National Park Service

U.S. Department of the Interior

A National Historic Landmarks Theme Study

Finding a Path Forward

ASIAN AMERICAN PACIFIC ISLANDER

NATIONAL HISTORIC LANDMARKS THEME STUDY

Edited by Franklin Odo
ii AAPI National Historic Landmarks Theme Study

Use of ISBN

This is the official U.S. Government edition of this publication and is herein identified to 

certify its authenticity. Use of 978-0-692-92584-3 is for the U.S. Government Publishing 

Office editions only. The Superintendent of Documents of the U.S. Government Publishing Office requests 

that any reprinted edition clearly be labeled a copy of the authentic work with a new ISBN.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Odo, Franklin, editor. | National Historic Landmarks Program (U.S.),

issuing body. | United States. National Park Service.

Title: Finding a Path Forward, Asian American and Pacific Islander National

Historic Landmarks theme study / edited by Franklin Odo.

Other titles: Asian American and Pacific Islander National Historic Landmarks

theme study | National historic landmark theme study.

Description: Washington, D.C. : National Historic Landmarks Program, National

Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior, 2017. | Series: A National

Historic Landmarks theme study | Includes bibliographical references and

index.

Identifiers: LCCN 2017045212| ISBN 9780692925843 | ISBN 0692925848

Subjects: LCSH: National Historic Landmarks Program (U.S.) | Asian

Americans--History. | Pacific Islander Americans--History. | United

States--History.

Classification: LCC E184.A75 F46 2017 | DDC 973/.0495--dc23 | SUDOC I

29.117:AS 4

LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017045212

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Publishing Office

Internet: bookstore.gpo.gov Phone: toll free (866) 512-1800; DC area (202) 512-1800

Fax: (202) 512-2104 Mail: Stop IDCC, Washington, DC 20402-0001

ISBN 978-0-692-92584-3
Registration Requirements for Designating 

AAPI Properties National Historic Landmarks

INTRODUCTION

This chapter provides guidance for evaluating 

the significance and integrity of properties 

associated with the Asian American/Pacific 

Islander theme and their potential for designation as National Historic Landmarks (NHLs). 

The physical evidence of this multi-faceted 

heritage is present in a huge variety of cultural 

resources throughout the United States—in 

North America and the Pacific Islands—

although their representation as NHLs should 

be greater and in more states and regions of the 

U.S. Factors that have contributed to relatively 

sparse representation of AAPI-related resources among National Historic Landmarks include 

a lack of survey data, the relatively short time 

some groups have been part of United States 

culture, and fewer suggestions submitted by 

advocates. AAPI-related properties designated 

NHLs are listed below.

This theme study is an effort to improve 

AAPI representation in the NHL program. The 

essays provide general contexts for evaluating 

NHL eligibility. The registration requirements 

in this section provide specific guidance on 

applying the NHL evaluation methodology to 

AAPI resources, including applying the NHL 

criteria to AAPI resources and evaluating the 

integrity of AAPI resources. Examples of nationally significant resources related to AAPI culture 

and history are used to illustrate this process. 

Introductory information about the NHL 

program and evaluation concepts are provided, 

but detailed instructions on initiating an NHL 

nomination and compiling an acceptable nomination are not provided. The National Park 

Service (NPS) National Historic Landmark 

website provides a great deal of information 

about the NHL program and the process for 

seeking designation.1

Possibly Okei Ito, originally taken circa 1870-1871 by George H. Gilbert.

Photo courtesy of the American River Conservancy.

Appendix 1

Appendix I 341

342 AAPI National Historic Landmarks Theme Study

AAPI PROPERTIES DESIGNATED NATIONAL 

HISTORIC LANDMARKS

The NHL designation year is in parentheses

NHLs with Chinese American Associations

Bodie Historic District, Bodie, CA (1961)

Kam Wah Chung Company Building,

John Day, OR (2005)

Locke Historic District, Locke, CA (1990)

Pearl S. Buck House, Perkasie, PA (1980)

NHLs with Japanese American Associations

George Nakashima Woodworker Complex, 

New Hope, PA (2012)

Granada (aka Amache) Relocation Center (2006)

Harada House, Riverside, CA (1990)

Heart Mountain Relocation Center, Powell, WY (2006)

Little Tokyo Historic District, Los Angeles, CA (1995)

Manzanar Relocation Center, Independence, CA (1985)

McGregor Memorial Conference Center, Wayne State

University, Detroit, MI (2015)

Panama Hotel, Seattle, WA (2006)

Poston Elementary School, Unit 1, Colorado River 

Relocation Center, Yuma County, AZ (2012)

Rohwer Relocation Center Cemetery, Rohwer, 

Desha County, AR (1992)

Topaz (aka Central Utah) Relocation Center, 

Delta, Millard County, UT (2007)

Tule Lake Segregation Center, Newell, CA (2006)

NHLs with Pacific Islander Associations

Government House, Pago Pago, American Samoa (1990)

The Forty Acres, Delano, CA (2008)

Hokukano-Ualapue Complex, Ualapue, 

Molokai, HI (1962)

Huilua Fishpond, Kaneohe, HI (1962)

’Iolani Palace, Honolulu, HI (1962)

Ka Lae (South Point Complex), Naalehu, HI (1962)

Kalaupapa Leprosy Settlement and National 

Historical Park, Kalaupapa, HI (1976)

Honokohau Settlement, Kailua-Kona, HI (1962)

Kamakahonu, Kailua-Kona, HI (1962)

Kaunolu Village Site, Lanai, HI (1962)

Kawaiaha’o Church and Mission Houses, 

Honolulu, HI (1962)

Keauhou Holua Slide, Kailua-Kona, HI (1962)

Lahaina Historic District, Lahaina, HI (1962)

Loaloa Heiau, Kaupo, HI (1962)

Mauna Kea Adz Quarry, Mauna Kea Ice Age Natural

Area Reserve, Island of Hawai’i, HI (1962)

Mo‘okini Heiau, Kohala Historical Sites State 

Monument, Hawi, HI (1962)

Old Sugar Mill of Kôloa, Kôloa, HI (1962)

Pi‘ilanihale Heiau, Hana, HI (1964)

Pu‘u o Mahuka Heiau State Monument, 

Haleiwa, HI (1962)

Pu‘ukoholâ Heiau National Historic Site, 

Waimea, HI (1962)

Russian Fort (in Fort Elizabeth State Historical 

Park), Waimea, Kauai, HI (1966)

Wailua Complex of Heiaus, Waimea, Kauai, HI (1962)

Washington Place, Honolulu, HI (2007)

Properties with Multiple AAPI Affiliations

Kake Cannery, Kake, AK (1997)

Steward’s House, Foreign Mission School, 

Cornwall, CT (2016)

U.S. Immigration Station at Angel Island, 

San Francisco Bay, CA (1998)

UNDERSTANDING REGISTRATION REQUIREMENTS

“Registration requirements” refers to the essential 

considerations required for designating AAPI properties as National Historic Landmarks. In many cases, the 

essays in this theme study provide the most essential 

component of the property identification and evaluation 

process: the historic context. The historic context is a 

lens through which the property can be viewed to assess 

its place in history and the significance of the events 

related to it. Because of the complexity of AAPI history 

and culture, in some cases the essays do not provide 

sufficient information to support the identification of 

a property as significant, but may point to a historic 

context that needs to be further developed. For example, if an essay addresses Filipino reactions to unfair 

labor practices within the context of American labor 

history, and provides a context for evaluating a specific 

site of demonstrations or negotiations, it could be used 

as a model for development of a context that relates to a 

similar scenario affecting Chinese plantation workers in 

Hawai‘i or cannery workers in Alaska.

Other considerations in the evaluation process 
Appendix I 343

include the application of the NHL criteria for evaluation and the criteria considerations, establishing a period 

of significance, determining the areas of significance that 

apply, identifying a property’s place within the NHL 

thematic framework, and evaluating a property’s integrity. Each of these considerations is discussed in this chapter. Existing National Historic Landmarks illustrate how 

the criteria have been applied, providing models that 

may be applicable to other properties being considered.

For a property to be eligible for NHL designation 

under the Asian American/Pacific Islander theme, it 

must be directly associated with the history of associated 

cultural, national, or ethnic groups within the context of 

North American and Pacific Island heritage. A property 

must have a direct, meaningful, and documented association with an historical event or individual of national 

significance, or it must be of exceptional archeological 

or design significance (architectural, landscape architectural, engineering, or artistic). At least one of the six 

NHL criterion must be met to demonstrate eligibility, 

and exceptional significance must be demonstrated 

within the context of comparable resources.

The physical integrity of a nominated property must 

be intact from the period of significance, as evaluated 

within seven defined variables known as “aspects.” In 

some cases, evaluations of integrity should be balanced 

within the framework of the scarcity or generally compromised nature of resources associated with a culture. 

Factors that may impact evaluations of integrity for 

resources associated with an AAPI group include a scarcity of built associations with a culture; a large number 

of resources that have been physically affected by modification, abandonment, or demolition; and a majority 

of resources less than 50 years old (the NHL and NRHP 

threshold for historical objectivity). In any evaluation, 

a thoughtful approach to evaluation is required within 

the accepted procedures and regulatory framework of 

the NHL program. Variance from standard evaluation 

practices should be explained and justified.

Cultural resources in the Pacific Islands may exhibit 

similarities with tribal resources in North America. In 

both cases, lands may have been associated with specific 

groups for a very long time, and cultural attachments 

today may resonate deeply with spiritual beliefs. For this 

reason, resources associated with Pacific Island history and culture may be evaluated as traditional cultural 

places (including traditional cultural landscapes) and 

nominated as historic districts, sites, or objects. Such 

resources may have lengthy periods of significance compared with other resources.

IDENTIFYING ASIAN AMERICAN/PACIFIC 

ISLANDER CULTURAL RESOURCES

Many places in the United States have been touched 

by AAPI cultures. Their presence may be overt, such as 

Japantown in Los Angeles, or subtle, like an archeological site associated with Chinese miners in a remote part 

of the West. Their presence may be pervasive, as in the 

Pacific Islands: evident everywhere today and in the past 

and influencing the culture in its entirety. With some 

AAPI cultures, the presence of associated places may be 

rare and the association fleeting.

Properties linked to AAPI heritage are wide ranging, 

including temples, schools, community centers, industrial plants, railroad camps, mining towns, World War II 

confinement camps, Chamorro latte, and urban historic 

districts. AAPI culture has affected United States laws, 

labor, religion, education, arts, and more, contributing a 

significant imprint on the nation’s cultural fabric.

The essays in this theme study provide background 

information on many aspects of AAPI political, economic, and social life; community building; immigration 

experiences; and injustices and discrimination. The 

essays mention some specific places related to incidents 

or people important in AAPI history and, in some cases, 

suggest general types of properties that may be associated with AAPI history. Many of these places are or have 

the potential to be designated as NHLs. 

THE NHL STUDY LIST

The AAPI essays and other resources were used to 

develop the AAPI NHL Study List, which includes properties that may be eligible for NHL designation. The list 

is considered preliminary, because it is not based on a 

comprehensive survey, the contexts are incomplete for 

this purpose, and the integrity of identified properties is 

often not known; however, properties on the Study List 

have histories and other qualities that indicate potential 

national significance. 

The Study List was compiled using a variety of 

sources from the National Park Service and elsewhere. 
344 AAPI National Historic Landmarks Theme Study

Besides the essays in this theme study, the sources 

most consulted for development of the Study List were 

National Register and National Historic Landmark 

nominations and the NRIS database (National Register 

Information System). The NPS also queried state historic preservation offices about their knowledge of AAPI 

properties and the NPS regional offices about properties 

in their jurisdictions. These sources yielded additional 

recommendations for the AAPI NHL Study List.

AAPI ARCHEOLOGICAL RESOURCES

Archeological sites have an important role in achieving 

an understanding of AAPI history. For some aspects 

of AAPI history, the archeological record may be all 

that exists. For others, the archeology of the site has 

the potential to answer important questions about the 

built environment and the property’s importance within 

a particular historic context. The contribution of a 

site’s information potential can include the capacity to 

substantially modify a major historic concept, resolve a 

substantial historical or anthropological debate, or close 

a serious knowledge or data gap in a major theme of 

AAPI history. The national significance of an archeological site is evaluated by its potential to provide information of major scientific importance that may contribute 

to knowledge, theories, concepts and ideas, and answer 

questions about important chapters in history. Sites that 

are poorly represented elsewhere or that are the only 

known site of its type may be particularly important for 

their information potential. The evaluation process for 

archeological sites includes comparing a site to similar 

sites that are considered significant for their information potential. The integrity of archeological resources 

is evaluated by determining the degree to which the 

resources present or previously excavated can answer 

pertinent research questions.

Site types often associated with Asian American 

and Pacific Islanders include ethnic communities and 

districts such as, but not limited to, urban and rural Chinatowns and Japantowns; labor camps such as logging 

and sawmill camps, mining camps and towns, railroad 

construction camps, maritime industry camps, and 

agricultural and ranching camps; World War II internment and relocation facilities; commercial sites such 

as laundries, stores, mines, boarding houses, brothels, 

and bathhouses; buildings and sites used by community 

organizations, including temples, cemeteries, community halls, playgrounds, and government buildings; domestic properties such as homes and gardens; company 

towns; and agricultural areas and businesses. Common 

archeological features found at these locations include, 

but are not limited to, wells, privies, middens, fire/

cooking pits/hearths, builders’ trenches, foundations, 

basements/cellars, chimney falls, and graves. Other site 

specific features should be anticipated based on site 

and/or industry type. These could include, but are not 

limited to, garden or agricultural field layout features, 

mining features, milling features, and seafood/ maritime 

industry features. The spatial patterning of communities 

and features at a site may contribute to our understanding of a property and provide important information on 

broader topics of site formation.

Archeological research concerns the study of the 

origin, history, interaction, and evolution of cultures 

and human behavior. To contribute to the development 

of understanding in these broad areas, research questions are posed within more focused frameworks, such 

as acculturation and adaptation, globalization, social 

networks, racism, prejudice and discrimination, religion 

and spirituality, gender and sexuality, cultural comparison, age group studies, and recreational activities. Some 

themes commonly applied to research specific to the 

Asian American/Pacific Islander theme are patterns of 

cultural persistence and change, cultural interaction, 

Japanese internment, comparison with other non-Asian 

diasporic communities, social and commercial networks, 

the lives of women and children, and transnationalism. 

These frameworks can be used to propose research 

questions relevant to broad archeological topics, as well 

as to the areas of significance discussed in this thematic 

study. Some of these frameworks and areas of significance overlap each other, and characteristics of the sites 

are often relevant to multiple avenues of research.

Archeological research conducted on potentially eligible sites offers an opportunity to expand the 

understanding of a site and its contribution to the events 

and lives of the people and cultures it represents. For 

the potential of archeological work to be fully realized 

and contribute to an argument for national significance, 

elucidation of clear, focused research objectives aimed 

at addressing nationally significant themes is imperative. 

Difficulty exists in predicting what may lay beneath the 
Appendix I 345

surface and the subsurface condition or degree of preservation—in other words, the archeological integrity of 

the site.

It is difficult to discuss the importance of a site prior 

to excavation, interpretation, and evaluation. Even if 

present, subsurface archeological components may 

not contribute data nationally significant to the specific 

history of a property or historical concept. On the other 

hand, they may provide data to completely change our 

understanding of an aspect of AAPI history. Because of 

the somewhat unpredictable value of unexplored archeological sites, assessing exceptional significance requires 

significant documentation and contextualization. Even 

lacking national significance, however, archeological 

sites can be a rich vein of information: the possibilities 

for discovery are vast, and the effort is worthwhile at 

most sites and essential at others.

The significance of archeological artifacts, assemblages, and features is derived from their ability to aid 

in site identification, ethnic affiliation, formulation of 

research goals, and the insight they provide into the 

everyday life of a site’s occupants. Generally, the identification of ethnicity through artifact assemblages is complex and the degree to which individual material objects 

delineate ethnic identification is a major subject of 

disciplinary debate. For this reason, research questions 

that concern the relationship between ethnic affiliation 

and material culture require deep critical evaluation in 

the context of other historical or material information. 

For example, an ethnic community’s consumer waste 

may be just as likely to reflect an adherence to national 

mass consumer trends or reflect economic conditions 

and establish ethnic differentiation based on traditional 

practices, identity, or resistance.

NATIONAL HISTORIC LANDMARK BASICS

In this section, fundamental concepts of the National 

Historic Landmarks program are briefly explained, 

including the types of properties nominated, the NHL 

criteria, areas of significance, periods of significance, the 

NHL thematic framework, and evaluating integrity. For 

those steeped in preservation programs, this information 

will be familiar, but those being introduced to the NHL 

program through this theme study should have a fundamental understanding of these concepts to appreciate 

the identification and evaluation methods applied when 

properties are considered for NHL designation. More 

detailed information about all of these concepts can be 

found on the NHL website https://www.nps.gov/nhl/.

AAPI PROPERTY TYPES

The Federal regulations that specify how the National 

Historic Landmarks program shall be carried out (36 

CFR 65) state that a property that can be considered 

eligible for NHL designation is a “site, building, object, 

structure or a collection of the above which form a 

district” (36 CFR 65.3[m]).2

 Definitions for these property types follow, with examples of AAPI properties as 

illustrations of the types. 

Buildings

A building, such as a house, barn, church, hotel, or 

similar construction, is created principally to shelter any 

form of human activity. “Building” may also be used to 

refer to a historically and functionally related unit, such 

as a courthouse and jail or a house and barn.

Examples of buildings

Houses, barns, stables, sheds, garages, courthouses, city 

halls, social halls, commercial buildings, libraries, factories, mills, train depots, stationary mobile homes, hotels, 

theaters, schools, stores, and churches.

Some AAPI Buildings Designated NHLs

Panama Hotel, Seattle, Washington

Old Sugar Mill of Koloa, Kauai, Hawai‘i

Harada House, Riverside, California

McGregor Memorial Conference Center, Wayne State

University, Detriot, Michigan

Government House, U.S. Naval Station Tutuila, 

Eastern District, American Samoa

Kake Cannery, Wrangell-Peterburgh 

Borough-Census Area, Alaska

‘Iolani Palace, Honolulu, Hawai’i

Kam Wah Chung Company Building, John Day, Oregon

Structures

A structure is a work made by human beings and composed of interdependent and interrelated parts in a definite pattern of organization. Unlike buildings, structures 

are functional constructions, usually made for purposes 
346 AAPI National Historic Landmarks Theme Study

other than creating human shelter.

Examples of structures

Bridges, tunnels, gold dredges, firetowers, canals, turbines, dams, power plants, corncrib, silos, roadways., 

shot towers, windmills, grain elevators, kilns, mounds, 

cairns, palisade fortification, earthworks, railroad 

grades, systems of roadways and paths, boats and ships, 

railroad locomotives and cars, telescopes, carousels, 

bandstands, gazebos, and aircraft.

AAPI Structures Designated NHLs

No structures are presently designated NHLs, but 

potential AAPI structures include those associated with 

mining, transportation, fishing, and other agricultural or 

industrial activities.

Sites

A site is the location of a significant event, a prehistoric 

or historic occupation or activity, or a building or structure, whether standing, ruined or vanished, where the 

location itself maintains historical or archeological value 

regardless of the value of any existing structure. 

Examples of sites

Habitation sites, funerary sites, rock shelters, village 

sites, hunting and fishing sites, ceremonial sites, petroglyphs, rock carvings, gardens, grounds, battlefields, 

ruins of historic buildings and structures, campsites, 

sites of treaty signings, trails, areas of land, shipwrecks, 

cemeteries, designed landscapes, and natural features, 

such as springs and rock formations, and land areas 

having cultural significance.

Some AAPI Sites Designated NHLs

Pu‘ukohola Heiau National Historic Site, South 

Kohala District, Oahu, Hawai‘i (archeological site)

Keauhou Holua Slide, Keauhou vicinity, Hawai‘i 

(archeological site)

Mauna Kea Adz Quarry, Hilo vicinity, Hawai‘i 

(archeological site)

Districts

A district is a geographically definable area, urban or 

rural, that possesses a significant concentration, linkage 

or continuity of sites, buildings, structures or objects 

united by past events or aesthetically by plan or physical 

development. A district may also comprise individual 

elements separated geographically but linked by association or history. 

Examples of districts

College campuses, central business districts, residential 

areas, commercial areas, large forts, industrial complexes, civic centers, rural villages, canal systems, collections 

of habitation and limited activity sites, irrigation systems, 

large farms, ranches, estates, plantations, transportation 

networks, and large landscaped parks.

Some AAPI Districts Designated NHLs

Locke Historic District, Locke, California

George Nakashima Woodworker Complex, 

Solebury Township, Bucks County, Pennsylvania

Granada Relocation Center, Granada, 

Prowers County, Colorado

Little Tokyo Historic District, Los Angeles, California

The Forty Acres, Delano, California

U.S. Immigration Station, Angel Island, California

Kalaupapa Leprosy Settlement, Molokai, Hawai‘i

Lâhainâ Historic District, Maui, Hawai‘i

Objects

An object is a material thing of functional, aesthetic, cultural, historical or scientific value that may be, by nature 

or design, movable yet related to a specific setting or 

environment. Objects are often artistic in nature or relatively small in scale and simply constructed. Although 

it may be, by nature or design, movable, an object is 

associated with a specific setting or environment. 

Examples of objects

Sculpture, monuments, boundary markers, statuary, and 

fountains.

AAPI Objects Designated NHLs

The Rohwer Relocation Camp Memorial Cemetery is a 

historic district, but it contains 28 contributing objects: 

24 grave markers, two entrance markers, and two 

monuments. All were made by the Japanese Americans 

confined at Rohwer.
Appendix I 347

NATIONAL HISTORIC LANDMARK CRITERIA 

FOR EVALUATION

Properties must meet at least one of six National Historic Landmark criteria to be eligible for NHL designation. 

Many properties designated NHLs also meet one or 

more National Register criteria for an aspect of state or 

local significance. Such additional significance may be 

noted in the nomination, but it does not contribute to 

the NHL designation. For example, a house, nationally 

significant as the home of an individual associated with 

an important Supreme Court ruling that enhanced the 

lives of AAPI people, may also have local architectural 

significance as an Arts and Crafts bungalow. This latter 

has no bearing on its NHL designation, although certainly the integrity of the house to the period of significance could be meaningful to the designation.

The eight NHL Criteria Exceptions are applied 

when properties normally excluded from consideration are nominated. Such properties are of exceptional 

national significance, despite being religious properties, 

moved from their original locations, and less than 50 

years old, for example. The exceptional nature of the 

property must be justified in the text of the nomination. 

An example of the application of an exception is the 

George Nakashima Woodworker Complex, designated 

in 2014 for its association with the Japanese American 

furniture designer. A number of the components of the 

historic district that constitutes the complex were built 

less than 50 years ago. In addition, Nakashima died in 

1990, and the nomination was put forth only 24 years 

later.

Examples of the application of the criteria and 

criteria exceptions to specific properties related to AAPI 

history and culture are provided later in this appendix. 

The following explanation of the NHL criteria and 

criteria exceptions is taken from the Code of Federal 

Regulations, 36 CFR 65.4, National Historic Landmarks 

Program.

36§65.4 National Historic Landmark Criteria

The criteria applied to evaluate properties for possible 

designation as National Historic Landmarks or possible determination of eligibility for National Historic 

Landmark designation are listed below. These criteria 

shall be used by NPS in the preparation, review, and 

evaluation of National Historic Landmark studies. 

They shall be used by the Advisory Board in reviewing 

National Historic Landmark studies and preparing 

recommendations to the Secretary. Properties shall be 

designated National Historic Landmarks only if they are 

nationally significant. Although assessments of national 

significance should reflect both public perceptions and 

professional judgments, the evaluations of properties 

being considered for landmark designation are undertaken by professionals, including historians, architecturEvacuee’s Memorial at Rohwer Relocation Center Memorial 

Cemetery, 1990. Photo courtesy of the National Register of 

Historic Places.

Buddist or Shinto gravestone at the Rohwer Relocation Center 

Memorial Cemetery. Photo courtesy of the National Register of 

Historic Places. 
348 AAPI National Historic Landmarks Theme Study

al historians, archeologists, and anthropologists familiar 

with the broad range of the nation’s resources and 

historical themes. The criteria applied by these specialists to potential landmarks do not define significance 

nor set a rigid standard for quality. Rather, the criteria 

establish the qualitative framework in which a comparative professional analysis of national significance can 

occur. The final decision on whether a property possesses national significance is made by the Secretary on 

the basis of documentation including the comments and 

recommendations of the public who participate in the 

designation process.

(a) Specific Criteria of National Significance: The 

quality of national significance is ascribed to districts, 

sites, buildings, structures, and objects that possess 

exceptional value or quality in illustrating or interpreting 

the heritage of the United States in history, architecture, 

archeology, engineering, and culture and that possess a 

high degree of integrity of location, design, setting, materials, workmanship, feeling, and association, and:

(1) That are associated with events that have made 

a significant contribution to, and are identified 

with, or that outstandingly represent, the broad 

national patterns of United States history and 

from which an understanding and appreciation 

of those patterns may be gained; or

(2) That are associated importantly with the lives of 

persons nationally significant in the history of 

the United States; or

(3) That represent some great idea or ideal of the 

American people; or

(4) That embody the distinguishing characteristics 

or an architectural type specimen exceptionally valuable for the study of a period, style, or 

method of construction, or that represent a 

significant, distinctive, and exceptional entity 

whose components may lack individual distinction; or

(5) That are composed of integral parts of the environment not sufficiently significant by reason of 

historical association or artistic merit to warrant 

individual recognition but collectively compose an entity of exceptional historical or artistic significance, or outstandingly commemorate 

or illustrate a way of life or culture; or

(6) That have yielded or may be likely to yield 

information of major scientific importance 

by revealing new cultures, or by shedding light 

upon periods of occupation of large areas of the 

United States. Such sites are those which have 

yielded, or which may reasonably be expected to 

yield, data affecting theories, concepts, and ideas 

to a major degree.

NHL Criteria Exceptions

(b) Ordinarily, cemeteries, birthplaces, graves of historical figures, properties owned by religious institutions 

or used for religious purposes, structures that have been 

moved from their original locations, reconstructed 

historic buildings, and properties that have achieved 

significance within the past 50 years are not eligible for 

designation. If such properties fall within the following 

categories they may, nevertheless, be found eligible for 

designation: 

(1) A religious property deriving its primary 

national significance from architectural or artistic distinction or historical importance; or 

(2) A building removed from its original location but which is nationally significant primarily 

for its architectural merit or for association with 

persons or events of transcendent importance in 

the nation’s history and the association consequential; or

(3) A site of a building or structure no longer 

standing but the person or event associated 

with it is of transcendent importance in the 

nation’s history and the association consequential; or 

(4) A birthplace, grave, or burial if it is of a historical figure of transcendent national significance and no other appropriate site, building, or 

structure directly associated with the productive 

life of that person exists; or

(5) A cemetery that derives its primary national significance from graves of persons of transcendent 

importance or from an exceptionally distinctive 

design or an exceptionally significant event; or

(6) A reconstructed building or ensemble of 

buildings of extraordinary national significance 
Appendix I 349

when accurately executed in a suitable environment and presented in a dignified manner 

as part of a restoration master plan, and when 

no other buildings or structures with the same 

association have survived; or

(7) A property primarily commemorative in 

intent if design, age, tradition, or symbolic value 

has invested it with its own national historical 

significance; or

(8) A property achieving national significance 

within the past 50 years if it is of extraordinary 

national importance.

Areas of Significance

The Areas of Significance are general topics intended to 

convey the broad area of history to which the criteria 

apply. Useful for searching for like properties in the 

National Register Information System database (NRIS), 

the Areas of Significance can also provide an organizing 

principle for nomination Statements of Significance. For 

each criterion applied to a property, one or more areas 

of significance can be applied and justified. The nomination for the Kam Wah Chung Company Building in John 

Day, Oregon, for example, applied two areas, Commerce 

and Health/Medicine. These areas relate to the commercial importance of the store to the Chinese American community, as well as its role in fostering health 

through its extensive offerings of herbal remedies. In the 

nomination, each area was explained, as was its national 

significance as a rare example of this type of mercantile 

business that included an extensive collection of historical documentation related to the business.

Any of the Areas of Significance listed below may 

apply to AAPI nominated properties, but some are more 

widely used than others. Note that “Other” enables the 

use of areas that are not otherwise specified. 

Agriculture

Architecture

Archeology

Prehistoric

Historic–Aboriginal

Historic–Non-Aboriginal

Art

Commerce

Communications

Community Planning and Development

Conservation

Economics

Education

Engineering Entertainment/Recreation

Ethnic Heritage

Asian

Black

European

Hispanic

Native American

Pacific Islander

Other

Exploration/Settlement Health/Medicine

Industry

Invention

Landscape Architecture

Law

Literature

Maritime History

Military

Performing Arts

Philosophy

Politics/Government

Religion

Science

Social History

Transportation

Other

Period of Significance 

The period of significance, which is defined for each 

nominated property, is the span of time in which a 

property achieved national significance. For a property 

associated with a historic event, the period of significance is inclusive of the years the “event” occurred. For 

an architecturally significant property, it is the year of 

construction. For a property associated with an important person, the period of significance is the years when 

their significant achievements were made that coincide 

with their association with the property. The process 

for identifying periods of significance is explained in the 

National Register and NHL instructions, available on 

the NPS website.

For properties associated with AAPI history and 

culture, the period of significance may be short, such 
350 AAPI National Historic Landmarks Theme Study

as the few years the Japanese American internment 

camps operated during World War II, or long and long 

ago, such as the period when the Keauhou Holua Slide 

in Hawai’i was used in contests by Hawaiian chiefs. 

Identifying a period of significance should confirm that 

the research effort has been probing enough to identify a 

time of association.

NATIONAL HISTORIC LANDMARK THEMATIC 

FRAMEWORK

The NHL program developed a thematic framework of 

American history during the early years of its existence 

to foster well-rounded representation among designated 

properties. Just as today we have a goal to increase NHL 

designations to better reflect AAPI history and culture, 

in earlier years of the program it was considered important to represent all periods and themes in American history, using topics that were general enough to accommodate most aspects of history. Gaps in representation in 

the thematic framework were indicators of designations 

that were needed. The framework was revised in 1994 to 

better reflect the breadth of American history.

Today, nomination preparers are advised to find a 

place in the thematic framework for a nominated property and to develop an appropriate context accordingly. 

For example, the framework includes the topic “Expressing Cultural Values,” which pertains to art, architecture, 

literature, performance, educational and intellectual pursuits, and other cultural expressions. The Pearl S. Buck 

House in Pennsylvania, associated with the author whose 

writing brought Chinese culture to non-Asian Americans, corresponds with “Expressing Cultural Values” in 

the theme of literature. The context for evaluating the 

significance of Pearl Buck and the house where she did 

much of her writing should revolve around the theme of 

literature of the period, non-Asians’ understanding of 

China and Chinese Americans, and Pearl Buck’s accomplishments in expanding Americans’ world view and 

understanding of a culture that was foreign to most. 

National Historic Landmark nomination preparers 

can use the framework as an aid to identifying the context that should be developed. It should be considered 

as a fundamental and common-sense means of viewing 

history and compartmentalizing, to a certain extent, 

historical phenomena. This process can help in focusing 

a context and preventing it from becoming either too 

expansive or too narrow. Further guidance on use of 

the NHL framework can be found on the NHL website 

https://www.nps.gov/nhl/.

NHL Thematic Framework

The thematic framework, as revised in 1994, includes the 

following topics:

I. Peopling Places

Topics that help define this theme include:

1. Family and the life cycle

2. Health, nutrition, and disease

3. Migration from the outside and within

4. Community and neighborhood

5. Ethnic homelands

6. Encounters, conflicts, and colonization

II. Creating Social Institutions and Movements

Topics that help define this theme include:

1. Clubs and organizations

2. Reform movements

3. Religious institutions

4. Recreational activities

III. Expressing Cultural Values

Topics that help define this theme include:

1. Educational and intellectual currents

2. Visual and performing arts

3. Literature

4. Mass media

5. Architecture, landscape architecture, 

and urban design

6. Popular and traditional culture

IV. Shaping the Political Landscape

Topics that help define this theme include:

1. Parties, protests, and movements 

2. Governmental institutions

3. Military institutions and activities

4. Political ideas, cultures, and theories

V. Developing the American Economy

Topics that help define this theme include:

1. Extraction and production

2. Distribution and consumption

3. Transportation and communication
Appendix I 351

4. Workers and work culture

5. Labor organizations and protests

6. Exchange and trade

7. Governmental policies and practices

8. Economic theory

VI. Expanding Science and Technology

Topics that help define this theme include:

1. Experimentation and invention

2. Technological applications

3. Scientific thought and theory

4. Effects on lifestyle and health

VII. Transforming the Environment

Topics that help define this theme include:

1. Manipulating the environment and its resources

2. Adverse consequences and stresses on 

the environment

3. Protecting and preserving the environment

VIII. Changing Role of the United States in the

World Community

Topics that help define this theme include:

1. International relations

2. Commerce

3. Expansionism and imperialism

4. Immigration and emigration policies

THE INTEGRITY OF AAPI PROPERTIES

A property must retain a high degree of physical 

integrity to be considered eligible for National Historic 

Landmark designation. According to NHL federal regulations 36 CFR 65.4(a), “the quality of national significance is ascribed to districts, sites, buildings, structures 

and objects that possess exceptional value or quality in 

illustrating or interpreting the heritage of the United 

States in history, architecture, archeology, engineering 

and culture and that possess a high degree of integrity of 

location, design, setting, materials, workmanship, feeling 

and association” (italics added). 

NHL guidance defines integrity as “the ability of a 

property to convey its historical associations or attributes. The evaluation of integrity is somewhat of a subjective judgment, but it must always be grounded in an 

understanding of a property’s physical features and how 

they relate to its historical associations or attributes.” 

Thus, a property with integrity exhibits the preservation 

of its features from the period of its historical significance. For example, if properties are significant examples of design or construction and nominated under 

Criterion 4, they must retain the majority of features 

that constitute the style or technique recognized as 

significant. The seven “aspects” of integrity that apply to 

National Historic Landmark evaluations are described 

below. They are the same as the seven aspects of integrity

that apply to the National Register of Historic Places.

The Seven Aspects of Integrity

Location is the place where the historic property was 

constructed or the significant events occurred. Most 

properties associated with this theme will remain in their 

original location.

Design is the combination of elements that creates 

the historic form, plan, space, structure, and style of a 

property. Design includes such factors as the organization of space, proportion, scale, technology, ornamentation, and materials.

Setting is the physical environment of a historic 

property. For properties considered under this theme 

study, the setting includes the character of the places 

where they were developed, as well as their siting in 

those places.

Materials are the physical elements that were combined or deposited during a particular period of time 

and in a particular pattern or configuration to form a 

historic property.

Workmanship is the physical evidence of the crafts 

of a particular culture or people during any given period 

in history. Workmanship can be important in illustrating a time period associated with an event. This quality 

is particularly important for architecturally significant 

properties.

Feeling is a property’s expression of the aesthetic or 

historic sense of a particular period of time. It results 

from the presence of physical features that, taken 

together, convey a property’s historic character.

Association is the direct link between an important 

historic theme, event, or person and a historic property. 

A property retains integrity of association if it is the 

place where the event occurred and can still convey that 

historic relationship to an observer. 
352 AAPI National Historic Landmarks Theme Study

Evaluating Integrity

Three basic steps are followed to assess the integrity 

of a property: 

1. Identify the essential physical features that represent 

its significance;

2. Determine whether the essential physical features 

are apparent and intact; and

3. Compare the property with similar properties in 

the nationally significant theme.3

Each step is related to the historical significance of 

the property. For example, an essential physical feature 

of a significant Japanese gakuen (school) may be the 

existence of the floorplan that reflects classrooms. In 

step 1, this and other important features should be identified, such as building materials and the essential building 

form. If the floorplan is apparent and intact—for example, without later partitions to create apartments—step 2 

may be met for this feature. The third step concerns both 

the relative significance of a property and its integrity 

compared to properties with similar significance. In this 

example, if the integrity of the gakuen has been compromised in some way, and another school with comparable 

national significance has excellent integrity, the school 

with better integrity may be considered a better representation of Japanese American education.

In some cases and with considerable discussion, the 

application of stringent integrity requirements may vary 

for AAPI properties that are unique or that represent a 

rare or vanishing resource type. In the example of the 

gakuen, there may not be any similar properties related 

to this educational context, so certain impairments in 

integrity may be found acceptable. A property’s relative 

level of integrity needs to be assessed and justified by the 

nomination preparer. Slightly compromised integrity 

also may be acceptable for resources that represent an 

ephemeral type or transient function, such as outbuildings on a farm or plantation that have been altered for 

other uses. This is particularly true if other aspects of 

integrity are overwhelmingly intact—or if Criterion 6 

(archeology) is the key to significance. For example, 

some Japanese American World War II internment 

camps have few physical features aboveground (therefore they may lack integrity of design, materials, and 

workmanship), but if they have a high degree of integrity 

of setting, location, feeling, and association, other deficiencies in integrity may not be a drawback to eligibility. 

If the archeological record is also deemed significant, the 

site could have even greater value.

Pacific Island sites may embody powerful cultural, 

spiritual, and historical meaning and be considered, in 

terms of the NHL program, as traditional cultural places 

(TCPs) or traditional cultural landscapes. These sites 

may have strong cultural values that are not diminished 

by changes that would seem to compromise the integrity 

of other sites. An example could be modern development on a site that otherwise retains its natural landscape of land and water, vegetation and topography. The 

degree of change should be weighed against the strength 

of the cultural values. 

An analysis of physical integrity should be presented 

in Section 5 of the nomination (formerly Section 8). The 

Statement of Significance, Section 6 (formerly Section 

7), should provide a comparative analysis, using other 

properties of a similar type or history. 

Integrity Considerations for AAPI 

Non-archeological Resources

The integrity of properties considered exceptionally 

significant for their relationship to AAPI history are 

evaluated in the same way as resources without this 

association; however, in some cases, there are moderating issues. Factors that may moderate integrity evaluations could relate to the small number of permanent 

resources associated with an AAPI group for political, 

cultural or economic reasons; the recent arrival of some 

AAPI groups; overt actions by the government to limit 

property ownership; and a transient history due to various immigration or resettlement programs. For example, 

AAPI history is marked by state and federal laws that 

encouraged—even required—discriminatory practices 

related to land ownership. The alien land laws passed 

by many states limited the ability of Asian immigrants 

to own farmland and other real estate. The alien land 

laws did not name specific groups that were targeted, 

but referred to “aliens ineligible for citizenship,” which 

generally referred to Chinese and Japanese natives (and 

other AAPI groups) who were ineligible for citizenship. 

These laws were finally ruled unconstitutional by the 

Supreme Court in 1952, but for nearly a century in some 

states, Asian non-citizens could not own property.

Resources associated with Japanese Americans on 
Appendix I 353

the west coast may have been reduced further by the 

imposed incarceration during World War II. When Japanese Americans were sent to internment camps, typically 

they were forced to abandon property and in many 

cases they were not able to reclaim it after the war. Thus, 

Japanese Americans were forcibly removed from shops, 

houses, factories, farms, and more in the proscribed military areas on the West Coast. Japanese American history 

in these areas may be poorly represented by standing 

resources, and those that remain may have compromised 

integrity due to changing uses and forced abandonment 

or encroachment by others. Other Asian groups, notably 

the Hmong and Vietnamese, were brought to the United 

States in the wake of war. Arriving with few resources, 

their early history is often linked to public housing, community centers, and churches. Although these were vital 

places providing physical and emotional comfort, links 

may be tenuous and fragmented.

These factors can indicate atypical relationships 

with property associated with Americans who have 

been less transient and less manipulated by government 

policy. Coupled with the menial, transitory work that 

was the lot of many Asian immigrants, tangible community building during the early years after arrival may be 

minimally evident in some places and in some periods. 

Although concrete data is not available, the number and 

age of buildings, structures, and sites related to AAPI 

history and culture may not be representative of the 

presence of these immigrants in many places.

For these reasons, every aspect of integrity should 

be considered within the framework of AAPI relationships with place. An actual shortage of resources related 

to AAPI culture may influence integrity evaluations of 

those that are extant. The evaluation of AAPI resources 

should consider that built cultural resources associated 

with AAPI groups may be minimal or compromised 

due to circumstances beyond their control. If there is a 

demonstrated rarity of built resources associated with 

the history of AAPI groups, for the reasons discussed, 

certain aspects of integrity might be judged less stringently. This should not be a consideration for archeological resources. 

Integrity Considerations for AAPI 

Archeological Resources

Archeological integrity is based on a site-specific 

evaluation of conditions in terms of the potential to 

provide data relevant to archeological or anthropological questions of national significance. National significance, in turn, refers to either the already recovered

or the demonstrated potential to recover data that has 

the ability to make a major contribution to the existing 

body of information. Examples of major contributions 

include the data’s ability—once recovered, analyzed, and 

interpreted—to resolve a longstanding debate, challenge 

or revise the received wisdom on a given topic, or fill a 

knowledge or data gap in terms of what is known about 

a particular culture, place, practice, topic, or theme in 

American history and archeology.

The degree or nature of any disturbance—and 

whether it is the result of human agency (e.g. changes 

in land use, looting, agricultural activity, etc.) or natural 

forces (e.g. wind, water, erosion, burrowing animals, 

etc.)—is evaluated both horizontally (across the site) 

and vertically (moving downward through the strata 

comprising the site). This assists in assessing whether 

the site retains sufficient integrity to warrant designation. Archeological sites important for information they 

have already yielded (i.e., that have been largely or even 

entirely excavated) may still be eligible for designation if 

the data and knowledge they have generated are determined to meet the threshold of national significance.

THE NHL CRITERIA AND CRITERIA EXCEPTIONS 

APPLIED TO AAPI PROPERTIES

Properties nominated for National Historic Landmark 

designation must be nationally significant under at 

least one of the NHL criteria. Nominated properties 

may be eligible under more than one criterion, but for 

each applied, exceptional national significance must be 

demonstrated. In this section, application of the criteria 

to AAPI properties is illustrated through a number of 

examples. These examples are considered good and 

accurate applications of the NHL criteria. For those 

designated under more than one criterion, the most 

significant or best developed criterion is discussed. 

APPLYING CRITERION 1: ASSOCIATION WITH 

IMPORTANT EVENTS

Properties significant under Criterion 1 are “associated 

with events that have made a significant contribution to, 
354 AAPI National Historic Landmarks Theme Study

and are identified with, or that outstandingly represent 

the broad national patterns of United States history and 

from which an understanding and appreciation of those 

patterns may be gained.”4

 The essays in this theme study 

outline many aspects of AAPI history and aspects of 

specific histories of different AAPI groups. They provide 

a perspective of some important “events,” referring to 

specific incidents, cultural patterns, and political and 

economic movements and developments. They are not 

comprehensive, but demonstrate how the history of 

one culture may apply to an evaluation of the history of 

another. For example, demonstrations by workers or 

students affiliated with one group agitating for change 

may pertain to other groups doing the same. In regard 

to specific properties, the significance of a cannery to 

Chinese American history might suggest how a nomination for a different agricultural processing plant associated with Filipino workers might also reflect nationally 

significant events. Furthermore, it may suggest how the 

nomination might be structured. 

The NHL examples represent a range of history stories, including the development of communities resulting in Chinatowns and Japantowns, AAPI involvement 

in building the nation’s railroads, and AAPI contributions to agriculture and mining. As citizens and resisters, 

AAPIs’ activism resulted in changes to immigration and 

labor laws and led to positive ethnic identification in 

universities via new course offerings and majors related 

to AAPI history and culture.

For properties to represent the theme in terms of 

Criterion 1, a clear association with the AAPI population during the identified period of significance must 

be demonstrated. Properties must clearly represent a 

contribution, development, or watershed moment within 

the history of a specific AAPI group or groups. To be 

nationally significant, such resources must have an impact 

at a national level, for example by setting a precedent 

that is followed by others, influencing the nation’s laws 

or legal system, or representing innovative contributions 

to any number of disciplines or endeavors. The history 

represented by Criterion 1 must clearly demonstrate the 

relationship of AAPIs to the history of the United States. 

NHLs Designated Under Criterion 1

The significance of the following properties nominated 

under Criterion 1 is summarized in this section, 

in the order listed.

• U.S. Immigration Center, Angel Island, 

Marin County, California

• Harada House, Riverside, California

• Kam Wah Chung Company Building, 

John Day, Oregon

• Bodie Historic District, Bodie, California

• Kake Cannery, Kake, Alaska

• The Forty Acres, Delano, California

• Government House, Pago Pago, American Samoa

• Granada Relocation Center, Granada, Colorado

• Iolani Palace, Honolulu, Hawai‘i

• Kawaiaha‘o Church and Mission Houses, 

Honolulu, Hawai‘i

• Old Sugar Mill, Kôloa, Hawai‘i

• Pi’ilanihale Heiau, Maui County, Hawai‘i

U.S. Immigration Center, Angel Island 

(NHL 1998, NRHP 1971)

Marin County, California

Ethnic Heritage: Asian 

Criteria: 1 (Politics/Government and Military) 

and 5 (historic district)

http://npgallery.nps.gov/nrhp/GetAsset?assetID=a29a579c-1873-4802-804f-b3f15d4a30f0

The U.S. Immigration Center on Angel Island in San 

Francisco Bay is nationally significant as the major West 

Coast processing center for immigrants to the United 

States arriving between 1910 and 1940. The majority of 

immigrants passing through the Angel Island facility were 

Asian. Harsh treatment was not unusual, but the Chinese 

were particularly targeted—with long periods of detention and grueling testimony intended to detect those 

immigrating with fraudulent paperwork. Graffiti on the 

walls in Chinese reveals the toll the immigration process 

took on individuals. After 1940, the Immigration Station 

was transferred to the U.S. Army and became the North 

Garrison of Fort McDowell (the entire island was Fort 

McDowell). Although not important to this theme study 

but considered a significant aspect of the fort’s history in 

the nomination, the facility housed German and Japanese prisoners of war and members of the Italian Service 

Units from 1942 to 1946. The nomination does not mention the role of Angel Island in Japanese American history. Japanese Americans from Hawai‘i were processed at 
Appendix I 355

Angel Island en route to the mainland relocation centers.5

The nomination could be amended to address this aspect 

of the North Garrison’s history. 

Harada House (NHL 1990, NRHP 1977)

Riverside, California

Ethnic Heritage: Japanese

Criteria: 1 (Law and Ethnic Heritage)

http://npgallery.nps.gov/nrhp/GetAsset?assetID=-

164da850-d9fe-4333-8ca6-b7bd8954b351 

This architecturally undistinguished house, built in 

1884, represents the first test of the constitutionality of 

the California Alien Land Law of 1913, which barred 

non-citizens from owning land. In 1915, Jukichi Harada purchased the house for his family under his three 

children’s names. Born in the U.S., the children were 

American citizens, and thus able to own real estate. In 

California v. Harada (1916 to 1918) the Riverside Superior 

Court ruled that all native-born citizens could own land, 

even minor children of immigrant parents.

Kam Wah Chung Company Building 

(NHL 2005, NRHP 1973)

John Day, Oregon

Ethnic Heritage: Chinese

Criteria: 1 (Commerce, Exploration/Settlement, 

Health/Medicine, Social History, Ethnic Heritage)

http://npgallery.nps.gov/nrhp/GetAsset?assetID=a37edbc6-c117-4497-8faf-881709bd0ab9

The Kam Wah Chung Company Building, located in 

the eastern Oregon community of John Day, is the only 

standing structure that remains as a reminder of the 

town’s once thriving Chinese community. Built c.1866 

as a trading post, the building later served as a commercial, social, cultural, and spiritual center for the Chinese 

settlement of John Day. The Kam Wah Chung Company 

Building is considered the best known example of a 

Chinese mercantile and herb store in the United States, 

representing the Chinese role in the post-Civil War 

expansion period of the American West. 

Bodie Historic District 

(National Historic Site 1961, NHL 1966)

Bodie, California

Ethnic Heritage: Chinese

Criteria: 1 (Community Planning/Development, 

Industry, Ethnic Heritage) The application of 

Criterion 1 is assumed; the nomination pre-dates 

use of the Criteria.

http://npgallery.nps.gov/nrhp/GetAsset?assetID=e4ed82ee-0eb0-421f-ad8c-76c138e98aa1

The Bodie Historic District, the best-preserved ghost 

town from the California gold rush period, is locatKam Wah Chung Company Building, northeast view. Photo courtesy of the National Register of Historic Places.
356 AAPI National Historic Landmarks Theme Study

ed seven miles south of Bridgeport, California, in the 

Sierra Nevada Mountains. It is an excellent example of 

an American West boomtown and the accompanying 

lifestyle that developed in western mining communities. 

Many Chinese came to live and work in Bodie during 

its early years, where they supplied a substantial workforce for the local gold mining industry. The Chinatown 

that developed in Bodie boasted a Taoist temple and a 

number of opium dens. More than 100 historic buildings remain in the district, conveying Bodie between its 

founding in 1859 and its demise in 1942, when mining 

was finally suspended and the last residents left the town. 

Although not mentioned in the documentation, the historic district represents Chinese contributions to mining 

and the development of Bodie. 

Kake Cannery (NHL and NRHP 1997)

Kake, Alaska

Ethnic Heritage: Multiple

Criteria: 1 (Maritime History, Industry, and 

Social History) and 5 (historic district)

http://npgallery.nps.gov/nrhp/GetAsset?assetID=ebfefa8c-21fa-49f7-a620-2112c0f2f118

The Kake Cannery was designated a National Historic Landmark under the Labor History theme study. It 

encompasses multiple areas of significance, but the most 

important for the AAPI theme study are industry and 

social history. Chinese, Japanese, and Filipino workers 

comprised the primary contract labor force, helping 

launch the salmon canning industry as Alaska’s largest 

industry in the first half of the 20th century. During the 

period of significance (1912 to 1940), the Kake Cannery 

emulated trends in labor practices of the Pacific salmon 

canning industry, which corresponded with national 

patterns of immigration and labor organization. The 

physical plan of the cannery exhibits the use of foreign 

contract labor, with work areas defined by cultural 

groups that performed specific tasks. The Kake Cannery 

retains an unmatched degree of integrity among the very 

few original Alaska canneries that are extant.6

The Forty Acres (NHL and NRHP 2008)

Delano, California

Ethnic Heritage: Pacific Islander

Criteria: 1 (Economics, Social History, and Ethnic 

Heritage—Pacific Island and Hispanic) 

and 2 (association with Césario Estrada Chávez)

Exception 8 (Less than 50 years of age)

http://npgallery.nps.gov/nrhp/GetAsset?assetID=f53395cd-4de9-4451-a248-47902207100f

The Forty Acres in Delano, California, became the first 

national headquarters of the United Farm Workers of 

America, the first permanent agricultural labor union in 

the United States. The property is nationally significant 

for its association with the farm workers’ movement and 

with the influential career of César Chávez, the most significant leader of the movement from 1962 to 1993 and the 

most important Latino labor leader in the history of the 

United States. Larry Itliong, a Filipino who was a leader 

of the Agricultural Workers Organizing Committee, and 

Government House, Pago Pago, American Samoa, aerial view of 

the northernmost tip of the island. Photo courtesy of the National 

Register of Historic Places.
Appendix I 357

Chávez, leader of the National Farm Workers Association, 

combined efforts in the Delano grape strike that began in 

1965. The collaboration resulted in formation of the United Farm Workers of America, with headquarters at The 

Forty Acres. The movement gained nationwide support 

and was ultimately successful in gaining a collective bargaining agreement for workers in 1970 and a number of 

subsequent gains for agricultural workers. The National 

Historic Landmark nomination notes the importance of 

the property to Filipino American history.

Government House (NHL 1990, NRHP 1972)

Pago Pago, American Samoa

Ethnic Heritage: American Samoa

Criteria: 1 (Politics/Government and Military) 

and Exception 8 (at the time of designation, 

the end date of the period of significance was 

less than fifty years ago)

http://npgallery.nps.gov/nrhp/GetAsset?assetID=b325643b-6630-4e67-9fcf-b245c039ec87

The Government House was built in 1903 by the U.S. 

Navy at the U.S. Naval Station Tutuila to serve as a 

residence for naval governors, shortly after the United 

States gained control of Eastern (American) Samoa. The 

two-story, frame house is the most enduring, land-based 

symbol of American naval and diplomatic might in the 

South Pacific. In essence the capitol of American Samoa 

through much of its history, the house has served as the 

official residence of civilian governors since 1951.

Japanese American World War II Sites

The NHL theme study Japanese Americans in World 

War II provides a historical context and guidance on 

nominating places associated with the Japanese American wartime experience in the United States. The theme 

study, which can be found on the NHL website, includes 

summary descriptions of designated and potential 

NHLs.7

 The following summary of the nomination for 

the Granada Relocation Center (Amache) provides an 

example of the application of Criteria 1 and 4 to one of 

the Japanese American World War II properties.

Granada Relocation Center, also known as Camp 

Amache (NHL 2006, NRHP 1994)

Prowers County, Colorado 

Ethnic Heritage: Japanese

Criteria: 1 (Law, Politics/Government, Social 

History, and Ethnic Heritage) and 4 (Planning) 

http://npgallery.nps.gov/nrhp/GetAsset?assetID=04b78227-faff-42ec-974d-cf11a836434c

The site of the Granada Relocation Center, commonly 

called “Amache,” is one of several relocation centers 

designated National Historic Landmarks. The designated area encompasses 593 acres that was the core of the 

Granada Relocation 

Center, Colorado, 

historic view. 

Photo courtesy 

of the National 

Archives and Records 

Administration.
358 AAPI National Historic Landmarks Theme Study

center’s developed area. It includes the sites of detainee 

housing, administration, military police, a warehouse, 

support areas, and the center cemetery. A small number 

of buildings remain, as well as the historic road network and a number of building foundations. The grid 

and functional divisions are apparent, and the layout of 

buildings is evident by the remaining foundations. The 

remarkable integrity of the plan suggested the application of Criterion 4, while the association of the complex 

with the World War II forced confinement confirmed 

the application of Criterion 1. The intact and visible 

layout of the center provides a strong sense of the size 

of the installation and its military layout. The integrity of 

location, setting, association, and feeling are compelling 

and lend significance that compensates for the absence 

of buildings. Although entirely probable that the site has 

a high degree of information potential, the property was 

not evaluated under Criterion 6.

‘Iolani Palace (NHL 1962, NRHP 1966)

Honolulu, Hawai‘i

Ethnic Heritage: Hawaiian

Criteria: 1 (Politics/Government) The application 

of Criterion 1 is assumed; the nomination pre-dates 

use of the Criteria. 

http://npgallery.nps.gov/nrhp/GetAsset?assetID=4247173b-49a0-4d6f-8766-e32e0455fea8

Known as the only royal palace in the United States, 

‘Iolani Palace was the official residence of the last two 

rulers of the Kingdom of Hawai’i, King Kalakaua and 

Queen Liliuokalani. As such, it is the most important 

surviving symbol of the days of Hawaiian independence. 

Designed and constructed from 1879 to 1882, it combines 

Italianate and Second Empire details. In 1898, the formal 

transference of the sovereignty of the Hawaiian Islands 

to the United States took place on the palace steps. 

Kawaiaha’o Church and Mission Houses 

(NHL 1962, NRHP 1966)

Honolulu, Hawai‘i

Ethnic Heritage: Hawaiian

Criteria: 1 (History of Hawai’i—the only area of 

significance noted on the nomination form) 

The application of Criterion 1 is assumed; the 

nomination pre-dates use of the Criteria.

http://npgallery.nps.gov/nrhp/GetAsset?assetID=8e0189a0-c577-4a61-b8c6-5fa5ab659aa1

The impressive stone church, dating from 1838 to 1842, is 

the best representative of the work and influence of the 

American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions 

in the Hawaiian Islands. The Kawaiaha’o Church was 

a mission of the original Mission Church, founded in 

Boston in 1819. As Hawaii’s state church, it was used for 

inaugurations and other services associated with the 

Kingdom of Hawai‘i. Earlier buildings associated with 

the missionary effort survive nearby. The earliest, a prefabricated building dating from 1820, was built in Boston, 

disassembled, shipped to the “Sandwich Islands,” and 

‘Iolani Palace, front 

and side elevations. 

Photo courtesy of the 

National Register of 

Historic Places.
Appendix I 359

re-erected “for the comfort of the ladies.” When nominated as an NHL, its significance was considered to be 

the “History of Hawai‘i,” but today we would consider it 

to be associated with the areas Ethnic Heritage, Politics/

Government, Religion, and perhaps Architecture.

Old Sugar Mill of Kôloa (NHL 1962, NRHP 1966)

Kauai County, Hawai‘i

Ethnic Heritage: Hawaiian

Criteria: 1 (Industry) and 6 (Archeology) 

The application of Criteria 1 and 6 is assumed; 

the nomination pre-dates use of the Criteria.

http://npgallery.nps.gov/nrhp/GetAsset?assetID=68d0b514-a38a-4b06-9fc1-0cf42b49c2a6

The first commercially successful sugar plantation was 

established on the island of Kauai by Ladd and Company in 1835, marking the foundation of what became the 

largest industry in Hawai’i. Although native Hawaiians 

had grown sugar cane earlier, with commercial success sugar became pivotal in Hawaiian economics and 

politics, and was influential in the decision of the United 

States to annex the islands. The 10-acre site is marked 

by ruins of the enterprise; the massive stone base of the 

chimney and stone foundations of the mill date from the 

early 1840s. 

Pi‘ilanihale Heiau (NHL 1964, NRHP 1966)

Maui County, Hawai‘i

Ethnic Heritage: Hawaiian

Criteria: 1 (Politics/Government and Religion), 

4 (Architecture), and 6 (Archeology) The application of Criteria 1, 4, and 6 is assumed; the nomination pre-dates use of the Criteria.

http://npgallery.nps.gov/nrhp/GetAsset?assetID=ce4646ae-b8b6-43f0-80d9-8a3c16969eef

The Pi’ilanihale Heiau, located near the town of Hana 

on the Island of Maui, is the largest Heiau—place of 

worship—on Maui and one of the most important archeological sites in the Hawaiian Islands. It is exceptionally 

well preserved, with massive stone walls forming stepped 

terraces. Constructed in stages beginning in the 13th 

century, Pi’ilanihale Heiau measures approximately 340 

feet by 425 feet. Inside the massive exterior walls, lesser 

walls and enclosures exist. The nomination notes several 

areas of significance that indicate application of the NHL 

Criteria noted above; however, the documentation is 

out of date, so for this summary a National Park Service 

website was consulted. 8

APPLYING CRITERION 2: ASSOCIATION WITH 

SIGNIFICANT PEOPLE

Properties significant under Criterion 2 are associated with people who made contributions significant in 

American history. Their contributions may have impacted the lives of AAPI people or may represent AAPI contributions to American culture. Their association with 

the property must coincide with the period when they 

achieved national significance, and the association must 

be substantial. The essays of this theme study identify a 

number of Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders who 

made significant contributions to American history and 

culture, law, science, commerce, industry, and more. For 

properties to represent the theme in terms of Criterion 2, 

the individual must have significantly impacted the lives 

of AAPI people or the individual’s accomplishments 

must significantly represent AAPI history or culture. 

Simply being of AAPI descent does not convey national 

significance.

NHLs Designated Under Criterion 2

Properties designated under Criterion 2 are significant 

for their association with an Asian American or 

Pacific Islander (or someone not of AAPI heritage who 

is strongly associated with AAPI history or culture) who 

played an important role in American history.

• George Nakashima Woodworkers Complex, 

New Hope, Pennsylvania

• Washington Place, Honolulu, Hawai‘i

• Pearl S. Buck House, Dublin, Pennsylvania

• Kalaupapa Leprosy Settlement, Kalaupapa, Hawai‘i

George Nakashima Woodworkers Complex 

(NHL 2014, NRHP 2008)

New Hope, Pennsylvania

Ethnic Heritage: Japanese

Criteria: 2 (George Nakashima), 4 (Architecture, 

Art—American Craft movement, Engineering), 

and Exception 8 (less than 50 years of age)

https://www.nps.gov/nhl/find/statelists/pa/

GeorgeNakashimaWoodworkerComplex.pdf
360 AAPI National Historic Landmarks Theme Study

George Nakashima is recognized as one of America’s most eminent furniture designer-craftsman and a 

significant force in the American Craft movement of the 

mid-20th century, a seminal period for woodworking in 

the United States. As a self-proclaimed “woodworker,” 

Nakashima became an important voice for the artist 

craftsmen, helping to create a new paradigm for studio 

furniture production in the postwar period. This is the 

basis of the significance of the property under Criterion 

2, with AAPI significance achieved because Nakashima’s 

work was influenced by his Japanese heritage. According 

to the NHL documentation, his exposure to Eastern 

religions and Japanese craft traditions taught him the 

value of humility and to seek peace, beauty, and harmony through his work. The Nakashima complex consists 

of 21 resources he designed and built in an innovative, 

Japanese influenced International Style design. Criterion 

Exception 8 was applied, because many of the buildings 

in the complex are less than 50 years old.

Washington Place (NHL 2007, NRHP 1973)

Honolulu, Hawai‘i

Ethnic Heritage: Hawaiian

Criteria: 1 (Politics/Government and Social History) 

and 2 (Queen Lili’uokalani)

http://npgallery.nps.gov/nrhp/GetAsset?assetID=95c9bde4-93ff-4b86-bdf6-28d0f67acc55

Washington Place was the long-time home of the last 

Hawaiian monarch. It represents America’s efforts to 

expand its influence and territory in the Pacific. Built in 

the 1840s as the elegant residence of wealthy American 

trader John Dominis, Washington Place later housed the 

U.S. Legation to the Hawaiian Kingdom. It became the 

private residence of the future monarch, Queen Lili‘uokalani, after her 1862 marriage to John Owen Dominis, 

the son of the original owner. Upon her brother’s death 

in 1891, she became monarch during a challenging period 

when American commercial and military interests sought 

to expand their already dominant influence in most 

aspects of Hawaiian life. The Queen’s efforts to maintain the security and national identity of her kingdom 

prompted an American-backed coup d’état that overthrew the constitutional monarchy in 1893. The resulting 

provisional government was more favorable to American 

interests. Formal annexation by the United States followed in 1898. After the former Queen’s death, Washington Place served as the official governor’s mansion from 

1919 to 1959. The criteria used to establish the property’s 

significance reflect its importance in Hawaiian and U.S. 

history and its association with Queen Lili’uokalani.

Pearl S. Buck House (NHL 1980, NRHP 1974)

Dublin, Pennsylvania

Ethnic Heritage: Chinese

Criteria: 1 (Literature and Social/Humanitarian) 

and 2 (Pearl S. Buck)

http://npgallery.nps.gov/nrhp/GetAsset?assetID=-

333fa673-f9a3-49fd-97a6-f681b7b64a95

Noted American novelist Pearl S. Buck maintained this 

mid-19th century stone farmhouse in Bucks County as 

her principal residence from 1933 until her death in 1973. 

She did much of her writing here. In 1932, she won the 

Pulitzer Prize for her novel The Good Earth, and in 1938 

Buck won the Nobel Prize for literature “for rich and 

George Nakashima’s 

studio and workshop. 

Photo courtesy of the 

National Register 

of Historic Places.
Appendix I 361

genuine epic portrayals of Chinese life, and for masterpieces of biography.” Buck worked to dispel negative 

Asian American stereotypes through her writing and other initiatives, such as the East-West Association, which 

she founded in 1941 to bring entertainers and lecturers 

from Asia to the United States. She founded the Pearl S. 

Buck Foundation in 1963 to aid in the adoption and care 

of Amerasian children. Criterion 2 is applied because of 

this remarkable woman’s achievements in literature and 

in fostering appreciation for Chinese culture. 

Kalaupapa Leprosy Settlement 

(NHL and NRHP 1976, National Historic Park 1980)

Kalaupapa, Hawai‘i

Ethnic Heritage: Hawaiian

Criteria: 1 (Community Planning, Religion, Social/

Humanitarian), 2 (Father Joseph Damien), 4 (Architecture), 6 (Archeology) The application of Criteria 

1, 2, 4, and 6 is assumed; the nomination pre-dates 

use of the Criteria. 

http://npgallery.nps.gov/nrhp/GetAsset?assetID=322a82dd-d087-4bde-98bd-4902dd7f2635

This windswept peninsula on Molokai’s northern coast 

was the site of a leper colony established in 1866 to curb 

an epidemic among native Hawaiians. Belgian priest 

Father Joseph Damien, “Martyr of Molokai,” volunteered 

to minister here in 1873 and died a victim of the disease in 

1889. The site, which includes Fr. Damien’s Saint Philomena Church, became a National Historical Park in 1980.

APPLYING CRITERION 3: AMERICAN IDEALS

Properties eligible under NHL Criterion 3 are strongly 

associated with the most profound ideas and ideals of 

American democracy. Such properties related to AAPI 

history may have been associated with successful efforts 

to secure equal rights, including the right to own property, to have a free and equal education, to secure work 

and own businesses, and to vote and hold office. Thus, 

properties associated with American ideals may be public buildings where important decisions were made that 

affected AAPI rights, such as courthouses, statehouses, 

and city halls. They may be businesses, houses or schools 

where important civil actions were instigated; or that are 

tangible reminders of discriminatory practices toward 

AAPI people that were abandoned or revised to reflect 

American ideals; or places where stands were made to 

highlight and change discriminatory practices.

Criterion 3 is seldom used, but AAPI achievements 

in securing equal rights may present opportunities for its 

application. One of the few properties nominated under 

Criterion 3—in this case related to African American 

history—is the Brown Chapel AME Church in Selma, 

Alabama. Criterion 3 was applied because actions at 

the church are strongly associated with the Civil Rights 

Movement of the 1960s. Members of the church and 

the building itself played pivotal roles in the Selma to 

Montgomery marches that contributed to passage of the 

Voting Rights Act. At this writing there are no properties 

related to AAPI history that have been nominated under 

Criterion 3.

APPLYING CRITERION 4: ARCHITECTURE/LANDSCAPE 

ARCHITECTURE

Properties that are exceptionally important works for 

their design are nominated under Criterion 4. To be 

eligible for NHL designation, the property should be an 

iconic or benchmark work for a nationally significant 

architect or landscape architect. A property can also be 

eligible under Criterion 4 if it is an important example of 

a noted type, period, or method of construction. To be 

nationally significant, the property should have an exemplary or innovative quality and a high level of integrity 

Kalaupapa Leprosy Settlement, view from the lighthouse to the compared to others of a similar type. 

southeast. Photo courtesy of the National Register of Historic Places.
362 AAPI National Historic Landmarks Theme Study

• Panama Hotel, Seattle, Washington

• Mo’okini Heiau, Hawi, Hawai‘i

NHLs Designated Under Criterion 4

Properties designated under Criterion 4 are significant as 

works of architectural or landscape architectural design 

reflecting AAPI cultural influences. To be nationally significant, the design should be exceptional as an executed 

work with an AAPI association, which may include 

association with an AAPI master designer. 

Panama Hotel (NHL and NRHP 2006)

Seattle, Washington

Ethnic Heritage: Japanese

Criteria: 1 (Ethnic Heritage) and 4 (Architecture)

http://npgallery.nps.gov/nrhp/GetAsset?assetID=fb3b719e-66db-4440-97ea-a1c645d4e704

Located in Seattle’s International District, the Panama 

Hotel contains one of the best remaining examples of 

a Japanese-style bathhouse in the United States in the 

hotel’s basement. Bathing was a valued tradition in 

Japan, and bathhouses—Hashidate Yu— were among the 

most significant building traditions and cultural practices 

brought to the United States by Japanese immigrants. At 

one time, there were hundreds of Japanese-style bathhouses in the western United States. Now there are only 

two known; the other is at Walnut Grove, California.

Built in 1910, the Panama Hotel was designed by 

Sabro Ozasa, one of a few Japanese American architects 

at the time and the first Japanese American architect to 

practice in Seattle. The hotel is located in the heart of the 

traditional Nihonmachi, or Japantown, and has provided 

temporary lodging for nine decades. The Panama Hotel 

is especially valuable for the study of early Japanese 

immigrants and their cultural retention and adaptation.

Mo‘okini Heiau (NHL 1962, NRHP 1966)

Hawi, Hawai‘i

Ethnic Heritage: Hawaiian

Criteria: 1 (Religion), 4 (Architecture), 6 

(Archeology), and Criteria Exception 4 (birthplace). 

The application of Criteria 1, 4, and 6 is assumed; 

the nomination pre-dates use of the Criteria. 

http://npgallery.nps.gov/nrhp/GetAsset?assetID=adf1a376-c540-45d3-bff3-3cda7f693483

This massive platform, with its open, stone-paved court, 

was a temple of the rulers—a state temple, or luakini—

where human sacrifices were performed. It is one of the 

most important traditional sites in Hawai’i because of its 

association with the legendary Polynesian priest Pa‘ao, 

who is believed to have introduced new religious and 

social concepts to the islands c.1370. The landmark, a 

unit of the Kohala Historical Sites State Monument, also 

contains the nearby birthplace of King Kamehameha I, 

who founded the Kingdom of Hawai’i in 1795.

APPLYING CRITERION 5: DISTRICTS

Areas that contain a number of resources that collectively are important for their historical, artistic, or 

archeological significance can be eligible under Criterion 

5. As historic districts, they may be an entire community, a discrete section of a city that comprises the local 

Chinatown, Japantown, or Little Manila, or a rural area. 

Districts may be areas that have a single, short-lived purpose, such as a mining or lumber camp, or they may be 

a complex of buildings whose purpose and appearance 

evolved over time, such as the U.S. Immigration Center 

at Angel Island (described under Criterion 1, above).

Historic image of the Panama Hotel. Photo from King County 

Assessor’s Office, Property Record Cards, courtesy of the Washington 

State Archives, Division of Archives and Records Management, 

Puget Sound Regional Branch.
Appendix I 363

NHLs Designated Under Criterion 5

Properties designated under Criterion 5 are significant 

as districts. Although the criterion is not always applied, 

the following represent AAPI districts that have been 

designated NHLs. 

• Locke Historic District, Locke, California

• Little Tokyo Historic District, 

Los Angeles, California

• Lâhainâ Historic District, Lâhainâ, Hawai‘i

Locke Historic District (NHL 1990, NRHP 1971)

Locke, California

Ethnic Heritage: Chinese

Criteria: 1 (Ethnic Heritage) and 5 (District)

http://npgallery.nps.gov/nrhp/GetAsset?assetID=7ce3cdb3-577a-4550-a532-becc4043f218

Locke, founded in 1915, is the largest and most intact 

example of a rural Chinese American community in the 

nation. More than 50 closely spaced commercial and residential frame buildings comprise what has been called a 

“frontier Chinatown.” Locke is the only such community 

remaining in the Sacramento-San Joaquin River delta, 

where a large number of Chinese immigrants settled.

Little Tokyo Historic District 

(NHL 1995, NRHP 1986)

Los Angeles, California

Ethnic Heritage: Japanese

Criteria: 1 (Ethnic Heritage), Criteria Exception 1 

(religious property) Criterion 5 applies but was not 

used in the nomination.

http://npgallery.nps.gov/nrhp/GetAsset?assetID=4eba7631-720a-465c-9dda-28ccc021ab58

This small historic district, also known as Japantown, 

is directly southeast of the Los Angeles Civic Center. 

Little Tokyo served as a haven for newly arrived Japanese 

immigrants prior to World War II. It became the largest concentration of Japanese American centers in the 

United States. Little Tokyo Historic District reflects the 

ethnic heritage of Japanese Americans, despite enormous 

losses that occurred after 1942 when Japanese Americans 

in West Coast areas, including Los Angeles, were forced 

into “relocation” centers. Although after the war the 

community never fully recovered from the wartime evacuation, it still serves as the center of Japanese American 

culture in Los Angeles. 

Lâhainâ Historic District (NHL 1962, NRHP 1966)

Lâhainâ, Hawai‘i

Ethnic Heritage: Hawaiian

Criteria: 1 (Commerce, Political, Religion/Philosophy, Social/Humanitarian, Transportation), 4 

(Architecture), and 5 (historic district). The application of Criteria 1, 4, and 5 is assumed; the nomination pre-dates use of the Criteria. 

http://npgallery.nps.gov/nrhp/GetAsset?assetID=2a63dfe5-a9fb-4784-a6c9-bb27330f7d8a

Lâhainâ, a port town, was a favorite residence of Maui 

kings and chiefs before Maui was incorporated into the 

Hawaiian Kingdom. It served as the royal residence and 

capital of the Hawaiian Kingdom from 1820 to 1845, in the 

period Hawai’i was changing from a traditional chiefdom 

to a constitutional monarchy. From c. 1830 to 1860, the 

American whaling fleet made Lâhainâ an annual port 

of call. The core of the small town preserves the architecture and character of a mid-19th century Hawaiian 

seaport.

Main streets, Locke, California. 

Photo courtesy of the National 

Register of Historic Places, 1970.
364 AAPI National Historic Landmarks Theme Study

APPLYING CRITERION 6: ARCHEOLOGY

Properties significant under Criterion 6 are commonly 

archeological sites or properties with archeological 

components or potential. They contain or have provided 

archeologically relevant data with national significance, 

and retain a high degree of archeological integrity. For 

more information, please see the earlier section in this 

appendix, “A Note on Archeological Resources.”

NHLs Designated Under Criterion 6

The following properties were designated NHLs under 

Criterion 6. Hawai’i has a particularly rich collection of 

archeological sites related to AAPI culture. Summaries of 

their significance are provided below. 

• Huilua Fishpond, Kaneohe, Hawai‘i

• Hokukano-Ualapue Complex, Molokai, Hawai‘i

• Kaloko-Honokôhau National Historical Park, 

Kailua-Kona, Hawai‘i

• Kaunolu Village Site, Lanai City Vicinity, Hawai‘i

• Kamakahonu, Kailua-Kona, Hawai‘i

• Loaloa Heiau, Honolulu, Hawai‘i

• Mauna Kea Adz Quarry, Hilo, Hawai‘i

• Ka Lea (South Point) Complex, Nâ‘âlehu, Hawai‘i

Huilua Fishpond (NHL 1962, NRHP 1966)

Kaneohe, Hawai‘i

Ethnic Heritage: Hawaiian

Criteria: 6 (Archeology)

http://npgallery.nps.gov/nrhp/GetAsset?assetID=a875d21e-24fd-4639-a1f3-2ace36c1f535

The Huilua Fishpond, which was operational well into 

the 20th century, is one of the few surviving fishponds 

of an estimated 97 that once existed along the coast of 

Oahu. Fishponds were constructed for hatching and 

keeping fish; they were unique achievements of ancient 

Hawaiians in their extensive aquaculture practice. 

Hokukano-Ualapue Complex (NHL 1962)

Molokai, Hawai‘i

Ethnic Heritage: Hawaiian

Criteria: 6 (Archeology)

These discontiguous sites form one of the most important and impressive archeological complexes in Hawai’i. 

Six temple platforms and two fishponds are testament 

to the architectural and engineering achievements and 

to the political and economic power that evolved on 

Molokai between 1500 and 1778, when contact with the 

West was made. 

Kaloko-Honokôhau National Historical Park 

(NHL 1962, NRHP 1978)

Kailua-Kona, Hawai‘i

Ethnic Heritage: Hawaiian

Criteria: 6 (Archeology)

Because of its ideal landing places for canoes and its 

fishponds, the Honokôhau coastal area was important 

to ancient Hawaiian Island chiefs and their descendants. 

This settlement location includes numerous ancient house 

sites, temples, fishponds, a sled run, tombs, and scattered 

petroglyphs. It is now included within the boundaries of 

the Kaloko-Honokôhau National Historical Park. 

Kaunolu Village Site (NHL 1962, NRHP 1966)

Lanai City Vicinity, Hawai‘i

Ethnic Heritage: Hawaiian

Criteria: 6 (Archeology)

Remains of this former village on Lanai’s leeward coast 

represent nearly all phases of Hawaiian culture. The 

state’s largest surviving example of a prehistoric fishing 

community, Kaunolu included at least 86 house platforms, at a time when 10 were typical of such communities. The Village was a favorite deep sea fishing location 

for King Kamehameha I, from c. 1778 to 1810. It was 

abandoned in the 1870s. 

Kamakahonu (NHL 1962, NRHP 1966)

Kailua-Kona, Hawai‘i

Ethnic Heritage: Hawaiian

Criteria: 1 (Politics/Government, Religion), 

2 (Kamehameha I and Kamehameha II), 

and 6 (Archeology). The application of Criteria 1, 2, 

and 6 is assumed; the nomination pre-dates use 

of the Criteria. 

http://npgallery.nps.gov/nrhp/GetAsset?assetID=dbaa161a-c22b-472a-b97f-d80fce0c61d4

Kamakahonu was the home of Kamehameha I, unifier 

of the Hawaiian Islands, from 1812 until his death in 1819. 
Appendix I 365

The residential compound included the Ahuena heiau 

(personal temple) of the king. His son and heir King 

Kamehamdha II (Liholiho) abolished the traditional 

religious system, and less than a year after Kamehameha 

I’s death the first missionaries to the Hawaiian Islands 

landed at this location. The site is now within the 

grounds of a hotel. Several of the buildings associated 

with Kamehameha have been reconstructed, but they 

are not considered part of the site’s national significance.

Loaloa Heiau (NHL 1962, NRHP 1966)

Honolulu, Hawai‘i

Ethnic Heritage: Hawaiian

Criteria: 1 (Architecture, Politics/Government, 

Religion) and 6 (Archeology) The application of 

Criteria 1 and 6 is assumed; the nomination predates use of the Criteria.

http://npgallery.nps.gov/nrhp/GetAsset?assetID=e5d6f8c6-7160-46ff-8f39-13a65aee1493

This hillside temple site is one of the few intact examples of a state sacrificial temple. Once the center of an 

important cultural complex, the raised platform at the 

site may have been built c. 1730 by Kekaulike, a king of 

Maui. When nominated, the site was considered to have 

the potential to contribute valuable information about 

the aboriginal architecture, politics and government, and 

ancient religion of Hawai’i.

Mauna Kea Adz Quarry (NHL 1962, NRHP 1966)

Hilo, Hawai‘i

Ethnic Heritage: Hawaiian

Criteria: 1 (Ethnic Heritage, Industry) and 6 

(Archeology) The application of Criteria 1 and 6 

is assumed; the nomination pre-dates use of the 

Criteria.

Located at the top of Mauna Kea at an elevation of 

12,000 feet, the large complex of archeological sites constitutes the largest primitive rock quarry in the world. 

It was used by ancient Hawaiians to obtain basalt and 

to make various stone tools, as evidenced by extensive 

heaps of basalt flakes and debris. The adz or adze is 

an ancient type of tool, similar to an axe in shape. The 

archeological complex contains more than 35 shrines 

and other ancient features. 

Ka Lea (South Point) Complex 

(NHL 1962, NRHP 1966)

Nâ‘âlehu, Hawai‘i

Ethnic Heritage: Hawaiian

Criteria: 1 (Ethnic Heritage) and 6 (Archeology) 

The application of Criteria 1 and 6 is assumed; the 

nomination pre-dates use of the Criteria.

This multifaceted site provides the longest and most 

complete archeological record of human occupation in 

the Hawaiian Islands. Fire hearths, a temple platform, 

canoe mooring holes, and salt pans are included in the 

complex. Through carbon 14 testing, a date of ca. A.D. 

124 has been obtained at one house site, establishing it as 

one of the earliest recorded occupations in Hawai’i.

APPLYING THE NHL CRITERIA EXCEPTIONS

The National Historic Landmark Criteria Exceptions 

allow for the designation of properties that are ordinarily excluded from designation. Each exception is 

addressed below in terms of its relevance to the Asian 

American/Pacific Islander theme study. 

Applying Exception 1: Religious Properties

Religion and spirituality were important aspects of Asian 

American and Pacific Islander cultural traditions. Many 

settlements by AAPI people were marked by the construction of temples and churches, which eventually may 

View to north of Manawainui Valley from the highest platform 

in the Eastern Division of the Heiau. Photo courtesy of the National 

Register of Historic Places.
366 AAPI National Historic Landmarks Theme Study

have become the focal point of the community. Exception 1 is applied when temples, mosques, churches, and 

other houses of worship are nominated for NHL designation. They must derive their national significance from 

architectural or artistic merit or historical and cultural 

associations. Exception 1 does not need to be addressed 

if the religious institution is located in a historic district 

and it is not the focal point of the district. If a property is 

eligible under Criterion 6 for its information potential, 

Exception 1 does not need to be applied.

Exception 1 is not thought to have been applied to 

any NHL designations associated with AAPI history and 

culture at this writing, but several houses of worship 

that are potentially eligible for NHL designation would 

require the application of Exception 1. These include the 

Oroville Chinese Temple, the Weaverville Joss House 

(Taoist Temple), the Mendocino Joss House (Temple 

of Kwan Tai), and the Enmanji Buddhist Temple—all 

potentially eligible under Criterion 4 for their architectural merits. The Stockton Sikh Gurdwara appears to 

be eligible for NHL designation under Criterion 1 for 

its social and political associations. In all of these cases, 

Exception 1 also would be applied.

Applying Exception 2: Moved Buildings

Exception 2 is applied to properties that have been 

moved from their original locations but retain their 

architectural value or national significance under 

another criterion.

Exception 2 has not been applied to any AAPI associated property already designated a National Historic 

Landmark. The Enmanji Buddhist Temple in Sebastopol, California, is the only potentially eligible property 

identified through this theme study to which Exception 

2 would be applied. It is architecturally significant as a 

representation of a 12th century Kamakura-style Japanese temple. The temple was built in 1933 as part of the 

Chicago World’s Fair exhibit for the Manchurian Railroad Company. It was subsequently sold, dismantled, 

and reassembled on its present site in Sebastopol. 

Applying Exception 3: Sites without Buildings 

and Structures

Exception 3 is applied when the site of a building or 

structure no longer standing is considered significant 

because the person or event associated with it is of transcendent importance in our nation’s history. Exception 

3 is not often applied, but it has been used for resources 

associated with the theme study Japanese Americans in 

World War II. This exception does not apply if the property is being nominated under Criterion 6.

Exception 3 has been applied to the Topaz Relocation Center and the Heart Mountain Relocation Center. 

It would not be applied to any of the potentially eligible 

NHL properties identified in this study, but additional 

research may reveal the applicability of this exception to 

properties not yet identified. 

Applying Exception 4: Birthplace, Grave, or Burial

A person of national significance associated with the 

AAPI theme study might be represented by their birthplace or burial place, if no sites, buildings, or structures 

that represent their historical significance still exist. 

Exception 4 is not often applied, and its use is not appropriate for properties nominated under Criterion 6. This 

exception has not been applied to any AAPI properties 

currently designated, and no applications for this exception have become evident through this study. Additional 

research may reveal the applicability of this exception to 

properties not yet identified. 

Applying Exception 5: Cemeteries

Exception 5 pertains to the designation of cemeteries. 

Cemeteries associated with this theme study may be 

considered significant for their association with the 

grave of a person of national significance, for an extraordinary design, or for an extremely significant event that 

occurred there. The use of this exception is not appropriate for properties eligible under Criterion 6.

Exception 5 was applied to the Rohwer Relocation 

Center Memorial Cemetery near McGehee, Arkansas, 

which is associated with the Japanese Americans in 

World War II Theme Study. It is the most intact 

component of the Rohwer Relocation Center, which 

operated from 1942 to 1945. The cemetery includes 

24 headstones, monuments, and landscaping. Further 

applications of Exception 5 did not become evident 

through research for this study, but additional research 

may reveal the applicability of this exception to 

properties not yet identified. 
Appendix I 367

Applying Exception 6: Reconstructed Properties

Exception 6 is applied to nominations for reconstructed 

properties, but such properties are only eligible if the 

reconstruction is accurate and is part of a restoration 

master plan, when no other buildings with the same 

association are extant. 

Kamakahonu is a Hawaiian site comprised of 

several reconstructed buildings that were recreated as 

part of a restoration master plan in 1975 to 1977. The 

nomination did not identify the criteria exception, 

because the criteria and exceptions were not in use in 

1962 when the property was nominated. Also, the nomination pre-dated the reconstructions. It is not clear 

if the reconstructions constitute nationally significant 

components of the site or intrusions. Additional applications of Exception 6 did not become evident through 

research conducted for this study, but additional 

research may reveal the applicability of this exception 

to properties not yet identified. 

Applying Exception 7: Commemorative Properties

Exception 7 pertains to commemorative properties that 

have attained national significance on their own merits. 

This Exception has not been applied to any designated 

NHLs related to AAPI history or culture. If nominated, 

Exception 7 might apply to the Sacramento Nisei VFW 

Post No. 8985, also known as the Nisei War Memorial 

Community Center. The memorial commemorates the 

residents of Sacramento’s lost Japantown, an area with 

over 300 businesses before residents were forced to 

relocate under the infamous Executive Order 9066. 

Applying Exception 8: National Significance within 

the Past 50 Years

Properties less than 50 years of age are not eligible for 

NHL designation unless Exception 8 is applied. This 

Exception was applied to the George Nakashima Woodworker Complex in New Hope, Pennsylvania. Other 

potential applications of Exception 8 did not become 

evident through research conducted for this study; 

however, it is likely that additional research will reveal 

the applicability of this exception to properties not yet 

identified, because a number of AAPI groups are fairly 

recent arrivals to the U.S. For such properties, it may 

be possible to assess exceptional significance before 50 

years have passed.

A SAMPLING OF PROPERTIES POSSIBLY ELIGIBLE 

FOR NHL DESIGNATION

Asian American and Pacific Islander cultural 

resources exist throughout the United States: in cities, 

towns and rural areas, and aboveground and subsurface. As discussed earlier in this chapter, because there 

are many resources and they relate to many different 

cultures, it is nearly impossible to design and carry out a 

nationwide cultural resource survey. Instead, state historic preservation offices, city preservation programs, 

and others will carry out surveys to identify resources 

related to AAPI historical and cultural themes on a local 

or regional basis.

The properties mentioned in this chapter were taken 

from the AAPI NHL Study List, developed as part of this 

theme study. Inclusion on the list and in this appendix is 

not a confirmation that NHL eligibility is assured. The 

evaluations of those included are preliminary and generally based on minimal information. However, they provide a 

sampling of properties associated with several ethnic and 

national groups related to AAPI history and culture.

The properties described in this section are organized by national or regional origin. For some groups, 

such as Chinese Americans and Japanese Americans, 

many more historic properties were noted than for 

others. For other groups, little information about 

associated resources became evident. One purpose of 

this theme study is to inspire people to consider where 

AAPI resources are located, what is important, how they 

correspond with the theme study contexts, and whether 

they are eligible to be recognized as National Historic 

Landmarks.

CHINESE AMERICAN RESOURCES

Six Companies (Not NRHP Listed)

843 Stockton Street

San Francisco, California

Possible Criterion: 1

The Chinese Six Companies refers to the Chinese 

Consolidated Benevolent Association in San Francisco. Six benevolent associations consolidated in 1882, 

maintaining the six original groups as branches under a 

main governing body. The association was located at a 

headquarters building on Stockton Street. The Six Com-
368 AAPI National Historic Landmarks Theme Study

panies held a critical social and economic role in the 

development of Chinatown, helping Chinese immigrants 

gain employment and form businesses, develop schools 

and build temples, and maintain a presence at the center 

of community events. They also served a political and 

judiciary role by mediating disputes between fellow 

Chinese. The group eventually became a powerful 

national organization, known for defending the civil 

rights of Chinese Americans. The funds received from 

membership dues were used to hire successful litigators 

to fight unconstitutional laws aimed at Chinese residents 

and citizens. Six Companies helped fight cases before 

the United States Supreme Court, including Chew Heong 

v. United States. The Supreme Court ruled in favor of 

Heong, agreeing that his right to re-enter the US after 

leaving was protected under the 1880 Angell Treaty.

Recommendation. The Chinese Consolidated 

Benevolent Association (Six Companies) is nationally 

significant for its role in defending the rights of Chinese 

immigrants, particularly following passage of the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882. Additional research is needed to determine the building’s full national significance. 

It appears to have retained a high degree of integrity. 

Forbidden City Nightclub (Not NRHP Listed)

369 Sutter Street

San Francisco, California

Possible Criterion: 1

Charlie Low opened the Forbidden City Nightclub on 

the outskirts of Chinatown in San Francisco in 1938. The 

club eventually became the most famous nightclub and 

cabaret among the 12 located in Chinatown. It was the 

setting for C. Y. Yee’s best-selling novel Flower Drum 

Song, published in 1957. A year later, Rodgers and Hammerstein wrote a successful musical based on the novel, 

and in 1961, the musical became a Hollywood film. The 

nightclub provided burlesque and vaudeville-style entertainment and became the Asian American equivalent of 

the New York City Cotton Club.

Recommendation. The Forbidden City Nightclub 

may be nationally significant under Criterion 1 for its 

contribution to entertainment as a nightclub for AAPI 

people and as the backdrop for various Broadway and 

movie productions that attained national recognition. It 

helped break the barriers of the types of entertainment 

that Asian Americans could enter and inspired an appreciation for Chinese women (although not all performers 

were Chinese, they were marketed as such) and various 

aspects of Chinese culture. The nightclub was located 

on the second floor of the Sutter Street building in San 

Francisco. The exterior of the second floor has retained 

a high degree of integrity; however, the first story has 

been compromised with modernized store fronts. A 

more in-depth investigation is necessary to determine if 

the Forbidden City Nightclub has sufficient integrity to 

be considered eligible for NHL designation. 

Fong Won Herb Company Building 

(Not NRHP Listed)

575 10th Street

Oakland, California

Possible Criterion: 2

The Fong Won Herb Company Building, located in 

Oakland, California, may be significant under Criterion 

2 for Fong Won’s efforts to promote Chinese therapeutics in the greater San Francisco area and his efforts for 

legal acceptance of Chinese medicine. Fong Won, the 

most renowned Chinese herbalist in America during the 

1930s, opened his business in Oakland in 1915. He wrote 

the publication Herb Lore, which provides details about 

various ailments and their treatment by the Chinese with 

herbs. The Fong Won Herb Company treated conditions of over 30,000 patrons, and Won was known as the 

“King of the North American Herbalists.” In 1931, Fong 

Won was indicted on 16 counts of fraud by the Medical Board and Federal Trade Commission, but he was 

acquitted in Federal court. 

Recommendation. The Fong Won Herb Company 

moved several times after it was launched in 1915, finally 

locating at 575 10th Street in Oakland at the home and 

store Fong Won built in 1924. The building is nationally 

significant as a renowned store for Chinese herbal therapeutics. Several illustrations of the exterior and interior 

are depicted in the book Herb Lore, which provides 

critical insight to its original historic appearance. It has 

undergone several alterations on the exterior, including 

treatment of the doors and removal of the Chinese-style 

cupola. A thorough evaluation of its integrity on the 

interior and exterior and a comparison with other buildings of this type are needed to determine NHL eligibility. 
Appendix I 369

You Chong (Y. C.) Hong Law Office 

(Not NRHP Listed)

Gin Ling Way, Central Plaza, New Chinatown

Los Angeles, California

Possible Criterion: 2

You Chong Hong (1898-1977) was an important figure 

in the field of civic law, working on behalf of Chinese 

Americans to attain equal rights. In 1923, he became the 

first Chinese American to pass the bar exam in the State 

of California. Hong became a successful immigration 

lawyer, working on more than 7,000 cases between 1925 

and the 1960s. On numerous occasions he was invited 

to provide testimony at congressional and presidential 

commission hearings, particularly regarding the Chinese Exclusion Act. He was a founding member of the 

Los Angeles New Chinatown, and he served as grand 

president of the Chinese American Citizens Alliance and 

chairman of the Chinese Times Publishing Company. 

Hong helped build the New Chinatown in Los Angeles, 

after the original Chinatown was demolished to make 

way for Union Station. His law office, restored to its 1938 

appearance in recent years, was located on Gin Ling 

Way on the Central Plaza in the New Chinatown. 

Recommendation. The building that houses the Y. 

C. Hong law offices may be eligible under Criterion 2 for 

association with the noted Chinese American attorney. 

Other buildings associated with Hong, including his 

house (if extant), need to be considered for the strength 

of their association with Hong and his career.

Ah Louis Store (NRHP 2008)

800 Palm Street

San Luis Obispo, California

Possible Criterion: 2 (People)

The Ah Louis Store in San Luis Obispo, California, is 

historically significant for its association with Chinese 

American pioneer Ah Louis, or On Wong. The Ah Louis 

Store is a two-story, brick, Italianate-style building, built 

in 1885. It was located in the center of Chinatown in San 

Luis Obispo and was the Ah Louis family home from 

1885 to 1936.

Ah Louis was a prominent labor contractor in California, who brought much of the Chinese work force to 

California for various projects, including construction 

of the Pacific Coast Railway and the Southern Pacific 

Railroad. He also organized contract labor for numerous 

road projects, as well as for agricultural and domestic 

needs. Ah Louis was a successful businessman, and he 

pioneered the flower and vegetable seed business in San 

Luis Obispo County. From there his seeds were sold 

across the United States. Ah Louis served as a bridge 

between the Asian and white communities, supplying 

various industries with the labor that helped make them 

prosperous.

Recommendation. A thorough evaluation of Ah 

Louis and his contributions to the Chinese community 

in California and to the American economy in general 

should be undertaken to determine if his accomplishments can be evaluated as nationally significant under 

this theme study. 

Weaverville Joss House 

(NRHP 1971: Weaverville Historic District)

SW corner of Hwy 299 and Oregon Street

Weaverville, California

Possible Criteria: 4 and Exception 1

The Weaverville Joss House, built in 1874, is the oldest 

continuously used Chinese temple—or Joss House—in 

California. The Taoist temple is also known as “The 

Temple among the Trees beneath the Clouds.” In 1956, 

View looking north from Palm Street, California State Historical 

Landmark plaque located to left under lower window. 

Photo courtesy of the National Register of Historic Places.
370 AAPI National Historic Landmarks Theme Study

it became part of the California State Park System. The 

Weaverville Joss House looks much as it did when it 

was built, with minor adjustments to the building and 

grounds for safety and to accommodate visitors. The 

building has exquisite detailing and its Chinese heritage 

is overwhelmingly evident. 

Recommendation. Although this joss house has 

remarkable integrity, its significance in terms of its history and architectural design should be compared with 

other Chinese joss houses of the second half of the 19th 

century—and perhaps earlier and later. It is essential to 

develop an inventory of extant joss houses for the sake 

of comparison. The Mendocino Joss House, the Bok Kai 

Temple, and the Oroville Joss House are among those 

with which it should be compared. 

Bok Kai Temple (NRHP 1975)

Corner of D and First streets

Marysville, California

Possible Criteria: 4 and Exception 1

The Bok Kai Temple was built in 1880 in the Chinatown 

part of the small mining town of Marysville in the Northern Sacramento Valley. Marysville’s Chinatown is one of 

the oldest in the United States, and the temple is one of 

the earliest. The importance of the small temple is indicated by visits from important Chinese dignitaries in its 

earlier history, including Sun Yat-Sen, founder and first 

President of the Republic of China, and Kang Youwei, 

leader of the Constitutional Monarchy movement in China from 1898 to 1911. The Bok Kai Temple, with unusual 

murals on the exterior, seems unique among Chinese 

temples in the United States. 

Recommendation. The Bok Kai Temple is an 

exquisite representation of 19th century temple building 

by early Chinese immigrants to the United States. Listed 

in the National Register in 1975 at the state level of significance, its re-evaluation for national significance seems 

warranted. The temple retains excellent integrity.

Mendocino Joss House (NRHP 1971: 

Mendocino and Headlands Historic District)

45160 Albion Street

Mendocino, California

Possible Criteria: 4 and Exception 1

Located in the Mendocino and Headlands Historic District, the Mendocino Joss House represents early temple 

building by Chinese immigrants to the United States. 

Its simple wood construction with little decoration and 

rectangular plan are typical of pioneer western construction practices. The temple may have been built as early 

as 1854, or slightly later. It is an important example of a 

simply constructed temple, perhaps reflecting the materials available during this early settlement period. 

Recommendation. The Mendocino Joss House is 

one of the earliest and most continuously used Chinese 

temples in the United States. It may be a rare, mid-19th 

century survivor, reflecting early Chinese immigration. 

Its integrity appears to be excellent. Efforts should be 

made to confirm the date of construction and to find 

comparable examples. A historical context related to joss 

houses could assist in the evaluation of all those known 

to exist and yet to be found. Explanations of the disparities in decoration and embellishment would be useful.

San Francisco Chinatown (Not NRHP Listed)

San Francisco, California

Possible Criteria: 1 and 5

Only a few Chinatowns in the United States are nationally significant. The San Francisco Chinatown may rise to 

that distinction as the primary port of entry for Chinese 

immigrants to the United States. Established in 1848 to 

Front of Bok Kai Temple, taken from the top of the Yuba river levee. 

Photo courtesy of the National Register of Historic Places, 2001.
Appendix I 371

1849, until about 1980 the San Francisco Chinatown had 

the largest concentration of people of Chinese heritage in 

the nation. It developed as an enclave that was self-supporting, with businesses, schools, hospitals, benevolent 

societies, temples, and other services and businesses to 

maintain a community. Its residents retained homeland 

customs and Chinese languages. 

Recommendation. The San Francisco Chinatown, 

rebuilt in the same location after the original Chinatown 

was destroyed by the San Francisco earthquake, is potentially nationally significant for its size and early history. 

Parts of Chinatown today may not retain sufficient integrity for NHL consideration, but a critical component may 

be intact. This Chinatown warrants a closer examination 

to determine if, compared to other Chinatowns, it may 

be exceptional.

Riverside Chinatown (NRHP 1990)

Riverside, California

Possible Criterion: 6

The Riverside, California, Chinatown archeological site 

was inhabited from 1885 through 1939. The majority of 

residents migrated from the Guangdong Province in 

China. This site contains archeological features and data 

representative of domestic life, commercial enterprises 

of many different types, social and community assembly, and religious practices. These features make this 

Chinese New Year in Riverside, California, Chinatown, c. 1898. Photo courtesy of the Riverside Metropolitan Museum, Riverside, CA.

Historic photograph of Main Street looking 

west in the Mendocino and Headlands 

Historic District. Photo by Willis B. Foote; 

courtesy of the National Register of Historic 

Places, 1971.
372 AAPI National Historic Landmarks Theme Study

site significant under several areas of the NHL thematic 

framework. 

The significance of this site is representative of the 

Chinese immigrant American experience in the areas 

of ethnic diaspora, commercial practice, agricultural 

practice, and community relations and social movements.

In 1985, an archaeological, anthropological, and 

historical study was undertaken on the Riverside 

Chinatown site. This study demonstrated that the site 

was preserved and protected under 10 to 15 feet of 

fill and that the archeological deposits were not only 

intact but maintained a very high degree of integrity. In 

addition to the high degree of archeological integrity 

of the Riverside Chinatown site, this site is one of the 

only known sites “encompassing an entire Chinese 

commercial and residential village that has not been 

subjected to later Anglo development.”9

Recommendation. As an urban archeological site 

exhibiting several decades of occupation by Chinese 

Americans, the Riverside Chinatown has the potential 

to explain a great deal about the evolution of Chinese 

American lifeways over time, the relationship between 

the Chinese community and the development of Riverside and its infrastructure, and how the Chinese were 

integrated into the city’s life and fabric. Because the 

most extensive investigations were done a number of 

years ago, an update on the current subsurface integrity of the archeological landscape will be critical for 

determining NHL eligibility.

Wong How House 

San Luis Obispo County, California 

Possible Criteria: 1 and 6; Exception 8 

(less than 50 years)

This standing structure and associated archeological 

deposits date to the 1890s. The house displays characteristics of both turn-of-the-century American 

vernacular and Chinese vernacular building styles. 

Located near China Harbor, it was the home of the last 

seaweed gatherer on the California central coast. Wong 

How lived an isolated life as a seaweed gatherer, and 

his life represents an individual’s navigation of life as an 

immigrant in the United States. He died in 1975. 

The Chinese are considered pioneers of California’s maritime industries. The industry began when, in 

response to urban racism and calls to boycott Chinese businesses, immigrants moved into this area and 

engaged in gathering and selling the Ulva seaweed, also 

known as ‘sea lettuce,’ which only grows in this area 

along the California coast. They exported the seaweed 

to Chinese American consumers and later to China 

and elsewhere.

The archeological site appears to have great integrity, in part because it is located in an isolated spot. A 

surface collection identified an intact midden nearby, 

which included a variety of Chinese ceramics, Chinese 

and American glass bottles, faunal material, and shellfish, including abalone. Archeological resources at this 

site may contribute to an understanding of immigrant 

survival and adaptation in isolated environments.

Recommendation. The Wong How House and 

its associated site should be evaluated for current integrity and all research confirmed for accuracy, including 

claims about Wong How’s life as a seaweed gatherer 

and the seaweed industry in general. Further archeological investigations have the potential to address 

some of these claims, as well as provide information 

about the 20th century life of a Chinese American man 

living in relative isolation and, perhaps, little influenced by modern American lifeways. An assessment 

of comparable sites in order to gauge the particular 

significance of the research potential of the property is 

also recommended. 

Summit Camp 

Tahoe National Forest, Placer County, California 

Possible Criterion: 6

Summit Camp, located near Donner Pass in Tahoe 

National Forest, was a camp where Chinese men 

lived for four years while blasting tunnels for the rail 

lines. The property is a large area, with intact structural elements. It has been the subject of a number of 

research projects, because it was among the largest and 

longest-occupied residential bases for Chinese railroad 

workers in North America.

Recommendation. The Summit Camp may be 

eligible for NHL designation based on the information 

that has been gleaned from this remote but long-studied site and the information potential of areas that have 
Appendix I 373

not yet been studied. Findings should be consolidated 

and evaluated to determine if studies have been sufficient to evaluate the site’s NHL eligibility.

Ouray Chinese Laundry/Vanoli Site (5OR30) 

Ouray, Ouray County, Colorado 

Possible Criterion: 6

Ouray, a small mining town located in the San Juan 

Mountain Range, represents the life of the Chinese 

as part of a small, rural, and isolated population. The 

research conducted here contrasts to life in urban Chinatowns that have been better studied. In this context, 

members of both the Chinese and Euro-American 

immigrant communities interacted in this laundry, 

which existed at the turn of the last century. Archeological findings reveal important understandings of the 

complex networks formed within an isolated pluralist 

community. Portions of the site were excavated in the 

1970s and 1980s by archeologist Steven Baker. 

Recommendation. Although the site is relatively 

small, it may be an excellent source of information 

about life in a small mining town where Caucasian 

and Asian workers lived separately but with overlap in 

some aspects. Previous findings, current integrity, and 

the potential for additional information all need to be 

evaluated to assess the NHL potential of the site.

Gin Lin Hydraulic Mining Site 

Applegate River Valley, Siskiyou Mountains, 

Jackson County, Oregon 

Possible Criterion: 6

The Gin Lin Hydraulic Mining Site represents innovations in Chinese placer gold mining and demonstrates 

the ingenuity and business acumen of Chinese immigrants to the United States at a time of widespread 

discrimination against Asian Americans. Early Chinese 

miners started as placer miners and then moved to 

implementing the process of hydraulic gold mining, 

borrowing from the surrounding American technological methods. The Chinese arrived in southwest Oregon 

by 1855. Gin Lin, the owner of the Gin Lin Mining 

Company, was a mining entrepreneur, who purchased 

claims along the lower Little Applegate River in 1864. 

He first worked with one hydraulic, but added a second 

in 1878 and expanded subsequently. He was highly successful, apparently earning millions from the mining 

operations. Gin Lin appears to have left Oregon in the 

1880s, and his fate is unknown. Remains of the mining 

operation are visible at the site, including the mining 

ditches necessary for the enormous amounts of water 

required to separate the gold from its matrix. 

Recommendation. Further investigation could 

reveal archeological resources that have the potential to provide information about Chinese immigrant 

domestic life, as well as mining technology. An analysis 

of current integrity, comparative sites, and the data 

potential of the site all need to be evaluated to assess 

the NHL potential of the Gin Lin site.

Miller Gulch Sawmill Site (Site CA-SON-2263H) 

Sonoma County, California 

Possible Criterion: 6

The 1870s sawmill is located in what is now Salt Point 

State Park in northern California. The site includes a 

bunkhouse. The site sheds light on the work and life of 

overseas Chinese who worked in the redwood lumber 

industry in California. Previous archeological work 

recovered ceramics, including brown-glazed stoneware 

used for liquids and food storage, rice bowl fragments, 

and fragments of opium pipes. The finds would help 

reconstruct the economic and social life of the overseas 

Chinese and their inter-relationships with American 

mill owners and other residents and employees of 

the mill. 

Recommendation. The site should be compared 

with other work sites and camps that have answered 

questions about Chinese lifeways and the interaction 

between Chinese and other workers. Scores of such 

sites once existed and a number have been studied and 

evaluated for National Register eligibility. Fewer have 

been evaluated for NHL eligibility, so integrity standards and the comprehensiveness of the information 

potential need to be compared to find those that are of 

exceptional value.
374 AAPI National Historic Landmarks Theme Study

JAPANESE AMERICAN RESOURCES

Wakamatsu Tea and Silk Colony Farm 

(NRHP 2009)

Placerville, California

Possible Criterion: 1

The Wakamatsu Tea and Silk Colony Farm is possibly eligible as a National Historic Landmark under 

Criterion 1 as one of the oldest permanent Japanese 

settlements in North America. Members of the colony 

occupied the site from 1869 to 1871, marking the beginning of Japanese immigration to the United States. The 

site has a residence and barn associated with the Wakamatsu settlers, mulberry trees planted by the colonists, 

and associated agricultural fields and a fish pond. The 

agricultural setting, including surrounding farmlands, 

has remarkable integrity.

The Wakamatsu Tea and Silk Colony Farm contributes significantly to the broad patterns of the nation’s 

history as the site of the first permanent settlement of 

Japanese immigrants in the continental United States. Of 

the 55 people of Japanese heritage documented by the 

United States census in 1870, nearly half were settled at 

the Wakamatsu Colony in Gold Hill. The first child born 

in the United States of Japanese immigrants was born 

at Wakamatsu. The colony represents early Japanese 

influence on the agricultural economy of California and 

the United States. 

Recommendation. This property appears to be 

potentially eligible for NHL designation under Criterion 

1. The entire colony once covered 180 acres, but only 54 

acres were listed in the National Register. The area had 

excellent integrity when the National Register nomination was written in 2009; however, the integrity of the 

entire 180 acres should be evaluated. The property also 

should be evaluated for its eligibility under Criterion 

6. Recovery of archeological materials could provide 

unique insights into the material culture, the personal 

lives, relationships, cultural adaptations, and the maintenance of cultural traditions by the first Japanese immigrants to the United States.

Japanese Language Schools

• Castroville Japanese Language School, 

Castroville, California (NRHP 1995)

• Holland Union Gakuen, Clarksburg, 

California (Not NRHP Listed)

• Kinmon Gakuen, San Francisco, California 

(Not NRHP Listed)

• Walnut Grove Gakuen Hall, Walnut Grove,

California (NRHP 1980)

Possible Criterion: 1

Japanese Language Schools or gakuens, developed by 

first- and second-generation Japanese Americans, were 

considered essential to all Japanese American communities. The gakuens were cultural and community centers, 

often established prior to the construction of a temple 

or church. Nisei, first-generation Japanese Americans, 

emphasized the importance of younger generations 

remaining connected to their heritage, including 

through knowledge of the Japanese language. Gakuen

typically were situated near public elementary schools 

to facilitate student access to them. Only a very small 

number of gakuens remain on the mainland. They reflect 

the politics, ethnic heritage, and social history of one of 

the largest ethnic groups in the western United States. 

Recommendation. Each gakuen should be 

Wakamatsu colonists, c. 1870-1871; photo by George H. Gilbert. evaluated for significance and integrity. Those with the 

Photo courtesy of the American River Conservancy.
Appendix I 375

greatest significance and integrity may be eligible for 

NHL designation. Their disappearance and deterioration, particularly due to the mass relocation of Japanese 

Americans in 1942, makes the few remaining schools 

important reflections of Japanese culture and symbols of 

pride in their heritage. The language schools in Hawai’i 

are much more numerous, reflecting the larger Japanese 

population and a different wartime experience. Because 

of their prevalence, Hawaiian gakuens may more likely 

be of local or statewide significance and possibly eligible 

for the National Register. 

Gilroy Yamato Hot Springs (NRHP 1995)

Gilroy, California

Possible Criterion: 1

The Gilroy Yamato Hot Springs is potentially eligible 

for NHL designation under Criterion 1 for its significance in the area of Recreation. It is the only known 

Japanese-owned hot spring resort in the United States, 

catering to Japanese American vacationers. From 1938 to 

1942, the property was owned and operated by (Harry) 

Kyuzaburo Sakata, and it became a popular destination 

for Japanese Americans in California. Author Sei Mitani 

considered the hot spring to be a gift to Japanese Americans from the owner Sakata. In turn, guests felt a responsibility to “protect the pureness of the hot spring given 

by Mother Nature and make this a place to revive the 

Japanese spirit among our fellow countrymen along the 

Pacific coast.”10 The resort was closed when the United 

States entered World War II and Japanese and Japanese 

Americans were removed from Gilroy. 

Recommendation. The Gilroy Yamato Hot 

Springs is the only known example of its type, a Japanese 

hot spring resort that provided spiritual healing and a 

sense of relief from discrimination. An evaluation of 

integrity should be made to determine if enough fabric 

remains to convey a sense of time and place. 

Eugene J. de Sabla, Jr., Teahouse and Tea Garden 

(NRHP 1992)

70 de Sabla Avenue

San Mateo, California

Possible Criterion: 4

Built in 1907, the Eugene de Sabla, Jr., Teahouse and Tea 

Garden is significant under Criterion 4 as an excellent early example of the influence of Japanese garden 

design. Although listed in the National Register of Historic Places, its significance in terms of the NHL criteria 

has not been evaluated. Makota Hagiwara designed this 

tea garden and the Japanese Tea Garden at Golden Gate 

Park in San Francisco. It is the only known privately 

owned tea garden that remains in the San Francisco area, 

from many that once existed. 

Recommendation. The significance and integrity 

of the Eugene J. de Sabla, Jr., Teahouse and Tea Garden 

needs to be confirmed for the property to be considered 

exemplary of a Japanese tea garden type. Its notable 

design and apparent integrity are preliminary indicators 

of its significance. A definition of this landscape type 

must be articulated and a comparative analysis with similar designed landscapes will be important components 

of the evaluation process. Built in 1907, the garden also 

needs to be assessed within a timeframe and a level of 

influence of this particular Japanese garden style. 

Main gate of the Eugene de Sabla Teahouse. Photo courtesy of the 

National Register of Historic Places.
376 AAPI National Historic Landmarks Theme Study

San Jose Japantown (Not NRHP Listed)

San Jose, California

Possible Criteria: 1 and 5

Japanese immigrants developed cohesive communities 

called Nihonmachi where they became largely self-sufficient. Most Japantowns were located on the West 

Coast, primarily in California. Japantowns were both 

large and small and were located in cities, suburbs, and 

rural areas. They were located in coastal areas, as well as 

inland; they were developed by farm laborers, cannery 

workers, fisherman, truck farmers, and railroad laborers. Although once Japantowns were numerous, only 

43 have been identified in California through a statewide identification, evaluation, and preservation effort 

led by the California Japanese American Community 

Leadership Council (CJACLC). The group identified 

communities that exhibited one or more of the following 

characteristics: community halls, language schools, bathhouses, Buddhist temples, Christian churches, markets, 

nurseries, and other Nihonmachi businesses. Of these, 

only three of the major Japantowns survived the forced 

evacuation of their residents in 1942 and the nationwide 

urban renewal movement of the 1950s and 1960s. Little 

Tokyo in Los Angeles is already designated a National Historic Landmark. Others are in San Jose and San 

Francisco. The CJACLC determined that the San Jose 

Japantown retains a very high degree of integrity, providing a definite historical sense of time and place, even 

compared to Little Tokyo in Los Angeles, which has 

undergone some modification over the past 30 years.

Many of the original late 19th and 20th century 

buildings associated with the San Jose Japantown still 

remain. These include several restaurants, laundries, 

a hall/theatre, boarding houses, a market, a Buddhist 

temple, a school, a midwifery clinic, a hospital, a United 

Methodist Church, original residences, a service station, residences turned into offices, and a senior center 

(the only one of its kind in the Silicon Valley). The 

CJACLC also identified the location of a bathhouse and 

of a baseball field/sumo ring. These sites are not very 

disturbed and, therefore, may have a high potential for 

answering important questions through archeological 

investigations. 

Recommendation. The San Jose Japantown may 

be nationally significant as one of the oldest and most 

intact major Japantowns in the United States, and the 

San Francisco Japantown should be evaluated for the 

same potential. A nationwide survey of Japantowns 

is required to determine the national significance and 

comparative integrity of these communities. 

Walnut Grove Japanese American Historic District 

(NRHP 1990)

Walnut Grove, California

Possible Criteria: 1, 4, 5, and 6

Walnut Grove, located between San Francisco and Sacramento in the California Delta asparagus belt, became a 

center for Japanese American settlement during the early 20th century. It is especially significant for its vernacular architecture of the 1910s. As noted in the National 

Walnut Grove, California, Japanese American Historic District, C Street. Photo courtesy of the National Register of Historic Places.
Appendix I 377

Register nomination, Walnut Grove has a rare collection 

of vernacular building types associated with Japanese 

American settlement.

Recommendation. Walnut Grove is an excellent 

example of a small rural community of Japanese Americans, with lots entirely owned by white Americans. 

The Japanese were able to build on these lots and own 

their buildings, but the lots remained owned by white 

Americans until the 1990s. The community retains a high 

degree of integrity. A comparative analysis is needed to 

determine if Walnut Grove is an exceptional example of 

a small, rural Japantown of the early 20th century. 

Oakland Japantown 

Oakland, California 

Possible Criterion: 6

The Japantown in Oakland appears to have been 

occupied after the 1906 earthquake, when Japanese 

immigrants and Japanese Americans relocated from 

San Francisco. In the early part of the 20th century the 

community was flourishing with laundromats, markets, 

restaurants, and other shops. Resentment and racism 

were on the increase, however, with discriminatory 

California state laws passed in the 1910s and the federal exclusionary laws passed in 1924, barring Japanese 

immigration. Local racism, for example in the form of 

real estate redlining, was also endemic. Prior to World 

War II the area consisted of a mix of Japanese and other 

ethnic groups.

During World War II, the residents were forcibly 

moved to relocation camps. In the post-war era, the 

area changed, assuming a more dispersed character. 

Later, urban renewal programs displaced thousands of 

residents and established businesses closed. Redevelopment also caused the demolition of numerous historic 

buildings, and the entire community was reduced in 

size. Archeological remains of portions of the original 

Japantown may be intact. One residential property has 

been excavated, and the entire neighborhood may be a 

potential NHL district.

Recommendation. Because the extent and integrity of the Oakland Japantown archeological site is not 

clear, it is difficult to determine its information potential 

or if it is of exceptional importance. The several West 

Coast Japantowns that were vacated when Japanese 

Americans were forcibly removed in response to Executive Order 9066 should be compared—both standing 

and subsurface components—to evaluate the NHL 

eligibility of each.

Japanese Gulch Site 

Mukilteo, Snohomish County, Washington 

Possible Criterion: 6

Japan Gulch represents an entire Japanese community 

that was associated with the Mukilteo Lumber Company 

(later the Crown Lumber Company) that was in operation from 1904 to 1930. In this case, the Japanese community was separate from the European-descent community and lived in company housing. It consisted, in part, 

of Japanese-style structures. Archeological resources at 

this property may contribute to an understanding of the 

settlement patterns and labor experiences of Japanese 

workers and their families.

Recommendation. Because of the extent and 

isolation of this exclusively Japanese community, the 

potential for its NHL eligibility should be studied from 

all aspects of its information potential: architecture, 

lifeways, adoption of American ways and products, 

and retention of Japanese culture. Further, the archeological landscape has the potential to reveal information 

about broad patterns of the lives of AAPI immigrants 

in the context of pluralist work forces, identity, and 

ethnic persistence in the context of company town 

environments.

KOREAN AMERICAN RESOURCES

Willows Korean Aviation School/Corps Airfield 

(not NRHP listed)

7233 State Highway 162, Willows, California

Possible Criterion: 1

Korean Americans and the Korean government recognize the Willows school as an important heritage site. 

The building housed the Korean Aviation School/Corps 

in 1920. During its short existence, the school stood as 

a centerpiece of the Korean diaspora independence 

movement, allowing independence leaders from all over 

California to congregate and develop tactics to fight the 

Japanese and win their sovereignty. Its development was 
378 AAPI National Historic Landmarks Theme Study

a result of the March First Movement, a peaceful protest 

against the Japanese in Korea, which also succeeded in 

rallying Koreans abroad to fight for independence. The 

location of the flight school in Glenn County is due to 

the prevalence of rice farming, which attracted a number 

of Koreans. Kim Chong-lim, who made his fortune 

selling rice, enabled the Korean American community 

to lease land, buy airplanes, and manage the school. 

The Korean government considers the school the origin 

of the Korean Air Force, with a number of pilots who 

trained there becoming its first aviation officers. 

Recommendation. The school is unique among 

AAPI resources, and its history seems compelling. The 

integrity of the building and the surrounding airfield (or 

former airfield) needs to be evaluated to determine if the 

1920 appearance is intact.

FILIPINO AMERICAN RESOURCES

Filipino Community Hall (Not NRHP Listed)

1457 Glenwood Street

Delano, California

Ethnic Heritage: Filipino

Possible Criteria: 1 and 2

The Filipino Community Hall represents the nationally 

significant role of Filipino Americans in the farm labor 

movement, beginning in the mid-20th century. On 

September 8, 1965, Filipino American farm workers gathered in this building and voted to strike against Delano 

table-grape growers. The hall served as headquarters 

for the first few years of the five-year strike and was 

visited by influential supporters like the United Auto 

Workers’ president Walter Reuther and Senator Robert 

F. Kennedy. The Agricultural Workers Organizing Committee (AWOC), as the farm workers group was known, 

merged with the movement led by César Chávez, 

forming the United Farm Workers. The most prominent 

leader of AWOC was Filipino activist Larry Itliong. The 

building in Delano is associated with his important work 

and the work of other Filipino activists

Recommendation. This building is significant 

under Criterion 1 for its role in fostering better working conditions for Filipino agricultural workers and 

under Criterion 2 for its association with Larry Itliong, 

an important Filipino American labor activist. Itliong’s 

contributions were acknowledged by the designation 

of October 25 as Larry Itliong Day by Gov. Jerry Brown 

in 2015. Among questions to be addressed are Itliong’s 

and other Filipinos’ roles in farm labor history (particularly Philip Vera Cruz), their collaboration with César 

Chávez, and other buildings associated with Itliong and 

the farm labor movement. Answers to such questions 

can confirm Itliong’s overriding significance as a labor 

leader and the importance of the labor hall in the work 

of the AWOC. The association of this building with Forty Acres needs to be clarified. The building retains a high 

degree of integrity.

Historic Filipinotown (Not NRHP Listed)

Los Angeles, California

Possible Criteria: 1 and 5

Filipinotown in Los Angeles is one of the few areas 

where Filipinos settled during the early 20th century, 

following the first large wave of immigration in 1923. In 

the 1920s and 1930s, a small area called Little Manila was 

created within Little Tokyo in Los Angeles, but numerous Filipino organizations and businesses developed 

during this period in another area that became Filipinotown. Filipino Americans began building houses in 

Filipinotown in the 1940s, after leaving Little Manila.

Recommendation. Although numerous Filipino communities (Little Manilas, Manilatowns) exist 

throughout the United States, Historic Filipinotown 

in Los Angeles seems to be the oldest extant Filipino 

settlement in the United States. Although the Filipino 

population is only one-quarter of the total population, 

the city of Los Angeles designated Historic Filipinotown 

a historic district in 2002, marking recent preservation 

efforts. A comparative analysis with other Filipinotowns 

is necessary to determine if the area is nationally significant, and a current survey of resources is needed to 

identify those related to Filipinos. Other Filipinotowns 

are located elsewhere in California and in the boroughs 

of New York City.

INDIAN/SOUTHEAST ASIAN RESOURCES

Refugee Processing Centers

• Camp Pendleton, San Diego, California

• Fort Chaffee, Fort Smith, Arkansas

• Eglin Air Force Base, Valparaiso, Florida
Appendix I 379

• Fort Indiantown Gap, Lebanon County, 

Pennsylvania

Ethnic Heritage: Vietnamese

Possible Criteria: 1 and Exception 8

The four refugee processing centers that were created 

after the Fall of Saigon in April 1975 accommodated over 

130,000 Asians, primarily Vietnamese. This was the largest refugee resettlement effort in American history. It is 

significant in telling the story of Vietnamese immigration 

to the United States, as well as the political and military 

role the United States played in the lives of Vietnamese 

people during and after the Vietnam War. 

Recommendation. These four processing centers 

are nationally significant under Criterion 1 for association with Vietnamese resettlement in the United States. 

Although not yet 50 years old, centers may be considered eligible if they retain enough integrity to represent 

this historical event. Although the temporary tents and 

support structures may no longer be standing, to be eligible for NHL designation the sites should retain integrity of location, setting, feeling, and association with few 

intrusions. These properties should also be evaluated for 

their significance under Criterion 6. Criteria Exception 

8, applied when properties are less than 50 years old, 

should be applied if the age of the center so warrants.

RESOURCES WITH MULTIPLE AAPI AFFILIATIONS

San Francisco State College (Not NRHP Listed)

San Francisco, California

Ethnic Heritage: Multiple AAPI Affiliations

Possible Criterion: 1

San Francisco State College was the site of the longest 

student strike in American history organized by the 

Black Student Union and a conglomerate of campus ethnic organizations under the newly formed Third World 

Liberation Front. In 1968 to 1969, students and teachers 

fought to have separate black studies and ethnic studies 

programs developed at the school. After more than 

four-and-a-half months of striking, the school agreed to 

most of the Black Student Union and the Third World 

Liberation Front’s terms. The strike resulted in development of the College of Ethnic Studies at San Francisco 

State College. These events also marked the beginning 

of a trend of several more strikes at various California 

universities to achieve better recognition of non-white 

groups. It spurred universities throughout the country to 

create new ethnic studies programs. 

Recommendation. The importance of expanding 

university courses to encompass ethnic studies can be 

pinpointed to the events associated with the 1968 strike 

at San Francisco State College. The campus is nationally 

significant for its role in promoting this educational revolution. The sites and buildings most associated with the 

strike should be identified and their integrity evaluated 

in order to determine the place(s) that best represent 

the strike. 

San Miguel Abalone Fishery 

San Miguel Island, Santa Barbara County, 

California 

Ethnic Heritage: Chinese, Japanese

Possible Criterion: 6

The fishery, which operated from the 1850s through the 

1880s, represents an aspect of the working lives of the 

overseas Chinese. The Chinese abalone fishermen took 

advantage of the opportunities for harvesting abalone, 

so by 1853 there were from 500 to 600 Chinese men 

working on San Miguel Island. There is some evidence 

that Japanese fisherman also worked at the fishery. The 

Asian workers were eventually driven out of business by 

restrictive legislation.

The fishery site complex consists in part of one 

large base camp at Adam’s Cove, several middens along 

beaches, and features elsewhere. Two discrete areas have 

been identified archeologically, and there is also evidence 

of use by Japanese fisherman and American sea mammal 

hunters at different times. At least six different Chinese 

camps are mentioned in a research article (Todd J. Braje, 

Jon M. Erlandson, and Torben C. Rick, “An Historic Chinese Abalone Fishery on California’s Northern Channel 

Islands,” Historical Archaeology 2007, v. 41 (4): 117-128). 

Recommendation. This extensive and complex 

site may constitute an NHL district, but more work is 

needed to evaluate the various components. There is 

no question about the value of the site and its information potential, but determining boundaries and the 

integrity of various components are essential tasks in 

the evaluation of eligibility.
380 AAPI National Historic Landmarks Theme Study

First Transcontinental Railroad Sites 

Various states 

Ethnic Heritage: Chinese, Japanese

Possible Criterion: 6

The construction of the transcontinental railroad is one 

of the great engineering successes of the United States 

and the 19th century as a whole. The rail line connected 

San Francisco in the west to the great rail lines in the 

Midwest and East. Chinese immigrants made up a significant portion of the workforce, and Japanese immigrants 

were also represented. The Chinese were first hired 

in 1865 to do the blasting and laying of ties in the high 

Sierra Mountains. Chinese immigrant labor graded and 

constructed the rail line along canyons and mountains 

with tight curves and steep sides. The population of 

Chinese railroad workers at one point may have been as 

high as 10,000 to 12,000 individuals. By 1868, two-thirds 

of the workforce was Chinese.

The sites are located along the railroad and include 

various sites and historic districts, such as the 11.6-milelong Niles Canyon Transcontinental Railroad Historic 

District in California, which retains most of its original 

grade and supporting infrastructure. Important sites also 

exist in Utah. The railroad workers lived in canvas tents 

along the grade and in bunkhouses in colder areas along 

parts of the line. Much Chinese railroad workforce 

archeology has been devoted to the larger camps; however, the Chinese also lived in more ephemeral camps, 

so the remains and sites may consist of intermittent 

scatters and trash areas. Once the railroad was complete, 

Chinese laborers stayed on to conduct maintenance and 

repairs, or may have moved to work on other railroads 

in the United States.

Recommendation. The recognition of Chinese 

contributions to construction of the first transcontinental 

railroad should be recognized through an NHL designation. The number of sites that have been discovered 

suggests that a discontiguous district may exist and may 

be appropriate, composed of sites of greatest importance 

from historical and archeological perspectives. Research 

and field investigations that have focused on the railroad’s construction in various states need to be examined 

to determine which areas represent this significance.

Moore Gulch Placer Mining Community 

(Site 10-CW-159) 

Vicinity of Pierce, Clearwater County, Idaho 

Ethnic Heritage: Chinese, Pacific Islander 

Possible Criterion: 6

The site was identified as significant because it represents a complete mining complex, including living 

quarters, mine tailings, trash dump, and diversion 

ditches. The site is significant for revealing specialized 

Chinese mining methods, as well as the history of Chinese consumption and life in a remote area. The artifact 

and feature material date from approximately 1880 to 

1890. The site contains artifacts from both Chinese 

and non-Chinese material culture, so it shows how the 

Chinese, who were segregated and subjected to violence 

and attacks, lived during this time period under these 

circumstances. The site includes a smaller Hawaiian 

component, described in the 1982 National Register 

nomination. It states that in 1870 in Pierce, Idaho, there 

were 136 white and Hawaiian residents, 461 Chinese, and 

one African-American resident. 

Recommendation. The site is important for the 

information it has revealed and its potential to reveal 

more about mining, from the process to living conditions in a mining town. Archeological investigations 

may reveal important information about the dynamics 

between groups in this segregated community. The 

NHL potential should be explored in the context of the 

information potential. It needs to include a comparison 

with similar sites, if any of this scale exists.

Endnotes

1 See the National Historic Landmark website at https://

www.nps.gov/nhl/; the publication How to Prepare National 

Historic Landmark Nominations and other useful information 

is available at this site.

2 The Federal Regulations 36 CFR 65 can be found at 

https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CFR-2009-title36-vol1/pdf/

CFR-2009-title36-vol1-part65.pdf.

3 National Park Service, How to Prepare National Historic 

Landmark Nominations (Washington, DC: US Department of 

the Interior, 1999), 11.

4 Code of Federal Regulations, Title 36, Part 65.4(a).

5 Barbara Wyatt, ed., Japanese-Americans in World War II: 

National Historic Landmarks Theme Study, (Washington, DC: 

National Park Service, 2012), 190-191.

6 Linda Cook and Karen Bretz, “Kake Cannery,” National 
Appendix I 381

Historic Landmark Nomination Form (Washington, DC: 

U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, 1997), 

Section 8.

7 https://www.nps.gov/nhl/learn/themes/JapaneseAmericansWWII.pdf

8 National Park Service, Discover Our Shared Heritage 

Travel Itinerary, Asian American and Pacific Islander Heritage, 

“Pi’ilanihale Heia, Hana, Hawai’i” (Found at https://www.nps.

gov/nr/travel/Asian_American_and_Pacific_Islander_Heritage/

Piilanihale-Heiau.htm on 1-4-2017)

9 Don Kleinhesselink, “Chinatown,” National Register 

Nomination (Washington, D.C.; National Park Service), January 1, 1990. Accessed online at: http://npgallery.nps.gov/nrhp/

GetAsset?assetID=a9dbb1c8-bd07-4e08-aa42-6ccce871e112. 

Viewed July 20, 2016.

10 Gilroy Yamato Hot Springs National Register Nomination (Washington, DC: National Park Service,1995).