in Puerto Rico

United States Department of Agriculture

Rabies is a deadly viral disease that 

affects the nervous system of mammals. 

Several variants of the rabies virus exist 

in the United States. Each variant is 

spread predominantly by one wildlife 

species, but all variants can infect and 

kill mammals, including humans. 

Every year, Federal, State, and local 

governments in our country distribute 

more than 10 million oral rabies vaccine 

(ORV) baits to reduce wildlife rabies 

and prevent disease transmission to 

humans, domestic animals, and pets. 

Economists at Wildlife Services (WS)—a 

program within the U.S. Department of 

Agriculture’s (USDA) Animal and Plant 

Health Inspection Service (APHIS)—

have conducted cost-benefit analyses of 

these efforts showing that eliminating 

wildlife rabies saves lives and can save 

taxpayers millions of dollars each year.

Preventing 

Wildlife Rabies 

Saves Lives 

and Money

Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service

National Wildlife Research Center

July 2016

Preventing Rabies

About 90 percent of reported U.S. 

rabies cases occur in wildlife. Raccoons 

account for the most reported cases, but 

bats, skunks, foxes, and coyotes are also 

commonly infected. Wildlife species 

that are natural reservoirs of the rabies 

virus, such as raccoons, thrive in many 

environments and maintain the virus 

either at low levels or spread it quickly 

during outbreaks. 

Since 1995, WS has partnered with 

Federal, State, and local agencies; 

universities; and other partners to 

combat wildlife rabies. Each year, WS 

and cooperators distribute more than 

8 million ORV baits in selected States 

to create a zone where raccoon rabies 

can be contained. Raccoon populations 

exist in all 48 contiguous States, so 

Terrestrial wildlife rabies reservoirs in the United States and current ORV baiting zones in black 

(Source: WS and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)

this program is critical to preventing 

rabies in these populations nationwide. 

While raccoon vaccination is WS’ largest 

rabies prevention effort, in Texas, WS 

and cooperators also eliminated canine 

rabies in coyotes and greatly reduced 

the spread and geographic distribution 

of a unique variant of the disease in 

gray foxes through an ORV baiting 

program. In Arizona, WS works on a 

variety of collaborative rabies research 

projects focused on gray foxes, skunks, 

and bats, as well as free-ranging dogs 

on tribal lands. 

Economic Benefits of ORV Programs

Costs associated with rabies outbreaks 

can total hundreds of millions of dollars 

due to the need for public health 

investigations, animal rabies tests, preor post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP)
treatments, pet and livestock 

vaccinations, and public education 

efforts. Although our country’s rabies 

prevention network is effective, about 

38,000 people still receive PEP 

treatments annually, resulting in over 

$150 million in health care costs. 

Raccoon rabies is found throughout 

the eastern United States. Recently, 

a group of experts including two WS 

economists convened to model the rate 

and westward spread of raccoon rabies 

that would occur without management 

and to estimate the resulting economic 

impacts. The effort found that after 20 

years without management, raccoon 

rabies would stretch west and south 

from central Wisconsin to the TexasLouisiana border. During this time, the 

present value of the negative impact 

of rabies would be over $1.2 billion, 

or about $60 million per year. From 

this analysis, it is clear that without 

the existing ORV program, the spread 

of raccoon rabies would be fast and 

extensive and would likely result in 

significant economic impacts. 

In another study, WS economists 

collaborated with the California 

Department of Health Services to 

determine the direct and indirect 

economic costs of human rabies 

exposure in two California counties. 

Results indicated that the average cost 

of a single suspected rabies exposure 

was about $4,000 (2007 U.S. dollars). 

Using these identified costs, the 

economists then assessed the potential 

benefits and costs of ORV baiting to 

eliminate or prevent the spread of 

skunk rabies in California. Results 

showed that for every dollar spent on 

wildlife rabies control and prevention, 

the return value in benefits could be as 

high as $6.35. 

Results from analyses such as these 

provide an economic basis for decision 

making and serve as a guide for future 

ORV baiting campaigns in the United 

States and other countries. Today, 

societal and environmental changes 

are leading to more chances for people 

and pets to be exposed to wildlife, 

particularly in urban and suburban 

areas. We have made progress towards 

eliminating rabies in terrestrial 

wildlife, but there is still work to do. To 

eliminate rabies from our country, we 

need to prevent the disease in wildlife. 

WS biologists reduce wildlife rabies through ORV 

programs and surveillance and monitoring efforts.

Each year, three types of ORV baits (totaling more 

than 10 million) are distributed to prevent rabies in 

raccoons, coyotes, foxes, skunks, and other wildlife.

Recent ORV Successes

• As a result of an ORV baiting 

program in Texas, WS and its 

partners eliminated the domestic 

dog-coyote variant of rabies from 

the United States in 2004, and the 

World Health Organization declared 

the United States free of canine 

rabies in 2007. This and similar 

successes in Canada and several 

European countries demonstrate 

that using ORV for wildlife can 

manage terrestrial rabies.

• An integrated rabies control program 

including ORV has resulted in only 

one gray fox variant rabies case in 

Texas since 2009.

• An ORV program in the Eastern 

United States has prevented 

the westward spread of raccoon 

rabies into populations beyond the 

Appalachian Mountains.

• Raccoon rabies cases have been 

significantly reduced in part due to 

ORV programs on Long Island, NY; 

Cape Cod, MA; and the eastern side 

of the Cleveland, OH, metropolitan 

area.

ORV programs reduce: 

• Epizootic-related pet and livestock 

vaccination, quarantine, and 

euthanasia

• Burden on State services for animal 

diagnostic tests

• Livestock losses

• Wildlife losses
USDA is an equal opportunity provider, employer, and lender. 

APHIS 11-55-013

Rabies and One Health

Using a One Health approach, experts 

from multiple disciplines collaborate 

on national and global initiatives that 

address interconnections between 

animal, human, and environmental 

health. 

By combining the expertise of human 

health care providers, veterinarians, 

and wildlife professionals, rabies 

management programs can improve 

the health and well-being of all species 

impacted by this disease. To learn more, 

please visit www.onehealthinitiative.com.

Learn More

For more information, please contact:

National Rabies Management Program 

USDA, APHIS, Wildlife Services 

59 Chenell Drive, Suite 2

Concord, NH 03301-8548

Phone: (603) 223-9623

www.aphis.usda.gov/wildlife-damage/

rabies 

National Wildlife Research Center

USDA, APHIS, Wildlife Services

4101 LaPorte Avenue

Fort Collins, CO 80521

Phone: (970) 266-6000

www.aphis.usda.gov/wildlifedamage/

nwrc

Eliminating terrestrial rabies from the United States relies on preventing the disease in wildlife.