United States Department of Agriculture

Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service

Future Trends 

in Agricultural 

Trade
APHIS scientists work with other

Government agencies, industry, academia,

and stakeholder groups to ensure that 

the agency is solving today’s problems and

will be positioned properly to deal with

tomorrow’s.

Invasive Species

Over the past 200 years, several thousand

foreign plant and animal species have

become established in the United States.

Today, about one in seven nonnative species

introduced into the United States has

become invasive, leading to problems that

cost this country more than $138 billion a

year. Imagine what those figures will be like

1 year, 10 years, 20 years from now. As more

and more countries enter the world marketplace, the United States needs to look forward in order to prevent the continued

introduction of invasive species into the

country.

An invasive species is an alien species whose

introduction causes, or is likely to cause,

economic or environmental harm or harm to

human health. Invasive plants, animals, and

aquatic organisms often lessen the economic

productivity and ecological integrity of U.S.

agricultural and natural resources.

The most common vertebrate invasive

species in the continental United States

include house sparrows, European starlings,

commensal rodents (roof rat, Norway rat,

and house mouse), and nutria. Additionally,

numerous invertebrate invasive species have

also become established in the United States.

Examples include zebra mussels, imported

fire ants, Africanized honey bees, and many

other insects. Feral animals are domesticated

animals that have escaped and become wild,

including their offspring born in the wild. In

Hawaii and some mainland States, feral pigs,

goats, and cats have severely affected natural

and environmental resources.

2 Future Trends in Agricultural Trade

The U.S. Department of Agriculture’s

(USDA) Animal and Plant Health

Inspection Service (APHIS) is a

Government agency that moves with 

the times. As agricultural trends

become apparent, APHIS is there to

work with producers on issues such as

trade, plant and animal pests, invasive

species, biotechnology, and methods

development for dealing with new plant

and animal pests and diseases. 
Many harmful invasive species impair biological diversity by causing population declines,

species extinctions, shifts in predator–prey

dynamics, shifts in species niches, changes

in habitat, and reductions in ecosystem complexity. The establishment of invasive species

destroys the uniqueness of habitats, making

all areas biologically alike.

In 1993, the Congressional Office of

Technology Assessment reported that devastating invasions of plants, insects, aquatic

invertebrates, pathogens, and other organisms have changed ecosystems and permanently diminished the biological diversity

associated with them. Examples of these in

the United States include melaleuca (a wetlands tree), gypsy moth, spruce bark beetle,

zebra mussel, larch canker, chestnut blight,

and Japanese beetle. Concern about the

incursion of other harmful invasive species,

such as the brown tree snake, is increasing.

Conservation experts have found that in 

the United States, invasive alien plant

infestations cover 100 million acres and are

spreading at a rate of 14 percent per year.

Recent studies have also revealed that the

San Francisco Bay is invaded by a new 

exotic species on the average of once every

12 weeks.

Naturally occurring movement of species

into the United States is uncommon. Most

invasive species arrive in association with

human activities or transport. Species can be

brought into the country and released intentionally, or their movement and release can

be an unintentional byproduct of cultivation,

commerce, tourism, or travel.

Many species enter the United States each

year as contaminants of commodities.

Agricultural produce, nursery stock, cut

flowers, and timber can harbor insects,

plants pathogens, slugs, and snails. Weeds

continue to enter the United States as seed

contaminants. Plant pathogens arrive as

unintended contaminants of plant materials.

Fish and shrimp pathogens and parasites

have been introduced into the United States

on infected stock for aquaculture. Crates and

containers can harbor snails, slugs, mollusks, beetles, and micro-organisms. Military

cargo transport also brings in harmful

species, such as the Asian gypsy moth and

the brown tree snake. Ballast water that is

released from ships as cargo is loaded or

unloaded has brought in several destructive

aquatic species.

A 1999 Executive Order mandated the

enhancement and coordination of Federal

activities to control and minimize the economic, ecological, and human health

impacts caused by invasive species. That

Order also established a National Invasive

Species Council to oversee a management

plan detailing the goals and objectives of the

efforts of the involved Federal agencies.

APHIS is an active participant on the

Council since the basic work performed by

APHIS already helps to keep pests and diseases that threaten our biological resources

from being introduced into and becoming

established in the United States.

Both ecosystems and the individual species

within them are vulnerable to invasive pests

and pathogens. APHIS is responsible for

excluding and managing invasive species

that can potentially affect plant and animal

health, either directly or indirectly. Through

its activities, APHIS protects not only agriculture but also forest, rangeland, and wetland ecosystems. APHIS works closely with

USDA’s Forest Service and the U.S.

Department of the Interior’s Bureau of Land

Management, National Park Service, and

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. APHIS controls certain types of invasive species and

vertebrate pests that affect native ecosystems

rather than agricultural resources. Other

activities focus on protecting and managing

endangered species as well as migratory bird

populations.

Future Trends in Agricultural Trade 3

As more and more

countries enter the

world marketplace,

the United States

needs to look

forward in order 

to prevent the

continued

introduction of

invasive species

into the country.
The first and most effective means of protection is through exclusion or prevention of

intentional or accidental entry of harmful

invasive species. A second strategy uses tactics that include detecting, eradicating, managing, or controlling specific pests that have

become established.

Endangered species also need special protection against a host of attackers. Endangered

species are rescued from illegal trade at ports

of entry and protected within the United

States. Invasive species can be a threat to

indigenous endangered species. Finally,

human populations need help in coping with

the needs of certain wild animals, such as

migratory birds, so that human activity and

wildlife can coexist.

APHIS is continuously improving techniques

to prevent the accidental introduction of

nonnative species into the United States

while at the same time working to eradicate

foreign species that have already established

a foothold. While invasive species will continue to present problems into the future,

APHIS scientists are also working with the

agriculture seed industry to ensure that a

new type of technology, biotechnology, 

does not.

Biotechnology

Biotechnology allows for the production of

genetically modified organisms (GMOs). A

GMO is developed by altering an organism’s

genetic material, deoxyribonucleic acid

(DNA), for the purpose of creating a better

organism. As technology improves, applications for GMOs increase, and the number of

GMOs being created grows more rapidly.

GMOs have frequently been aimed at creating plants with pest resistance that enables

growers to use less pesticides. Genetically

engineered varieties exist now for almost all

of the major crops. There are more than

28,000 sites throughout the United States

testing GMOs. Genetic engineering is being

used in the production of pharmaceuticals,

nutraceuticals (“functional foods”), gene

therapy, and the development of animals and

plants with borrowed genetic traits. In 1999,

a third of the corn, half the soybeans, and

almost 60 percent of the cotton grown in the

United States were genetically engineered.

Genetically modified plants that can tolerate

herbicides, resist insects or viruses, or produce modified fruit or flowers are being

grown and tested. Copies of genes for these

traits have been transferred to the plants by

genetic engineering techniques from other

unrelated plants, bacteria, or viruses. Corn

plants that produce an insecticidal protein 

to resist European corn borers, the most

serious insect threat to American corn 

today, and potatoes that resist both virus 

and insect attacks from the Colorado potato

beetle are examples of recently developed

transgenic plants.

APHIS regulates the field testing of genetically engineered plants by administering the

Plant Protection Act. While this Act authorizes the agency to regulate the interstate

movement and importation of materials with

a pest risk, it also authorizes the release (for

field testing) of “organisms and products

altered or produced through genetic engineering, which are plant pests or which

there is reason to believe are plant pests.” A

plant pest is a risk to other plants and agroecosystems. The term “plant pest” is generally applied to weeds, insects, and diseases

but can be applied to GMOs. Applying “plant

pest” to a genetically engineered plant means

only that the nonpest nature of the plant has

yet to be demonstrated.

Biotechnology is the cutting edge of

agricultural science, and APHIS will continue to work with the industry to confirm

that new products pose no plant pest risk. 

There is, however, a new threat or risk 

that APHIS hopes never to see realized: 

acts of bioterrorism.

4 Future Trends in Agricultural Trade

Through its

activities, APHIS

protects not only

agriculture but 

also forest,

rangeland, 

and wetland

ecosystems.
In an agricultural context, bioterrorism is

the use of existing or genetically modified

plant and animal diseases to attack the food

supply. APHIS currently has a system in

place for tracking agricultural diseases and

disease vectors. Through its Plant Protection

and Quarantine (PPQ) and Veterinary

Services programs, APHIS emergency

response teams stand ready to travel to any

part of the country and work to stop a disease outbreak, natural or purposeful. In the

event of a bioterrorist attack, APHIS will

work with military and law enforcement

agencies to contain, eradicate, and monitor

the attack.

The Race for Better Tools

When APHIS needs to examine its existing

capabilities, expand its intelligence base, or

develop new methods or tools for work on

biotechnology, invasive species, animal diseases, or animals in the wild, it calls upon

one of its several laboratories, such as the

National Veterinary Services Laboratories

(NVSL) in Iowa and New York or the

National Wildlife Research Center (NWRC)

in Colorado.

NVSL activities are administered under

APHIS’ Veterinary Services program. NVSL

comprise three laboratories located in Ames,

IA (Diagnostic Bacteriology Laboratory,

Diagnostic Virology Laboratory, and

Pathobiology Laboratory), and one located

on Plum Island, NY (Foreign Animal Disease

Diagnostic Laboratory).

Specialists at NVSL, the only Federal facility

in the United States dedicated to the diagnosis of both domestic and foreign animal diseases, provide support for APHIS programs

designed to protect the health of the Nation’s

livestock and poultry. Those programs

include brucellosis, tuberculosis, animal and

bird quarantine, foreign animal products

importation, Salmonella enteritidis, animal

importation, scrapie, bovine spongiform

encephalopathy surveillance, the National

Animal Health Monitoring System, the

National Poultry Improvement Plan, foreign

animal disease diagnosticians’ training, and

fraudulent blood testing. In addition to diagnostic testing services, the NVSL disseminate

scientific information, provide reagents to

domestic clients, and offer training for

APHIS employees. NVSL personnel work

closely with APHIS’ International Services

office to provide consultation, reagents, and

training for foreign governments.

Under the Wildlife Services program, the

NWRC provides scientific information on

wildlife, its habitat, and its relationship to

agriculture and public safety. At NWRC and

in the field, specialists conduct scientific

inquiries into the problems of wildlife damage and look for solutions to these problems.

NWRC seeks to protect wildlife from the

adverse effects of human activities while also

reducing the damage and hazards that

wildlife cause to agriculture, forests, industry, public health and safety, and other areas

of human involvement. The reconciliation of

these two conflicting priorities is the challenge that the NWRC faces today.

NWRC’s objective is to increase the effective

methods available for wildlife damage management through (1) assessing damage and

other problems caused by wildlife to agriculture, the environment, and human health

and safety; (2) investigating the biology and

behavior of problem animals; (3) evaluating

the impact of wildlife management practices

on wildlife and the environment; (4) developing and improving technology to reduce

wildlife problems; (5) supporting registration

of chemicals and drugs used to manage

wildlife; (6) providing scientific consultation

and specialized technical training; (7) transferring scientific and technical information;

and (8) providing scientific guidelines on

wildlife damage for use by regulatory

agencies.

Future Trends in Agricultural Trade 5

APHIS is

continuously

improving

techniques to

prevent the

accidental

introduction of

nonnative species

into the United

States while at the

same time working

to eradicate foreign

species that have

already established

a foothold.
The Center evaluates damage situations and

develops methods and tools to reduce or

eliminate damage and resolve land-use conflicts. NWRC scientists study birds, mammalian predators, rodents, and other wildlife

that cause serious but localized damage

problems. The Center designs studies to

ensure that the methods developed to alleviate animal damage are biologically sound,

effective, safe, economical, and acceptable to

the public.

NWRC scientists produce the appropriate

methods, technology, and materials for

reducing damage caused by animals.

Through the publication of results and the

exchange of technical information, the

Center provides valuable data and expertise

to the public and the scientific community.

APHIS’ PPQ unit also conducts methodsdevelopment and intelligence-gathering

activities for its work in protecting plant

health.

Methods and policies developed for use 

in an emergency outbreak situation by

USDA’s rapid response teams must be environmentally acceptable and in compliance

with Federal, State, and local laws such as

those governing pesticide use and notification to enter or treat private property. A

Mediterranean fruit-fly find or outbreak of

Karnal bunt has potential to excite concern

among our trading partners, who need to be

reassured that U.S. commodities will not

introduce pests or diseases into their ecosystems. Emergency response methods must

bring our exports into compliance with

international standards as established by the

World Trade Organization and trade pacts

such as the North American Free Trade

Agreement.

APHIS–PPQ carries out methods development to translate research findings into

operational program activities at 10 different

field stations known as plant protection centers. These field stations are located at

Edinburg, TX, Gulfport and Starkville, MS,

Gainesville and Miami, FL, Waimanalo, HI,

Otis Air National Guard Base (Cape Cod),

MA, Phoenix, AZ, and Oxford, NC. There is

one PPQ methods group working outside 

the country, in Guatemala. PPQ also works

collaboratively on international projects 

with organizations like the North American

Plant Pest Organization and other cooperators or trade partners. Pest advisory groups,

science panels, and other ad hoc advisory

and regulatory organizations are formed by

PPQ to respond to new pest finds, evaluate

current pest programs, and deal with other

phytosanitary issues.

Other scientific information and methods

development work is done through PPQ’s

Center for Plant Health Science and

Technology. The Center, with headquarters

in Raleigh, NC, serves as the umbrella organization for PPQ labs and the National

Biological Control Institute. The Center’s

multidisciplinary staff concentrates on analyzing scientific and technical elements of

plant protection programs and systems and

identifying needs and appropriate ways to

meet present and future phytosanitary challenges. PPQ forges collaborative working

partnerships with Federal and State agencies, academic institutions, and the private

sector to accomplish its work.

Through its development of new methods,

tools, and intelligence, APHIS continues to

look toward the future. Invasive species,

biotechnology, and a number of other trends

point the way toward the agriculture of

tomorrow. APHIS intends to be there, on the

forefront, ready to serve stakeholders in an

ever-changing world.

For more information about APHIS

programs, visit the APHIS homepage at

http://www.aphis.usda.gov

6 Future Trends in Agricultural Trade

Through its

development of 

new methods, tools,

and intelligence,

APHIS continues 

to look toward 

the future.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture prohibits discrimination in all its

programs and activities on the basis of race, color, national origin, sex,

religion, age, disability, political beliefs, sexual orientation, or marital or

family status. (Not all prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons

with disabilities who require alternative means for communication of

program information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact

USDA’s TARGET Center at (202) 720–2600 (voice and TDD).

To file a complaint of discrimination, write USDA, Director, Office of Civil

Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 1400 Independence Avenue, SW,

Washington, DC 20250–9410 or call (202) 720–5964 (voice and TDD).

USDA is an equal opportunity provider and employer.
United States

Department of

Agriculture

Animal and Plant

Health Inspection

Service

Miscellaneous 

Publication No. 1579

Issued September 2001