (36 percent) of preschool 3- to 5-year-olds

visited the library in the last month with a family

member. These percentages show that many

families are actively involved in helping their

young children learn. (See the Methodology and

Data Reliability section of this report for

information about how home literacy activities

are defined in this report.)

Families’ Engagement in Literacy Activities

by Child, Parent, and Family Characteristics,

1999. The percentage of preschool-aged children

who are read to, told stories, or engage in other

literacy activities with their families varies by

characteristics of the children, their parents, and

their families. For example, 3-year-olds were

more likely than 4-year-olds or 5-year-olds to

have been taught songs or music three or more

times in the last week by their families (57

percent of 3-year-olds compared to 43 percent of

4-year-olds and 38 percent of 5-year-olds).

However, they were less likely than 4- and 5-

year-olds to have visited the library with their

families in the last month (33 percent, versus 39

and 41 percent, respectively).

There are also differences in families’

engagement in literacy activities with their

children by the children’s race and ethnicity.

Hispanic children and black, non-Hispanic

children were less likely than white, non-Hispanic

children to have been read to (61 percent and 71

percent versus 89 percent), told stories by (40

percent and 45 percent versus 53 percent), or

done arts and crafts with (32 percent and 28

percent versus 44 percent) their families three or

more times in the last week. There are no

statistically significant differences, however,

between black, non-Hispanic children and white,

non-Hispanic children in the proportion who were

taught letters, words, or numbers three or

more times in the last week or who visited the

library in the last month with their families.

Hispanic children, though, are significantly less

likely than either white, non-Hispanic or black,
Table 1.— Percentage of 3- to 5-year-old children not yet enrolled in kindergarten who have participated in home literacy activities with a family member

three or more times in the past week, by selected child and family characteristics: 1993 and 1999

Children

(thousands) Read to1,2 Told a story2 Taught letters, words, or numbers2

1993 1999 1993 1999 1993 1999 Characteristic

1993 1999 Percent s.e. Percent s.e. Percent s.e. Percent s.e. Percent s.e. Percent s.e.

Total.......................................................................... 8,579 8,549 78 0.6 81 0.7 43 0.9 50 1.1 58 0.8 64 0.9

Age

3 years old ............................................................. 3,889 3,827 79 1.0 81 1.2 46 1.3 52 1.6 57 1.3 65 1.3

4 years old ............................................................. 3,713 3,722 78 1.0 81 1.2 41 1.5 49 1.7 58 1.1 63 1.5

5 years old ............................................................. 976 1,001 76 2.1 79 2.5 36 2.7 44 3.1 58 2.8 64 2.9

Sex

Male ...................................................................... 4,453 4,363 77 1.0 80 1.1 43 1.2 49 1.4 58 1.0 64 1.4

Female................................................................... 4,126 4,187 79 1.0 82 1.2 43 1.2 50 1.5 58 1.3 65 1.3

Race/ethnicity

White, non-Hispanic.............................................. 5,902 5,296 85 0.7 89 0.7 44 1.0 53 1.2 58 0.9 65 1.1

Black, non-Hispanic .............................................. 1,271 1,258 66 2.3 71 2.7 39 2.7 45 2.7 63 2.7 68 2.6

Hispanic ................................................................ 1,026 1,421 58 2.4 61 2.1 38 2.2 40 2.3 54 1.9 55 2.2

Other ..................................................................... 381 574 73 3.8 81 3.7 50 5.3 53 4.1 59 3.9 69 4.5

Mother’s home language3

English .................................................................. 7,805 7,599 81 0.7 84 0.8 44 0.9 52 1.1 58 0.8 66 1.0

Not English ........................................................... 603 683 42 3.0 48 2.9 36 2.8 31 2.8 52 2.8 45 2.9

Mother’s highest education3

Less than high school ............................................ 1,036 952 60 2.7 61 3.3 37 3.2 36 3.0 56 2.7 60 3.3

High school diploma or equivalent........................ 3,268 2,556 76 1.3 76 1.9 41 1.3 48 2.1 56 1.3 63 1.7

Vocational education or some college ................... 2,624 2,586 83 1.4 85 1.2 45 1.7 52 1.5 60 1.5 67 1.4

College degree....................................................... 912 1,455 90 1.6 91 1.4 48 2.4 55 2.5 56 2.2 65 2.2

Graduate/professional training or degree............... 569 734 90 2.1 93 1.8 50 3.1 54 3.2 60 2.7 62 3.3

Mother’s employment status3

Employed .............................................................. 4,486 5,058 79 1.0 81 1.0 44 1.0 50 1.5 57 1.2 65 1.2

Unemployed .......................................................... 594 452 71 3.4 70 3.7 43 2.9 47 4.4 66 3.6 63 4.1

Not in labor force .................................................. 3,328 2,773 79 1.3 84 1.3 43 1.4 50 1.5 58 1.5 64 1.9

Family type

Two parents........................................................... 6,226 5,997 81 0.7 85 0.7 44 0.9 52 1.3 57 0.9 64 1.0

None or one parent ................................................ 2,353 2,553 71 1.7 72 1.8 41 2.0 44 2.1 59 2.1 65 1.8

Poverty status

Above poverty threshold ....................................... 6,323 6,575 82 0.7 85 0.6 44 0.9 52 1.0 57 0.8 66 1.0

Below poverty threshold........................................ 2,256 1,975 68 1.6 69 2.4 39 1.8 42 2.8 59 2.0 58 2.4

Number of risk factors3,4

None...................................................................... 4,175 3,758 87 0.8 91 0.7 43 1.2 54 1.4 56 1.0 64 1.3

One........................................................................ 1,645 1,856 82 1.6 83 1.7 47 2.1 57 2.0 62 1.9 69 2.2

Two or more.......................................................... 2,588 2,669 64 1.5 66 1.8 40 1.8 40 2.0 59 1.7 60 1.8

3
Table 1.— Percentage of 3- to 5-year-old children not yet enrolled in kindergarten who have participated in home literacy activities with a family member

three or more times in the past week, by selected child and family characteristics: 1993 and 1999 (continued)

Children

(thousands)

Taught songs or music2 Did arts and crafts2 Visited a library5

1993 1999 1993 1999 1993 1999

Characteristic

1993 1999 Percent s.e. Percent s.e. Percent s.e. Percent s.e. Percent s.e. Percent s.e.

Total.......................................................................... 8,579 8,549 41 0.8 49 1.0 34 0.8 39 0.9 38 1.0 36 0.9

Age

3 years old ............................................................. 3,889 3,827 45 1.3 57 1.4 34 1.3 41 1.8 34 1.3 33 1.3

4 years old ............................................................. 3,713 3,722 39 1.2 43 1.5 33 1.1 38 1.3 41 1.5 39 1.4

5 years old ............................................................. 976 1,001 33 2.5 38 3.0 33 2.3 35 2.6 38 2.7 41 2.9

Sex

Male ...................................................................... 4,453 4,363 38 1.3 47 1.4 31 1.0 38 1.3 38 1.5 35 1.2

Female................................................................... 4,126 4,187 44 1.2 51 1.6 36 1.2 40 1.3 38 1.1 38 1.3

Race/ethnicity

White, non-Hispanic.............................................. 5,902 5,296 40 1.0 49 1.3 36 1.0 44 1.1 42 1.3 39 1.0

Black, non-Hispanic .............................................. 1,271 1,258 49 3.1 51 2.7 28 2.4 28 2.8 29 2.6 35 2.9

Hispanic ................................................................ 1,026 1,421 39 2.0 45 2.1 25 2.1 32 2.0 26 1.6 25 1.8

Other ..................................................................... 381 574 34 3.3 52 4.4 32 3.2 35 3.4 43 4.5 43 3.7

Mother’s home language3

English .................................................................. 7,805 7,599 42 0.9 49 1.0 34 0.8 40 1.0 39 1.1 39 0.9

Not English ........................................................... 603 683 33 2.5 43 2.9 23 2.4 25 2.6 26 2.6 19 2.1

Mother’s highest education3

Less than high school ............................................ 1,036 952 40 2.8 44 3.5 25 2.2 29 3.1 22 2.7 18 2.3

High school diploma or equivalent........................ 3,268 2,556 41 1.2 50 2.0 30 1.2 38 1.8 31 1.8 30 1.8

Vocational education or some college ................... 2,624 2,586 42 1.3 51 1.7 38 1.6 40 1.7 44 2.0 40 1.8

College degree....................................................... 912 1,455 39 2.5 48 2.3 37 2.3 43 1.9 55 2.2 50 2.3

Graduate/professional training or degree............... 569 734 44 3.6 46 3.2 42 3.0 47 3.4 59 3.4 48 2.9

Mother’s employment status3

Employed .............................................................. 4,486 5,058 41 1.1 48 1.3 33 1.1 37 1.2 39 1.2 36 1.0

Unemployed .......................................................... 594 452 49 4.4 49 4.9 34 3.9 39 4.5 37 3.7 29 3.8

Not in labor force .................................................. 3,328 2,773 40 1.4 51 1.8 34 1.4 43 1.5 37 1.4 40 1.6

Family type

Two parents........................................................... 6,226 5,997 40 0.9 48 1.1 35 0.9 41 1.1 41 1.2 40 1.0

None or one parent ................................................ 2,353 2,553 44 1.9 50 2.0 30 1.9 34 1.7 30 1.7 29 1.8

Poverty status

Above poverty threshold ....................................... 6,323 6,575 40 0.9 49 1.1 36 0.9 41 1.0 41 1.2 40 1.0

Below poverty threshold........................................ 2,256 1,975 45 2.1 49 2.4 27 1.9 34 2.5 28 2.0 24 2.0

Number of risk factors3,4

None...................................................................... 4,175 3,758 39 1.1 48 1.4 37 1.1 45 1.4 46 1.5 44 1.2

One........................................................................ 1,645 1,856 43 2.0 50 2.1 36 1.8 38 2.3 35 1.6 37 1.9

Two or more.......................................................... 2,588 2,669 44 1.8 49 1.9 26 1.6 32 1.9 28 1.6 27 1.7

1

In 1993, respondents were asked about reading frequency in one of two versions. The percentages presented in the table are for all of the respondents who answered three or more times on either version of the

questions.

2Refers to activities done 3 or more times in the past week.

3Excludes 86 children in 1993 and 106 children in 1999 who did not have a mother (birth, adoptive, step, or foster) residing in their household and also did not have a female respondent on the telephone.

4Risk factors are defined as having a race-ethnicity other than white, non-Hispanic, mother’s home language is other than English, mother’s highest education is less than high school, family type is none or one

parent in the household, and poverty status is below the poverty threshold.

5Refers to visiting a library at least once in the past month.

NOTE: s.e. is standard error. Because of rounding, numbers of children may not add to totals.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Household Education Survey, 1993 and 1999.

4
5

non-Hispanic children to have done these

activities that frequently with their families. For

example, 25 percent of Hispanic children visited

the library in the past month with their families

compared to 39 percent of white non-Hispanic

children and 35 percent of black, non-Hispanic

children.

A number of risk factors believed to have an

impact on the development of literacy skills are

shown in table 1. These include having a mother

whose home language is other than English,

having a mother with less than a high school

education, living with fewer than two parents,

living in a family with an income below the

poverty threshold, and having a race/ethnicity

other than white, non-Hispanic. Having a

minority race/ethnicity is not a risk factor in the

same sense as poverty or the other risk factors

that can have a direct impact on children’s

development and learning. However, it remains

the case that, on average, minorities in the United

States have fewer opportunities and are faced

with greater obstacles than are nonminorities.

These realities of American life place minorities

at educational risk.

Generally, the findings in this report show that

children with one or more of these risk factors are

less likely than other children to have frequently

engaged in literacy activities with their families.

This is especially true for reading to children,

telling them stories, doing arts and crafts with

them, and visiting the library with them. The

differences between those at risk and those not at

risk are smaller for teaching children letters,

words or numbers, and teaching them songs or

music. For example, 69 percent of children living

in families with incomes below the poverty

threshold were read to three or more times in the

last week compared to 85 percent of children

living above poverty. But children living in

families with incomes below the poverty

threshold were just as likely as children not living

in poverty to have been taught songs or music

three or more times in the last week (49 percent

each). Likewise, 61 percent of children whose

mothers had less than a high school education

were read to three or more times in the last week

compared to over 90 percent of children whose

mothers’ highest education was college graduate

or graduate or professional school. And 44

percent of children whose mothers had less than a

high school education were taught songs or music

three or more times in the last week, as were 48

percent of children whose mothers were college

graduates and 46 percent of children whose

mothers had attended graduate or professional

school.

With the exception of being taught songs or

music, children with multiple risk factors are less

likely than those with none or only one risk factor

to engage in literacy activities frequently with

their families. Twenty-seven percent of children

with two or more risk factors had visited a library

in the past month compared to 44 percent of

children with no risk factors. Sixty-six percent of

children with two or more risk factors were read

to three or more times in the last week compared

to 91 percent of children with no risk factors.

Even though children with multiple risks are less

likely than other children to be read to frequently,

it is noteworthy that a majority of them are being

read to frequently by their families. Thus, even

families facing difficult circumstances are making

an effort to help their children learn.

Changes in Families’ Engagement in Literacy

Activities, 1993 to 1999. In general, children in

1999 are more likely than those in 1993 to engage

in literacy activities with family members. The

one exception is that they are no more likely than

their 1993 counterparts to have visited a library in

the past month with a family member. They are

more likely than children in 1993, however, to

have been read to (81 percent versus 78 percent),

told a story (50 percent versus 43 percent), and

taught letters, words, or numbers (64 percent

versus 58 percent) three or more times in the last

week. They are also more likely than children in

1993 to have been taught songs or music (49

percent versus 41 percent) and to have done arts

and crafts with a family member (39 percent

versus 34 percent) three or more times in the last

week.

The vast majority of statistically significant

changes observed between 1993 and 1999 are for

those children who would generally be

considered less at risk for school failure. That is,

most of the increases in literacy activities are for

white, non-Hispanic children from two-parent

households, with family incomes above the
6

poverty threshold, and with mothers who speak

English at home. For example, the percentage of

white, non-Hispanic children who were read to

three or more times in the last week increased

from 85 percent in 1993 to 89 percent in 1999.

Similarly, the percentage who were taught letters,

words, or numbers three or more times in the last

week increased from 58 percent in 1993 to 65

percent in 1999. Among black, non-Hispanic

children, the percentage who were read to

frequently appears to have risen from 66 percent

in 1993 to 71 percent in 1999. This difference,

however, is not statistically significant.

Similarly, the percentage who were taught letters,

words, or numbers three or more times in the last

week appears to have risen from 63 percent in

1993 to 68 percent in 1999. Again, however, this

change is not statistically significant. There are

also no statistically significant increases in

families' engagement in literacy activities for

children with two or more risk factors. For

example, 64 percent of children in 1993 with two

or more risk factors were read to three or more

times in the last week as were 66 percent of such

children in 1999.

Emerging Literacy Skills

Signs of Emerging Literacy, 1999. A

substantial proportion of children aged 3 to 5

years who are not yet enrolled in kindergarten

show signs of emerging literacy (table 2).

Twenty-four percent already recognize all the

letters of the alphabet, 57 percent can count to 20

or higher, 51 percent can write their own names,

and 74 percent either read or pretend to read

storybooks. Most children this age, of course,

only pretend to read. Only 3 percent of 3- to 5-

year-olds not yet in kindergarten actually read.

Overall, 39 percent of 3- to 5-year-olds not yet in

kindergarten are reported to have at least three of

these four skills. (See the Methodology and Data

Reliability section of this report for information

about how emerging literacy skills are defined in

this report.)

Signs of Emerging Literacy by Child, Parent,

and Family Characteristics, 1999. Not

surprisingly, older children are more likely than

younger ones to show signs of emerging literacy.

Fifteen percent of 3-year-olds not enrolled in

kindergarten recognize all the letters of the

alphabet compared to 44 percent of 5-year-olds

not enrolled in kindergarten. Similarly, 24

percent of 3-year-olds can write their own names

compared to 87 percent of 5-year-olds.

There are some differences in the percentage of

3- to 5-year-old children who show signs of

emerging literacy by the children’s race and

ethnicity. Hispanic children are significantly less

likely than non-Hispanic children to recognize all

the letters of the alphabet. Fourteen percent of

Hispanic children can do so compared with 25

percent of white, non-Hispanic, 25 percent of

black, non-Hispanic, and 30 percent of children

of some other race or ethnicity. Hispanic

children are also much less likely than nonHispanic children to be able to count to 20 or

higher. Forty-one percent of Hispanic children

can do so compared to 60 percent of white, nonHispanic children, 60 percent of black, nonHispanic children, and 59 percent of children of

some other race or ethnicity. Black, nonHispanic children are less likely than white, nonHispanic children to read or to pretend to read (66

percent versus 79 percent), but they are as likely

as white, non-Hispanic children to recognize all

the letters of the alphabet and to be able to count

to 20 or higher.

Young children living in families with incomes

below the poverty threshold are less likely than

other children to show signs of emerging literacy.

Ten percent of 3- to 5-year-old children living in

poverty recognize all the letters of the alphabet

compared to 28 percent of nonpoor children.

Similarly, 39 percent of children living in poverty

can count to 20 or higher compared to 62 percent

of nonpoor children. Nineteen percent of poor

children show three or more signs of emerging

literacy compared to 45 percent of nonpoor

children. Likewise, children with two or more

educational risk factors are less likely than other

children to show signs of emerging literacy.

Fifteen percent of children with two or more risk

factors recognize all the letters of the alphabet

compared to 29 percent of children with no risk

factors. Similarly, 26 percent of children with

two or more risk factors show at least three signs

of emerging literacy compared to 47 percent of

children with no risk factors.
Table 2.— Percentage of 3- to 5-year-old children not yet enrolled in kindergarten with specific reported school readiness skills, by selected child and

family characteristics: 1993 and 1999

Children

(thousands) Recognizes all letters Counts to 20 or higher Writes name Reads or pretends to read

storybooks2 Has 3-4 skills

1993 1999 1993 1999 1993 1999 1993 1999 1993 1999 Characteristic

1993 1999 Percent s.e. Percent s.e. Percent s.e. Percent s.e. Percent s.e. Percent s.e. Percent s.e. Percent s.e. Percent s.e. Percent s.e.

Total........................................... 8,579 8,549 21 0.7 24 0.8 52 0.8 57 0.9 50 0.7 51 0.9 72 0.8 74 0.9 35 0.7 39 0.8

Age

3 years old.............................. 3,889 3,827 11 0.7 15 1.1 37 1.3 41 1.5 22 1.0 24 1.2 66 1.3 70 1.4 15 0.9 20 1.1

4 years old.............................. 3,713 3,722 28 1.3 28 1.3 62 1.3 67 1.6 70 1.2 70 1.2 75 1.3 76 1.3 49 1.4 50 1.5

5 years old.............................. 976 1,001 36 2.7 44 2.8 78 2.4 81 2.3 84 2.5 87 2.1 81 1.7 77 2.1 65 2.9 69 2.5

Sex

Male ....................................... 4,453 4,363 19 1.0 21 1.0 49 1.2 54 1.5 47 1.1 47 1.4 68 1.0 70 1.3 32 1.1 35 1.2

Female.................................... 4,126 4,187 23 1.1 27 1.2 56 1.1 60 1.2 53 1.1 56 1.4 76 1.1 77 1.2 39 1.0 43 1.3

Race/ethnicity

White, non-Hispanic .............. 5,902 5,296 23 0.8 25 1.0 56 1.0 60 1.2 52 0.9 54 1.3 76 0.9 79 1.0 39 0.7 42 1.1

Black, non-Hispanic............... 1,271 1,258 18 1.7 25 2.1 53 2.1 60 2.6 45 2.3 49 2.5 63 2.5 66 2.4 31 2.3 35 2.5

Hispanic ................................. 1,026 1,421 10 1.3 14 1.7 32 2.2 41 2.3 42 2.2 43 2.3 59 2.6 57 2.4 22 2.0 25 2.0

Other...................................... 381 574 22 3.2 30 3.6 49 4.0 59 3.8 52 4.2 57 4.2 70 4.0 79 3.0 36 4.2 48 4.2

Mother’s home language1

English ................................... 7,805 7,599 22 0.8 25 0.8 55 0.8 60 1.0 51 0.8 53 1.0 73 0.8 76 0.9 37 0.7 41 0.9

Not English ............................ 603 683 9 1.9 8 1.6 24 2.9 25 2.8 38 2.8 34 3.4 52 3.5 45 3.3 17 2.6 14 2.7

Mother’s highest education1

Less than high school............. 1,036 952 8 1.7 7 1.5 30 2.6 36 2.9 40 2.4 32 3.0 55 2.5 53 2.9 19 2.1 15 2.3

High school diploma or

equivalent .......................... 3,268 2,556 17 1.1 17 1.3 48 1.5 48 1.7 48 1.3 49 1.8 70 2.1 69 2.0 30 1.2 31 1.6

Vocational education or

some college ...................... 2,624 2,586 23 1.2 25 1.5 59 1.7 60 1.5 51 1.6 52 1.6 79 1.4 79 1.4 39 1.4 42 1.6

College degree ....................... 912 1,455 31 2.2 35 2.0 68 2.2 73 2.0 58 2.5 61 2.1 84 1.6 84 1.6 52 2.2 54 2.0

Graduate/professional

training or degree............... 569 734 39 3.1 40 3.1 68 2.8 73 3.0 59 2.7 64 3.1 83 2.6 83 2.6 55 2.7 57 3.1

Mother’s employment status1

Employed............................... 4,486 5,058 23 0.8 24 0.9 57 1.2 59 1.2 52 1.1 53 1.2 75 1.0 75 1.1 39 1.0 40 1.1

Unemployed........................... 594 452 17 3.1 15 3.1 41 2.9 53 4.8 46 3.4 39 4.6 67 3.4 64 4.2 29 2.8 32 4.2

Not in labor force ................... 3,328 2,773 18 1.2 24 1.6 49 1.3 54 1.5 47 1.3 50 1.6 68 1.4 73 1.7 32 1.3 38 1.5

Family type

Two parents............................ 6,226 5,997 22 0.8 26 1.0 54 1.0 58 1.1 51 0.7 53 1.3 74 0.9 75 1.0 37 0.8 41 1.0

None or one parent................. 2,353 2,553 18 1.4 19 1.6 49 1.4 54 1.6 47 1.7 48 1.6 65 1.5 69 1.9 31 1.5 33 1.7

Poverty status

Above poverty threshold ........ 6,323 6,575 24 0.8 28 0.9 57 1.1 62 1.0 53 0.8 56 1.0 74 0.8 77 1.0 40 0.8 45 1.0

Below poverty threshold ........ 2,256 1,975 12 1.2 10 1.5 41 1.5 39 2.5 41 1.9 37 2.2 64 2.0 63 2.5 23 1.4 19 1.8

Number of risk factors1,2

None....................................... 4,175 3,758 25 0.9 29 1.2 60 1.3 65 1.5 53 1.1 57 1.5 77 1.0 81 1.1 41 0.9 47 1.4

One......................................... 1,645 1,856 21 1.3 26 1.9 52 1.8 58 2.0 54 1.6 54 2.2 73 1.6 77 1.8 37 1.5 40 1.9

Two or more........................... 2,588 2,669 14 1.1 15 1.3 42 1.3 46 1.9 42 1.6 41 1.6 62 1.9 62 1.9 25 1.4 26 1.5

1Excludes 86 cases in 1993 and 106 cases in 1999 who did not have a mother (birth, adoptive, step, or foster) residing in their household and also did not have a female respondent on the telephone.

2Risk factors are defined as having a race-ethnicity other than white, non-Hispanic, mother’s home language is other than English, mother’s highest education is less than high school, family type is none or one

parent in the household, and poverty status is below the poverty threshold.

2

Includes telling connected stories when pretending to read and reading actual words.

NOTE: s.e. is standard error. Because of rounding, numbers of children may not add to totals.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Household Education Survey, 1993 and 1999.

7
8

Changes in Signs of Emerging Literacy, 1993

to 1999. According to parental reports, 3- to 5-

year-old children not yet in kindergarten in 1999

are more likely than their 1993 counterparts to be

able to recognize all the letters of the alphabet (24

percent versus 21 percent), and to be able to

count to 20 or higher (57 percent versus 52

percent). Children in 1999 are also more likely

than children in 1993 to have three or four

literacy skills (39 percent versus 35 percent).

However, children in 1999 are no more likely

than their 1993 counterparts to be able to write

their own names, or to read or pretend to read.

As with families’ engagement in literacy

activities, the majority of statistically significant

changes observed between 1993 and 1999 are for

children who are less at risk for school failure.

For example, among nonpoor children the

percentage who recognized all the letters of the

alphabet increased from 24 percent in 1993 to 28

percent in 1999. Similarly, the percentage of

nonpoor children who could count to 20 or higher

increased from 57 percent in 1993 to 62 percent

in 1999. Overall, the percentage of nonpoor

children who showed at least three of the four

signs of emerging literacy increased from 40

percent in 1993 to 45 percent in 1999. The

percentage of poor children exhibiting these

emerging literacy signs did not increase at all

between 1993 and 1999. Similarly, children in

1999 whose mothers’ home language was English

were more likely than their 1993 counterparts to

recognize all the letters of the alphabet, to count

to 20 or higher, to read or pretend to read, and to

show at least three of the four literacy skills. On

the other hand, children in 1999 whose mothers

spoke a language other than English at home

were no more likely than their 1993 counterparts

to recognize all the letters of the alphabet, to

count to 20, to read or pretend to read, or to show

three or more emerging literacy skills.

Association Between Family Literacy

Activities and Children’s Emerging Literacy,

19992

Families are helping their children prepare for

school by engaging in literacy activities with

them at home. In 1999, 26 percent of children

who were read to three or more times in the last

week by a family member recognized all letters of

the alphabet compared to 14 percent of children

read to less frequently (table 3). Children who

were read to frequently are also more likely than

those who were not to count to 20 or higher (60

percent versus 44 percent), to write their own

names (54 percent versus 40 percent), and to read

or pretend to read (77 percent versus 57 percent).

Children who were read to frequently are nearly

twice as likely as other children to show three or

more skills associated with emerging literacy (42

percent versus 24 percent).

As other researchers have found, however, it is

not only being read to that helps children learn.

Children who were told stories three or more

times in the last week are also more likely than

those who were not to recognize all the letters of

the alphabet (28 percent versus 20 percent), to

count to 20 or higher (60 percent versus 54

percent), and to read or pretend to read (79

percent versus 68 percent). They are also more

likely to be able to write their own names (54

percent versus 49 percent), though the difference

is not very large.

3

 Children who were told stories

three or more times in the last week are also more

likely than those who were not to show at least

three signs of emerging literacy (44 percent

versus 34 percent), though the differences

between those who were told stories often and

those who were not are not as dramatic as they

are for children who were read to frequently and

those who were not.

Children whose families taught them letters,

words, or numbers three or more times in the last

week or who visited the library with their families

in the last month are also more likely than other

children to show signs of emerging literacy.

Forty-three percent of children whose families

taught them letters, words, or numbers three or

more times in the last week show at least three of

the four signs of emerging literacy compared to

31 percent of children whose families taught

them letters, words, or numbers less frequently or

not at all. Similarly, 49 percent of children whose

families took them to the library at least once in

the past month show three or more signs of

emerging literacy compared to 33 percent of

children whose families did not take them to the

library in the past month.
Table 3.— Percentage of 3- to 5-year-old children not yet enrolled in kindergarten with specific reported school readiness skills, by number of home

literacy activities: 1999

Recognizes all

letters

Counts to 20 or

higher Writes name Reads or pretends toread storybooks Has 3-4 skills Home activity Children

(thousands) Percent s.e. Percent s.e. Percent s.e. Percent s.e. Percent s.e.

Total............................................................................. 8,549 24 0.8 57 0.9 51 0.9 74 0.9 39 0.8

Read to

Fewer than 3 times ................................................... 1,628 14 1.3 44 2.4 40 2.2 57 2.3 24 1.9

3 times or more......................................................... 6,921 26 0.9 60 0.9 54 1.0 77 1.0 42 1.0

Told a story

Fewer than 3 times ................................................... 4,299 20 1.2 54 1.4 49 1.4 68 1.3 34 1.2

3 times or more......................................................... 4,251 28 1.2 60 1.3 54 1.4 79 1.1 44 1.4

Taught letters, words, or numbers

Fewer than 3 times ................................................... 3,060 17 1.2 47 1.6 45 1.5 69 1.6 31 1.5

3 times or more......................................................... 5,490 27 1.0 62 1.1 55 1.1 76 1.1 43 1.0

Taught songs or music

Fewer than 3 times ................................................... 4,392 24 1.3 57 1.5 55 1.4 71 1.3 40 1.4

3 times or more......................................................... 4,158 23 1.2 56 1.5 47 1.4 76 1.2 37 1.3

Did arts and crafts

Fewer than 3 times ................................................... 5,206 21 1.0 56 1.4 50 1.2 70 1.1 37 1.2

3 times or more......................................................... 3,343 28 1.5 59 1.6 53 1.5 80 1.3 42 1.6

Visited a library1

No............................................................................. 5,439 19 0.9 51 1.2 45 1.2 70 1.1 33 1.0

Yes........................................................................... 3,110 32 1.4 67 1.5 63 1.4 79 1.3 49 1.5

Number of different types2 of literacy activities

Fewer than 3............................................................. 2,803 16 1.3 48 1.8 45 1.8 64 1.6 30 1.6

3 or more .................................................................. 5,747 27 1.0 61 1.2 54 1.2 78 1.1 43 1.2

1Refers to visiting a library at least once in the past month.

2Types of literacy activities include reading to the child, telling a story, teaching letters, words or numbers, teaching songs or music, doing arts or crafts, each three or more times in the past week, and visiting a

library in the past month.

NOTE: s.e. is standard error. Because of rounding, numbers of children may not add to totals.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Household Education Survey, 1999.

9
10

The results in table 3 suggest that teaching

children songs or music is generally not

associated with showing signs of emerging

literacy. Only two associations are statistically

significant. The first is the association between

teaching songs or music and the children being

able to write their names.

4

 However, the

association is opposite of what might be

expected. The data suggest that children whose

parents taught them songs or music three or more

times in the last week are less likely to be able to

write their own names than children who were

taught songs or music less frequently (47 percent

versus 55 percent). The second is the association

between teaching children songs or music and the

children reading or pretending to read. Here the

association is significant and in the expected

direction. Seventy-six percent of children whose

families taught them songs or music three or more

times in the last week read or pretend to read

compared to 71 percent of other children. Recall

that table 1 showed that younger children are

more likely than older children to be taught songs

or music. Similarly, table 2 showed that younger

children are less likely than older children to

show each of the signs of emerging literacy,

though the difference was smallest for reading

and pretending to read. Thus, the generally weak

association between teaching songs or music and

signs of emerging literacy may be due to the

overrepresentation of younger children among

those who are taught songs or music three or

more times in the last week. That is, whereas

younger children are more likely than older

children to be taught songs or music frequently,

they are less likely to show signs of emerging

literacy. It is possible that teaching songs and

music fosters emerging literacy skills, but at a

gradual pace. Alternatively, such activities may

foster skills that are not measured in this report,

but that are, nevertheless, important to children’s

healthy development.

Doing arts and crafts with children frequently,

like reading to them and telling them stories, is

associated with acquiring literacy skills. For

example, 28 percent of children whose families

did arts and crafts with them three or more times

in the last week recognize all the letters of the

alphabet compared to 21 percent of children

whose families did arts and crafts with them less

frequently or not at all. Similarly, 42 percent of

children whose families did arts and crafts with

them three or more times in the last week show at

least three signs of emerging literacy compared to

37 percent of children whose families did arts and

crafts less frequently with them in the last week.

Doing arts and crafts with children may stimulate

literacy through the extended conversations that

often occur during such activities (Snow 1991;

Hall and Robinson 1995).

Children whose families engage in several

different types of literacy activities with them

may be more likely than other children to show

multiple signs of emerging literacy. This

hypothesis is, in fact, borne out. Forty-three

percent of children whose families engaged in

three or more types of literacy activities with

them in the last week show three or more signs of

emerging literacy compared to 30 percent of

children whose families shared fewer activities

with them.

Taken together, the results in table 3 are strong

evidence children whose families are engaged in

literacy activities with them are more likely than

other children to show each of the signs of

emerging literacy and to show three or more such

signs. The one exception is children whose

families taught them songs or music frequently.

As noted earlier, the generally weak association

does not mean that teaching songs and music is

unimportant to children. The weak association

may be due to the fact that younger children are

more likely than older children to be taught songs

and music and are also less likely to show signs

of emerging literacy.

Survey Methodology and Data Reliability

The National Household Education Survey

(NHES) is a telephone survey conducted for the

U.S. Department of Education’s National Center

for Education Statistics (NCES). Data collections

have taken place from January through early May

in 1991 and January through April in 1993, 1995,

1996, and 1999. When appropriately weighted,

each sample is nationally representative of all

civilian, non-institutionalized persons in the 50

states and District of Columbia. The weighting

method consisted of computing base weights,

adjusting for nonresponse for the Parent

Interview, and raking to national control totals.

The samples were selected using random-digit-
11

dialing (RDD) methods, and the data were

collected using computer-assisted telephone

interviewing (CATI) technology.

Data from two administrations of the NHES were

used in this report—the 1993 School Readiness

Parent Interview and the 1999 Parent Interview.

For each of these NHES components, two survey

instruments were used to collect the data. The

first instrument, a Screener administered to a

member of the household age 18 or older, was

used to determine whether any children of the

appropriate age lived in the household, to collect

information on each child, and to identify the

appropriate parent or guardian to respond for the

sampled child. If one or two eligible children

resided in the household, interviews were

conducted about each child. If more than two

eligible children resided in the household,

generally two were sampled as interview

subjects. Each interview was conducted with the

parent or guardian most knowledgeable about the

care and education of each sampled child, that

parent or guardian being the child’s mother in 83

percent of the 1993 cases and 77 percent of the

1999 cases. This report is based on subsets of the

total sample collected in each of the survey years,

specifically, 3- to 5-year-olds not yet enrolled in

kindergarten.

Response Rates

Screening interviews were completed with 63,844

households in 1993 and with 57,278 households

in 1999. The response rate for the Screener

varied somewhat between these two survey years:

82 percent in 1993 and 74 percent in 1999. The

completion rate, or the percentage of eligible

sampled children for whom interviews were

completed, was 90 percent in both 1993 and

1999. The overall response rate (the product of

the Screener response rate and interview

completion rate) was 74 percent for the 1993

School Readiness component and 68 percent for

the 1999 Parent Interview.

For both survey components, item nonresponse

(the failure to complete some items in an

otherwise completed interview) was very low.

The item nonresponse rates for most variables in

this report were less than 2 percent. Exceptions

to this include nonresponse rates for NHES:1993

items measuring mothers’ language (5 percent)

and household income (7 percent); and for the

NHES:1999, household income (11 percent). All

items from the NHES:1993 School Readiness and

NHES:1999 Parent Interview components with

missing responses (i.e., don’t know, refused, or

not ascertained) were imputed using an

imputation method called a hot-deck procedure

(Kalton and Kasprzyk 1986). As a result, no

missing values remain.

5

Data Reliability

Estimates produced using data from the NHES

are subject to two types of errors, sampling and

nonsampling errors. Nonsampling errors are

errors made in the collection and processing of

data. Sampling errors occur because the data are

collected from a sample, rather than a census of

the population.

Nonsampling Errors

Nonsampling error is the term used to describe

variations in the estimates that may be caused by

population coverage limitations and data

collection, processing, and reporting procedures.

The sources of nonsampling errors are typically

problems like unit and item nonresponse, the

differences in respondents’ interpretations of the

meaning of the questions, response differences

related to the particular time the survey was

conducted, the tendency for respondents to give

socially desirable responses, and mistakes in data

preparation.

In general, it is difficult to identify and estimate

either the amount of nonsampling error or the

bias caused by this error. For each NHES survey,

efforts were made to prevent such errors from

occurring and to compensate for them where

possible. For instance, during the survey design

phase, cognitive interviews were conducted for

the purpose of assessing respondent knowledge of

the topics, comprehension of questions and terms,

and the sensitivity of items. The design phase

also entailed extensive staff testing of the CATI

instrument and a pretest in which several hundred

interviews were conducted.

An important nonsampling error for a telephone

survey is failure to include persons who do not

live in households with telephones. In October

1997, about 90.5 percent of 3- to 5-year-olds not
12

enrolled in kindergarten lived in households with

telephones. Weighting adjustments using

characteristics related to telephone coverage were

used to reduce the bias in the estimates associated

with children who do not live in households with

telephones.

Sampling Errors

The sample of households with telephones

selected for each NHES survey is just one of

many possible samples that could have been

selected from all households with telephones.

Therefore, estimates produced from each NHES

survey may differ from estimates that would have

been produced from other samples. This type of

variability is called sampling error because it

arises from using a sample of households with

telephones rather than all households with

telephones.

The standard error is a measure of the variability

due to sampling when estimating a statistic;

standard errors for estimates presented in this

report were computed using a jackknife

replication method. Standard errors can be used

as a measure of the precision expected from a

particular sample. The probability that a

complete census count would differ from the

sample estimate by less than 1 standard error is

about 68 percent. The chance that the difference

would be less than 1.65 standard errors is about

90 percent; and that the difference would be less

than 1.96 standard errors, about 95 percent.

Standard errors for all of the estimates are

presented in the tables. These standard errors can

be used to produce confidence intervals. For

example, an estimated 81 percent of parents

reported in 1999 that they read to their children

three or more times in the past week. This figure

has an estimated standard error of 0.7. Therefore,

the estimated 95 percent confidence interval for

this statistic is approximately 79 to 82 percent.

That is, in 95 out of 100 samples from the same

population, the estimated participation rate

should fall between 79 and 82 percent.

Statistical Tests

The tests of significance used in this analysis are

based on Student’s t statistics. As the number of

comparisons at the same significance level

increases, it becomes more likely that at least one

of the estimated differences will be significant

merely by chance, that is, will be erroneously

identified as different from zero. Even when

there is no statistical difference between the

means or percentages being compared, there is a

5 percent chance of getting a significant t value of

1.96 from sampling error alone. As the number

of comparisons increases, the chance of making

this type of error also increases.

In order to correct significance tests for multiple

comparisons, a Bonferroni adjustment was used.

This method adjusts the significance level for the

total number of comparisons made with a

particular classification variable. All the

differences cited in this report are significant at

the 0.05 level of significance after a Bonferroni

adjustment.

Definitions of Variables

Home literacy activities. This report uses six

items to measure home literacy activities. The

items were derived from the following questions

contained in the NHES:1999 Parent Interview.

How many times have you or someone in your

family read to (CHILD) in the past week? Would

you say...

Not at all

Once or twice

3 or more times, or

Every day

In the past week, has anyone in your family done

the following things with (CHILD)?

[IF YES: Would you say one or two times, or

three or more?]

a. Told (him/her) a story?

b. Taught (him/her) letters, words, or

numbers?

c. Taught (CHILD) songs or music?

d. Worked on arts and crafts with

(him/her)?

In the past month, that is, since (MONTH) (DAY),

has anyone in your family done the following

things with (CHILD)? [possible responses are 1.

yes, 2. no.]

a. Visited a library?
13

For the first five activities, families were said to

have frequently engaged in these activities if they

had participated in them three or more times in

the past week. Families were said to have visited

a library if they reported that they had visited a

library in the past month.

The 1993 questions were the same except that

parents in 1993 were asked about reading

frequency in one of two versions. These two

versions were combined for this report.

The number of literacy of literacy activities

engaged in was created by creating a variable that

was initialized to 0 and then increased by 1 each

time a child’s family was said to engage

frequently in the different literacy activities. This

counter variable was then dichotomized to fewer

than 3 or 3 or more activities engaged in.

Signs of emerging literacy. This report uses

four measures to indicate signs of emerging

literacy. They were derived from the following

NHES: 1999 questions.

These next questions are about things that

different children do at different ages. These

things may or may not be true for (CHILD).

Can (he/she) recognize...

All of the letters of the alphabet

Most of them

Some of them, or

None of them?

How high can (CHILD) count? Would you say...

Not at all

Up to five

Up to ten

Up to twenty

Up to fifty, or

Up to 100 or more?

Can (CHILD) write (his/her) first name, even if

some of the letters are backwards?

Yes

No

The above items were used individually. Parents

had to report that their child recognized all the

letters of the alphabet, could count up to 20 or

higher, and could write their own first name to

receive credit for showing these signs of

emerging literacy.

The variable reading or pretend to read was

constructed from the following questions:

PE5. Is (CHILD) able to read story books on

(his/her) own now?

Yes (Go to PE6)

No (Go to PE7)

PE6. Does (CHILD) actually read the words

written in the book, or does (he/she) look

at the book and pretend to read?

Reads the written words (Go to next

section)

Pretends to read (go to PE8)

Does both (Go to next section)

PE7. [Although (CHILD) doesn’t yet read story

books on (his/her) own,] Does (he/she)

ever look at a book with pictures and

pretend to read?

Yes (Go to PE8)

No (Go to next section)

PE8. When (he/she) pretends to read a book,

does it sound like a connected story, or

does (he/she) tell what’s in each picture

without much connection between them?

Sounds like a connected story

Tells what’s in each picture

Does both

Children are said to read or pretend to read if any

one of the following statements are true:

Child is able to read story books on his her own

now (PE5=yes) AND child actually reads the

words or both reads the words and pretends to

read the words (PE6=reads the written words OR

PE6=does both).

or,

Child is able to read story books on his or her

own now (PE5=yes) AND child only pretends to

read (PE6=pretends to read) AND when child

pretends to read a book, it sounds like a

connected story (PE8=sounds like a connected

story OR PE8=does both)
14

or,

Child is not able to ready story books on his or

her own now (PE5=no) AND when the child

pretends to read a book, it sounds like a

connected story (PE8=sounds like connected

story OR PE8=does both).

The number of emerging literacy skills was

created by creating a variable that was initialized

to 0 and then increased by 1 each time a child was

said to have a particular skill. This counter

variable was then dichotomized to fewer than 3

skills or 3 or 4 skills.

Race/ethnicity. Two NHES questions

concerning children’s race and ethnic

backgrounds were combined to identify

children’s race-ethnicity. Children were

classified as being white, non-Hispanic, black,

non-Hispanic, Hispanic, or belonging to another

non-Hispanic racial/ethnic group.

Mother’s home language. Children were

identified as having a mother (or guardian) whose

home language was not English if the first

language their mother learned to speak was not

English and if their mother did not speak English

primarily at home. If a child did not have a

mother (birth, adoptive, step, or foster) residing in

the household and if the respondent on the

telephone was not a female, the child was not

included in any analyses involving mother’s

home language.

Mother’s highest education. Children were

identified as having a mother (or guardian) with a

low maternal education if the highest grade or

year of school their mother completed was less

than 12th grade and if their mother did not earn a

GED. If a child did not have a mother (birth,

adoptive, step, or foster) residing in the

household and if the respondent on the telephone

was not a female, the child was not included in

any analyses involving mother’s highest

education.

Family type. Children were classified as living

in a family with less than two parents if they lived

in a household with only one parent or a

household with nonparent guardians or no

parents. Parents include birth, adoptive, step-, or

foster parents. Thus, for example, children living

in a stepfamily are counted as living with two

parents.

Poverty. The poverty measures used in this

report were developed by combining information

about household composition and household

income. In both 1993 and 1999, household

income was collected in increments of $5,000 up

to $40,000, the categories relevant to the measure

of poverty. The NHES:99 also collected exact

household income for households with incomes

of $35,000 or less. Whether respondents were

asked this exact household income question also

depended upon their household size. Exact

income was not asked in 1993. To keep the

measurement of poverty in the two years

comparable, the NHES:99 information on exact

income was not used in this report. These

poverty measures are approximations of poverty.

The definitions of poverty differ slightly because

the poverty thresholds used to determine poverty

change somewhat from year to year. The

definitions of poverty used in this report for each

year are as follows:

In 1993, a household was considered poor if

• The number of household members is 3

or less and household income is $10,000

or less;

• The number of household members is 4

or 5 and household income is $15,000 or

less;

• The number of household members if 6 or

7 and household income is $20,000 or

less;

• The number of household members is 8

and household income is $25,000 or less;

or

• The number of household members is 9

or more and household income is $30,000

or less.

This measure of poverty results in 26 percent of

3- to 5-year-olds not yet in kindergarten being

classified as in poverty. This percentage is

identical to the traditional measure of poverty

status for related children under 6 in 1993

(Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family

Statistics 1999).
15

In 1999, a household was considered poor if

• The number of household members is 3

or less and household income is $10,000

or less;

• The number of household members is 4

and household income is $15,000 or less;

• The number of household members is 5

or 6 and household income is $20,000 or

less;

• The number of household members if 7 or

8 and household income is $25,000 or

less; or

• The number of household member is 9 or

more and household income is $30,000 or

less.

This measure of poverty results in 23 percent of

3- to 5-year-olds not yet in kindergarten being

classified as in poverty. This percentage is

similar to the traditional measure of poverty

status for related children under 6 in 1997

obtained from the March 1998 Current

Population Survey (CPS). According to the

March 1998 CPS, an estimated 22 percent of

related children under 6 were living in poverty in

the previous year (Federal Interagency Forum on

Child and Family Statistics 1999).

Number of risk factors. Risk factors are defined

as having a race/ethnicity other than white, nonHispanic, a mother whose home language is other

than English, a mother with less than a high

school education, living with fewer than two

parents, and living in a family with an income

below the poverty threshold. A count variable

was created based on these five variables. The

count variable was initialized at 0 and increased

by 1 each time one of these criterion was met. If

a child did not have a mother (birth, adoptive,

step, or foster) residing in the household and if

the respondent on the telephone was not a female,

the child was not included in any analyses

involving the number of risk factors.

Acknowledgments

The authors wish to express their appreciation to

the following reviewers of the report: Sue

Bredekamp of the Council for Early Childhood

Professional Recognition, Lesley M. Morrow of

Rutgers University, and Elvie Germino Hausken

and Laura H. Lippman of NCES. They each

provided valuable comments and suggestions that

served to improve the report. Any errors or

omissions that may remain are the sole

responsibility of the authors. The authors also

wish to acknowledge and thank Tiffany Waits of

Westat for her valuable research assistance.

Endnotes

1

 For example, the National Education Goals

Panel began releasing annual reports in 1990.

Every year with the release of these reports,

media attention is devoted to the importance of

families being active participants in their

children’s learning and of their reading to their

young children. In addition, numerous

programs devoted to family literacy, including

the U.S. Department of Education’s Even Start

program, were initiated in the late 1980s and

early 1990s (Saracho, 1997).

2

 The relationships between activities and skills

discussed in this section were also found to be

significant in the 1993 data, except where noted.

3

 This difference was not statistically significant

in the 1993 data.

4

 This difference was not statistically significant

in the 1993 data.

5

 For more information on the imputation

procedures used in the NHES:1993 and

NHES:1999, see the following NCES Working

Papers: Unit and Item Response, Weighting, and

Imputation Procedures in the 1993 National

Household Education Survey (Brick et al. 1997)

and The NHES:1999 Survey Methodology

(Nolin et al. forthcoming).

References

Bryant, P.E., Maclean, M., Bradley, L., and

Crossland, J. 1990. Rhyme and Alliteration,

Phoneme Detection, and Learning to Read.

Developmental Psychology 26: 429-438.

Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family

Statistics. 1999. America’s Children: Key

National Indicators of Well-Being, 1999.

Federal Interagency Forum on Child and

Family Statistics. Washington, DC: U.S.

Government Printing Office.
16

Hall, N., and Robinson, A. 1995. Exploring

Writing and Play in the Early Years.

London: Fulton

Glazer, S.M. 1989. Oral Language and

Literacy. In D.S. Strickland and L.M.

Morrow, eds. Emerging Literacy: Young

Children Learn to Read and Write. Newark,

Delaware: International Reading

Association, pp. 16-26.

Kalton, G., and Kasprzyk, D. 1986. The

Treatment of Missing Survey Data. Survey

Methodology 12: 1-16.

Maclean, M., Bryant, P., and Bradley, L. 1987.

Rhymes, Nursery Rhymes, and Reading in

Early Childhood. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly

33: 255-81.

Moss, B., and Fawcett, G. 1995. Bringing the

Curriculum of the World of the Home to the

School. Reading & Writing Quarterly:

Overcoming Learning Difficulties 11: 247-

256.

The National Education Goals Panel. 1997.

Special Early Childhood Report, 1997.

Washington, DC: U.S. Government

Printing Office.

Saracho, O.N. 1997. Perspectives on Family

Literacy. Early Child Development and

Care, Vols. 127-128: 3-11.

Snow, C. 1991. The Theoretical Basis for

Relationships Between Language and

Literacy in Development. Journal of

Research in Childhood Education 6: 5-10.

Snow, C.E., Burns, M.S., and Griffin, P., eds.

1998. Preventing Reading Difficulties in

Young Children. Washington, DC:

National Academy Press.

Sonnenschein, S., Brody, G., and Munsterman,

K. 1996. The Influence of Family Beliefs

and Practices on Children’s Early Reading

Development. In L. Baker, P. Afferbach,

and D. Reinking, eds. Developing Engaged

Readers in School and Home Communities.

Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum

Associates, Publishers, pp. 3-20.

Strickland, D.S., and Taylor, D. 1989. Family

Storybook Reading: Implications for

Children, Families and Curriculum. In D.S.

Strickland and L.M. Morrow, eds. Emerging

Literacy: Young Children Learn to Read

and Write. Newark, Delaware: International

Reading Association, pp. 27-34.

Teale, W.H., and Sulzby, E. 1989. Emergent

Literacy: New Perspectives. In D.S.

Strickland and L.M. Morrow, eds.

Emerging Literacy: Young Children Learn

to Read and Write. Newark, Delaware:

International Reading Association, pp. 1-9.